Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl Through Urban Revitalization Master’S Project Prep Garrett Burleson the University of Texas at San Antonio

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Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization Master’s Project Prep Garrett Burleson The University of Texas at San Antonio

Author Note This paper was prepared for ARC 5733, Master’s Project Prep, directed by Dr. Hazem Rashed-Ali in the Fall of 2018. The research will inform my master’s project required for fulfillment of the Master of Architecture III degree sequence.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Contents 1. Introduction ...... 3 1.1 Audience ...... 3 1.2 Research Questions...... 3 2. Definitions and Relationships ...... 3 3. Status of Sprawl in San Antonio ...... 5 3.1 Historic Trends in San Antonio Sprawl ...... 5 3.2 Current State of Sprawl ...... 5 3.3 Future Predictions ...... 6 4. San Antonio: Between Sprawl and Urban Revitalization – ...... 7 4.1 Environmental Impacts ...... 7 4.2 Economic Impacts ...... 9 5. Regenerative Design ...... 10 6. Summary and Conclusions ...... 13 7. Prioritizing and Selecting the Site ...... 13 7.1 Brownfields or Greyfields? ...... 13 7.2 Prioritizing types of Brownfields ...... 14 7.3 Site Selection in San Antonio ...... 14 7.3.1 Maps...... 15 7.3.2 Three Site comparison ...... 18 7.3.3 Demographic Analysis ...... 20 7.3.4 Discussion ...... 21 8. Design Intent: Regenerative Design ...... 21 8.1 Building Considerations ...... 21 8.1.1 Passive Design ...... 21 8.1.2 Building Technologies, Materials, Structural System ...... 22 8.1.3 Summarizing Strategies ...... 24 8.2 User Considerations ...... 24 9. Space Program ...... 25 9.1 Space Program Research ...... 25 9.1.1 Discussion: ...... 27 9.2 Preliminary Space Program ...... 27 10. Conclusion ...... 28 11. Sources ...... 31

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

1. Introduction This paper first explores the definitions and relationships of Sprawl, Urban Revitalization, and Regenerative Design. A broad lens is utilized which gives way to a more focused look into the three topics as they apply to San Antonio, TX, the location of the Master’s Project. The research ultimately provides a set of criteria to judge the success of a project of this type. This criterion is utilized to select a site in San Antonio as well as develop a design intent and space program for the building to be designed in the Spring Semester.

1.1 Audience The paper and overall project are both directed towards professionals (i.e. architects and other built environment professionals) and should inform a potential approach these professionals could take towards a designed and built work which utilizes regenerative design to mitigate sprawl through urban revitalization. The overall goal of the paper is to inform the design process of a master’s design project.

1.2 Research Questions The following questions are addressed and answered in this paper through the lens of existing research which exists primarily in the form of written texts: • What is the definition of: o Sprawl o Urban Revitalization o Regenerative Design • What is the status of Sprawl in San Antonio? • What is the difference in environmental impact between mixed-use, high-density development and single-use, low-density development? • What is the difference in economic impact between mixed-use, high-density development and single-use, low-density development? • Does, and if so, how does regenerative design aide in the efforts to mitigate sprawl through urban revitalization? • Regarding regenerative design, are brownfields or greyfields optimal? • What are 3 optimal sites in San Antonio for this type of project? Which one is the best-suited out of the three? • What passive and active strategies should be utilized for a regenerative design project in San Antonio? • What user considerations should be accounted for when designing a regenerative design project in San Antonio? • Given the ideal site, building considerations, and user considerations, what would the space program contain?

2. Definitions and Relationships Ewing et al. (2002) define Sprawl as “…low-density development with residential, shopping and office areas that are rigidly segregated; a lack of thriving activity centers; and limited choices in travel routes.” From that definition they list four operationalizable factors: residential density; neighborhood mix of homes, jobs, and services; strength of centers, such as business districts; and accessibility via the street network (Ewing et al. 2002). Burchel et al. add that to be considered sprawl the development in question must also be deemed economically unsustainable as related to the costs of sprawl which are defined as

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

“the resources expended relative to a type, density, and/or location of development” (Burchel et al., 1998). The costs are examined in more detail in section 4.2 Economic Impacts.

For the most part, sprawl development away from the urban core leaves sites within the urban core underutilized or unutilized altogether (Duany et al., 2000). These sites, which served a previous purpose but are left unused are known as greyfields or brownfields (U.S. HUD, 2018). Old, derelict shopping centers are an example that most can envision within their own city. Other examples are abandoned coal plants, unused limestone quarries, and shut-down cement manufacturing plants. Brownfields differ from greyfields in that the land contains a level of either perceived or real contamination, meaning remediation of the contamination is often required (Miles, 2007). The most contaminated brownfields are deemed superfund sites by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and developers are often incentivized for the remediation and repurposing of these superfund sites (U.S. EPA, 2018). This type of development falls under the topic of urban revitalization, or the “mix of improvements that, in combination, are intended to raise an area from substandard conditions to being a good place to live or do business.” Focus is often on improving the downtown business district (Shumsky, 1998). Calthorpe defines urbanism as “…places that are mixed in uses, walkable, human scaled, and diverse in population; that balance cars with transit; that reinforce local history; that are adaptable; and that support a rich public life” (Calthorpe, 2011). Urban revitalization’s environmental and economic benefits are discussed in section: 4. San Antonio: Between Sprawl and Urban Revitalization –

In general, developing on brownfield or greyfield sites within the urban core can provide the reverse effect of the negative social, economic, and environmental impacts of sprawl. Regenerative design takes this type of development further towards environmental regeneration, from doing less-harm, to no-harm, to good (McDonough and Braungart, 2002). This process of design contrasts typical green architecture, which seeks to reduce the negative environmental impacts buildings typically have on the environment (Cole, 2012). Regenerative design achieves this through holistic, systems thinking. It’s necessary to determine how, for example, the building intervention impacts the surrounding ecosystem (Mang & Reed, 2012). Regenesis Group state that regenerative architecture is primarily cultural and psychological, and secondarily technical. Regenerative architecture asks designers, “how do we partner technology with the environment?” Also, “How do we connect humans to the natural world, rather than isolate us from it?” Last, instead of designing buildings that fit in the environment, “how do we design buildings that are of the environment” (Regenesis Group, 2016). In it’s essence, regenerative design must create positive impacts for all living beings through the reshaping of systems (Akturk, 2016). Regenerative design is explained and examined in further detail in section: 5. Regenerative Design.

In practice, regenerative design and development could utilize either a greenfield or a grey/brownfield site and any building typology could fall under regenerative design. However, when intending to do good for the environment, developing on a greenfield poses several difficulties. Development of greenfields invariably destroys whatever natural habitats that existed there before, quite the opposite of regeneration. This natural habitat likely sequestered a lot of carbon, meanwhile the new building intervention will emit carbon in the processes of transportation and manufacture of building materials, equipment used on-site, and the ongoing energy usage in the facility. Further, the new development will need infrastructure systems such as roads, sewer, and water. The creation of this infrastructure is carbon intensive as is the ongoing maintenance of it. A logical starting point for a regenerative design project, then would not be a greenfield site but rather a brownfield or greyfield one, as brownfields and greyfields offer the opportunity to reshape an unsustainable system. Thus, emerges the link between sprawl, urban revitalization, and regenerative design and my project, which aims to utilize regenerative design to mitigate sprawl through urban revitalization. Sprawl

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

represents the problem, urban revitalization the solution, and regenerative design as the lens through which to view the problem and bring forth the solution.

3. Status of Sprawl in San Antonio This section looks specifically at sprawl in San Antonio, exploring the rate at which it occurred, is occurring, and future predictions.

3.1 Historic Trends in San Antonio Sprawl Caine (2017) characterizes the sprawl that has taken place in San Antonio from 1890 to 2009 as having 4 morphological structures. The city began with a concentric growth pattern and had a 36-mile grid until the late 19th century. During the early 20th century, the city began to expand radially along streetcar lines (Caine et al., 2017). The streetcars rapid popularization and seemingly ubiquitous and permanent state eventually gave way to the automobile (Appler, n.d.). Within the past two decades, the city has taken on a polycentric organization (Caine et al., 2017). The increase in growth away from the city center is illustrated in the chart below: The graph shows the location and magnitude of construction which has taken place within the last three decades is beyond Loop 410 and around the Loop 1604 area.

The polycentric growth began during the period of the 1980s and 1990s.

The chart below categorizes the overall growth from the 1890 s-2000s.

Figure 1: Construction Completions and distance from center (Caine et al, 2017)

Key takeaways are the emergence of San Antonio’s polycentric growth pattern, high increases in developed land, and steady increase in average distance from center for construction projects. Figure 2: Overall Growth and Distance from Center (Caine et al., 2017)

3.2 Current State of Sprawl A study done by the New York Times shows that San Antonio is sprawling faster than any city in the United States. The U.S. Postal Service completed an analysis based on 2016 Census data and occupied housing unit data, looking at the years from 2010-2016. They used this information to determine density trends. San Antonio ranked very last on this list, with a -5.3% decrease in density for the city. This contrast Seattle which became 3% more dense. The growing trend is that “dense” cities are becoming denser, which “not-dense” cities are becoming less-so (Kolko, 2017). So, the current state for San Antonio is that it’s density of 2,800 people per square mile is among the lowest in the country and it continues to sprawl at the fastest rate in the country (cite).

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

3.3 Future Predictions San Antonio expects to add 1 million people by the year 2040. This will add 500,000 jobs to the area and will require an additional 500,000 housing units (City of San Antonio, 2017). So, a big opportunity lies in San Antonio’s ability, or inability, to grow in an intelligent manner.

SA 2020 was a plan written by the City of San Antonio which laid out the vision for the future of San Antonio. Its high-level design was then looked at in detail in the SA Tomorrow Plan, which was much more research oriented, provided an added level of expertise, and was presented to the public for feedback (City of San Antonio, 2017).

SA Tomorrow acknowledges the polycentric organization of the city, organizing the city according to 13 priority centers (9 current and 4 projected for future growth). San Antonio is unique in that number of priority centers, as most cities only have one or two (City of San Antonio, 2017). It becomes paramount then, that these centers are prioritized in practice and not just on paper. Strategies can and should include dense development close to the centers (i.e. applying concentric growth in a nodal fashion) and the development of a robust transportation infrastructure along the corridors which connect the priority centers (ideally in a manner which responds to projected needs rather than reacting to traffic problems) (City of San Antonio, 2017).

The nodes, or priority centers, should become “self-contained cities that offer a wide variety of housing options for a cross-section of the demographic and facilities that are within walking distance” (Toronto Star, n.d.). Within this strategy of adding density to the nodes, an opportunity emerges for urban renewal utilizing brownfield or greyfield development. Nodal Development is shown in the below graphic:

Figure 3: Nodal Development Infographic (Toronto Star, n.d.)

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

The Urban Revitalization Plan was written in order to direct the implementation of the $20 million bond for neighborhood improvements in 2017. The program has the following goals: • “Eradicate distressed conditions in neighborhoods • Increase workforce and affordable housing opportunities citywide • Preserve affordability of existing neighborhoods • Provide opportunities for neighborhood-serving mixed-use development • Implement the SA Tomorrow Comprehensive Plan

The plans are logically interrelated and strategically interwoven and should be used in conjunction for project considerations in San Antonio, especially projects that are mixed-use.

Section: 7.3.2 Three Site comparison of this paper explores the three plans further for the application of site selection.

4. San Antonio: Between Sprawl and Urban Revitalization – This section considers the specific effects of sprawl in comparison with urban revitalization and applies the research to San Antonio.

4.1 Environmental Impacts Ewing et al. consider census data and congestion data in order to study negative outcomes of sprawl. They overlay the data with the overall sprawl index which they developed and consider many factors such as daily vehicle miles traveled, fatalities from traffic accidents, and mean time traveling. Their overall assessment concludes that traffic and transportation related problems increase in sprawling areas (Ewing et al., 2002).

Specific negative impacts include: • “Driving more • Paying to own more cars • Breathing more polluted air • Facing greater risk of traffic fatalities • Walk and use transit less” (Ewing et al., 2002) Additional environmental impacts include: • Increased embodied energy • Increases in energy lost in transmission and distribution • Loss of greenfield sites (Thompson, 2013)

Several of these are explored in more detail, below.

Specific environmental effects of sprawl include increases in vehicle miles traveled, increases in embodied energy, increases in energy lost through transmission, and the loss of greenfield sites which sequester carbon (Thompson, 2013). Meanwhile, urban revitalization reduces vehicle miles traveled, reduces embodied energy, reduces energy lost through transmission, and reduces the loss of greenfield sites.

By increasing vehicle miles traveled, citizens of San Antonio will experience several negative effects. Travel towards the periphery for work commutes puts a high strain on the outer arterial highways.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Embodied energy is defined as “the energy required to produce a product (from extraction of raw materials, through manufacturing, and including transportation to the point of use)” (Kwok & Grondzik, 2007). Transporting lumber, for example, to a development on the periphery of the city uses more gasoline than transport to a more urban site.

Sprawl also contributes negatively to transmission and distribution (T&D) losses. There are electricity losses associated with the larger transmission lines and the smaller distribution lines. Distribution lines are much less efficient than transmission lines and account for a higher percentage of electricity lost. Overall losses for transmission and distribution in the United States are around 5%, and so represent a substantial amount of energy. Net generation in Texas for 2016 was over 454 million MWh, meaning transmission and distribution losses were around 23 million MWh. Emissions for just CO2 emitted into the atmosphere, not to mention other GHGs would total over 13 million tons CO2 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, n.d.). This is the same amount of CO2 emitted to power just under 2 million homes for one year and is the equivalent of 3 coal plants emissions for one year (Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator, n.d.). CPS Energy generation in San Antonio for 2016 was around 22 million MWh (CPS Energy 2017-2018 Annual Report, 2018), meaning T&D Losses were around 1 million MWh and CO2 emissions related to T&D Losses were around 636,000 tons (U.S. Energy Information Administration, n.d.). This is the equivalent to burning 695 million pounds of coal, or consuming 71 million tons of gasoline (Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator, n.d.).

One of the factors that heavily influences T&D Losses is the distance from the generation source to the location where the electricity is consumed. By nature, there are greater losses when transmission or distribution lines span greater distances. Sprawl worsens this in two ways. First, developments further from the generation sources require more transmission lines to get the electricity near the developments. Building this type of infrastructure is also highly costly. Second, when distribution lines must span from house to house over an entire development there are more distribution losses than if buildings are more densely built, closer to one another. Thus, sprawl negatively contributes to transmission and distribution losses for energy supply, which has a large impact on GHG emissions.

Sprawl also results in the loss of carbon sequestering natural landscapes. Anytime a sprawl development takes root, a greenfield is destroyed in the process. This greenfield sequesters carbon. Though the rate in which greenfields sequester carbon depends on several factors, Melissa Bryant (Environmental Sciences Department Manager, San Antonio River Authority) have developed high level numbers for carbon sequestration potential using Autocase software. They have determined that per acre of vegetation, carbon is sequestered at around 20-40 tons of CO2e/year (Carbon Sequestration Potential, 2018).

Ewing et al. further their study by showing that minor changes to the compactness of the city have major results. Were minor changes to the compactness of San Antonio to be made, the result would be that “thousands more people would walk to work, residents would drive less, and children would breathe cleaner air.”

To conclude their study, Ewing et al. list a number of policy recommendations in order to mitigate the effects of sprawl. (* mark policy recommendations directly related to urban revitalization): • “Policy Recommendation #1: Reinvest in Neglected Communities and Housing Opportunities* • Policy Recommendation #2: Rehabilitate Abandoned Properties* • Policy Recommendation #3: Encourage New Development or Redevelopment in Already Built Up Areas*

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

• Policy Recommendation #4: Create and Nurture Thriving, Mixed-Use Centers of Activity* • Policy Recommendation #5: Support Growth Management Strategies • Policy Recommendation #6: Craft Transportation Policies that Complement Smarter Growth”

Thus, the impacts of sprawl type development mentioned here have significant environmental ramifications. Meanwhile, urban revitalization makes much more sense from an environmental perspective.

4.2 Economic Impacts Economically, sprawl-type developments generally do provide people with cheaper initial home costs (The New Climate Economy, 2016). Blanketed under this alluring cheap cost for homes, sprawl burdens tax payers’ pocketbooks by the incurred costs of creating and maintaining roads, sewers, water lines, community centers, and libraries. Additionally, sprawl requires the provision of fire protection, policing, school bussing, and waste collection (Thompson, 2013). A 2016 study by the New Climate Economy, a global commission on the economy and climate, estimates that urban sprawl costs the U.S. economy over $1 trillion annually. 62.5% of these costs are covered by residents in the sprawl developments, while the remaining 37.5% is imposed on governments, businesses, and other households (The New Climate Economy, 2016). The infographic below contrasts the city-costs of sprawl development with urban development for the Halifax Regional Municipality:

Figure 4: City Cost for Suburban vs Urban Development; Halifax Regional Municipality

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

As shown in Figure 4, in every category except for solid waste there are cost savings when developing in urban areas. It’s particularly important to note the drastic differences in road cost ($26 vs $280), fire departments ($177 vs $406), and storm and waste water ($147 vs $613).

The Costs of Sprawl Report by the RERC contrast 6 communities each containing 10,000 housing units. They found that high density development was cheaper based on the following criteria: • “energy cost • Environmental impact • Capital cost • Operating cost” (Ewing et al., 2017)

The studies indicate that sprawl type developments are costlier to communities than dense, mixed use developments. Thus, the research shows that sprawl-type developments are worse for the environment and economically unviable for the long-term.

5. Regenerative Design This section introduces regenerative design, defining it and describing in general what it entails.

“In a world that is getting hot, flat, and crowded, the task of creating the tools, systems, energy sources, and ethics that will allow the planet to grow in cleaner and more sustainable ways is going to be the biggest challenge of our lifetime. But this challenge is actually an opportunity…” -Thomas Friedman (Friedman, 2008)

Regenerative design represents a paradigm-shift in environmental architecture. The shift, as popularized by Bill McDonough and many others, is from doing less harm, to no harm, to good (McDonough & Braungart, 2002). Up until this shift, the focus had been primarily on improving efficiency and performance of buildings to do less-harm to the environment. Key attributes of this type of architecture are listed in the chart below:

Figure 5: (Cole, 2012)

Thus, the narrative became one of reduction and minimization of harm.

Regenerative design as a “distinct discipline” began with John Lyle and J.I. Rodale (Mang & Reed, 2018). Lyle, a major influencer in the field of regenerative design and development, drew many of his ideas from the Rodale Institute. J.I. Rodale, a pioneer in the field of organic agriculture, founded the Rodale Institute for Regenerative Agriculture in 1947. After a nitrogen shortage exposed the nutrient deficits of soil in

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

America, he began to integrate more organic and regenerative agriculture into the farming profession (Bortman, 2003). J.I.’s son Robert Rodale would go on to, according to Lyle, first promote the term “regenerative”. Lyle refers to the Rodale’s use of “the continuing organic renewal of the complex life of the soil that occurs in the absence of organic chemicals”, when providing this definition of regenerative design from his 1994 book Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development:

“Regenerative design means replacing the present linear system of throughput flows with cyclical flows at sources, consumption centers, and sinks.”

• Sources would include farms, mines, forests, watersheds, oilfields, etc. In architecture we would consider the places in which materials are extracted, such as limestone quarries and timber forests. • Consumption centers would include the material manufacturers and building sites. • Sinks would include the air, water, and land.

A linear model is shown below:

Figure 6: (Lyle, 1994)

According to Lyle, this system is inherently degenerative, “devouring its own sources of sustenance.” Typical sustainable practices work within this linear model but improves the efficiencies held within, operating within Guy & Farmer’s eco-technic logic. A regenerative model requires a rethinking of the process, and uses cyclical flows at these sources, consumption centers, and sinks, as shown below:

Figure 7: (Lyle, 1994)

This regenerative model represents in theory what would be a regenerative system in practice. A regenerative system, according to Lyle, “provides for continuous replacement, through its own functional processes, of the energy and materials used in its operation.” For example, energy would be replaced with solar radiation and materials would be replaced by recycling and reuse.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

In 1995, Lyle worked with Bill McDonough to design the Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies at Oberlin College. Lyle’s work proved influential on McDonough and his ‘Cradle-to-Cradle’ work. The term ‘Cradle-to-Cradle’ was coined in 1976 by Swiss Architect Walter Strauss and has since become well-known due to the work of McDonough. In his book, Cradle-to-Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, published in 2002, he states the need for a transition from a cradle-to-grave process to a cradle- to-cradle process. Referring to Lyle, his linear model represents the cradle-to-grave model, where products of the industrial revolution are discarded in a linear way. Lyle’s regenerative model can be compared to McDonough’s Cradle-to-Cradle model. McDonough also covers the idea of a transition from eco-efficiency to eco-effectiveness.

Dominique Hes and Chrisna du Plessis, in their book Designing for Hope: Pathways to Regenerative Sustainability call for a new worldview: the ecological worldview. They outline 10 values to this ecological worldview and state that when thinking in accordance with these values, the definition of sustainability changes to incorporate regeneration. The objective of this type of sustainability is:

“to cultivate relationships that sustain the ability of the global social-ecological system to provide not just life-supporting, but also life-enhancing conditions for the global community of life.”

Hes and Du Plessis also call for a realignment of humans with nature. The process that they outline attainable through multiple, integrated pathways including: biophilia, biomimicry, permaculture, and positive development. Positive development differs from regenerative design in that it specifically enhances the well-being of the ecological base and the public estate. Regenerative design is broader and focuses on a co-evolution of human beings and nature. Further, regeneration involves not only reinvigorating or reviving a system, but also changing it (Hes & Du Plessis, 2015).

Dr. Shady Attia calls for the regeneration or increasing of the capacity of the earth to pre-industrial conditions. He states that mitigation strategies won’t be enough, and that we will need to regenerate. He provides a specific example of a regenerative sustainable building as:

“a building that seeks the highest efficiency in the management of combined resources and maximum generation of renewable resources.”

Attia is calling for combined resources, and for these resources to be managed at the highest level, as well as the maximum potential that renewable systems could offer the building. This thinking focuses on integrated and energy efficient technologies. Attia also states that a sustainable system is “one that shapes the needs of society on the integrity and balance of nature,” and that people should “turn their eyes away from problems and towards potential” (Attia, 2018).

Regenesis Group’s contribution to regenerative design began in 1995 as they coined the term ‘Regenerative Development’ and began developing theoretical and technological work. Regenesis states that according to Jenkin and Maibritt, “regenerative development defines the desired outcome, and regenerative design is the means to achieve the desired outcome”. To quote Jenkin and Maibritt, “Regenerative development provides an integrated conceptual framework through which human communities can grow their shared understanding of the unique places in which they live and work. This understanding provides the armature for creating a system of sustainable design strategies and processes tailored to the unique character of place (Mang & Reed, 2018). Regenerative design, as clearly defined by Regenesis in their 2018 article, is:

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

“A system of technologies and strategies based on an understanding of the inner working of ecosystems that generates designs that regenerate socio-ecological wholes (i.e., generate anew their inherent capacity for vitality, viability, and evolution) rather than deplete their underlying life support systems and resources” (Mang & Reed, 2018).

To summarize: • Regenerative design first requires an understanding of ecosystems. • This base understanding allows for the creation of a system of technologies and strategies. • These technologies and strategies generate designs. • These designs regenerate (make-new) socio-ecological wholes. • Socio-ecological wholes are, bio-geo-physical units and their associated social actors and institutions. • These wholes inherently have the capacity for vitality (the state of being strong and active; energy), viability (ability to survive or live successfully), and evolution (the gradual development of something, especially from a simple to a more complex form).

6. Summary and Conclusions In summarizing the findings, the following conclusions can be drawn: • Sprawl is an environmentally and economically inviable solution to house growing populations. • Urban revitalization represents a more environmentally and economically sound solution. • The tenants of regenerative design align closely with the solution that urban revitalization provides to the problem of sprawl. • San Antonio has sprawled out at a rate which out paces most cities in the Unites States following the retiring of the streetcar which gave way to the passenger vehicle. • San Antonio is expected to add 1 million people by 2040, meaning the way that the city grows represents a critical problem which will require an elegant solution. • San Antonio has plans in place to capitalize on the polycentric growth of the city and add density to priority areas. • There will be a growing need for projects which capitalize on urban revitalization. The integration of regenerative design with these projects will push the San Antonio community closer to a sustainable system of growth.

7. Prioritizing and Selecting the Site This section compares brownfields and greyfields, outlines a method for prioritizing brownfields, outlines the three documents that I overlaid to find sites in San Antonio, compares three sites based on several criteria, and proposes a best choice out of the three.

7.1 Brownfields or Greyfields? As previously described, greyfields are unused or underutilized buildings, as are brownfields except that brownfields contain a level of perceived or real contamination. Development of either a brownfield or greyfield has the following benefits: increased local tax base; job growth; utilizing existing infrastructure; and taking development pressure off greenfields (Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy, n.d.). Both strategies of utilizing existing infrastructure and taking development pressure off greenfields align with regenerative design.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

A core tenant of regenerative design is to do good for the environment. This may in some instances mean propelling us forward, for example, mitigation measures such as utilizing carbon sequestration technologies at our natural gas plants. This may also mean reparation of the harm that we have already done, as would be the case with brownfields. This poses a strong argument for the need to prioritize brownfields over greyfields when utilizing regenerative design. Brownfields provide more of an opportunity to regenerate the environment than do greyfields.

7.2 Prioritizing types of Brownfields ATC Associates, Inc., an environmental consulting and engineering firm, identify a method for selecting brownfield sites for comparison. In creating a list of potential properties, they include the need to: • “Identify suspected areas (former industrial, former dry cleaners, old gas stations) • Consider properties tied to other projects (transportation, disaster recovery, neighborhood stabilization) • Consider tax delinquent properties • Consider former school properties, hospitals, and other properties that are gateways to the community (Brownfields, n.d.)” To that list and for the purposes of my project, I add the following criteria of judgment in site selection (justifications for added criteria in parenthesis): • The site must be within one of the priority centers outlined in the SA Tomorrow Plan (as aforementioned, this is a priority for my project. It must fall within the priority centers) • Is the site large enough to make an impact on the surrounding community and add density to one of the priority centers in San Antonio? (To align with the wholistic approach of regenerative design) • Is there the potential for a mixed-use development, as prioritized in SA Tomorrow? (Due to the fact that the Urban Renewal Plan recommends mixed use development, maximum of 30% of the total SF). Answering these questions in a tabular format can give me a good method of comparison for my project, as shown below. Priority Site (and Address Size Mixed-use Tax Gateway to Type of Operating Center type) (Bldg potential Delinquent? community? contamination Status and (Y or N) Site) Downtown Example 123 N. 50,00 Y Y N Asbestos; In Operation (abandoned SF / chemical spill school) 16 acres Table 1: Criteria for Evaluating Brownfields

7.3 Site Selection in San Antonio In order to begin to narrow down brownfield sites in San Antonio, I took three maps into consideration: the map of the 13 Regional Centers in the SA Tomorrow Plan, the maps provided in the San Antonio Urban Renewal Plan, and the EPA Target Grant Fund Map.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

7.3.1 Maps The SA Tomorrow Map outlines the 13 regional centers that will be prioritized for future growth in San Antonio. While many cities have 1-2 priority centers, San Antonio has grown in a polycentric manner and the city has identified 13 priority centers. Various employment centers have been created and the 13 regional centers align with those. 50% of the jobs in San Antonio lie within these centers. The SA Tomorrow Plan calls for these centers to be high density and mixed-use (SA Tomorrow, 2017).

Figure 8: SA Tomorrow Priority Centers Map

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

The San Antonio Urban Renewal Plan maps show various areas of town that the city has prioritized for urban revitalization. The Plan was created to direct the implementation of the $20 million bond for neighborhood improvements in 2017. The program has the following goals: • “Eradicate distressed conditions in neighborhoods • Increase workforce and affordable housing opportunities citywide • Preserve affordability of existing neighborhoods • Provide opportunities for neighborhood-serving mixed-use development • Implement the SA Tomorrow Comprehensive Plan

Figure 9: Urban Revitalization Plan Map, Near-West 5-Points Area

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Though San Antonio does not have a map or list of designated brownfields, they do have a map of designated areas which can receive assistance through the city program for the cost associated with environmental site assessment. This map is known as the EPA Community-Wide Assessment Grant Target Area.

Figure 10: EPA Target Area Map

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

The below map shows an overlay of all three maps and several sites that I have identified. The three sites in which all three maps overlap are highlighted in pink and their locations are noted. I chose these three sites for further comparison.

Figure 11: Overlay of 3 Maps; generated by Author

7.3.2 Three Site comparison The three sites for further comparison are: • Scobey Storage Company • Pro-Mill Plus • Alamo City Music Hall and adjacent buildings (Merchants Ice House)

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Figure 12: Scobey Storage Research Poster created by Author

Figure 13: Merchant’s Ice House Research Poster created by Author

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Figure 14: Pro-Plus Mill Research Poster created by Author

7.3.3 Demographic Analysis A further demographic comparison between the three sites mostly showed similarities though there were fairly significant variances in density, education level, median house value, and median gross rent: Site Scobey and Pro Mill (Same area) (ZIP Merchants Ice House (ZIP 78202) 78207) % of Residents who Rent 54% 50% Density (people per sq. mile) 7,411 5,384 % Male / % Female 52% M / 48% F 46% M / 54% F % Earning H.S. Diploma 53% 64.9% % Earning Bachelor’s Degree 5.2% 12.2% Median House Value $62,710 $72,255 Median Age 31.9 28.8 People Per Household 3.2 3.2 Median Income $25,793 $24,977 % Family Households 51% 50% % Households SNAP 33% 54% % of children born in unmarried 62% 76% households % Below Poverty Level 38% 41% Median Apartment Rooms 4.1 4.7 # of Vehicles per rental unit 1 1 % who commute by bus 8% 14% % who walk to work 4% 0.8% Average Commute Time 15-24 minutes 10-24 minutes Racial Makeup Predominantly Hispanic 28% African American / 66% Hispanic Median Gross Rent $629 / mo $723 / mo Figure 15: Numbers sources from: http://www.sanantonioedf.com/living/demographics/

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

It’s important to note that District 5, where the Scobey and Pro-Mill buildings are located, is the most economically impoverished district in San Antonio (cite). Thus, from a regenerative design perspective it poses the most opportunity to regenerate the economic problems.

7.3.4 Discussion Again, all three of these sites align with the three maps. All three sites have had various plans for develop in place at various times. Also, all three have adjacent proximity to railroads which may one day serve as rapid transit to Austin, Houston, or Dallas or light rail transit throughout the city. The sites are similar in these ways. However, the Scobey Storage Company has proximity to two city endeavors which set it apart from the other two sites. The first is the UTSA downtown expansion plan. The plan, split into 2 five- year phases, will bring the School of Data Science and National Security Collaboration Center as well as the new Business School to the downtown area. Though there will be on campus housing, there will likely be a need to house additional faculty members and students who chose to live in housing other than what the school provides. The Pro-Mill Plus site is close enough to be tied into this plan, however, it’s farther away from UTSA than the Scobey building meaning that it would likely be developed later. The second endeavor is VIA’s new Centro Plaza which is adjacent to the site. The Centro Plaza is a state-of- the-art transit hub which serves 17 bus routes. Walk time to the Via Centro Plaza from the Scobey Storage Company is 2 minutes upon which residents could easily access these 17 routes. These two reasons set Scobey apart and identify it as the best site among three good choices. It’s for these reasons that the Scobey Storage Company should be prioritized over the other two sites.

8. Design Intent: Regenerative Design The design of the building for the master’s project will take place throughout the Spring of 2019. This section explores passive design and building technologies that should be considered and implemented as is possible and useful given specific project constraints. As a regenerative design project should go beyond net zero and towards net-positive energy, it’s imperative to maximize the benefits of both passive design and all available and beneficial building technologies. The effectiveness of these techniques will vary based upon the site and the existing building.

8.1 Building Considerations This section explores the passive and active building design strategies that should be employed.

8.1.1 Passive Design San Antonio is located at 29.53N Latitude. The average temperatures are high, as is the relative humidity. Conditioned air is needed throughout the year. The prevailing breezes come from the Southeast, off the coast of Texas. There are high levels of direct radiation, particularly in the months of June, July, and August. The ground temperature fluctuates from 53 degrees to 83 degrees, representing much cooler and more stable temps than the outside air.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Design guidelines for San Antonio, recommended by Climate Consultant v6.0 software, are as follows:

Figure 16: Climate Consultant recommended design strategies for San Antonio, TX

We can deduct, then, that passive strategies for this climate should include optimizing the prevailing breeze, shading windows, and shading outdoor areas. Building orientation becomes paramount, then, and should be considered during the site selection process. The building should ideally be oriented East- West so that the Southern sun can be more easily shaded. Similarly, sites and buildings which ‘welcome’ the prevailing breeze should be prioritized. Plant materials which help shade or cool the building should be utilized, such as green roofs or green walls. Western glazing should be eliminated if possible. High performance glazing should be utilized, as well as radiant barrier for the roof system. Ventilation should be utilized to prevent the building from overheating. Given the relatively stable ground temperature, geothermal energy might be a logical passive strategy. Sites and buildings which naturally lend themselves to these passive strategies will be prioritized for the Master’s Project.

8.1.2 Building Technologies, Materials, Structural System Utilizing renewable energy will be essential to design a net-positive energy building. Given the previous discussion on electricity lost through transmission and distribution and the closed-loop nature of regenerative design, on-site renewables make sense, while also purchasing off-site renewable energy when on-site does not provide the building with it’s energy needs. South facing solar panels will be ideal, with the optimal tilt angle matching the San Antonio latitude of 29.53 degrees North. Purchased renewables will likely be in the form of the abundant wind energy produced relatively close to San Antonio in West Texas. The end goal will be to produce all energy on-site, but the more practical application might realize the need for purchased renewables.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Dr. Attia claims that, “Regenerative design will become a necessity to support a healthy and positive ecological footprint of buildings and the built environment.” Within his framework, he includes ‘Regenerative Construction Systems’, ‘Regenerative Design Elements’, and ‘Regenerative Building Materials and Products.’ Regarding the construction systems, Attia first notes the amount of construction waste that ends up in landfills. He then proposes a more flexible structural system that can be dismantled after use and re-used on another project. He recommends modular design as it allows for re-use and spatial flexibility. Attia, when writing about the design elements, states that “the purpose of the regenerative design elements of a building are to improve the Figure 17: Material Recovery Infographic quality of air and water, increase biodiversity, use healthy materials, enable cultural and social diversity, enable functionality, mobility, and generate energy.” He emphasizes the importance of designing within the climatic patterns of the chosen sites, and choosing design elements (atriums, courtyards, skylights, roof gardens, etc.) accordingly. The materials and products Attia recommends are C2C, or Cradle-to-Cradle products. These products are made in ways that are not harmful to the environment (renewable energy) or human health (no VOC). Further, they are made to be repurposed after use. Attia refers to Bill McDonough’s idea of buildings being material banks, storing the materials for future use. He stresses the importance of closing the loop for material cycles (Attia, 2018).

Attia goes on to discuss massing and the envelope and materials as they apply to the construction system and cites the construction system as the start to the design (it determines everything else). Regarding materials, he specifically mentions the preference of using mostly biosphere materials (clay, wood, straw, bamboo, hemp) while not discounting the need to sometimes use technosphere materials (concrete, aluminum, steel) when unavoidable (Attia, 2018).

In a phone interview with Bill Browning, principal at Terrapin Bright Green, he directed me towards carbon sequestering materials in a discussion we were having about regenerative design (Browning, 2018). Blue Planet Inc., a company based in California, developed a process in which they make carbon negative concrete. This process involves gathering CO2 at the source, running the CO2 through saltwater which contains minerals used in coral reefs, and “precipitating out the raw materials for concrete.” The process essentially turns CO2 from coal into limestone aggregate which can be utilized in cement pavers, bags of cement sold at local hardware stores, granules, and pigments (Carbon-Sequestering Concrete: A "Geomimetic" Material, 2017). Considering that concrete production contributes to 5% of all global emissions (Emissions from the Cement Industry, 2018), this type of concrete should be utilized when concrete is necessary in a regenerative design project. But, it’s well known that forests sequester carbon, thus the sustainable production of wood for use in construction sequesters carbon. Cross laminated timbers allow for farther spans and taller buildings in wood construction. Timber should be prioritized when possible.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Water should also be captured on-site and re-used. This includes rainwater, greywater, and blackwater. Plant-based in situ treatment systems should be utilized to purify grey and black water.

8.1.3 Summarizing Strategies The research culminates in the following design strategies, which are ideal for regenerative design: Passive Strategies Orient to prevailing wind Shade windows Shade outdoor areas Plant materials (green roofs, green walls) Eliminate western glazing Ventilation to prevent overheating Geothermal energy Keep buildings long and utilize breezeways Rainwater capture Native landscaping; preserve existing habitats Active Strategies High performance glazing (low-e, argon filled, double or triple pane) High performance envelope (considering insulation, thermal breaks, radiant barriers, mass); determine envelope at start of project On-site renewable energy (Photovoltaic); proper orientation Purchased renewable energy (wind) Capture and treatment of all grey and blackwater on-site Materials Limestone aggregate concrete; technosphere materials (when unavoidable) (concrete, aluminum, steel) Cross-laminated timber structure (when possible); biosphere materials (clay, wood, straw, bamboo, hemp) Low VOC Buildings are material banks (only storing materials for future use) Closed-loop material cycles Low embodied carbon footprint (local materials prioritized) Construction System Modular Spatial Flexibility Built for re-use (disassembly) Determine construction system at start of project Table 1: Regenerative Design for Building Checklist; by Author

8.2 User Considerations Impacts of the built environment on human behavior are well researched and known. User access to plant life and natural lighting has been shown to reduce employee turnover and absenteeism, as well as increase productivity while at work. Productivity at work can be translated into happiness or enjoyment at home. If we apply regeneration to a human being, it would mean whatever propels us forward, the opposite of degeneration. Topping the list of this regeneration would be our health and happiness. Our health is certainly tied to the building and the site in the form of the air we breathe and the materials we touch. Our happiness and productivity are tied to our proximity and relationship with nature. Human beings have evolved with nature and are naturally drawn to it. From a regenerative perspective, it’s imperative that we design by incorporating life-giving environments into the design. These should include: • Nature in the Space o Biomorphic Forms & Patterns o Visual Connection with Nature o Material Connection with Nature o Non-Visual Connection with Nature o Complexity & Order o Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli • Nature of the Space o Thermal & Airflow Variability o Prospect o Presence of Water o Refuge o Dynamic & Diffuse Light o Mystery o Connection with Natural Systems o Risk/Peril • Natural Analogues (14 Patterns of Biophilic Design, 2014)

9. Space Program This section identifies a high-level space program for the site. 9.1 Space Program Research The Urban Revitalization Plan has several constraints which make it a good starting point for space programming. The constraints which pertain to this project are as follows:

• Urban Revitalization Plan Requirements: o The maximum square footage devoted to mixed-use spaces is 30% of the overall square footage of the building. o Of the remaining 70%, 50% must be affordable housing (at least 50% of the residential units must serve households with incomes at or below 80% of Area Median Income). The remaining 50% can be market rate housing. . The District 5 Area median income is $28,593 • This falls within the Low-Income Household Category o Residents should spend no more than $720 monthly on rent (note that this does not include utilities or other expenses) o In this Low-Income Household Category, there are currently 35,222 units current unmet housing demand (perhaps there is a need to build new construction adjacent to the existing building in an open parking lot in order to rise to the challenge of meeting this high demand)

The SA Tomorrow Plan highlights various typologies based on areas of the city. The Scobey site falls within the Regional/Commuter Rail typology and is prioritized as such in the SA Tomorrow Plan (City of San Antonio, 2017). The constraints which are provided by the typology are as follows:

• SA Tomorrow: o Regional/Commuter Rail typology . Predominant Land Uses: mixed-use housing and office development with retail on a portion of the ground floor, office, multifamily housing and attached single- family housing. . Height: 5-12 Stories or 70-150ft . Massing and Density: 20-60 Housing Units per acre and 2:5:1 to 8:1 Floor Area Ratio • FAR = building area / lot area . Street Level Activation: Transparency along primary street of 60%; transparency along side street of 25% . Connectivity: maximum block perimeter of 1,200 feet; minimum 150 intersections per square mile . Parking: most parking should be in structures The commuter/rail typology diagram is shown on the following page:

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Figure 18: SA Tomorrow Commuter Rail Typology

The axonometric map of the Scobey Storage Company and surrounding buildings shows the need to create more density in order to align with the SA Tomorrow Plan:

Figure 19: Map of Scobey Storage Company and surrounding buildings; Google Maps

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

9.1.1 Discussion: The following factors provide validity to the argument of utilizing the open parking lot to the south of the Scobey Storage Company for a 4-story parking garage and 8-stories of market rate housing:

• The high demand of Low-Income Housing units • The required density for the SA Tomorrow Commuter Rail Typology • The SA Tomorrow suggestion of utilizing parking within structures rather than at street level The existing Scobey Storage building could then be utilized as affordable housing. A design concept which emerges should then be unity between the structures so that there is not a feeling of segregation. This is likely to be achieved through a rooftop garden serving as a public park for all residents and accessible by both buildings.

These ideas are illustrated in diagrammatic form below, and space program data is provided. 9.2 Preliminary Space Program

Figure 20: proposed high-level space program; by Author

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

Additional detailed space programming:

• Within the Adaptive Reuse Affordable Housing 118,900 SF: o 53 Units: 1,000 SF, 2BR o 38 Units: 1,500 SF, 3BR • Within the New Construction Market Rate Housing 118,900 SF: o 34 Units: 1,500 SF, 2BR o 25 Units: 2,000 SF, 3BR o 2 Units: Penthouse, top floor, 7,700 SF each • Within the Parking Garage: o 222 Spaces, 4 stories • Within the Adaptive Reuse Mixed Use 50,500 SF o Train Depot for arrivals and departures o Retail Space o Dining Hall with multiple restaurants varying in price o Restaurant 10. Conclusion This paper, written for architects interested in designing a regenerative building which utilizes urban revitalization to mitigate the harmful effects of sprawl and the degeneration of our environment, has explored and defined a series of critical questions. To conclude, the questions and brief answers to these questions have been listed below.

• What is the definition of: o Sprawl: . “…low-density development with residential, shopping and office areas that are rigidly segregated; a lack of thriving activity centers; and limited choices in travel routes.” (Ewing et al. 2002) . Four operationalizable factors: residential density; neighborhood mix of homes, jobs, and services; strength of centers, such as business districts; and accessibility via the street network (Ewing et al. 2002). . Burchel et al. add that sprawl must also be deemed economically unsustainable as related to the costs of sprawl which are defined as “the resources expended relative to a type, density, and/or location of development” (Burchel et al., 1998). o Urban Revitalization: . “mix of improvements that, in combination, are intended to raise an area from substandard conditions to being a good place to live or do business.” (Shumsky, 1998) o Regenerative Design: . Utilizing closed loop systems to create architecture that does good for the environment rather than being environmentally degrading to a various degree. • What is the status of Sprawl in San Antonio? o Following the retirement of the streetcar, San Antonio has seen a polycentric growth pattern. The City of San Antonio has identified 13 Priority Centers throughout the city, whereas most cities just have one or two. Studies done by the New York Times and the U.S. Postal Service illustrate that San Antonio is one of the least-dense cities in the United

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

States and continues to sprawl at a fast rate. The City is planning to add density to the 13 Priority Centers through the SA Tomorrow Comprehensive Plan implementation. • What is the difference in environmental impact between mixed-use, high-density development and single-use, low-density development? o Mixed-use, dense development provides a reversal of the negative impacts of low- density, sprawl-type developments which include: . Specific negative impacts include: • “Driving more • Paying to own more cars • Breathing more polluted air • Facing greater risk of traffic fatalities • Walk and use transit less” (Ewing et al., 2002) . Additional environmental impacts include: • Increased embodied energy • Increases in energy lost in transmission and distribution • Loss of greenfield sites (Thompson, 2013) • What is the difference in economic impact between mixed-use, high-density development and single-use, low-density development? o Sprawl-type developments are economically spurned on through cheap-land and cheap upfront costs for homes. But the blanketed costs of the added infrastructure result in taxpayer dollars increasing greatly (The New Climate Economy, 2016). o The Costs of Sprawl Report by the RERC contrast 6 communities each containing 10,000 housing units. They found that high density development was cheaper based on the following criteria: • “energy cost • Environmental impact • Capital cost • Operating cost” (Ewing et al., 2017) • Does, and if so, how does regenerative design aide in the efforts to mitigate sprawl through urban revitalization? o Sprawl is inherently a linear model of growth (from source to sink). Regenerative design requires cyclical loops which inherently require density. • Regarding regenerative design, are brownfields or greyfields optimal? o Brownfields represent the most environmentally damaged sites, meaning that they are more optimal for regenerative design. That is not to say, though, that greyfields should be discounted. • What are 3 optimal sites in San Antonio for this type of project? Which one is the best-suited out of the three? o Scobey Storage Company o Pro-Mill Plus o Merchant’s Ice House • What passive and active strategies should be utilized for a regenerative design project in San Antonio? o Refer to Table 3, p. 24

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

• What user considerations should be accounted for when designing a regenerative design project in San Antonio? • Nature in the Space o Visual Connection with Nature o Non-Visual Connection with Nature o Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli o Thermal & Airflow Variability o Presence of Water o Dynamic & Diffuse Light o Connection with Natural Systems • Natural Analogues o Biomorphic Forms & Patterns o Material Connection with Nature o Complexity & Order • Nature of the Space o Prospect o Refuge o Mystery o Risk/Peril (14 Patterns of Biophilic Design, 2014) • Given the ideal site, building considerations, and user considerations, what would the space program contain? o See Section: 9. Space Program

To conclude, the research shows that sprawl is an environmentally and economically inviable solution to meeting the demands of a growing population. San Antonio has sprawled out at a rate which out paces most cities in the Unites States following the retiring of the streetcar which gave way to the passenger vehicle. San Antonio is expected to add 1 million people by 2040, meaning the way that the city grows represents a critical problem which will require an elegant solution. San Antonio has plans in place to capitalize on the polycentric growth of the city and add density to priority areas. There will be a growing need for projects which capitalize on urban revitalization, which in many ways provides a reversal of the effects of sprawl. The integration of regenerative design with these projects would push San Antonio, like communities, and the world towards a more sustainable future.

Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

11. Sources

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Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

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Master’s Project Prep: Utilizing Regenerative Design to Mitigate Sprawl through Urban Revitalization

The New Climate Economy (Rep.). (2016). Retrieved October 15, 2018, from The Global Commission on the Economy and Climate website: https://newclimateeconomy.report/2016/wp- content/uploads/sites/4/2016/08/NCE_2016_Exec_summary.pdf Thompson, D. (2013, October). Suburban Sprawl: Exposing Hidden Costs, Identifying Innovations (Rep.). Retrieved September 6, 2018, from Sustainable Prosperity website: http://thecostofsprawl.com/report/SP_SuburbanSprawl_Oct2013_opt.pdf U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Brownfield/Greyfield Redevelopment Toolkit. (2018). Retrieved September 6, 2018, from https://connectourfuture.org/tools/brownfieldgreyfield- redevelopment-toolkit/ U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/electricity/state/texas/ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2018, July 12). Overview of the Brownfields Program. Retrieved September 4, 2018, from https://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview-brownfields-program Wright, R., & Nebel, B. (2002). Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable Future (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.