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Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: a 48-Nation BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2005) 28,247-311 Printed in the United States of America Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation ' study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating David P. Schmitt Depanment of Psychology, Bradley University. Peoria, IL 62625 dpsC?bradley.edu http://www.bradley.edu/academics/las/psy/schmitt.html http://schmitt.sociaIpsychology.org/index.htm Abstract: The Sociosexual Orientation Inventorv (SOI: Sim~son& Gan~estad1991) is a self-renort measure of individual differences , ' I 0 in human mating strateges. Low SO1 scores signify that a person is sociosexudly restricted, or follows a more monogarnous mating strat- egy. High SO1 scores indicate that an individual is unrestricted, or has a more promiscuous mating strategy. As part of the International Sexuality Description Project (ISDP),the SO1 was translated from English into 25 additional languages and administered to a total sam- ple of 14,059 people across 48 nations. Responses to the SO1 were used to address four main issues. First, the psychometric properties of the SO1 were examined in cross-cultural I~ers~ective. I The SO1 ~ossessedadeauate reliabilitv and validitv both within and across a di- verse range of modem cultures. Second, theories concerning the systematic distribution of sociosexuality across cultures were evaluated. Both operational sex ratios and reproductively demanding environments related in evolutionary-predicted ways to national levels of so- ciosexuality. Third, sex differences in sociosexuality were generally large and demonstrated cross-cultural universality across the 48 na- tions of the ISDP, confirming several evolutionary theories of human mating. Fourth, sex differences in sociosexuality were significantly larger when reproductive environments were demanding but were reduced to more moderate levels in cultures with more political and economic gender equality. Ilnplications for evolutionary and social role theories of human sexuality are discussed. Keywords: culture; gender; mating; reproduction; sex differences; sex roles; sexual strateges; sociosexuality Over a decade ago, Simpson and Gangestad (1991) intro- it appears to have become the measure of choice when at- duced a self-report measure of human sexuality called the tempting to relate human mating strategies to other sex-re- Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI; see also Ganges- lated phenomena (Allen 2000; Bleske-Rechek & Buss 2001; tad & Simpson 1990; Simpson 1998).Originally designed to Clark 2004; Gangestad & Thornhill 1997; Isaacson 2001; capture variability in the willingness to have sex outside of Reise & Wright 1996; Schmitt 2005; Seal & Agostinelli a committed air-bond. the SO1 contains numerous aues- 1994; Simon 1997, Simpson et al. 1999; Townsend & tions about human mating behavior, romantic fantasies, re- Wasserman 1988). Despite its widespread use, very little is lational emotions, and attitudes toward casual sex. Re- known about the cross-cultural utility of the SOI, with only sponses to the SO1 are typically used to differentiate people a handful of studies directly measuring sociosexuality out- along a single strategic dimension of human mating called side the United States (e.g., Bailey et al. 2000). This is es- sociosexuality (Simpson & Gangestad 1991). Those who score relatively low on this dimension are said to possess - a restricted sociosexual orientation thevJ tend toward monogamy, prolonged courtship, and heavy emotional DAVIDP. SCHMITTreceived his Ph.D. from the Uni- investment in long-term relationships. Those residing at versity of Michigan in 1995 and is currently an Associ- the high end of sociosexuality are considered more unre- ate Professor of Psychology at Bradley University. He is Founding Director of the International Sexuality stricted in mating orientation, they tend toward promiscu- Description Project (ISDP), a collaborative research ity, are quick to have sex, and experience lower levels of group of over 100 scientists from around the world. One romantic relationship closeness1 (Simpson & Gangestad of the aims of the ISDP is to uncover the ways in which 1991). gender, personality, and culture influence basic human Since its introduction. the SO1 has become an increas- mating strategies. The second wave of the ISDP is cur- ingly popular tool for measuring individual dfferences in rently underway and will investigate the personality and basic human mating strategies (Hebl & Kashy 1995; Jones cultural predictors of sexual aggression, domestic vio- 1998; Seal et al. 1994; Simpson 1998; Simpson et al. 2004; lence, and risky behavior related to HIV/AIDS. Stephan & Bachman 1999; Wright & Reise 1997). Indeed, O 2005 Cambridge University Press 0140-525x105 $1250 247 Schmitt: Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe pecially unfortunate because a cross-culturally validated Although the majority of SO1 validation research has measure of human mating strategies would help to address proven highly supportive in American samples, it remains many recent developments in evolutionary psychology and unclear whether the psychometric soundness of the SO1 social role theory (e.g., Gangestad & Simpson 2000; Wood generalizes to other languages and cultures. Do the seven & Eagly 2002). items of the SO1 form one coherent dimension within all In the current study, the SO1 was translated from English cultures, or do sociosexual attitudes and behaviors become into 25 addtional languages and administered to samples dsconnected in certain regions of the world? Can socio- from 48 nations as part of the International Sexuality De- sexuality be accurately gauged using self-report methods scription Project (ISDP; Schmitt et al. 2003a). The result- across all cultures, or does the validty of the SO1 fluctuate ing ISDP database on sociosexuality was used to address across language, geography, ethnicity, history, politics, eco- four main issues. First, the psychometric properties of the nomics, or religion? Do responses to the SOI correlate with SOI were examined in cross-cultural perspective. Second, similar psychological and physical attributes across differ- theories concerning the dstribution of sociosexualityacross ent cultures, or does sociosexuality take different anthro- cultures were evaluated (Belsky et al. 1991; Gangestad & pometric forms around the world? If the SO1 were proven Simpson 2000; Pedersen 1991). Third, the cultural univer- reliable and valid across cultures. this could have im~or-1 sality of sex differences in sociosexuality was investigated tant implications for advancing our understanding of the (Buss & Schmitt 1993; Symons 1979; Trivers 1972). Fourth, links between culture and human mating strategies. How- theories concerning the degree of sexual dfferentiation in ever, no study has evaluated the psychometrics of the SO1 sociosexuality across cultures were examined (Buss & in a language other than English, nor has the SO1 been ad- Barnes 1986; Eagly & Wood 1999; Kasser & Sharma 1999; ministered to samples from non-Western cultures. In the Wood & Eagly 2002). Because national profiles of men's current study, the reliability and validity of the SO1 were and women's sociosexual mating strategies would have lit- evaluated across 26 languages and 48 nations, including tle value if the SO1 were not reliable and valid across cul- multiple cultures from North America, South America, tures, a review of the psychometrics of the SO1 will be ad- Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, the dressed first. Middle East, Africa, Oceania, South/Southeast Asia, and East Asia. 1. Psychometrics of the SO1 2. Sex differences in sociosexuality Simpson and Gangestad (1991) conducted several studies to evaluate the psychometric qualities of the SOI. In their On average, men tend to possess more positive attitudes to- original study, 204 women and 202 men from Texas A&M ward casual, low-investment sex than women do (Carrol et University completed an initial pool of 11 items related to al. 1985; Fisher et al. 1988; Hendrick et al. 1985; Oliver & a conceptual definition of sociosexuality. Using principal Hyde 1993; Townsend 1995;Wilson 1987). Men also report axis factor analysis, Simpson and Gangestad documented that they fantasize about having sex with multiple partners that seven of these items - the seven items eventually in- more than women do (Ellis & Svrnons 1990: Malamuth cluded in the SO1 - formed a coherent unitary factor 1996), and men behaiorally seLk short-term mateships structure. They also found that the resulting seven-item more than women do (Blumstein & Schwartz 1994; SO1 scale possessed adequate levels of internal reliability Eysenck 1976; Laumman et al. 1994; Wiederman 1997). (a = 0.73). In an unpublished study, Simpson and Gan- EmenmentalL tests have further confirmed that men are gestad (1989) documented the high temporal reliability of more likely than women to consent to sex with a stranger sociosexuality (r = +0.94) over a two-month test-retest when approached in a community setting (Clark & Hatfield period. 1989), even when the stranger is "vouched for" by a partic- Simpson and Gangestad (1991) evaluated the valihty of i~ant'ssame-sex friend (Clark 1990). the SO1 using standard construct validation techniques This pervasive of sexual differences - across atti- (Cronbach & Meehl 1955). In a validation study involving tudes, fantasy, and behavior - implies that men should be 144 romantic couples, participants were asked to complete higher or more unrestricted on sociosexuality than women. the SO1
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