shona ShoKitchen Architecture & Design Ndendebele

Real Valery Manyuchi

KITCHEN ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN SHONDE Real Valery Manyuchi

Acknowledgements

All thanks to God for being with my mum and l through all the steps l took to produce this book. Her support gave me the courage to persevere with the project which sometimes proved to be complex. With her support and advice l gained more strength and wisdom. With- out my mother’s encouragement and support, l would have found this task difficult. Despite her ill health she continued to give advice. A number of people helped me with information through my mother and these are Mrs. E. Mvura of Chegutu, Mr. D.Mpofu (Umzingwane), Mr. N. Mpofu (Umzingwane), Mr. M. Nyathi (Matopo), Mrs. Moyo (Bulawayo), my grand parents Mr. and Mrs. H.E. Chikuhuhu, my uncle Owen Chikuhuhu who helped me with the design part of the structure.

Nonsi Mutiti’s encouragement and ideas she gave me are highly appreciated. Many thanks

10 also go to my Professor Mr. Mafundikwa for 11 Acknowledgements inspiring me and being patient with me despite Acknowledgements the short comings l had when l was working on the project.

All these people’s contributions helped me understand the cultural values of my own people. Contents Acknowledgements 6

Contents

Foreword 14 History 24

Culture and Society 44

Architecture 68

Motifs 104

Conclusion 118

Biliography 124 Foreword

The information presented in this book was collected through interviews with elders, documentary research and through the internet. Many people interviewed have shown much interest because they want to share information about their African customs. They felt that it was important for those who are growing today in mixed cultures- African and Western, to learn more about their own cultures. The main focus of this book is on traditional and modern Shona It should also be remembered that due to ethnic and Ndebele (hence the book is titled ShoNde) history, variations, the details on the structures, history culture and kitchen structures. or cultures may differ as experienced in different areas. Also, the time to carry out- depeer The book will be useful in the sense that it research was limited due to the timeframe of will help readers understand the Ndebele and the project. l hope whatever information is Shona cultures and why they designed their provided will stimulate the reader’s interest to kitchens using specific structures. As the kitchen seek more information from other sources. structures continue changing it became increasingly important to understand why. Photographs of the present kitchen were taken.

18 19 Foreword Readers should take note of the fact that when Foreword people talk of the Shona this includes different groups who consist of the Zezuru, Manyika, Ndau, Karanga and the Korekore. Also when people talk of the Ndebele they should think of the Nguni who consisted of the people who spoke different dialects like Zulu, Xhosa, Thembu, Mpondo, and Swazi. The origin of the Ndebele will be discussed in detail later on in the section on history. 21 Introduction Introduction Zimbabwe is situated in the southern part of Africa with Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique and South Africa bordering it. The country was named after the famous 11th century stone-built city of Great Zimbabwe. Its population is divided into ethnic groups, the two main ones- Shona, Ndebele and the so called minority groups of the Tonga, Venda, Kalanga and the Nambia. Zimbabwe was a site of several African States - the Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and the Rozvi Empire.

Zimbabwe was a British colony from the late 1800’s until 1965 when the then current regime declared self independence which the British refused to recognize. In 1980 Zimbabwe became independent under black majority rule. It would not be enough to fail to mention the natural regions that influence the kitchen 22 A brief overview of Zimbabwe structures of the locals. These are region one to five. 23 Introduction Introduction Zimbabwean climate is dependent on the rains brought in by seasonal winds. Region one and two have a favourable climate which produces a rich green landscape. The regions are among the most favourable because they have rich farm land. Region three is also good for crop farming though the rain is not as favourable as that in region one and two. Regions four and five are not favorable for crop farming because of dryness. These regions are favorable for cattle ranching and wild life. The Ndebele mainly settle in regions four and five. The Shonas are scattered in areas that are in the region one to five. The book came into being as a thesis project when l was in my final year (GD2) at Zimbabwe Institute of Vigital Arts. I chose the project because l personally wanted to understand why certain things were/are done in my own African society. The colonialists had a tendency of wanting to convince the local inhabitants that when they arrived that’s when Africans started being organized. It was actually the opposite. When they came they took us out of our own ways of doing things. However, our own ways of doing things did not disappear completely though there is a mixture of other cultures.

Since societies consist of groupings or arrangements of peo- ple, different structures were built depending on what 24 About the book a particular group valued. Structures were designed for different 25 Introduction purposes and different values were attached to specific structures. Introduction

A kitchen structure had or still has its social values which are going to be discussed in the book. The values extend from such items as appeasing the spirits, holding ceremonies etc. The social values of a kitchen structure are far reaching and important. It is the cornerstone of a social structure in a home. 27 History History The source of the Ndebele and the Shona history, in this book was from different literature that is going to be included in the bibliography. Part of the information was from oral tradition passed on from person to person through several generations as shown in the picture on page 23. Those interviewed were part of the source of information.

Before writing the history of the Shona and the Ndebele it is 28 important to show the regions where they are inhabited. 29 History The regional or geographical feature and culture influence the History type of structures built in the different areas. For readers to understand or have an idea of the regional demarcations they are encouraged to study the map shown: The Shona and powerful. As they conquered the local inhabitance they started building enclosures which became both political and religious centers. This is were the famous Great Zimbabwe originated from.

As the population increased and the state grew in size some of the regions were entrusted to some of the men who became Chiefs. Though they pushed away the local inhabitants or placed them under their rule they humbled themselves and took the opportunity to learn from them. They learnt skills like pottery and metal work. Under the Shona rule, barter trading flourished mainly with the Portuguese.

As time went on the Mbire group took over from the Rozvi whose 30 For about a thousand years, different communities lived on king was known as Mambo. The Mutapa Empire continued to 31 History hunting, farming, herding, mining, and trading. This pattern grow. The first Mambo of the new dynasty was Chikura Wadyamberi History of life was disturbed when migration of the Bantu people but his son Nyastimba Mutota founded the new empire. He was a started in central Africa. The migrants were scattered all over very ambitious leader and wanted to gain control of the gold Southern Africa and some of them crossed the Zambezi River and ivory trade routes. Because of his ambitions he set out into what is now Zimbabwe. Others settled in Zimbabwe’s on his career of conquest. He organized his warriors and neighboring countries, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, South marched northwards with a dream of winning a bigger kingdom Africa, and Mozambique. The Bantu speaking community that for himself. As they marched in great numbers most inhabitants crossed the Zambezi River into the Mutapa Kingdom was the fled from what they dubbed Makorekore (locusts). Mutota Shona. Their arrival influenced a lot of changes in the region. raided from the Great Zimbabwe to Dande were some of the They were not very peaceful people. On arrival they either Korekore people era settled today. Unlike the early Mambos drove away the local inhabitants or put them under their rule. Mutota was said to be a ruthless ruler. He was then given the The Shona warriors were skilled and fierce fighters and as a title Mwene Mutota which is Portuguese later though it was people their political and religious systems made them superior called Monomutota. When Mutota died his son Mtope took over, like his father he Stone Ruins continued with his conquest. The extension of the Mbire rule gained him complete control of the valuable trade routes. The Manyika and the Barwe were among those who were conquered. By the time of his death his empire had stretched from Zambezi to Limpopo and from the Kalahari Desert to the Indian Ocean. Due to the size of the empire, it was unmanageable and this resulted in tribes breaking away to form independent regions flourished and more buildings/structures were erected. The ruins of this complex of massive stone walls undulate across almost 1,800 acres of present-day southeastern Zimbabwe. Begun during the eleventh century A.D. by Bantu-speaking ancestors of the Shona, Great Zimbabwe was constructed and expanded for more than 300 years in 32 a local style that eschewed rectilinear for flowing curves. 33 History Neither the first nor the last of some 300 similar complexes History located on the Zimbabwean plateau, Great Zimbabwe is set apart by the terrific scale of its structure. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 36 feet extending approximately 820 feet, making it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. In the 1800s, European travelers and English colonizers, stunned by Great Zimbabwe’s its grandeur and cunning workmanship, attributed the architecture to foreign powers. Such attributions were dismissed when archaeological investigations conducted during the first decades of the twentieth century confirmed both the antiquity of the site and its African origins. An image of Great Zimbabwe on page 29 Great Zimbabwe’s most enduring and impressive remains Great Zimbabwe’s Inhabitants are its stone walls. These walls were constructed from granite blocks gathered from the exposed rock of the surrounding hills. Since this rock naturally splits into even slabs and can be broken into portable sizes, it provided a convenient and readily available building resource. All of Great Zimbabwe’s walls Little is known about the Bantu-speaking people who built were fitted without the use of mortar by lying stones one on Great Zimbabwe or how their society was organized. The ruling top of the other, each layer slightly more recessed than the last elite appear to have controlled wealth through the management to produce a stabilizing inward slope. Early examples were of cattle, which were the staple diet at Great Zimbabwe. At its coarsely fitted using rough blocks and incorporated features of height, Great Zimbabwe is estimated to have had a population the landscape such as boulders into the walls. Over the years greater than 10,000, although the majority lived at some distance the technique was refined, and later walls were fitted together from the large stone buildings. Only 200 to 300 members of closely and evenly over long, serpentine courses to produce the elite classes are thought to have lived within Great Zimbabwe’s remarkably finished surfaces. massive edifices. 34 35 History This complex of ruins from which the modern nation of Zimbabwe History took its name is one of the country’s greatest historical and cultural attractions. Great Zimbabwe has the largest ruins in Africa, covers almost 1,800 acres. Sited on an open wooded plain surrounded by hills, the ruins comprise the vast Great Enclosure complex, and on a nearby kopje the Hill Complex, a veritable castle of interlocking walls and granite boulders, while all around in the valley lie a myriad other walls. The ruins feature an array of chevron, herringbone and many other intricate patterns in its walls, and the astonishing fact is that despite the dry-stone technique used in Great Zimbabwe’s construction (no mortar binds the stone blocks), the complex has endured for seven centuries. The stone walls were dovetailing with huge granite boulders on Zimbabwe Hill. Art, Archeology, and Politics

36 Since Europeans first encountered the ruins of Great Zimbabwe, it 37 History has been the focus of ideological concern and conflict. Unwilling History to believe that sub-Saharan Africans could have built such a structure, adventurers and ideologues long claimed the ruins a mystery, theorizing that ancient Phoenicians, Arabs, Romans, or Hebrews created the structures. In fact, as Tingay points out, “since archaeologist Gertrude Caton-Thompson’s excavations in 1932, it has been widely known that Great Zimbabwe is truly of Africa and less than 1000 years old” (98). Nonetheless, the White Rhodesians, whose ideology proclaimed the land “empty” of people and culture before they arrived, “tried to rewrite history, even asserting that an African genesis for Great Zimbabwe was tantamount to treason” (1998). The Ndebele

38 Information from the book “History of South and central Afri- 39 History ca” by Dereck Wilson tells us that there is much that is still not History known about the origins of the Bantu communities of Southern Umuzi Africa. He mentioned that recent history is clearer than the The Southerner ancient. The term Ndebele refers to a relatively broad range Acrylics on Canvas of ethnic groups dispersed across Zimbabwe and the Transvaal province of South Africa.

The Nguni community had many groups with each one speak- ing a different dialect. They live along the eastern region between St. Lucia Bay and the Great Fish River. Inland their territory was bordered by the Drakensburg Mountain. Among the Nguni communities the most powerful were the Zulu, Xhosa, Thembu, Mponde and the Swazi. Because of the unknown origins Dereck Wilson mentioned that it was not yet possible to describe the origins This resulted in people running away from Shaka’s iron fist. of all the major Nguni subdivisions. Much about their migration Survivors fled for long distances to find new land for settlement. was written about in the book. Among them was Mzilikazi who was the leader of the Khumalos. He fled northwards and conquering as he went. His followers In a series of migrations the Nguni speakers migrated North consisted of different tribes became known as the Ndebele. West in search of greener pastures for their livestock. Besides being farmers and hunters they were also herders and they The structures of the Ndebele had originated from the Zulu valued their cattle most because of this reason they wanted to which looked like an elephant. The structures built later were have good grazing land. By the time they crossed the Drakensberg influence by those from other tribes who joined the Zulu’s, Mountain there was already a mixture of races/tribes. This later known as the Ndebele as they fled northwards. alone can prove that they had traveled for long distances. It is said some of their customers are similar to those of the non-Bantu Going back to migration of the Zulu, now called the Ndebele, herdsmen of southern Sudan and due to this reason it could Mzilikazi increased his distance between Shaka. No matter be that some of the Nguni ancestors came from east Africa. how powerful he (Mzilikazi) was, he was scared of the Zulu’s 40 The Nguni organized themselves under chieftaincies. Due to and wanted to keep a safe distance. The Zulu conquest coincided 41 History hunger of power many Chiefs split with new leaders arising with the Boer raids and this made Mzilikazi to go further north History and taking their followers to new places. As time went on the until he crossed into the Mutapa Empire and settled in the Salt boxes population continued to grow and fighting for more land modern region of the town of Buluwayo. increased. The situation was worsened by the European invasion. The brief history of both the Shona and the Ndebele gives The coming of the Dutch in 1652 and later the British had the reader their background. Because of their different origins a turning point to the history of the local inhabitance. By the one would not object that their cultures and homesteads are 19th century the growth of the population led to the serious different. shortage of land for crop growing and grazing. More Chiefdom mushroomed in the region. Fighting for land continued to increase. The on going fighting paved way for the rise of Shaka Zulu, his military strategies made him famous. He murdered chiefs and their heirs unless he was convinced of their loyalty. Customs

42 Despite geographical division and local adversities, not to 43 History mention conflicting European or Christian attitudes, the Ndebele History have survived as a nation because so many have adhered to Traditional Zulu structure tribal culture.

This applies to such old customs as men’s initiation rites, girl’s puberty seclusion, first fruit ceremonies, marriage ceremonies, lobola feasts, witchcraft, and totemism and for the Ndebele the most important rituals ceremony of manhood. These rituals are also found among the Shona people though practiced in a dif- ferent manner. “Wela” is a circumcision school and temporary grass shelters are built there, it is possibly the most important incentive behind the Ndebele woman’s role as artists. Be- fore the young men left for the schools the woman carefully re- plastered the outside The most apparent in the provision of ornaments-murrors, tin walls of their homes butterflies etc. Beadwork is a cherished pastime for women, and reconstructed after completing their day to day chores around the umuzi, the entrance ways. women gather under the shade of a tree or inside their homes They then paint and in the heat of summer or round the hut in winter, spending repaint their impres- their time sorting, stringing and stitching beads. sions of everyday life interspaced with When summer rains have ceased and the sorghum and maize geometrical designs, crops have been harvested, mural decoration begins. Mural on the wall surfaces. While the young men are away the decoration is the prerogative of the woman; it denotes her homes are open to visitors and relatives many of whom travel unique and intimate relationship with the indlu (home) and enormous distances to attend. During the wela the woman her passive response to being exploited socially and politically. spend most of their time adorning themselves and attending In the polygamous society each wife has her own home. The ceremonies during or such festivities an entire cow or sheep neighborhood concept emphasis the (individual) woman’s 44 will be slaughtered and stewed in huge three legged caul- identity, what sets a woman apart from the other wives is her 45 History drons, for a feast that also includes maize meal, sour milk and style of mural decoration and her choice of colors as well as History sorghum beer. her building method. She paints not for acclaim but because wall decoration is an accepted way of behavior handed down In the intervals between their cooking duties, the women perform from mother to daughter. Ndebele women have no word for ritual dances in the front court yard ululating and waving the concept of beauty. A painted wall or a beaded garment bead- covered sticks (amandondolo) or dancing maces called can be “good” – which refers to its quality and inventiveness, “ithelefom”, which represent telephone poles. but mainly to its ability to distinguish her from women of other tribes. When the girls reach puberty, they too are secluded here months, usually after the men return. During this time in the privacy of their homes, they perfect the arts of beadwork and painting. On ritual occasions the highly developed art of personal adornment practiced by Ndebele women reaches its peak. 47 Culture & Society Culture & Society SOCIETY

Religion Laws

Marriage Kinship

48 In the book Sociology- Themes and perspectives by Haralambos 49 land Culture & Society and Holborn, Ralph Linton states that, “The culture of a society Culture & Society is the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and Symbols habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.” Inherience Culture can also be defined as ideas, meanings and knowledge that people share. In a society, structures that help people to organize themselves are: Division of labour Clans

Values

Succesion

Norms If there was no culture it will be difficult for members to com- Kinship municate and co-operate and confusion and disorder would result. Every society has certain common problems to deal with and such problems are culturally determined and they differ from society to society. Due to the difference in cultures solutions provided by each society may be unacceptable in other societies. Because of culture people should appreciate the idea that their human behavior is mainly determined by culture.

The process of learning ones culture in a society is called In general amongst both the Shona and the Ndebele there socialization and the most important, which is the primary is what is called kinship, the valued ancestral relationship one takes place during infancy and within a family. through ones mother and father. In kinship circles there are issues that are dealt without any member being left out e.g. 50 As illustrated by in the diagram each culture contains norms marriage, birth, inheritance, succession, rituals and in the 51 Culture & Society and values and the dressing of woman, men the old and the past vengeance. In marriage they look at how much should Culture & Society young are some of them. This also includes what people wear be charged as lobolo (bride price) when a woman is getting during different occasions e.g. funerals, traditional ceremonies, married and vise versa. When a man within the circles is getting the list is endless. married people put their heads together and see how one can be assisted. Traditionally the naming of a baby was not done randomly. A ceremony where the naming was done would be organized. In some circumstances children were named after their late or surviving relatives (uncles, aunts, or grandparents). Clans Ndebele Shona T o t e m s

Ndhlovu Nzou

Sibanda Sigauke/ Shumba

52 Also Societies are organized in clans with specific names Ncube Mukanya/ 53 but with animals attached to them and they address each Simango/ other using their clan names. The animals attached to the Soko clans are called totems. The Shona and the Ndebele totems may differ in names and yet they mean the same e.g. Inkomo Mombe

Mhlanga Mbizi

Dhliwayo Ishwa A person may not marry a member of the same clan; this is so Succession because people with the same totem share a single body of ancestral spirits. Woman, after they are married their totems change but in some cases they do not change. Each clan has a recognized head and when he dies, the person who takes his name also takes his position as head of the group. The head of the clan plays a very important role during family rituals and other important ceremonies. The heard of the clan should be informed about funeral and marriages. Traditionally the killing of a member of the clan would be avenged. Sometimes a child used to be given as compensation for the person killed.

The system of using children as compensation is phasing out because governments, jointly with some civic organizations When the head of clan dies, usually the young brother or 54 are fighting against this human’s rites abuse. the eldest man around takes over i.e. the name, duties and 55 Culture & Society responsibilities of the deceased, walking stick, spear, axe or Culture & Society anything of great importance. Inheritance

Traditionally the things a man left behind were divided among kinsman and the man’s children were never his prime heirs. Unlike the Tonga woman who have power and freedom with inheriting and controlling land, acquire and control livestock, 56 influence decisions to do with inheritance and succession, the 57 Culture & Society Ndebele and Shona woman do not enjoy such benefits. The Culture & Society issue of the Tonga woman was illustrated by Pamela Reynolds and Colleen Crawford cousins in their book “Tonga Book of the earth”

The traditional inheritance system resulted in the suffering of children after the death of their father. Because of this the government put in place laws that protected the children and the remaining spouse. Some of the civic organizations are empowering communities to write wills in support of their children. In most circumstances when a woman’s husband dies she is supposed to be remarried by the deceased’s brother, otherwise failure to that the woman had to leave and join her kins people. Marriage

In both Ndebele and Shona cultures it’s the woman who leaves the home to join her husband. The children she gives birth to bear her husbands surname. Before the woman leaves her home the man should pay lobolo/bride price to his in-laws. Traditionally in the Shona culture if a son in-law did not have anything to pay the bride price he would live with his brides parents and offer some services.

When people marry each other a household is created and a residential unit where people live together is formalized. This is a place where men, woman and children work together.A 58 household is a small unit in which a male and female adult 59 Culture & Society are taken as the central point. Culture & Society

In the Shona and Ndebele cultures a man can have more than one wife if he wishes. Co-wives do not cook together though they may contribute food for everyone to share. In the polygamous family each wife has her own household centered around her own fire place. However, maybe due to hardships or the AIDS pandemic, many men are now sticking to mo- nogamous marriages though sometimes they have unofficial extra affairs that are kept a secret to house hold members especially the wife. Traditionally customary marriages were common until a time when registered marriages were introduced through the court or church. Division of Labor

60 Though the people are being empowered on gender issues, Male Female 61 Culture & Society there are still beliefs that men’s and woman’s duties should differ. Culture & Society Clear new lands Care for children Due to the migration of men to towns, cities and neighboring Plough Brew beer countries women are seen carrying duties which are Cultivate with oxen Grind and pound grain supposed to be carried out by their husbands. Also man who Build houses Cook are away staying on their own carry out those duties which are believed to be for women? Worker- Metal & wood work Fetch water and fire wood Herding Wash clothes/duties Norms

Every culture contains a number of guidelines which is known as norms. Norms are put in place to promote appropriate behavior e.g. norms that govern how people should be dressed. Traditionally in both Ndebele and Shona cultures no woman was allowed to wear trousers. Though people seem not to show any concern about who wears what it is considered as something queer to see an elderly person dressed like a teenager. Different situations are governed by norms that specify appropriate attire for different occasions e.g. during traditional ceremonies. A 62 woman who is on her monthly menstruation period is prohibited 63 Culture & Society from attending such gatherings. In some occasions people Culture & Society are not allowed to go to places where spirits are being appeased with shoes. Norms are also put in places at household level e.g. children not allowed to stay out late, eating together as a family, hygiene in the home, acceptable ways of settling arguments disputes which usually exclude physical violence and manslaughter. The rule on settling disputes amicably is extended to clan level though at times people have a tendency of ignoring.

There is also set aside a date during the week and people have to rest. In Shona it is called “Chisi”. If one is seen at work on this day he or she is finned normally a goat Values Rituals

A value is a belief that something is good and desirable. Both Community beliefs are witnessed in the type of rituals that are the Ndebele and Shona cultures loving and caring for each carried out. In real terms rituals bring communities/households other is very important, worthwhile and worth striving for. together. Traditionally and to date rituals differ as per society and looking at the Ndebele and the Shona the most common 64 Traditionally, ones status was valued by how large ones herd ones are in with child birth, naming, puberty, marriage, death, 65 Culture & Society was and the number of wives and children one had. Also the the recall of spirits, rain making ceremonies etc. During such Culture & Society birth of a baby boy was more valued because it was believed gatherings there is a lot of drinking and eating. The Ndebele’s that a man would marry and bring a woman in the home and can roast a full beast while drinking beer. The Shona’s can this was an assurance of growth of the clan, whilst the woman also roast meat but not as much as the Ndebele’s. Most of left home for other clans benefits. It was unlike in the Tonga the rituals are carried out in the kitchen while ceremonies like culture where woman were happier to have girls for it was in the rain making are carried out at special places chosen by the daughters that woman found security in her old age. the spirit mediums. Normally there are places that could have been used for decades or centuries. The rain making ceremonies The Ndebele and Shona value who they are no matter what are strictly attended by the elderly and as for woman those other people say about them. Both value their language and who have reached their monopos are only allowed to attend the way they organize themselves as a people. With the shared or play a part during preparatory stages. values they co-operate because they do not have conflicting values. Religion

Most Zimbabweans still have a powerful bond with their ancestral spirits who are believed to live within their clans or families. The link with the spirits has inspired many generations to do things in their own special way. The way of appeasing the spirits is honored and respected and some places became important shrines e.g. Njelele in Matopo, in Matebeleland South province, Zimbabwe Ruins in Masvingo province and many others around the country. The spirits are believed to be protective and communicative on the people’s behalf with the Supreme Being known as Mwari in Shona and Umkulumkulu in Ndebele. 66 67 Culture & Society However due to interaction with people of different cultures, Culture & Society most families are no longer committed to the traditional way of Hakata on page 65. They worship. There are different conceptions on the spiritual world were used by traditional and that of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, etc. So many beliefs healers even in this day. in worshiping have mushroomed over the years. Some have remained with their traditional ways of worship whilst others practice both. Of course there are some who have committed themselves to Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism which are the main religions in Zimbabwe.

Zimbabweans have the freedom to worship any religion of their choice. land

When a son grows up, marries and starts his household a piece of land is issued under his name. However, there are no title deeds attached to this and this means the land is meant for subsistent farming in most cases the woman/ wife does the 68 not have control over the land. Her main duty is to see that the 69 Culture & Society piece of land is cultivated to ensure that the family has food to Culture & Society last the next season.

Traditionally there used to be land which was under the control of the chief and tin Shona it is called Zunde ramambo. The communities contributed labor and after harvest the grain was stored fore future use when there was drought. This tradition had almost collapsed but is being re-introduced by government. Its success depends on the commitment of both the chief and communities.

The government has embarked on the land distribution exercise that ensures that woman are not left out as independent land owners. Through this exercise some woman already own 71 Architecture Architecture Bioclimatic architecture

72 Bioclimatic architecture concerns itself with climate It’s the one that takes into account climate and environmental 73 Architecture (or perception of climate) as a major contextual conditions to help achieve thermal comfort inside. It deals with Architecture generator, and with benign environments using minimal design and architectural elements, avoiding mechanical energy as its target. J.J. Gibson describes ecology as a systems, which are rather regarded as support. Bioclimatic fit between niche and occupier. Here we reinterpret place architecture is a way of designing buildings and manipulating through notions of ecology, evolution and environmental forces. the environment within buildings by working with natural forces We take a step beyond Norberg-SchuIz – he defines space, around the building rather than against them. place and character, as prepositions, nouns and adjectives respectively - to these we add environmental forces (climatic, It not a new thing, It can be said that a lot of traditional social and perceptive) as verbs to complete the grammar of architecture works according to bioclimatic principles, at a architecture. time in which artificial conditioning was rare and expensive. The use of materials with certain thermal features as wood or adobe, earth coating, the use of lime on walls in the houses of Andalucia, the location of villages...nothing is by chance. A bioclimatic house needn’t be cheaper nor more expensive, • To save money, in our electricity or fuel bill. uglier or nicer, than any other. The bioclimatic house doesn’t need the purchase and installation of complicated and expensive • To get on better with environment. We can swap from the systems, but it just uses the regular architectural elements to hermetic and artificial house that doesn’t takes into account increase the energetic performance and get a natural comfort. environment, using powerful conditioning appliances to solve To achieve this, the bioclimatic design imposes a set of restrictions, the problem, to the house that integrates and cleverly uses but there still remains a lot of freedom to design according to environment and climate conditions to solve its needs. individual taste. Then this brings use to the question that, why bioclimatic architecture is not well known in or modern housing structures. Welfare concept has been evolving in a curious manner. As well as clothes mean much more that the need for thermal protection (and then we evolve towards the concept of fashion), housing means more than the need for a comfortable place to live, and may represent, for example, a status symbol. As that 74 Advantages 75 Architecture symbol, it must adapt to the established standards of status. Architecture Energy saving and taking advantage of sun may not fit these There are several reasons to adopt bioclimatic architecture, standards, but having an expensive conditioning system to retrieving ancient techniques and using new ones: overheat in winter and overcool in summer every single space in the house (even if it is seldom used) may do. • Nowadays we’ve got the energy problem. For example, electricity, that in appearance clean energy that comes home, In despite of sporadic awareness campaigns, publicity takes is “dirty” in its origin: it is produced in a big percentage by pride every day to associate saving with discomfort and low burning fuel (oil, coke, gas), with the corresponding gas lib- status, and waste with easy living and prestige. And it gets the eration, as CO2, that leads to the well-known greenhouse point: a lot of people associates saving to poverty. In fact the effect, increasing planet temperature; or as nitrogen oxides, economical system needs us to consume as much as possible that leads to the acid rain which is seriously damaging forests. so as to keep the wheel going. It is not possible to see energy Other big percentage has its origin in nuclear technology, with supply companies interested in new technologies for saving the well known problem of radioactive waste. (how will they increase their benefits?), as well as conditioning manufacturers interested in alternative systems that bust their technology. Architects and builders don’t either worry as far as their business goes well, and the consumer, with no information on the topic, cannot demand alternative products he does not know.

But governments, aware of the energy waste problem, promote research on the topic and generate new legislation and standards. For example, something as simple as good isolation in buildings to keep heat inside is a topic for legislation of increasing importance. And in a lot of countries institutions are appearing which perform research and spread bioclimatic knowledge among architects and builders. Hundreds of books have been written on the topic, and hundreds of projects 76 related somehow to bioclimatic architecture have been 77 Architecture implemented around the world. Architecture The mud hut stereotype Africa is among those continents that are rich in beautiful buildings. Each form of structure is a finely balanced solution to the problem of living in a particular climate, environment and society. Different factors determine the types of structure built in different areas and those are:

• The climate- How cold or hot it is, how much rainfall

• The types of materials available

• Anything dangerous to defend themselves against i.e. animals or people

• Considering whether the shelter is temporal or permanent 78 79 Architecture • Considering the types of tools on hand and what technology Architecture is available for building

• How people live together/interact

• How much cash and labor is to be invested in building

• Considering the social importance of the building

In areas where rainfall is high mud walls are washed away. Most people think mud houses are primitive and even those This happens in parts of South Africa along the central coastal who respect other aspects of African culture. It is hard to avoid plains where the Swazi, Zulu and the Xhosa developed a grass being drawn into thinking or going with this distorted perception. technology. See sketch drawing below: See drawing of general structures in a traditional Ndebele and Shona homestead:

The Ndebele and the Shona live in much drier regions and The size of the home or number of structures depended on there is no rainfall that can damage the mud walls. This is why the size of the household. In a polygamous household many structures 80 even the Ndebele from their Nguni/Zulu origin abandoned were built to suit the number people. Each woman had her 81 Architecture the grass technology in building their structures. own kitchen which was sometimes used as a bedroom. When Architecture the children were still small they shared a bedroom with their In the Shona and the Ndebele tribes, traditionally pole and parents. When they were big enough to understand what dagga structures were built, maybe because there was an was happening around them they slept in girls and boys abundance of natural materials which allowed structures to be quarters. In Shona these are called “Mugota” for the boys re-built, mended or even abandoned without great loss. The and “Munhanga” for the girls. materials were free, what people needed to do was provide labor (cut trees poles, carry poles, cut and collect thatching A granary was one of the structures within a homestead and grass, fetch water for mixing mud, build, thatch, plaster and this was for storing grain. Another structure which was known decorate). Such buildings lasted at least ten years if properly as a dare in Shona was built a bit further from other structures. looked after. However, natural elements like wind, rain, This was so because men need their privacy. The structure was insects and white ants cause destruction. Because of this mainly a roof supported by strong poles. This was a place special type of poles were used young man learnt about their family tree, their customs and issues about manhood. Young woman were always with their mother or grandmothers and also learnt about household and womanhood. In the Ndebele culture more was learnt at initiation or circumcision ceremonies where those who have would have reached puberty went out for at least 3 months. This is temporary structures were built. In some clans such practiced are still going on but due to different conceptions they seem to be disappearing.

Change is a continuous motion in every society. The colonization of the country and interaction with people from different walks of life influenced (and still does) on many things which include the local structures. Because of this modern homesteads look different from the traditional ones.

82 83 Architecture Architecture See illustration below The importance of a kitchen

A Ndebele home is called “Umuzi” whilst a Shona one is called “Musha”. Modern homes of both Shona and Ndebele have main houses and separate kitchens though in some houses the kitchen are semi detached. The importance of a kitchen is that traditional ceremonies are held in it. Some of the designs in the kitchen enable families to carry out certain traditions. In most cases when a family member dies the coffin is placed on an inside structure known as “Chikuva” in Shona until the burial day. This is also the same place family members talk to their ancestral spirits. When a daughter is getting married the kitchen is a place where people gather. After receiving the lobola (bride price) the elders communicate with their ancestral 84 spirits advising them of the changes. This assures them that 85 Architecture which ever family is going to be joined by their daughter, the Architecture spirits will continue to look after her.

Traditionally a kitchen was used as a birth place and a place to nurse the sick. The reason for such activities to happen in a kitchen was that there was warmth. The “sangoma” or “n’anga” treated people and administered the herbs from the kitchen.

Clay pots and guards which are used for rituals are kept in the kitchen. Seed is also preserved in a kitchen where it is believed that smoke plays a big role in preservation. Above all, the kitchen is a place where all food is prepared for the family. Kitchen structure(s)

Building process

Those who build kitchens using poles and “daga” place poles into the ground and twigs of sticks are woven between them to form walls. Men lay down the poles into the ground and roof beams over the wall. Women cut the grass, bundle it and pass it on to the men for roofing. Women also plaster the wall 86 with mud. Nowadays many people no longer use pole and 87 Architecture daga but bricks and cement. The roofing depends on how Architecture one wants to look like but the majority use grass for thatch- ing. The brick and cement kitchens are usually built by skilled builders who are hired to do the job.

Both building with pole and daga, brick and cement are plastered. When pole and daga builds walls are solid a special type of soil is used to decorate. Wet clay is applied onto the dry wall and women use their fingers to scratch vertical, horizontal or diagonal lines. Some draw symbols of their totems. This practice is most common in the Ndebele culture though some Shona’s practice. For the brick and cement building modern paint is used. Walls Windows

Walls are made of kneaded earth, the roof thatched with grass The earliest Ndebele and Shona dwellings, a round house and the inward sloping walls offset the thrust of the roof. Mud with low thatched roof, had no windows. The first is the more traditional material used even in this day and age. window type to appear was the “imbhobo” in Ndebele Bricks are now more common now while straw and wood built and “fafutera” in Shona, a simple “hole on the wall”. Today the structures are now less common. modern rectangular houses, the itshuba (European type window) with glass panes occurs more frequently than the imbhobo/fafutera. Roof

The roof of a properly built traditional house provides sufficient over hang to protect the walls the rain and the sun. The overhang Design Wise/Decorative Role also brings the roof level down bellow the tops of doors and 88 window frames. They also tie the building together and Both window types may act as the focal point for the wall 89 Architecture insures the proportions are aesthetically correct. While on the although the window is usually centrally placed. The Architecture other hand the flat roof of a modern cement block house design around it is not necessarily symmetrical, using a provides no such service. It leaves the doors and windows compositional logic that is unique to the Ndebele; the naked, exposed to the weather and unrelated to other painter fragments the wall surface and plays off the element elements of the building. Straw can also be used for walling in counter point effect allowing for example a chicken, a to increase air circulation and allow more cool are into the lion, a window within a window. This is so as to punctuate the building. rigidity of the geometric pattern. Far from detracting from the window mural these random bits of Wood is used as supporting beams fore the roof and they stuffing seem like touches of untuiting decorations, since were also used to build the dara as it is called among the they harmonize with the design of the wall in which they Shona and other structures like the Dare. are placed. Attesting both the importance of windows and to the woman’s sense of play, Ndebele artists often paint the illusion of a window. Function and Uses: The window is a smoke vent, a show chase for political pamphlets and a primary source of light in the dwelling. The ledge acts as a storage shelf, during the winter the Ndebele seal out the cold with every conceivable material from sandbags to straw, from rags to nail down boards and sheets of corrugated tin.

Doors: They are usually of wood (mapango) and in some cases they are made of corrugated tin. But mordern doors are more common with door frames complete with handles.

90 Floors 91 Architecture Architecture Cow dung: Among the Ndau people they use this method Architecture called kudhura ndove, they use cow dung to do their floors. First thing done during the construction of this floor is the application of mud then the cow dung is used to preserve the floor. The cow dung has to be constantly applied like we do floor polish.

Mud: Mud is a very eco-friendly and affordable material even though some might think it is floor finish associated with being primitive or poor. However I think mud is very beautiful flooring material as long as you can compact it properly, keep it from cracking and water proof its surface. Modern Polished Floors are hard and are very cold which makes them uncomfortable to sleep on or even sit. Zones inside the kitchen In tradition al kitchen especially in the Ndebele culture a hole in which a clay pot would fit was dug in the kitchen to store water, bear and sometimes valuables. The hole was not visible unless one had an idea that it existed. Also in traditional kitchens cow dung was used to smear the floor. In modern kitchens that are cemented floor polish is used. Because most kitchens do not have chimneys smoke is also believed to act as a disinfectant.

There is not much difference between the interior of a Shona and Ndebele kitchen. The only difference that can be noticed is the exterior that has different decorations as well as the roof though thatched has different designs. The Ndebele thatched is beautifully designed whilst the Shona in most cases has the 92 Inside the kitchen there is a fireplace in the middle of the common design, however due to cross-cultures; the Shona’s 93 Architecture floor, it is placed there for better ventilation. This is so that the are also using the designs that are mainly used by the Architecture smoke rises upwards rather than it first circulating the room Ndebele though they are not very common. then rising up to escape. Along the wall of the kitchen is an earth or cement platform on which pots are neatly arranged The kitchens below are an illustration of a Ndebele and Shona Kitchens. on one section at the back of the kitchen, one on top of another, Ndebele thatching Shona thatching beginning with the smallest ones at the top. Then the sections close to the door is the sitting area a bench, lower and narrower than the entrance and continuous around the wall. This is where men sit on the floor on a mat or on goat skin. A cupboard is also built against the wall and this is used to keep kitchen utensils like cups, plates and cooking stick. 94 95 Architecture Architecture

Ndebele thatching Shona thatching The Art of Architecture disputation and argument. As architecture is based on a foundation of aesthetic knowledge, it cannot be regarded as possessing the attribute of untrammeled personal expression, which distinguishes the arts of painting and sculpture At the precise moment in the design of a building when aesthetic intention impinges upon utilitarian considerations is the art of architecture imposed upon ordinary buildings, it is at this juncture, when the principles of design are applied to structure, that the spiritual quality is awakened But the formal application of aesthetic intention should not be regarded merely as the creation of superficial decoration. The influence of climate, materials and form of construction can not be disregarded as elements playing a contributory part in establishing the recognized principles of architectural beauty”. 96 The art of architecture combines two independent processes 97 Architecture to produce a work of architecture. The first process is the The art of architecture is founded on the fundamental Architecture logical that controls the function of planning to assist prescribed processes of expressing in terms of three-dimensional forms requirements. The second process is the aesthetic process, the elements of plan, structure with that part of the sense of which governs the design of the outward appearance of the beauty, which arises from an innate understanding of essential building. qualities of fitness for purposes of both function and proper use of materials. To appreciate this aspect of art is to understand (Julian Leathart 1958 page 21) “The logical or rational the primary motive of all design, whether it is ancient or modern. aspect of architecture is concerned with the application of In discussing the art of architecture it is reasonable to establish laws, which prescribe structural stability and therefore can be the relationship of art and architecture as a first step accepted without question. In the second thought, the aesthetic approach there arises for the first time those controversial Art is commonly accepted as a term describing the application questions of taste which make the art of architecture, not only of the beautiful either by the process of imitation or original a subject of universal admiration but one of eternal design. Art in architecture refers to the liberal and fine arts. Lib- eral arts include philosophy, history, logic, rhetoric and science, Because of this fact there are loosely accepted notions that and fine arts embrace that which are primarily concerned with architecture is an abstract art. imagination and taste and to the production of what is beautiful in its appeal to the human senses and emotions, namely music, Architecture does not function solely to stimulate emotions as poetry, painting, sculpture and architecture. painting and sculpture. Its primary function is to provide shelter from elements for the purpose of human habitation, for living, for Architecture has been named the “mistress art” by virtue of work, for pleasure, for recreation and for worship. This function the manner in which it constitutes vehicles of expression for is achieved by the process of enclosing space by means of the purely decorative arts of painting and sculpture. A building assemblage of various materials of weather resisting may function as a background for the decorative arts yet at characteristics. the same time it may posses the attributes of beauty in itself without these additional contributions

Although architecture is primarily judged upon aesthetic value 98 of its external presentment, as are paintings and sculptural 99 works, it is impossible for it to be brought into being without Architecture Traditional art of construction showing roof construction and space Architecture the application of scientific principles of building construction. the external edges of the open cocktail bar. Here timber construction Architecture exists as an art in collaboration with basic considerations has been used to achieve the aforesaid two processes namely the of structure, of stability and security. Traditional Architects functional and the aesthetic processes. dispute the unit of utilitarian and aesthetic function.

The essential difference between painting and sculpture and architecture, which comprise the trinity of the arts, is this, whereas the pictorial and plastic arts are primarily aesthetic in content, architectural art is of a supplementary nature and is inherent to the scientific art of construction. Architecture should not be judged solely on its qualities of composition, colour and form, which characterize painting and sculpture. Analysis: Because of Zimbabwe’s cultural diversity there are several eth- Vernacular Integration of Art and Architecture nic groups, which bring out decoration and colour differently in their built environment due to unique historical background, identity and cultural values. Identity is therefore a traditional role of art in architecture.

In traditional African housing, decoration is not seen as luxury. Much as clothing and jewellery, decoration provides the opportunity not for impressing outsiders but also boosting the pride and respect from them. To a greater extent decoration of huts is done through colour. Whenever the walls of the huts are smeared with clay (mud) the smooth surface provides a canvas on which the womenfolk display their artistic ability through painting. Generally the colour finishes are not a product In this research tradition is taken to mean different aspects of one man’s imagination. The designs have standardised 100 of human experience and that of cause includes art handed 101 through generations of use, which would tend to improve on Architecture down from generation to generation through practices or Architecture any imperfections. orally .Art in traditional architecture is a result of traditional or locally available construction materials and methods or skills. Among Shona, Venda and Lemba huts, decoration is a simple This Architecture is largely a matter of self-help and it is mostly combination of squares and triangles. There is minimal usage practiced in the rural areas. Although the rural houses are of colours in their paintings. It is normally a single colour or being increasingly influenced by the modern sector, round a combination of two colours. For “the canvas” which is the pole and dagga huts are a common sight and colour background colour, clay soils of different colours is modified decoration, and texture is brought out in almost the same in some instances by the addition of ashes into the clay mixture way they were done when the first settlers arrived in 1980. until a required shade is attained. Cow dung is also used in plastering internal walls producing a khaki colour finish. The In the traditional houses in Zimbabwe a variety of decoration cow dung does not only adds colour it also repels jiggers and schemes has been identified. The decoration schemes differ pests. Among the Shona people charcoal is used to make according to culture as well as the geo-physical nature. drawings on the internal walls especially in the kitchen. The The wall is a gallery of rich patterns of every colour of the rainbow drawings depict plants, especially flowers. They are decorated following strong geometric shapes. These are undoubtedly in a bid to impress outsiders, as the kitchen is the hut that derived from their rich beadwork where any motif from receives visitors. In comparison with other dwellings the Kitchen the very nature of the medium is considered. The colour receives much attention as far as decoration is concerned. A design is also known for precision freehand work. shelve moulded in rammed earth is put up in a segment of the circular hut. Each village will always have artisans in the art of The colour designs in some cases take cognisance of the moulding these shelves. In most cases the artisans are paid in environment especially when it comes to clay choices. Huts kind, e.g. in the form of harvest products or goats etc. are generally known to be relatively dark because of poor lighting since their windows are just tiny openings. Most lights South of Zimbabwe the decorations are still existent. The are allowed through the entrance, and with the closure of the decorations are found on the windward side of the huts. Originally door there is complete darkness. And this has probably necessitated small stones were mixed in the mud to form a protective mosaic the use of light coloured clay like grey in the internal walls like material. Later they began to use stones of different and dark shades on the external walls were there is high light 102 colours for example white from mica, black from granite and intensity. With the choice of grey colour, smoke stains from 103 Architecture many others, which resulted in visually appealing walls. the wood fuel used for cooking will not easily be visible as it Architecture also forms a grey colour in its colour in its early stages of It is among the Ndebele huts that the most showy colourful accumulation. wall patterns to impress the outsiders are found. The Ndebele people can be called the “Artist people” Colours of traditional huts differ from one region to another Exclusively the females do the painting. At the advent of based on the geo-physical nature of the area. Some areas in puberty the mothers or elder sisters teach a girl painting. Zimbabwe are characterised with red soils whilst some with Walls of houses provide them with large surfaces to exhibit black soils that obviously translate to the built environment their talents. The Ndebele people have added spacious courtyard walls because of the mud plastering used. and cow dung plastered floors to their architecture mainly to increase surfaces. It is also quite common for a husband to build special freestanding walls for his wife to use for further paintings. Decorations including colour are applied extensively to some architectural elements and buildings than others. The most colour designed spaces are the granaries, wives room and homestead entrance. And at the point of high structural stress, that is obvious critical elements such as lintels and jambs. This is done to hide cracks in some cases a colour boarder of up to about 30cm thick is up on doorways and window openings. The boarders, which are mostly of dark colours, besides being decorative, defining or highlighting openings, are put on points, which are more prone to dirt. Since wood fuel is used for cooking and lighting in these huts, there is emission of a lot of smoke, which finds its way out through the door and window openings. As it goes out it has a tendency of blackening the openings hence darker colours are able to 104 conceal the soot from easy visibility. And again on doorways 105 Architecture people have tendency of unnecessarily touching the jambs Architecture when passing, thereby a lot of dirty on such points. Colonial Influence There is this scepticism brought up by colonisation, which assumes that traditional architecture, and its decorative ways is inferior to the urban type of architecture. People do not even consider the environmental comfort that comes with the purely organic traditional ways of construction. Cities are now stressed to the limit with the current urban sprawl. When the same people go back to their rural areas during vacations, they come with ideas and plans of their houses as direct replicas of the urban set up. Development seems to have been taken to mean bringing a model of the modern type building

Although the rural houses have been affected by modern influences, at a macro scale the decoration environment is still Although traditional architecture and its decorative ways still enriching. In the rural areas, the colour of the nature scape is 106 exist, it is increasingly being overshadowed by urbanisation. the one that dominates our senses since the buildings are just 107 Architecture This appears to be an open insult to our traditional values a small fraction of the environment. And nature is the most Architecture but people have accepted globalisation as the new world’s ecological and economical architect with its products resulting phenomenon. Materials such as cement, roof sheets and in high aesthetical visual colour composition. modern finish material are increasingly being used. By the use of modern paints several colours, which might have seemed impossible can now be achieved although they seem to be reduced to just a skin cover rather than decorative.

With the advent of this new era of borrowed ways of building, women have become marginalized in the construction of their houses. This has actually disadvantaged the society, which is a tragic waste of resources because as we have seen in traditional practices women do the decorations. 109 Motifs Motifs Background

110 During the Stone Age, the San People had already understood 111 Motifs the need to integrate their habitat with art. They occupied the Motifs territory of Southern Africa, which now covers parts of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia. The cave was the Koi San rock paintings only known habitat then. The same cave saved as background of Bushmen paintings. Paintings were done in dyes obtained from nature e.g. roots, tree barks, leaves etc. The need for man to live in close collaboration with what reminds him of his daily activities had already been realized. The bushman’s daily routine was hunting and gathering and thus we see these caves embellished in scenes of hunting expeditions.

Decorative Motifs

112 Decorative motifs can be analysed in many different ways, but 113 Motifs one approach is to think of them as falling into the following Motifs two main categories: Koi San hut • Cellular design usually made up of two alternating, serially repeated units, one being the positive and the other negative, one light one dark, for instance or one raised and the other incised. The design is based on geometrical shapes and completely covers the surfaces on which found.

• Intricate linear design based on curved lines, often with much interlacing. The design is applied to a neutral ground. African decorative motifs

114 115 Motifs Motifs 116 117 Motifs Motifs 118 119 Motifs Motifs There are two principal styles of Ndebele mural decorations: reduce to stylized geometric shapes are rare in Ndebele art. traditional (archaic) and contemporary. The designs were Flowers and trees, which can be broken down into bold, linear and abstract, becoming more complicated on well- defined components, are more common. As Ndebele the front of the house which was seen as the center peace style continues to evolve, new forms are introduced by the of the dwelling. To avoid detracting from the main design, younger generation. Older Ndebele woman still prefer the inside and the back were painted with much simpler conservative designs but the young woman lean to dynamic designs, more subdued shapes outlined in black. Uya is a monochrome motifs, such arrows diagonal lighting flashes. technique they used and litema as it was called by other tribes. Architectural images have appeared symbolizing houses with courtyards, steps, doors and windows.

Although Ndebele murals are primarily abstract they include such pictorial motifs as animals, light bulbs, and razor blades. (tsefana) selecting from tribal lexicon of symbolic 120 and descriptive images, the Ndebele intermix traditional 121 Motifs motifs such as the sun and trees and western symbols such Motifs as letters of the alphabet. These motifs cannot be interpreted too literally, however: the motifs cannot be interpreted too literally. Moreover woman copy from each other and reduce realistic motifs to stylized elements for removed from the original source. The Ndebele primary skills have always been to embrace exterior sources of inspiration and to fuse these Alien features with designs derived from their own culture.

The artists sift through the imagery around them, choosing the most graphic and geometric forms and shapes to incorporate into their compositions. Animal and 123 Conclusion Conclusion 124 Despite changes being witnessed in the society through interaction 125 Conclusion with different people from different walks of life, the Ndebele Conclusion and the Shona are still attached to their traditional ways of living in one way or another. The respect of their origin, totem and the existence of a kitchen structure in almost every home is a symbol of attachment to their traditions. Also the cultural gatherings held when ancestral spirits are being called upon to help the society in times of trouble is another symbol that shows attachment to the ancestral spirits.

The project itself was challenging and has enabled me to research and understand the social values of my people pertaining to a kitchen in the home. Without an idea of the social values of a kitchen l thought a kitchen was just for cooking. Biliography A history of Southern and Central Africa Derek Wilson

Decorated houses in Botswana Sand and Elijah Grant

Microsoft Encarta -2004 Lwaano Lwanyika - Tonga book of the earth Pamela Reynolds and Colleen Crawford Cousins

Ndebele- art of an African tribe Margret Courtney- Clarke

www.ndebele.org

128 129 Biliography Sociology- themes and perspectives Biliography Haralambos and Holborn and Ralph Linton

Shona customs Peggy Kileff

The traditional African art of Zimbabwe Henrik Ellert Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the two year diploma in Graphic Design and New Media on December 07 2007