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Historical and Geopolitical Significance of the Mozambique/Zimbabwe Border to the Ndau People (C

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Historical and Geopolitical Significance of the Mozambique/Zimbabwe Border to the Ndau People (C Borderless boundary? Historical and geopolitical significance of the Mozambique/Zimbabwe border to the Ndau People (c. 1940-2010) J Hlongwana orcid.org 0000-0002-7938-9017 Thesis accepted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degreeDoctorof Philosophyin History at the North-West University Promoter: Prof E S van Eeden Co-promoter: Prof H J van der Elst Graduation: June 2021 Student number: 25846434 DECLARATION I, James Hlongwana, solemnly declare that this thesis entitled: Borderless boundary? Historical and geopolitical significance of the Mozambique/Zimbabwe border to the Ndau People (c. 1940-2010) is my own original work. All sources used, cited or quoted have been duly acknowledged by means of complete references. This thesis has not been submitted in part or in its entirety by me or any other person for degree purposes at any other institution. It is being submitted for the degree Doctor Philosophy in History at North-West University. Signature: Date: 18 December 2020 ii DEDICATION To my late mother (Mutendeni) and brother (Manyoni). iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to register my profound gratitude to my promoters, Professors Elize S. Van Eeden and Herman J. van der Elst for their constructive criticism and encouragement to remain focused on the dream to attain a PhD. In this regard, their extraordinary attention to detail and tactful presentation of information significantly shaped the thesis’ ideas. Indeed, without their unfailing commitment to duty the study could not have been completed. I wish also to expresses my hearty thanks to Professor, Van Eeden for facilitating my attendance and participation at an International Conference that was held at the University of Eastern Finland in Finland in 2016. In addition to her encouragement, she paid for my travel, accommodation and meal expenses at the conference. Not only did I deliver a well received presentation at the conference, but also the occasion resulted in established links with colleagues and the conference organisers who in 2018 assisted me to attend another high-profile conference at the University of Cagliari, in Sardinia Italy. Also, Professor Van Eeden made timely interventions to help me secure registration fees for my 2019 and 2020 academic years from the North-West University Bursary Department. Further, I am deeply indebted to my current and former colleagues at Great Zimbabwe University, as well as those from outside the University, for reviewing and editing my draft chapters. These colleagues are: Professors - F. Sibanda, F.T. Duri and R. S. Maphosa (late), Doctors- T. Gwaravanda, E. Konyana, T. Thondhlana, C. Chibango, R. Kapumha, B. Tavuyanago (late) and Mr. Mpofu, for the shared insightful comments on the thesis. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation of the contribution of individuals and institutions in the conduct of this research. My special thanks go to the Mozambican Embassy in Harare for graciously offering me the permission to conduct research in Mozambique. Each time I produced the document, either on demand or to lend weight to requests, I received acceptance from Mozambicans. Still on that note, I wish also to thank the Arquivo Historico de Mozambique staff for helping my research assistant to access archival material from their institution. I wish also to extend my gratitude to Dr. Eugenio Mumbai from the Department of History at Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique for identifying a reliable research assistant from his class, Rui Antonio Mutemba who became my research assistant in Maputo, Mozambique. Being conversant in both English and Portuguese, the research assistant became useful in the iv identification and translation of archival material. In Zimbabwe, I wish to thank institutions and individuals such as the Ministry of Local Government which granted me the permission to do research in Chipinge district. I would also like to thank the National Archives of Zimbabwe for permitting me access to the archive. I wish also to thank Mr. Moyo for proof reading the thesis. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my family for their support and encouragement throughout the study period. I am greatly indebted to my wife, Lowin, who had to endure loneliness while I was away collecting data in Mozambique and Chipinge district of Zimbabwe. To my two daughters, Euphrasia and Charleen as well as my two sons, Larry and Ingram, I would like to express my gratitude for their prayers and good wishes during my PhD studies. While I remain greatly indebted to the aforementioned institutions and individuals, I bear responsibility for the omissions in the thesis and I am answerable for the views expressed in this study. v ABSTRACT This study explored cross-border migration on the Zimbabwe/Mozambique borderland. The Ndau speaking people, who inhabit the borderland, were separated by the colonial border in 1891. Vast expanses of land were parcelled out, especially to Europeans who migrated to Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) from South Africa. Owing to a bitter and protracted geopolitical rivalry between the British and Portuguese over the Manica region where the Ndau area is located, the British and Portuguese encouraged European settlements and plantations in the region that was populated by the Ndau prior to the advent of European colonialism. Furthermore, plantation owners and missionaries gained access to large tracts of land. Some viewed these developments as a gimmick by the British and Portuguese colonialists to strengthen their colonial positions in the Ndau region. However, the European settlements had far-reaching ramifications on the Ndau society which, in addition to being segmented by the colonial border, lost possession of its long-time land in the region. In particular, the Ndau on the Zimbabwean side of the border were left with limited land to subsist on. Consequently, they had to resort to cross-border search for land in the borderland as a survival pursuit. Equally, the post colonial government in Zimbabwe has contributed to the misery of the Ndau as regards land ownership and usage. In addition to their failure of availing land to the landless Ndau people, it carried out the Land Reform Programme in 2000 which had far reaching effects on the Ndau. Most importantly, the Ndau lost their employment as Zimbabwe’s commercial farming system and the economy collapsed. Taking advantage of their proximity to Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique) and their cross-border ethnic relations with the Ndau in Mozambique, the Ndau from Zimbabwe sought farming land in Mozambique. While survival initiatives such as relocation to Mozambique, cross- border farming and trading ameliorated the plight of the landless Ndau people in Zimbabwe, “cross-border farming” in general had negative impact on the border itself. Uncontrolled human traffic across the border rendered the colonial border obsolete, making the boundary region “borderless”. In addition to compromising regional and international security, informal cross-border farming is causing land-related conflict in Mozambique. This thesis focuses on the borderland discourse that mainly historically outplayed between1940 and 2010.Other emphases in this study are the Ndau people’s position and challenges within the Bantu migration history, the shaping of Ndau identity, the British/Portuguese geopolitical rivalry, colonial land alienation policies, estate farming and cross-border farming. Thus, this study on the Ndau fills a historiographical vi lacuna in existing literature on cross-border migration by providing a fresh perspective on the causatives of cross-border migration in the borderland. Land shortage, as a cause of cross-border migration in the borderland, is the central focus of this thesis. The contribution of other causes of cross-border migration such as cultural explanations is not overlooked. James Hlongwana December 2020 Key words Border, Borderland, Boundary, Land shortage, Livelihoods, Migration, Partition, Ndau, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, Colonial history. vii Table of Contents DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................iv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................vi LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF MAPS .......................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................xv GLOSSARY OF TERMS ........................................................................................... xvi CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................... 1 MAPPING RESEARCH POSSIBILITIES ON THE NDAU PEOPLE’S CROSS- BORDER DYNAMICS ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Orientation
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