Social Media in Exile: Disruptors and Challengers from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Sudan A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Abraham Tesfalul Zere December 2020 ©2020 Abraham Tesfalul Zere. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled Social Media in Exile: Disruptors and Challengers from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Sudan by ABRAHAM TESFALUL ZERE has been approved for the School of Media Arts & Studies and the Scripps College of Communication by Steve Howard Professor of Media arts & Studies Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii Abstract ZERE, ABRAHAM TESFALUL, Ph.D., December 2020, Media Arts & Studies Social Media in Exile: Disruptors and Challengers from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Sudan Director of Dissertation: Steve Howard This dissertation, drawing on fieldwork interviews with 29 leading activists from three countries and examining popular social media platforms through Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), studies how social media tools have been used to challenge the repressive political leadership of Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Sudan. The ruling elites of these three countries –mismanaging the scant resources in each, and dealing with large populations of young people with few prospects – faced daunting new challenges. Advancement in communication technologies and the emergence of social media revitalized the despairing youth to take matters into their own hands. They challenged their repressive rulers through decentralized and nonviolent modes of struggle that successfully fused the diaspora communities. The dissertation borrows theoretical underpinnings from Jürgen Habermas’ public sphere theory, and Michel Foucault’s concept of speaking truth to power. It benefits from Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri (2012)’s framing of social media sites as disruptors of the existing status quo. The findings illustrate that social media platforms have enabled youth to challenge the information monopoly imposed by their governments. These platforms have allowed for horizontal communications and added a new layer of democratization to the decision-making process, as opposed to the traditional strict top- iii down approach. The findings outline the wider availability of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and blogging have helped average citizens articulate their views, erode the personality cults that surrounded stalwart rulers, and engage the huge diaspora community of each country to step in. Activists have utilized social media in three interconnected ways: creating platforms to discuss and strategize outside the influence of the state; easily bypassing the state security’s repeated infiltrations; and then finally, as in Ethiopia and Sudan, giving them the confidence to take proactive steps and occupy the streets. I conclude while Eritrean activists have challenged the state hegemony both in Sudan and Ethiopia, freer expression did not translate into meaningful political change due to severe economic conditions and deferred expectations. iv Dedication To the brave men and women from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Sudan who have faced and challenged their fascist states’ security systems’ live ammunition with their bare chests. They may have been shot, but their spirits never died and they continue to haunt the executioners. A luta continua. v Acknowledgments This work is the outcome of a long process not only of data collection and research, but of sacrifices by the people who selflessly gave their lives for the betterment of others. I owe special gratitude to everyone who has been part of the struggle for justice in the three studied countries. Then comes the academic guidance and mentoring. I have benefited a lot from Professor Steve Howard, starting with the many course seminars at the start of my M.A. studies. His quick feedback and acute observation in encouraging the exploration of possible angles during the writing process was incredibly helpful. Dr. Wolfgang Suetzl guided me at a very crucial stage of my dissertation, formulating a theoretical framework and writing literature review. I owe Professor Devika Chawla a special appreciation for her important guidance at the proposal stage and the two crucial course seminars I attended with her on postcolonialism and ethnography. Professor Ghirmai Negash immensely shaped my academic career beginning with my undergraduate studies at the University of Asmara. I remain eternally grateful for his guidance and friendship. My heartfelt appreciation goes to the research subjects who consistently slotted time to provide me insightful interviews and then address my follow-up questions despite their tight schedules. Zecharias Zelalem and Husam Osman Mahjoub were more than generous in providing me materials and answering all questions about Ethiopia and Sudan, respectively. vi I was fortunate to have a family who persistently encouraged me to pursue my dreams. I hope to pay them back following my long digression in graduate studies. vii Table of Contents Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Dedication ........................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. vi Chapter 1: Rationale, Media History, and Literature Review ............................................ 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Rationale of the Study ................................................................................................... 4 Selection of Three African Countries ........................................................................... 9 Social Media in the Three Selected Countries ............................................................ 12 Selection of Social Media Sites .................................................................................. 15 History and the State of the Media in the Three Countries......................................... 18 History and the State of the Media in Eritrea ....................................................... 18 History and the State of the Media in Ethiopia ..................................................... 21 History and the State of the Media in Sudan ........................................................ 26 Overview of Literature on Social Media in the Three Countries................................ 32 Literature Review: Social Media Driven Uprisings in MENA ................................... 34 Conditions that Led to Popular Uprisings ............................................................. 36 Convergences of Alternative and Traditional Media in MENA Uprisings .......... 40 Can MENA Popular Uprisings be Replicated in the Selected Countries? ............ 44 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework and Methodology ...................................................... 46 Diaspora Community and the Political Influence at Homelands ................................ 46 viii Nonviolent Resistance ................................................................................................ 49 Theoretical Frame in Analyzing the Social Media Driven Resistances ..................... 53 Applying the Public Sphere Theory ...................................................................... 54 Applying Speaking Truth to Power ...................................................................... 60 Social Media Sites as Disruptors .......................................................................... 64 The Intersection of the Three Theories ....................................................................... 66 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 69 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 69 Reflexivity............................................................................................................. 70 Data Gathering Process ......................................................................................... 71 Selection of Participants ....................................................................................... 75 Analyzing Through the Lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) ................... 79 Ethical Considerations During Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ................ 80 Political Developments on Each Country During Data Collection ............................ 83 Challenges During Research and How I Overcame them .......................................... 86 Chapter 3: Findings and Discussions ................................................................................ 89 Eritrean Exiled Social Media Challenges the State Hegemony .................................. 89 Eritrea: The State, Transnational Identity, and Dual Roles ........................................ 90 Paltalk: From a Dating App to a Tool of Political Mobilization ................................ 97 The Influence of Middle East and North African Popular Uprisings ....................... 102 Eritrean Social Media as Public Sphere .................................................................... 105 Social