Early Childhood Care and Education;EFA Global

EFA Global Monitoring Report 2007 Education for All Strong foundations Early childhood care and education Strong foundations Early childhood care and education

UNESCO Publishing Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 frontiers orboundaries. city orarea,ofitsauthorities,concerningthedelimitation on thepartofUNESCOconcerninglegalstatusanycountry,territory, this publicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoever The designationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialin is takenbyitsDirector. Overall responsibilityfortheviewsandopinionsexpressedinReport Team andmanyotherpeople,agencies,institutionsgovernments. It istheproductofacollaborativeeffortinvolvingmembersReport commissioned byUNESCOonbehalfoftheinternationalcommunity. reflect theviewsofUNESCO.TheReportisanindependentpublication The analysisandpolicyrecommendationsofthisReportdonotnecessarily Printed inFrance ©UNESCO 2006 ISBN 978-92-3-104041-2 Printed byGraphoprint,Paris Layout: SylvaineBaeyensand HélèneBorel Iconographer: DelphineGaillard Graphic designbySylvaineBaeyens 7, PlacedeFontenoy,75352Paris07SP,France Scientific andCulturalOrganization Published in2006bytheUnitedNationsEducational, FOREWORD / i Foreword

The Education for All goals focus on the need to provide learning opportunities at every stage in life, from infancy to adulthood. With only nine years remaining before 2015 – the target year for achieving these goals – we must not lose sight of this agenda’s profoundly just and comprehensive perspective on education.

Tackling disadvantage and setting strong foundations for learning begins in the earliest years through adequate health, nutrition, care and stimulation. The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified by 192 nations, guarantees the rights of young children to survive, develop and be protected. However, many children are deprived of these rights.

This fifth edition of the EFA Global Monitoring Report assesses progress towards the first EFA goal, which calls upon countries to expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most disadvantaged children. Such interventions are crucial to improving children’s present well-being and future development.

Yet the evidence suggests that young children in greatest need, who also stand to gain the most, are unlikely to have access to these programmes. Coverage remains very low in most of the developing world and few programmes exist for children under age 3. Even in the context of limited public resources, designing national policies for early childhood carries benefits for the country’s entire education system. It is therefore vital that countries and the international community systematically make early childhood provision an integral component of their education and poverty alleviation strategies. This is essential for reducing extreme poverty and hunger, the overarching aim of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.

A tone of urgency pervades this Report. While regions farthest from the goals are making impressive progress on enrolling new children into primary school, major challenges remain. Policies must address the barriers to education: household poverty, rural locations, poor quality, and lack of secondary schools and trained teachers, and not enough adult literacy programmes.

As the lead agency for coordinating EFA, UNESCO carries a particular responsibility for placing EFA at the forefront of national and international agendas. There are promising signs: aid to basic education is increasing and leaders at the G8 Summit in Saint Petersburg in 2006 affirmed the fundamental importance of Education for All as a contributor to national development and peace.

The findings of the 2007 EFA Global Monitoring Report remind us there is no place for complacency. We have a collective responsibility to ensure quality education for all, a responsibility that begins by providing strong foundations for children in the first years of life and continues through adulthood. Only by taking a comprehensive approach that encompasses all the EFA goals and society’s most fragile and vulnerable members can this mission be honoured.

Koïchiro Matsuura Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 in OECD/DACfor theircontinuingsupportand helpfuladviceoninternational cooperationandaid Prouty intheFast-Track Initiativesecretariat, andtoJuliaBenn,Valérie Gaveau andSimonScott We aregratefultoRosemary Bellew,DesmondBermingham,Luc-CharlesGacougnolle andRobert the specialtheme. Yoshie KagaandHye-JinPark withinUNESCO’sEducationSectorprovidedstrongguidance on for thethematicpartofReport, andhelpedfacilitatecommissionedstudies.Soo-Hyang Choi, Regional Bureauxprovidedhelpfuladviceoncountry-level activitiesandonthedraftoutline the InternationalBureauofEducationandUNESCOInstitute forLifelongLearning.UNESCO’s and UnitswithinUNESCO’sEducationSector,theInternational InstituteforEducationalPlanning, The Reportalsobenefitedconsiderablyfromtheadviceand supportofindividuals,Divisions consultation andthebackgroundpaperscanbeviewedat www.efareport.unesco.org The backgroundpapersandasummaryofdiscussionsfrom Commentsfromtheonline for theirsupportofbackgroundpapersrelatedtoearlychildhood issues. We thanktheBernardvanLeerFoundation,SaveChildren USAandUNICEFNewYork Special thankstoallthosewhopreparedbackgroundpapers,notesandboxes: to chapters2,3and6thestatisticaltables. Anuja Singh,SaïdOuldVoffal,andtheircolleaguescontributedsignificantly,particularly Scott Murray,JuanCruzPerusia,JoséPessoa,PascaleRatovondrahona,IouliaSementchouk, Michael Bruneforth,SimonEllis,NadiaGhagi,MonicaGithaiga,AlisonKennedy,AlbertMotivans, Director HendrikvanderPol,formera.i.MichaelMillward,SaidBelkachla, The EFAReportdependsgreatlyontheworkofUNESCOInstituteforStatistics. UNESCO colleagues)strengthenedthethematicpartofreport. valuable adviceandsupport.ConsultationsontheoutlineofReport(onlineamong The Report’sinternationalEditorialBoardanditschairmanIngemarGustafssonprovidedmuch of UNPrioritiesinEducation,andtheircolleaguesforsupport. for EducationAll,andMarkRichmond,ActingDirectoroftheDivisionCoordination Abhimanhyu Singh,formerDirectoroftheDivisionInternationalCoordinationandMonitoring At UNESCO,weareindebtedtoPeterSmith,AssistantDirector-GeneralforEducation, Acknowledgements ilas naaet is atnWoodhead,RobertYoudi,AigliZafeirakouandJingZhang. Williams, AnnababetteWils,Martin S. Taratukhina,MamiUmayahara,TeshomeYizengaw,AsunciónValderrama,PeterWallet,Sian Maria deBarrosMottRosemberg,RihoSakurai,HeatherSchwartz,RozaM.Sheraizina, Polyakova,FrançoiseduPouget,Fulvia Nsamenang, TeresaOsicka,StevePacker,MarinaN. Nonoyama,NinaA.Notkina,Bame Cooperation andChildDevelopment,India;Yuko Henry M.Levin,EdilbertoLoaiza,HughMcLean,RobertMyers,NationalInstituteofPublic Development, ZeenatJanmohammed,MatthewJukes,HaniyaKamel,SheilaB.Kamerman, Gupta, YoussefHajjar,SelimIltus,IndianNationalInstituteofPublicCooperationandChild Four,NicoleGeneix,Anuradha Judith Evans,HilaryFabian,CelsoLuisAsensioFlorez,Basma Dorabawila, Aline-WendyDunlop,AnaPatriciaElvir,MartaEncinas-Martin,PatriceEngle, DeStefano,Tamara Derek Charles,MaysounChehab,CarlCorter,AntonDeGrauwe,Joseph A. RaeBlumberg,MihailI.Borovkov,RoyCarr-Hill,BidemiCarrol,Anne-MarieChartier,Leon Bitoun, Arieh,PaulBennel,TatyanaA.Berezina,JaneBertrand,GhanemBibi,Corinne Ben Massimo Amadio,FenydelosAngelesBautista,CarolineArnold,CliveBelfield,Asher ii / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS / iii

data, as well as to George Ingram and his colleagues in the Education Policy and Data Center at the Academy for Educational Development.

A number of individuals also contributed valuable advice and comments. These were: Frances Aboud, Carlos Aggio, Albert Kwame Akyeampong, Caroline Arnold, Kathy Bartlett, Ellen Buchwalter, Charlotte Cole, Patrice Engle, Stella Etse, Gabi Fujimoto, Deepak Grover, Joshie Kaga, Sarah Klaus, Robert Knezevic, Leslie Limage, Joan Lombardi, Lisa Long, Robert Myers, Pauline Rose, Sheldon Schaeffer, Nurper Ulkuer, Emily Vargas-Barón, Jeannette Vogelaar, Jim Wile, Diane Wroge, Minja Yang, Akemi Yonemura and Mary Eming Young.

Throughout the research and drafting process, we benefited from the expertise of the members of the Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development, led by co-chairs Chanel Croker and Louise Zimanyi.

We offer thanks to Stephen Few for his help in streamlining our data-graphics and visual displays of information. Ratko Jancovic and Anais Loizillon assisted with analysis and preparation of graphs and tables.

Special thanks to Lene Buchert, Judith Evans and Steve Packer for their valuable comments on draft chapters.

The production of the Report benefited greatly from the editorial expertise of Rebecca Brite. Wenda McNevin also provided valuable support. We would also like to thank Sue Williams, Enzo Fazzino and Agnes Bardon from the Bureau of Public Information; Anne Muller, Lotfi Ben Khelifa, Fouzia Jouot-Bellami, Judith Roca and their colleagues in the UNESCO Education Documentation Centre, to Chakir Piro, and to Thierry Guednée and Eve-Marie Trastour in the Clearing House Unit for their valuable support and assistance, as well as Richard Cadiou, Fabienne Kouadio and Igor Nuk who facilitated the on-line consultation.

The EFA Global Monitoring Report Team Director Nicholas Burnett Nicole Bella, Aaron Benavot, Fadila Caillaud, Vittoria Cavicchioni, Alison Clayson, Valérie Djioze, Ana Font-Giner, Catherine Ginisty, Cynthia Guttman, Elizabeth Heen, Keith Hinchliffe, François Leclercq, Delphine Nsengimana, Banday Nzomini, Ulrika Peppler Barry, Paula Razquin, Isabelle Reullon, Yusuf Sayed Alison Kennedy, (UNESCO Institute for Statistics), Michelle J. Neuman (Special Advisor on Early Childhood Care and Education)

For more information about the Report, Previous EFA Global Monitoring Reports please contact: 2006. LITERACY FOR LIFE The Director 2005. Education for All – THE QUALITY IMPERATIVE EFA Global Monitoring Report Team 2003/4. Gender and Education for All – THE LEAP TO EQUALITY c/o UNESCO 2002. Education for All – IS THE WORLD ON TRACK? 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France e-mail: [email protected] Tel.: +33 1 45 68 21 28 Fax: +33 1 45 68 56 27 www.efareport.unesco.org Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Contents Chapter 4 Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Chapter 1 iv P P ART / CONTENTS ART I M II. I. Conclusion $11 billionayear isneeded Global EFA coordination: therole of UNESCO Scaling upaidfor education Streamlining aidto education What’s new inaidto education since Dakar? Conclusion Developing sound education plans Tackling exclusion: promising policies andprogrammes Overall progress towards education for all Literacy: thechallengeremains Learning andlife–skills programmes Education quality must accompany expansion Tertiary education: enrolments upbutaccess still limited Secondary education: continuing momentum Primary education: advancing inenrolment A powerful boost to education anddevelopment ECCE: arightinitself ECCE: aconceptual framework New monitoring features Comprehensiveness, equity andaction Overview The sixgoals:how are we doing? Learning beginsatbirth APPROACH COMPREHENSIVE A Highlights of theEFA Report 2007 List of figures, tables andtext boxes Acknowledgements Foreword making better use of more aid International support: from country experience Tackling exclusion: lessons Expectations andpromises Reaching theunreached: whatdogovernment plans say? Pre-primary education: spreading, butvery slowly Learning beginsatbirth ONITORING . . . . . EFA ...... 103 102 100 98 94 86 86 82 76 69 68 62 58 56 47 45 41 24 20 17 16 14 13 12 12 11 6 1 vi ii i 85 66 19 CONTENTS / v

P ART III. EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION

Chapter 5 The compelling case for ECCE ...... 105 Early childhood in a changing world ...... 106 Guaranteeing the intrinsic rights of young children ...... 106 Early childhood: a sensitive period ...... 108 Early childhood programmes can enhance development ...... 109 Investing in early childhood pays off ...... 112 Early intervention can reduce inequalities ...... 113 Conclusion ...... 114

Chapter 6 Worldwide progress in early childhood care and education ...... 117 Households, children and early childhood provision ...... 118 Country progress towards EFA goal 1 ...... 124 Who are the child carers and pre-primary educators? ...... 145 The ECCE goal: slow but uneven progress ...... 149

Chapter 7 The making of effective programmes ...... 153 Learning from country experiences ...... 154 The many meanings of early childhood ...... 154 Working with families and communities ...... 156 Centre-based early childhood programmes ...... 157 ECCE can ease the transition to primary schooling ...... 162 Conclusion ...... 165

Chapter 8 Fostering strong ECCE policies ...... 166 Why the need for national ECCE policies? ...... 168 Institutionalizing good governance ...... 171 Improving quality: regulation, accountability and staffing ...... 177 Costing and financing ECCE programmes ...... 181 Key issues in financing ECCE programmes ...... 183 Planning, participation, targeting and leadership ...... 187

P ART IV. SETTING PRIORITIES

Chapter 9 EFA: action now ...... 189 Where does the world stand? ...... 190 A nine-point agenda ...... 190

Annex ...... 195 The Education for All Development Index ...... 196 National learning assessments by region and country ...... 205 Statistical tables ...... 211 Aid tables ...... 338 Glossary ...... 347 References ...... 354 Abbreviations ...... 374 Index ...... 377 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Figures List of figures, tables andtext boxes vi / CONTENTS .0 Mathematicsachievement scores of grade 6pupilsinrelation to socio-economic status, SACMEQ II(2000–2002) 2.20: .8 The EDIin2004 andchangesince 2003 2.28: .5 Core features of learningandlife skillsprogrammes 2.25: .6 Changesinadultliteracy (age 15+)between 1990and2000–2004 incountries withmore than10millionilliterates 2.26: .3 Percentage of primaryteaching staff having theminimumacademicqualification,2004 2.23: .2 Changesinthepercentage of trained primaryteachers between 1999and2004 2.22: .4 Annualpercentage increase innumbers of primaryteachers required to reach UPE 2.24: .7 Estimated adultliteracy rates (age 15+)for 1990and2000-2004 andprojections andtargets for 2015 2.27: .0 Proportion of out-of-school amongprimary-school-age children ineighty countries, by category 2.10: .8 Genderdisparitiesinsecondary gross enrolment ratios by level, 2004 2.18: .9 Changesintertiary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 2.19: Secondary gross enrolment ratios by level andregion, 2004 2.16: .1 Percentage of female teachers inprimary, secondary andtertiary education,regional medians, 2004 2.21: .4 Changesingenderdisparitiesprimary educationgr 2.14: .5 Transition rates from primaryto general secondary education,medianvalues andregional variations, 2003 2.15: .3 Primaryschooldropouts by background characteristics 2.13: .2 Survival rates to lastgrade andprimaryeducationcohort completion rates for selected countries, 2003 2.12: .7 Changeinsecondary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 2.17: .1 Gross intake rates to thelastgrade of primaryeducationby region, 2004 2.11: .:Distributionof out-of-school children by exposure to schoolandby region, 2004 2.8: .:Changesinprimarynetenrolment ratios between 1999and2004 2.6: .:Comparison of gross andnetenrolment ratios inprimaryeducation,2004 2.5: .:Comparison of changesinspendingonprimaryandse 3.6: .:Comparison of gross andnetintake rates inprimaryeducation,2004 2.4: .:Basiceducationasashare of total spendingoneducationinselected countries 3.5: .:Changesingenderdisparitiespre-primary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004, by region 2.3: .:Priority given to educationinpublicspendingby United Republic of Tanzania, 1995/96–2004/05 3.4: .:Changeinpublicexpenditure oneducationinselected countries andchangeinGER 3.3: .:Distributionof out-of-school children incountries facing the 2.9: .:Pre-primary gross enrolment ratios in2004 andchangessince 1999incountries withGERs below 30% 2.2: .:Total publicexpenditure oneducationasashare of GNP 3.2: .:Developing countries withover 500,000 out-of-school children, 2004 2.7: .:Changesinpre-primary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004, by region 2.1: .:Countries spendinglessthan3% of GNPoneducation, 2004 3.1: in selected countries, 2004–2015 in primaryeducationbetween 1999and2004 . . . . oss enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 condary educationinselected countries since 1999 . . . . greatest challenges, by exposure to school,2004 ...... 80 79 78 78 77 77 65 61 60 57 55 54 53 53 51 48 46 42 42 41 40 38 37 37 33 32 32 30 28 27 25 22 21 20 CONTENTS / vii

4.1: Total ODA, 1990–2004 (net disbursements in constant 2003 US$ billions) ...... 87

4.2: Distribution of total ODA disbursements by income group, 1990–2004 ...... 87

4.3: Distribution of total ODA disbursements, selected regions, 2000 and 2004 (constant 2003 US$ billions) ...... 87

4.4: Total ODA disbursements by type, 2000 and 2004 ...... 88

4.5: Distribution of aid commitments to education by income group, 1999–2004 ...... 88

4.6: Share of education in total sector-allocable aid commitments, 1999–2004 ...... 89

4.7: Distribution of aid commitments to basic education by income group, 1999–2004 ...... 89 4.8: Share of technical cooperation in aid commitments to education and basic education, 1999–2000 and 2003–2004 averages ...... 89

4.9: Share of education aid across income group by donor, 2003–2004 average ...... 90

4.10: Distribution by education level of total aid to education by donor, 2003–2004 average ...... 90

4.11: Shares of aid and national spending in total expenditure on education, 2004 ...... 95

4.12: Shares of aid and national spending in total expenditure on basic education, 2004 ...... 95

6.1: Average hours per week of pre-primary and other ECCE programmes by region, c. 2005 ...... 131 6.2: Regional trends in pre-primary gross enrolment ratios, showing a strong increase in Latin America and the Caribbean ...... 134 6.3: Changes in pre-primary GERs between 1990/91 and 2003/04 in eighty-one countries: coverage increased in four-fifths ...... 134

6.4: The inverse relationship between the pupil/teacher ratio in 1999 and the net enrolment ratio in 2004 ...... 135

6.5: Pre-primary net enrolment ratios for children aged 3 to 6 in transition countries, 1989 to 2003 ...... 136 6.6: Net attendance rates for ages 3 and 4 in organized care and learning programmes, showing higher participation for 4-year-olds, c. 2000 ...... 138 6.7: Net attendance rates for ages 5 and 6 in ECCE programmes, showing significant cross-national variation, c. 2000 ...... 139

6.8: Age-specific enrolment ratios for ages 3 to 7 in pre-primary and primary education, 2004 ...... 140

6.9: Gender disparities in attendance rates for ages 3 and 4 in care and learning programmes, 1999-2003 ...... 142

6.10: Urban-rural attendance disparities for ages 3 and 4 in care and learning programmes, 1999-2003 ...... 142

6.11: Household wealth disparities in attendance rates for ages 3 and 4 in care and learning programmes, 1999-2003 ...... 143 6.12: Disparities in attendance rates for ages 3 and 4 in organized care and learning programmes based on possession of a birth certificate, 1999-2003 ...... 144

6.13: Percentage of trained pre-primary and primary school teachers by region, 2004 ...... 147 6.14: Average starting and ending salaries for pre-primary teachers with minimum qualifications as a factor of GDP per capita in selected countries, 2002-2003 ...... 150

6.15: Total annual number of teaching hours for pre-primary and primary teachers in selected countries, 2002-2003 ...... 150

8.1: Share of pre-primary education in total current public spending on education, 2004 ...... 182

8.2: Examples of funding sources and financing mechanisms for ECCE ...... 184 8.3: Aid to early childhood education, 1999-2004 annual average, by country income groups (2003 constant US$ millions) ...... 186 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Tables viii .0 Numbers of out-of-school children inselected countries in1999, 2002 and2004 (thousands) 2.10: .8 Estimated literacy rates andnumbers of illiterates amongyoung adults 2.18: .9 Distributionof countries by EDIvalues, by region, 2004 2.19: Estimated numbers of adultilliterates (age 15+)in1990and2000–20041, andprojections to 2015, by region 2.16: .4 Countries classifiedaccording to 2.14: .5 Distributionof countries by pupil/teacher ratios atprimarylevel by region, 2004 2.15: .3 Changesingenderdisparitiesprimaryeducationby region between 1999and2004 2.13: .2 Changesinpercentage of primaryschoolrepeaters between 1999and2004 inrelation to nationaltargets 2.12: .7 Estimated adultliteracy rates (age 15+)in1990and2000–20041, andprojections to 2015, by region 2.17: .1 Percentages of children whohave never attended school,by background characteristics, 2.11: / CONTENTS .:Aidfor educationandbasicasshare of total aidandsector aidinseventy-nine countries, 4.6: .:Numberof bilateral donors to educationintheseventy-two poorest recipient countries 4.5: .:Twenty countries receiving thehighesttotal amountsof aidfor education,2003–2004 average 4.4: .:Estimated numbers of children outof school,1999–2004 (thousands) 2.8: .:Multilateral ODA: commitments of majordonors to education,2003–2004 average 4.3: .:Percentage of new entrants to grade 1whoare atleasttwo years over age, 2.6: .:Numberof new entrants into grade 1andpercentage increase between 1999and2004 2.5: .:Shares of donors inbilateral aidcommitments to educationandbasiceducation,2003–2004 average 4.2: .:Changesingenderdisparities pre-primary GERs between 1999and2004 incountries 2.4: .:Current andtarget pre-primary enrolment ratios 2.3: .:Unqualifiedprimary schoolteachers by location(percentage, rounded) 3.3: .:Estimated numbers of out-of-school children by genderandregion, 1999and2004 2.9: .:Changesinpre-primary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 incountries withGERs above 30% in2004 2.2: .:Tuition andothercosts to householdsfor educationinMalawi (2002), Nigeria(2004), 3.2: .:Donors supportingtheEthiopian educationsystem by subsector andtype of aid,2004/05 to 2009/10 4.7: .:Enrolment inprimaryeducationfor schoolyears endingin1999and2004, by region 2.7: .:Estimates of total ODA commitments for educationandbasicby income group, 4.1: .:Pre-primary enrolment in1999and2004, by region 2.1: .:Somepoliciesto tackle exclusion 3.1: in selected countries of sub-Saharan Africa (aged 15–24) in1990and2000–20041, by region 2000 and2004 (constant 2003 US$billions) in eightsub-Saharan African countries 2003-2004 regional averages by background characteristics, ineightAfrican countries Uganda (2001) andZambia (2002) with GPIsbelow 0.97 orabove 1.03 in2004 . theirexperience withpupillearningassessments ...... for selected countries withenrolment ratios below 30% ...... 96 93 93 93 92 90 89 81 70 69 64 62 59 59 52 49 39 36 34 31 29 28 26 26 24 23 22 21 20 CONTENTS / ix

6.1: Change in population aged 0 to 5 since 1970 with projections to 2020 and regional distribution ...... 119

6.2: The share of children aged 0 to 5 in the total population worldwide and by region, 1970–2020 ...... 119

6.3: Maternity leave policies in developing and transition countries, by region, 1999–2002 ...... 125

6.4: Prevalence of ECCE programmes for children less than 3 years old by region, c. 2005 ...... 126

6.5: Selected indicators of children’s health and nutrition by region, 1996-2004 ...... 128

6.6: Official starting age for pre-primary education by region, 2004 ...... 129

6.7: Duration of pre-primary education systems by official entry age, 2004 ...... 129

6.8: The thirty countries with laws making pre-primary education compulsory ...... 130 6.9: Countries having pre-primary net enrolment ratios of at least 90% without compulsory pre-primary attendance laws ...... 131

6.10: Countries classified according to the share of private pre-primary enrolment, 2004 ...... 132

6.11: Total enrolment in pre-primary education by region, 1970/71–2003/04 (millions) ...... 133

6.12: Results of multivariate analyses of ECCE participation by 3- and 4-year-olds ...... 143

6.13: Parental involvement in ECCE programmes ...... 145 6.14: Academic qualifications required of pre-primary teachers in selected countries and comparison with primary teachers, 2000–2005 ...... 146

8.1: ECCE policy exemplars in six developing countries ...... 172

8.2: International instruments for assessing ECCE quality ...... 179

8.3: A sample standard from the Going Global project: language and literacy development ...... 180

8.4: Aid to early childhood education is less than aid to primary education ...... 187

9.1: EFA progress since Dakar ...... 191

Text boxes

2.1: In India, an independent survey profiles out-of-school children ...... 34

2.2: Subnational disparities in school retention in Africa: who are the children who drop out of school? ...... 38

2.3: What does it take to be a teacher? A comparative perspective ...... 54

2.4: Patterns of teacher absenteeism in six developing countries ...... 56

2.5: Ethiopia’s first efforts to monitor provision and participation ...... 57

2.6: What is a literate environment? ...... 62

3.1: Marginalized children in Ethiopia, India, Nigeria and Pakistan ...... 68

3.2: Stipends and scholarships increase education access for girls ...... 71

3.3: Bursaries for orphans and vulnerable children: the Swaziland experience ...... 72

3.4: Tackling child labour in Andra Pradesh: the Baljyothi programme ...... 73 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 x / CONTENTS .:Teacher educationreform to strengthen progressive kindergarten practices inChina 8.6: .:The Early ChildhoodDevelopment Virtual University: work andstudy 8.5: .:Astandards-based approach to monitoring earlylearning 8.4: .:Resource centres enrichMadrasa pre-schools inEast Africa 8.3: .:Salariesandteaching hours of pre-primary teachers 6.4: .:The childcare workforce insixEUcountries 6.3: .:Streamlining ECCE policyinJamaica 8.2: .:InSouthAfrica, subsidiesto private schoolscanincrease access for thepoor 3.8: .:Background information onthethree householdsurveys 6.2: .:Economic returns of ECCE programmes intheUnited States 5.3: .:Education financingandtheremoval of schoolfees: theTanzanian experience 3.6: .:Mainstreaming children withdisabilities:Uruguay’s example 3.5: .:HIV/AIDS’s toll onyoung children 5.2: .:Packaging of services to aidIndia’s vulnerable children 8.7: .:Usingtelevision to promote schoolreadiness around theworld 7.8: .:Chile’s first steps towards mainstreaming children withspecialneeds 7.6: .:InSweden, government drives theeffort for genderequality inearlychildhood 7.5: .:Supportinggrassroots efforts: languagenestsinPapua New Guinea 7.4: .:ECCE intraditional societies:theLoipi pr 7.3: .:Hogares Comunitarios: mothers opentheirhomesinColombia 7.2: .:Incentives for rural teachers: whatworks 3.7: .:ChildFriendly Spaces: havens for mothers andchildren inemergencies 7.7: .:Consultative Group onEarly ChildhoodCare andDevelopment 8.1: .:Towards aglobaldatabase of nationalECCE profiles 6.1: .:Monitoring progress inchildren’s rights:Ghana’s example 5.1: .:Augmenting andimproving data onECCE 9.1: 7.1: Supporting new Supporting parents: theCommunity Mothers Programme inDublin 7.1: . . ogramme for pastoralists inKenya ...... 193 185 181 181 180 177 175 169 165 163 162 161 159 157 157 156 149 148 137 124 112 110 108 82 81 78 76 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE EFA REPORT 2007 / 1 Highlights of the EFA Report 2007

Time is running out to meet the EFA goals set in 2000. Despite continued overall global progress at the primary level, including for girls, too many children are not in school, drop out early or do not reach minimal learning standards. By neglecting the connections among early childhood, primary and secondary education and adult literacy, countries are missing opportunities to improve basic education across the board — and, in the process, the prospects of children, youth and adults everywhere.

Progress three-quarters of these children, although the latter region halved its number between 1999 and towards 2004, mainly due to reductions in India. The global estimate, high though it is, understates the the goals problem: data from household surveys show that many children enrolled in school do not attend regularly. Primary education continues to expand The children most likely to be out of school and Primary school enrolments increased fastest to drop out live in rural areas and come from the between 1999 and 2004 in two of the three regions poorest households. On average, a child whose furthest from universal primary education: they mother has no education is twice as likely to be grew by 27% in sub-Saharan Africa and by 19% in out of school as one whose mother has some South and West Asia, but by only 6% in the Arab education. States (see Figure A). The world net enrolment ratio stands at 86%. While grade 1 enrolments rose sharply, too many children who start school still Figure A: Net enrolment ratios in primary education, 1999-2004 do not reach the last primary grade: fewer than 83% in half the countries of Latin America and the 1999 2004 (increase since 1999) 2004 (decrease since 1999) Caribbean with data available, fewer than two-thirds Sub-Saharan Africa in half the countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Arab States Caribbean South/West Asia Out-of-school children: Pacific how many and who are they? Centr./East. Europe Central Asia Progress is being made in reducing the number East Asia of primary school-age children who are not enrolled Latin America in school. Between 1999 and 2004 the number fell N. America/W. Europe by around 21 million to 77 million. This is still very 50 60 70 80 90 100 high, unacceptably so. Sub-Saharan Africa and Net enrolment ratios in primary (%) South and West Asia are home to more than Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 and adultsgetasecondchanceateducation. those affectedbyHIV/AIDS,andensuringthatyouth education opportunitiesfordisabledchildrenand teaching inchildren’smothertongue,offering rural householdstoreducerelianceonchildlabour, school fees,providingincomesupporttopoorand Among measurestofosterinclusion:abolishing relevance ofeducation. excluded andimprovethequality,flexibility in implementingpoliciesthatreachouttothe addition tothosewhodropout.Thisisthefirststep of childrenmostlikelynevertoenrolinschool, Governments urgentlyneedtoidentifythegroups to tackle exclusion Government policies because theyreduce theincentivetocomplete achievement of universalprimaryeducation Low numbersofsecondaryplaces slowthe (51%) andtheArabStates(66%). in sub-SaharanAfrica(30%), South andWestAsia rose inalldevelopingregions butremainlow is risingdramatically.Grossenrolmentratios The pressuretoexpandsecondaryeducation demand andnotenoughplaces Secondary education: growing retaining teachers,particularlyindifficultcontexts. areas, areeffectivestrategiesforrecruitingand incentives forteacherstoworkinremoteandrural practice andprofessionaldevelopment, Shorter pre-servicetrainingwithmoreon-the-job developing countries. absenteeism isalsoaseriousprobleminmany attract girlstoschoolandretainthem.Teacher West Asia,therearetoofewwomenteachersto millionteachers.InthisregionandinSouth 4 Africa needstorecruitbetween2.4millionand teachers toreachtheEFAgoals.Sub-Saharan There arenotenoughqualifiedandmotivated training andworking conditions Improving teacher recruitment, 2 / HIGHLIGHTS OFTHEEFA REPORT 2007 competition withotherlevelsforpublicexpenditure. demand forsecondaryeducationresultsin primary school.Atthesametime,increasing differing. too often,teachers’expectationsofgirlsandboys stereotypes persistinginlearningmaterialsand, 2004. Genderequalityalsoremainsanissue,with exists inonlyfivecountriesoutof148withdata as oftenboys.Attertiarylevel,genderparity parity. Atthisleveldisparitiesareinfavourofgirls available onsecondaryeducationhaveachieved Only one-thirdofthe177countrieswithdata had grossenrolmentratiosbelow90%in2000. closed inonlyfourofthetwenty-sixcountriesthat primary educationgendergapinfavourofboyshas achieved genderparityinprimaryeducation.The with 2004dataavailable,abouttwo-thirdshave in1999.Ofthe181countries boys,upfrom92 100 There arenow94girlsinprimaryschoolforevery Gender parity: still notareality to restoresome stabilitytotheirlives. require custom-tailored educationopportunities picture. Childrenlivinginsuch circumstances be rememberedwhenconsidering theglobalEFA Their EFAsituationsremainserious andneedto are notfullyreflectedintheReport’s analyses. in conflictorpost-conflictsituations, andtherefore Data areunavailableforseveralcountries,mostly often missing from theanalysis Countries inconflict: also focusonbuildingliterateenvironments. dropped byonly100million.Governmentsmust 2015 theglobalnumberofadultilliterateswillhave efforts toexpandadultliteracyprogrammes,by (66%) andtheCaribbean(70%).Withoutconcerted (59%), sub-SaharanAfrica(61%),theArabStates Literacy ratesremainlowinSouthandWestAsia minimum literacyskills.Two-thirdsarewomen. Some 781millionadults(oneinfiveworldwide)lack Literacy: anelusive target HIGHLIGHTS OF THE EFA REPORT 2007 / 3

Early childhood Finance care and and aid education

Domestic spending What is it? on education as a share of GNP decreased between 1999 and 2004 in 41 of the 106 countries Formal definitions of ECCE vary. This Report with data, though it increased in most of the others. adopts a holistic approach: ECCE supports Public spending needs to focus on key requirements children’s survival, growth, development and for achieving EFA: teachers, adult literacy, ECCE learning – including health, nutrition and hygiene, and inclusive policies at all levels. and cognitive, social, physical and emotional development – from birth to entry into primary School fees school in formal, informal and non-formal were reduced or abolished in several more settings. countries but are still far too common, a major obstacle to the enrolment and continued ECCE programmes encompass very diverse participation of the poor in primary school. arrangements, from parenting programmes to community-based child care, centre-based Total aid to basic education in low-income provision and formal pre-primary education, countries almost doubled between 2000 and 2004 often in schools. (from US$1.8 billion to US$3.4 billion at 2003 prices), having previously declined. As a share Programmes typically aim at two age groups: of aid to the whole education sector in low-income children under 3 and those from age 3 to primary countries, however, it remained constant at 54%. school entry (usually by age 6, always by age 8). Half of all bilateral donors allocate at least half of their education aid to middle-income developing countries, and almost half allocate less than Why does it matter? one-quarter directly to basic education. ECCE is a right, recognized in the Convention The Fast Track Initiative provides an on the Rights of the Child, which has won important coordinating mechanism for donor near-universal ratification. agencies but has not yet led to a global compact for achieving universal primary education. ECCE can improve the well-being of young Since 2002, disbursements have totalled only children, especially in the developing world, US$96 million and so far have only reached where a child has a four in ten chance of living in eleven countries, though donors have increased extreme poverty and 10.5 million children a year their pledges significantly over the past year. die from preventable diseases before age 5.

Funding gap: External funding requirements Early childhood is a time of remarkable brain for EFA, including some provision for adult literacy development that lays the foundation for later and ECCE, are now estimated at US$11 billion a learning. year, over three times the current level and twice what recently promised increases in overall aid ECCE contributes to the other EFA goals are likely to bring by 2010. (e.g. it improves performance in the first years of primary school) and to the Millennium Development Goals, especially the overarching goal of reducing poverty, as well as the education and health goals. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Figure B:Gross enrolment ratios inpre-primary education,2004 N. America/W. Europe South andWest Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Centr./East. Europe Latin America Arab States Central Asia What isthesituation? Caribbean East Asia Pacific SeFgr B). (See Figure the ArabStatesandsub-SaharanAfrica far behindcomeEastAsia,SouthandWest the highestpre-primarygrossenrolmentratios; America, theCaribbeanandPacifichave Among developingcountryregions,Latin of freepre-primaryeducation. Most OECDcountrieshaveatleasttwoyears most ofthedevelopingworld. since 1970,thoughcoverageremainsverylowin Enrolment inpre-primaryeducationhastripled programmes forchildrenunder3. Almost halftheworld’scountrieshavenoformal The youngestchildrenhavebeenneglected. although enforcementvaries. sort offormallyestablishedmaternityleave, About 80%ofdevelopingcountrieshavesome especially forchildrenfrompoorfamilies. returns, offsettingdisadvantageandinequality, Investment inECCEyieldsveryhigheconomic mothers. support forworkingparents,particularly Affordable, reliablechildcareprovidesessential older. to compensatefordisadvantageastheygrow measures andsupportforchildrenearlyonthan It ismorecost-effectivetoinstitutepreventive 04 08 0 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 4 / HIGHLIGHTS OFTHEEFA REPORT 2007 12.4 15.7 Gross enrolmentratiosinpre-primary, 2004(%) 26.9 32.4 39.7 57.5 60.8 71.9 78.5 101.0 and overhalfallocatelessthan2%. 10% ofwhattheygiveforprimaryeducation, Almost allallocatetopre-primarylessthan ECCE isnotapriorityformostdonoragencies. coverage, qualityandnatureofprovision. developing scenariosthatdifferintermsof estimate thecostofreachinggoalby national expenditureonECCE.Countriescan a lackofdatamakeitdifficulttocalculatetotal broad mixofpublicandprivateproviders pre-primary educationintheirspending.The Governments accordrelativelylowpriorityto and areoftenrelativelypoorlyremunerated. have minimaleducationandpre-servicetraining, ECCE staffindevelopingcountriestypically are theleastlikelytobeenrolled. malnutrition andpreventablediseases– programmes –thosemostexposedto The childrenmostlikelytobenefitfromECCE from richerandurbanhouseholds. significantly lessaccesstoECCEthanthose excluded (e.g.lackingbirthcertificates)have poorer andruralhouseholdsthosesocially With afewnotableexceptions,childrenfrom There arelargedisparitieswithincountries. pre-primary education. Most regionsareneargenderparityin East Asia. Africa, theArabStates,Caribbeanand The privatesectorisprominentinsub-Saharan is bythepublicsector. and inLatinAmerica,mostECCEprovision Among developedandtransitioncountries, still laginCentralAsia. recovering inCentralandEasternEuropebut enrolments intransitioncountriesareslowly After sharpdeclinesinthe1990s,pre-primary HIGHLIGHTS OF THE EFA REPORT 2007 / 5

What programmes work? Well-enforced national quality standards covering public and private provision for all age groups. An approach that combines nutrition, health, care and education is more effective in improving Stronger and more partnerships between young children’s current welfare and their government and the private sector, an important development than limiting interventions to ECCE stakeholder in many regions. one aspect. Upgrading of ECCE staff, particularly through Inclusive programmes build on traditional child flexible recruitment strategies, appropriate care practices, respect children’s linguistic and training, quality standards and remuneration that cultural diversity, and mainstream children with retains trained staff. special educational needs and disabilities. Increased and better-targeted public funding of Mother tongue programmes are more effective ECCE, with particular attention to poor children, than those in the official language, which remain children living in rural areas and those with the norm around the world. disabilities.

Well-designed programmes can challenge The specific inclusion of ECCE in key government gender stereotypes. resource documents, such as national budgets, sector plans and Poverty Reduction Strategy The single most important determinant of ECCE Papers. quality is interaction between children and staff, with a focus on the needs of the child. This More attention – and more funding – from donor requires reasonable working conditions, such as agencies. low child/staff ratios and adequate materials.

Continuity in staffing, curriculum and parental involvement ease the transition to primary school. Quality improvements in the early years of schooling are needed to better accommodate young children from diverse backgrounds and experiences.

What would it take to reach the ECCE goal?

High-level political support, an essential element.

A consultative process to develop a national ECCE policy for children from birth to age 8, specifying the administrative responsibilities and budgetary commitments across relevant sectors and levels of government.

Ongoing national and international data collection and monitoring efforts to assess needs and outcomes in meeting the EFA goals.

The designation of a lead ministry or agency for policy on young children and ECCE, and an interagency coordinating mechanism with decision-making power. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 APPROACH P Overview ART I. COMPREHENSIVE A 6 / OVERVIEW and moveECCEuptheagenda. the globalliteracychallenge, reach children,makeadent in to identifyandenrolhard-to- action isneeded,particularly urgent andcomprehensive horizon forachievingthegoals, inclusion. Witha2015time to issuesofequityand goals, givingspecialattention progress towardsallsixEFA Goals. the MillenniumDevelopment the overarchingobjectiveof powerfully toreducingpoverty, goalsandcontributes EFA that opensthewaytoall guarantee children’srights ECCE isaninstrumentto economic disadvantage. are vitaltooffsetsocialand Early childhoodprogrammes emotional well-being. development andsocio- and children’scognitive health, nutrition,hygiene approach encompassing children. Itadoptsaholistic vulnerable anddisadvantaged (ECCE), especiallyforthemost childhood careandeducation improve comprehensiveearly upon countriestoexpandand for All(EFA)goal,whichcalls the firstofsixEducation door. ThisReportfocuseson walks throughtheclassroom Learning beginsbeforeachild at birth Learning begins Chapter 1 The Reportmonitors The sixgoals:how are we doing? Chapter 2 P lessons from country experience Tackling exclusion: Chapter 3 lblEAchallenge. global EFA educational development,compoundingthecontinuing included butarelikelytosufferfromlowlevelsof many inconflictorpost-conflictsituations–arenot lowest-ranking countries.Countrieslackingdata– for 125countries,showsimprovementinmanyofthe in fiveoftheworld’sadultsstillnotliterate. Little progresshasbeenmadeonliteracy,withone only one-thirdhaveachieveditatthesecondarylevel. achieved genderparityinprimaryeducation,though level. Abouttwo-thirdsofcountrieswith2004datahave place ofresidence,genderandmother’seducation background characteristics,notablyhouseholdpoverty, million.Thechapterdetailsthesechildren’s at 77 from 1999to2004butremainedunacceptablyhigh million school agechildrenoutofdeclinedby21 America andtheCaribbean.Thenumberofprimary concerns inthoseregionsand,tosomeextent,Latin school progressionandcompletionremainmajor more modestincreasesintheArabStates.Primary sub-Saharan Africa,andinSouthWestAsia, primary education,withsharpenrolmentincreasesin considerable progresstowardsachievinguniversal ART The EducationforAllDevelopmentIndex,calculated II. M ONITORING There hasbeen with thosefor1999. latest availabledata Dakar, comparingthe EFAgoalssince six progress towardsthe This chapterreviews generally and, more extending education been effectivein programmes thathave examples ofpoliciesand This chapteroffers an inclusiveapproach. Education forAllrequires EFA OVERVIEW / 7

specifically, in identifying and overcoming the barriers basic education will be inadequate if its current share that deprive marginalized groups of the same learning in total aid and its distribution across levels and income opportunities as others. Key policies include abolishing groups are maintained, and further harmonization school fees, providing financial incentives to reduce does not occur. The share of total aid going to basic household dependence on child labour, designing education must at least double and be focused more specific measures for children affected by HIV/AIDS on low-income countries rather than on middle-income and helping schools integrate children with disabilities. ones. The Fast Track Initiative process has become Non-formal education programmes for youth and an important mechanism for donor dialogue and adults offer a second chance at learning and are most coordination. Greater efforts, however, will be needed effective when they are community-based, flexible and internationally to persuade (a) donors to increase the relevant to learners’ lives. Armed conflict – increasingly volume and predictability of aid for basic education involving child soldiers – and internal displacement and (b) governments of low-income countries to give call for urgent interventions offering basic education greater priority to basic education and to allocate services and medical and psychological care. to it a bigger share of the savings from debt relief. Countries need sound education plans to overcome exclusion and improve education quality. Adequate public spending, availability of trained and motivated teachers and the capacity to expand secondary PART III. EARLY CHILDHOOD education are three key aspects of sound plans. CARE AND EDUCATION While the overall trend in public education spending is positive (increases of more than 30% in some Chapter 5 twenty countries), spending as a percentage of GNP The compelling case for ECCE fell in forty-one countries, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean, and in South and West Asia. Many Early childhood sets countries are under increasing pressure to expand the foundations for life. secondary education. The EFA goals cannot be achieved Early childhood without recruiting and training new teachers, and programmes providing incentives for those working in difficult are important, first, conditions, especially in rural areas. to guarantee the rights of young children, enshrined in the Chapter 4 Convention on the Rights of the Child now ratified International support: by 192 countries. Second, early childhood is a highly making better use of more aid sensitive period marked by rapid transformations in physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. Basic education Undernutrition, deprivation of care and poor treatment benefited from an are particularly damaging to young children, with increase in overall repercussions often felt into the adult years. aid to education Well-designed ECCE programmes can significantly between 2000 and enhance young children’s well-being in these formative 2004. Including funds years and in the future, complementing the care they channelled as direct receive at home. Programmes that combine nutrition, budget support, aid to health, care and education have a positive impact on basic education for all low-income countries increased cognitive outcomes. Participation in ECCE also from US$1.8 billion to US$3.4 billion. Multilateral facilitates primary school enrolment and leads to donors allocated 11.8% of their total aid in 2003-2004 better results in the first years of school, especially to education, with about half of this going to basic for disadvantaged children. From an economic education. Donor presence remains uneven across the viewpoint, investment in early childhood programmes world’s poorest countries and the relative importance offers a high pay-off in terms of human capital, so donors give to education in total aid is not the same there is a strong case for public intervention. Finally, for all regions. early childhood programmes can reduce social At US$11 billion a year, the price tag for fulfilling inequality: they can compensate for vulnerability and the EFA agenda is higher than originally expected. Even disadvantage resulting from factors such as poverty, if recent promises to increase aid are met, the flows for gender, race, ethnicity, caste or religion. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 childhood care andeducation Worldwide progress inearly Chapter 6 workforce, butprogressisuneven andslow. policies toexpandandupgrade theirECCE volunteers. Manycountrieshaveimplemented untrained childcareworkersandpart-time highly trainedprofessionalsworkalongside service training.Inmostindustrializedcountries, typically possessesminimaleducationandpre- programmes thanthosefromricherandurbanones. and ruralhouseholdshavelessaccesstoECCE Africa andtheArabStates.Childrenfrompoorer the Caribbeanbutremainslowinsub-Saharan regions, coverageisgreatestinLatinAmericaand not topreviouslevels.Amongdevelopingcountry Soviet Unionbutarenowrecovering,although in transitioncountriesafterthebreakupof expanded worldwide.ECCEenrolmentsfellsharply programmes. Accesstopre-primaryeducationhas established nationalframeworkstocoordinateECCE in thefirstthreeyearsoflife.Fewcountrieshave (health, nutrition,careandeducation)ofchildren have noprogrammesaddressingthediverseneeds programmes. status ofthecarersandeducatorsinECCE characterizes thetype,compositionandprofessional disadvantaged children.Finally,thechapter primary schoolentryage,andvulnerable children underage3,thosebetween3andthe progress towardstheECCEgoalforthreegroups: historically evolved.Itthenassessescountries’ of careandeducationforyoungchildrenhas In developingcountries,theECCEworkforce Among themainfindings:manycountries 8 / OVERVIEW the provision roles –inwhich and newgender maternity benefits working women, households, more contexts –smaller the changing first examines This chapter programmes The makingof effective Chapter 7 education tofacilitate thetransitionforchildren. are integrating ECCEmorecloselywithprimary pre-primary andprimaryschool. Severalcountries it isimportanttofostercontinuity between important foundationforsubsequent education, or inarmedconflict.Because ECCEisalsoan account circumstancesofchildren withdisabilities programmes shouldbeinclusiveandtakeinto to challengetraditionalgenderroles.Finally, exposure toorganizedlearningisanopportunity still predominates.Atthesametime,thisfirst mother tongueyetteachingintheofficiallanguage well-being. Earlylearningismosteffectiveinthe most importantpredictorsofchildren’senhanced positive interactionsbetweenstaffandchildarethe age andculturalenvironment.Researchshowsthat by ensuringthatpracticesaresuitedtothechild’s It iscrucialtomakethisexperienceapositiveone for the3to6agegroup,iscentre-basedprovision. based childcare. and theirfamiliesthroughhome-orcommunity- also playakeyroleinsupportingyoungchildren raising parents’self-esteem.Localcommunities families byfavouringthechild’sdevelopmentand parents andcanbeparticularlypositiveforat-risk visiting programmesoffersupporttoindividual that aimtoreachchildrenunderage3.Home increase inthenumberofparentingprogrammes arena forcare.Thepastdecadehasseenan for theyoungestagegrouphomeisprime custodial carers,arethechild’sfirsteducators,and the transitiontoprimaryschool.Parents,orother services (notablyhealth,careandnutrition)ease The mostcommonformofECCE,particularly activities withother integrate educational earliest years, during thechild’s support toparents programmes offer however, successful No matterthesetting, childhood provision. model ofearly there isnouniversal are extremelydiverse: ECCE programmes OVERVIEW / 9

PART IV. SETTING PRIORITIES Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Fostering strong ECCE policies EFA: action now

A more favourable policy environment for ECCE is emerging, influenced by a growing body of The considerable progress made towards the EFA research on its benefits and the support of strong goals since the Dakar forum provides a measure of international networks. To help build on this just how much can be accomplished when countries momentum, several key elements contribute to and the international community act together. strengthening political will and developing national This chapter makes nine recommendations that ECCE policies. High-level political endorsement can warrant urgent policy attention: put ECCE on the agenda. In recent years, leaders 1. Return to the comprehensive approach of Dakar. in several countries have made early childhood a national priority, leading to new policies and 2. Act with urgency to enrol all children in school, increased resources. Broad stakeholder involvement expand adult literacy programmes and create encourages public support for ECCE. Government opportunities for children living in conflict and partnerships with international organizations or aid post-conflict situations. agencies can generate important seed money for 3. Emphasize equity and inclusion. projects that can then be taken to scale. Aligning ECCE policies with other national and sector 4. Increase public spending and focus it better. development policies is strategic to leverage 5. Increase aid to basic education and allocate resources. Public campaigns can promote ECCE it where it is most needed. and provide information to carers. Although national ECCE policies are country- 6. Move ECCE up domestic and international specific, they should include guidelines on agendas. governance, quality and financing questions. ECCE 7. Increase public financing for ECCE and target it. involves multiple sectors, making coordination a frequent challenge. Defining a lead administrative 8. Upgrade the ECCE workforce, especially as body and setting up coordination mechanisms with regards qualifications, training and working real decision-making power can advance the agenda conditions. for young children. Governments need to ensure 9. Improve the monitoring of ECCE. that minimum acceptable standards are met for all children, whether the provider is public or private. Policies must address all six EFA goals and stay the Expanding and improving ECCE will require course: with only nine years left to 2015, the time additional public and private funds. In many for comprehensive action is now. developing countries, targeting of resources to the most disadvantaged children may be the first step of a broader national ECCE policy for all children. Finally, donor support for ECCE has been limited; increased support is essential. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART I. A comprehensive approach

Chapter 1 Learning begins at birth

The child’s early experiences, the special focus of this year’s EFA Global Monitoring Report, create the base for all subsequent learning. Strong early childhood foundations — including good health, nutrition and a nurturing environment — can help ensure a smooth transition to primary school, a better chance of completing basic education, and a route out of poverty and disadvantage. It is therefore no coincidence that the first EFA goal calls on countries to expand and improve early childhood care and education (ECCE), especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged. ECCE is an instrument to guarantee children’s rights, opens the way to all the EFA goals and contributes powerfully to reducing poverty, the overarching objective of the Millennium Development Goals. It is high time to move ECCE up the policy agenda, in line with the comprehensive view of EFA as conceived in Dakar.

11 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 experiences in foundation for the first years subsequent create the Children’s learning edfr()acomprehensive approach(working need for(a) highlightsthe (EFA) goals(Box 1.1),thisReport analysing progressonallsix Education forAll addition toitscorefunctionof monitoringand education, healthandeconomic welfare.In of theirchildhoodsaswell theirfuture years ofchildren’slivesinshaping thequality Report services orschoolingasaresult(UNICEF,2005 registered eachyearareunabletoaccessbasic millionchildrenwhosebirthsarenot 50 labour, abuseandneglect.Finally,manyofthe of millionschildrenareviolatedbytrafficking, 80% oftheminsub-SaharanAfrica.Therights more than15millionchildrenunderage18, armed conflictsince1999.AIDShasorphaned and incountriesthathaveexperiencedmajor reached age5,mostfrompreventablediseases millionchildrendiedin2005beforethey 10.5 living onlessthanUS$1aday.Anestimated chance oflivinginextremepoverty,definedas in thedevelopingworldhasafouroutoften particularly inthepoorestcountries.Achildborn status ofyoungchildrenremainsdisturbing, vulnerable. when childrenareespeciallyfragileand human growthanddevelopment,itisalsoatime early childhoodisaperiodofgreatpotentialfor foundation forsubsequentlearning.Although life –wellbeforetheybeginschoolcreatethe Young children’sexperiencesinthefirstyearsof secure, nurturingandstimulatingenvironments. their interactionswithcaringhumanbeingsin development andlearningarefosteredthrough classroom door.Fromtheearliestage,children’s Learning beginsbeforeachildwalksthroughthe Learning beginsatbirth PART I.Acomprehensive approach 12 programmes canleadtoamoreequitablesociety. Participation ofyoungchildreninsuch support children’sdevelopmentandlearning. hygiene, stimulationandsocialinteractionthat schools ornurseries–providehealth,nutrition, home-based activitiesandkindergartens,pre- including immunization,parentingeducation, childhood careandeducationprogrammes– support inearlychildhood.Good-quality than itistoprovidepreventivemeasuresand disadvantage amongolderchildrenandadults compensate foreducationalandsocial crucial: itisfarmorechallengingandcostlyto / CHAPTER 1 Today, despiteconsiderableprogress,the This editionofthe For allthesereasonsearlyinterventionis recognizes thesignificanceofearly EFA GlobalMonitoring b ). goals ontime. urgentactioninordertoachievealltheEFA (c) attention toissuesofequityandinclusion; special early childhoodcareandeducation);(b) toward allsixgoalsandtakingabroadviewof whole, addressingtherightsof The EFAgoalswereconceivedasanindivisible equity andaction Comprehensiveness, monitoring progress ontheEFAgoalsimproves. halfway mark. overall progresstowardsall six goalsatthe will notaddressaspecialtheme butwillreview The nextReport,in2008,like thefirstin2002, (2003/4), quality(2005)andadult literacy(2006). havefeaturedgender goal. PreviousReports education (ECCE),thesubjectoffirstEFA this yearthethemeisearlychildhoodcareand general progressandaddressingaspecialtheme: monitoring date of2015.ThisisthefifthReport G8 Summit. EFA High-LevelGroupMeetingandthe2006 also stressedatthe2005WorldSummit, needed, encompassingalltheEFAgoals–aview the convictionthatacomprehensiveapproachis This Report,likeallitspredecessors,reflects 3)arenotmentioned. learning needs(EFAgoal 1)andyouthadult education (EFAgoal 4),earlychildhoodcareand literacy (EFAgoal espoused bytheDakarFramework.Further, achieving themoreambitiousgenderequality gender disparitiesineducationratherthanto and arerestrictedtoseekingtheeliminationof and compulsory’aspectsofprimaryschooling the twoeducationMDGsomitmentionof‘free ambitious thantheMDGs.Cautiouslyphrased, poverty (Box1.1).TheEFAgoalsarealsomore especially theoverarchinggoaloferadicating to theMilleniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs), counter povertyandinequality. attitudes thatenhancehumancapabilitiesand acquisition ofsustainableskills,knowledgeand education foreveryone,asaprerequisitethe attention. Thegoalsfurthercallfor disability, povertyorculture,deservespecial people whoaremarginalizedthroughlanguage, populations insituationsofconflictandcrisis,or and adults.Thus,theeducationalneedsof Each yeartheinformation availablefor The EFAgoalsweresetin2000withatarget In thiswaytheEFAgoalscontributedirectly all children, youth quality in LEARNING BEGINS AT BIRTH / 13

New monitoring features Box 1.1: The Dakar EFA goals and the Millennium Development Goals In this 2007 Report: The data provided by the UNESCO Institute Building on two United Nations instruments, the Universal for Statistics (UIS) cover more countries and Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights are more up to date, including for the school of the Child, the international community adopted the World year that ended in 2004. Declaration on Education for All at Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. A major problem with data availability for some At its heart is the recognition that universal education is the key countries persists, however, often because of to sustainable development, social justice and a brighter future. recent or current armed conflict. This means The 2000 Dakar Framework for Action expresses the the EFA situation in these countries is unlikely international community’s commitment to a broad-based to be improving, but the lack of data makes strategy for ensuring that the basic learning needs of every it impossible to include them in the Report’s child, youth and adult are met within a generation and statistical analyses. sustained thereafter. It sets the six EFA goals: Greater use is made of other sources of data, 1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood particularly household surveys, to look in detail care and education, especially for the most vulnerable at educational coverage across regions, in and disadvantaged children. terms of rural or urban location, household 2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children spending on education and, especially, in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic participation in ECCE programmes and the minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory characteristics of children who are out of primary education of good quality. school. For ECCE, UNESCO’s International 3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and Bureau of Education (IBE), together with adults are met through equitable access to appropriate UNICEF, has established a database of country learning and life-skills programmes. profiles especially for this Report, which may 4. Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult be consulted on the Report website literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access (www.efareport.unesco.org). to basic and continuing education for all adults. National learning assessments are examined, 5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary supplementing previous Reports’ attention to education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in regional and international ones. education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and Coverage of secondary education is deepened equal access to and achievement in basic education of good by distinguishing for the first time between quality. lower and upper secondary education. As 6. Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring countries become increasingly committed excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning to universal basic education, they are also outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy extending their definitions of it to include two and essential life skills. or three years of the secondary cycle. Indeed, it is increasingly clear that the availability of The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), approved by lower secondary school places is an important world leaders at the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000, determinant of primary completion. Secondary form an agenda for reducing poverty and improving lives. education is also important for EFA because in For each goal, one or more targets have been set, most for 2015. The first goal cannot be achieved without education, many countries it is the minimum qualification and two other goals and two targets make explicit reference for primary teachers. Finally, as the fastest to education: growing level in developing countries, secondary education is increasingly in direct Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. competition with primary education for public Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education. (Target: ensure funding. that by 2015 children everywhere, boys and girls, will be able Analysis of aid flows for education in general to complete a full course of good quality primary schooling.) and EFA in particular is extended with improved Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower women. data from the OECD Development Assistance (Target: eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary Committee (DAC) and by taking a closer look education, preferably by 2005, and at all levels of education at relationships between donors and recipient no later than 2015.)

governments, as well as attempting, with Sources: UNESCO (2000a); United Nations (2001a). limited success, to review aid flows for ECCE. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 to occurlaterthanage 8. nowhere isitsupposed as earlyage4,but primary schoolmayoccur 2. Children’stransitionto Report. beyond thescopeofthis and childhealth,itis as importantformaternal period isoftenincluded 1. Althoughtheprenatal the goals, very little timefor for achieving action isleft With a2015 target date assessing their characteristicsandtheobstacles first, identifying allhard-to-reachchildrenand than threeyearsaway.Twosteps areneeded: that yearwillhavetobeenrolled by2009,less children oftheagetocomplete primaryschool To achieveUPEinthesecountries by2015,all countries haveasix-yearprimary schoolcycle. very littletimeforactionisleft.Amajorityof With a2015targetdateforachievingthegoals, The needfor urgent action disadvantage. particularly effectiveinstrumentforoffsetting in mostdevelopingcountries,yetECCEisa particular, isshowntobehighlyinequitable teachers. AccesstoECCEprogrammes,in reduction, andthehiringtrainingofmore and illiterateadultsthroughsuchactionsasfee to includethehardest-to-reachchildren,youth financial implicationsforgovernmentsoftrying and promoteinclusion.Italsounderlinesthe and describingspecificeffortstoreduceinequities at childrenwhoarenotattendingprimaryschool examples ofsuchvariations,takingacloserlook provides of childrenandyoungadults.ThisReport hide widevariationsamongparticulargroups to achievetheEFAgoals. facts arepowerfulreasonsforreinforcingefforts and theopportunitytoescapepoverty.These if notthemajor,determinantoflifechances development. Educationalattainmentisone, in forchildren,adultsandsocialeconomic face, andthesetbacksthesegapscanresult inequities inopportunitiesthatvariousgroups Report World Bank(2005 The latest Addressing disadvantage andinclusion Two aspectsofEFAremainverydifficulttomonitor: PART I.Acomprehensive approach 14 extending theEFAprogressachievedsofar. commitment holdthekeytosustainingand unfortunate, asadequatefinancesandstrong weakest elementofEFAmonitoring.Thisis sub-Saharan Africa,butthisremainsthe is workingtoimprovethedata,startingwith national expenditureremainspatchy.TheUIS National spendingoneducation.Reporting of whatcountriesareactuallydoing. monitored infuture,usingempiricalstudies suggests howprogressinthisareamightbe Interpretations varyenormously,buttheReport Goal 3onlearningneedsofyouthandadults. / CHAPTER 1 Aggregate measuresofeducationcoverage from UNDP(2005)bothhighlightthe World DevelopmentReport d ) and Human Development from the ensure thatthenecessaryfinancingisinplace. goalsasinterrelatedpartsofawholeandto six a comprehensiveviewofEFAthatrecognizesall of internationalandnationalagendas,tomaintain vigilance tokeeptheEFAgoalsatforefront The internationalcommunitythusneedsextra of educationinfuellingtheknowledgeeconomy. economic growthandtheroleofupperlevels donors arestartingtofocusmoreattentionon necessary becausemanygovernmentsand the Report. Gender issuesarearecurringthemethroughout has alreadybeenmissed,isequallyurgent. secondary education,whosetargetdateof2005 gender goal,endingdisparitiesinprimaryand implementation. Addressingthefirstpartof both domesticandexternal,neededfor obtaining andallocatingthefinancialresources, strategies andpoliciestoreachthem, to theirattendingschool;andsecond,devising expected tobe inprimaryschool. By age8,allchildren aroundtheworldare and strengthenbondswithfamily andcommunity. their senseofpersonalandphysical security, children receivingemotional support develop trial anderror.Alsoduringthe earlyyears the worldaroundthemandexperimenting, using by manipulatingobjectsandmaterials,exploring learning. Duringthistime,youngchildrenlearn development thatlaysthefoundationforlater The earlyyearsareatimeofremarkablebrain childhood coverstheperiodfrombirthtoage8. increasingly recognizedconventionthatearly followsthe For monitoringpurposes,thisReport important toacknowledgeandvaluethisdiversity. Nsamenang, 2006;Woodhead,2006).Itis of primaryschooling(Dahlbergetal.,1999; cultures, familystructuresandtheorganization childhood monitor thansomeoftheotherEFAgoals. quantitative target,makesitmoredifficultto intersectoral natureandtheabsenceofa children. Thegoal’scomplexity,alongwithits education, andvulnerabledisadvantaged variously interpreted:earlychildhood,care, education –includesseveralconceptsthatare comprehensive earlychildhoodcareand The firstEFAgoal–expandingandimproving ECCE: aconceptual framework A senseofurgencyaboutEFAisparticularly Understandings ofandapproachesto vary dependingonlocaltraditions, 2 early 1 LEARNING BEGINS AT BIRTH / 15

Guided by the Expanded Commentary on Box 1.2: Comment on EFA goal 1 the Dakar Framework for Action on EFA goal 1 (Box 1.2), this Report focuses on both the care ‘All young children must be nurtured in safe and and the education of young children. The term caring environments that allow them to become ‘care’ generally includes attention to health, healthy, alert and secure and be able to learn. The hygiene and nutrition within a nurturing and safe past decade has provided more evidence that good environment that supports children’s cognitive quality early childhood care and education, both and socio-emotional well-being. Use of the term in families and in more structured programmes, ‘education’ in the early childhood years is much have a positive impact on the survival, growth, development and learning potential of children. broader than (pre-)schooling, capturing learning Such programmes should be comprehensive, through early stimulation, guidance and a range focusing on all of the child’s needs and of developmental activities and opportunities. In encompassing health, nutrition and hygiene as well practice, care and education cannot be separated, as cognitive and psycho-social development. They and good-quality provision for young children should be provided in the child’s mother tongue and necessarily addresses both dimensions (Choi, help to identify and enrich the care and education 2002; Myers, 1995; OECD, 2001).3 In this respect, of children with special needs. Partnerships between governments, NGOs, communities and care and education are parts of a whole: both are families can help ensure the provision of good care needed to foster holistic growth, development and and education for children, especially for those learning, as the Dakar Framework states. most disadvantaged, through activities centred on the child, focused on the family, based within Defining ECCE the community and supported by national, multi- Drawing on this holistic approach, the Report sectoral policies and adequate resources. uses the following definition: ‘Governments … have the primary responsibility Early childhood care and education supports of formulating early childhood care and education children’s survival growth, development and policies within the context of national EFA plans, learning – including health, nutrition and hygiene, mobilizing political and popular support, and and cognitive, social, physical and emotional promoting flexible, adaptable programmes for development – from birth to entry into primary young children that are appropriate to their age school4 in formal, informal and non-formal and not mere downward extensions of formal settings. Often provided by a mix of government school systems. The education of parents and other caregivers in better child care, building on Care and institutions, non-governmental organizations, traditional practices, and the systematic use of education cannot private providers, communities and families, early childhood indicators, are important elements be separated, ECCE represents a continuum of interconnected in achieving this goal.’ arrangements involving diverse actors: family, and good-quality friends, neighbours; family day care for a group Source: UNESCO (2000a). provision for of children in a provider’s home; centre-based young children programmes; classes/programmes in schools; necessarily and programmes for parents. providing custodial care for children of working addresses both ECCE policies and provision vary according parents and family members; to the age and development of the child, and can strengthening communities and social be organized in formal, non-formal and informal cohesion (Kamerman 2005; UNESCO-IBE, arrangements (Figure 1.1). The broad, holistic 2006; UNICEF, 2006). scope of ECCE is captured in the policy objectives Though the various international agencies differ associated with it around the world: in the terminology they use (Choi, 2002), there 3. For example, many early childhood specialists argue providing health care, immunization, feeding is general recognition of the benefits of such a that programmes labelled and nutrition; holistic approach, both within ECCE programmes ‘child care’ should provide opportunities for children to supporting new parents through information and at home, as well as during the transition to grow and learn, and those labelled ‘early education’ sharing and parenting education; primary school. This Report takes a similarly should nurture children and creating a safe environment for young children broad approach to the monitoring of ECCE. It promote their social and emotional well-being. to play and socialize with their peers; looks at the family and community contexts, the 4. Where primary school compensating for disadvantage and fostering institutions, the programmes and the policies that starts at age 6, for example, ECCE programmes serve the resilience of vulnerable children; affect children’s survival, growth, development, children from birth to age 5 promoting ‘school readiness’ and preparation learning and well-being. It covers a wide variety and primary school covers the rest of early childhood for primary school; of ECCE arrangements (Figure 1.1). (ages 6 to 8). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 and nomadchildren. children; andmigrant and culturalminority children; linguistic,ethnic children; indigenous HIV/AIDS; unregistered infected andaffectedby institutions; children orphans andchildrenin children; street abused andneglected undernourished children; malnourished and exploitative conditions; working childrenin displaced children); refugees andinternally emergencies (including disabilities; childrenin emotional andlearning children withphysical, include poorchildren; 5. Countrydefinitions emotional andeducationalneedsofchildren. ** To beholistic,policiesandprogrammesshouldaddresshealth,hygiene,nutrition,social, of educationwithincountriesandinternationally. as aninstrumentforassembling,compilingandpresentingcomparableindicators andstatistics * InternationalStandardClassificationofEducation,asystemdesignedbyUNESCOandtheOECD and educationof young children Figure 1.1: Schematic description of approaches to thecare g Organizedcareandeducation Age 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A. B. C. Providers: community-based organization. international non-governmentalorganization, private (non-profitandfor-profit), Government (national,subnational), A3. Parentalleave A2. Non-formalcareoreducationprogrammes A1. Organizedcareandeducationprogrammes B2. Non-formaleducationprogrammes(age3+) for childrenatleast3yearsold(I B1. Pre-primaryeducationprogrammesdesigned ECCE policiesandprogrammes**forages3up Primary education(ISCED*level1) ECCE policiesandprogrammes**forages0to2 PART I.Acomprehensive approach 16 children’. definitions of‘vulnerableanddisadvantaged and withincountries,sodonationallocal as earlychildhoodarrangementsvaryamong equity andinclusiontoEFAmorebroadly.Just based perspectiveandwiththeimportanceof on thesechildrenisconsistentwitharights- disadvantaged thanforothers.Thegoal’sfocus ECCE aregreaterforthevulnerableand for otherEFAgoals.Thebenefitsofgood-quality targeting potentiallymoreimportantherethan disadvantaged children improving ECCEforthemost contexts (e.g.armedconflict)whileothersare disadvantage arespecifictocertaindifficult / CHAPTER 1 EFA goal1explicitlycallsforexpandingand 5 Some typesofvulnerabilityand S CED 0) , whichmakesissuesof vulnerable and are addressed. psychosocial needs cognitive and health, nutrition, Ideally, children’s settings. family orcommunity sometimes inother mainly athomebut or extendedfamily, 0 to8 for childrenaged provision ofcare D. and child-rearing Informal care Informal , byparents are farfromtherealityformanychildren. development. Todate,however,theserights approaches thatpromotetheirholistic to havetheirlearningneedsmetthrough recognize thatchildrenarebornwiththeright breaking legalandpoliticalcommitmentsall Session onChildrenin2002.Theseground- basic educationgoals,asdidtheUNSpecial reaffirmed theimportanceofECCEinreaching The WorldEducationForumatDakarin2000 birth’ andencouragesthedevelopmentofECCE. Education forAllstatesthat‘learningbeginsat be protected.The1990WorldDeclarationon rights ofyoungchildrentosurvive,developand by 192nations,focusesonguaranteeingthe 1989 ConventionontheRightsofChild,signed commitment toearlychildhoodisgrowing.The and povertyreduction.Fortunately,international right andamajorcontributortodevelopment children overlooked. school entry,leavingopportunitiesforyounger and up,focusedontheyearsbeforeprimary attention, itisusuallygearedtowardsages3 a missedopportunity.WhereECCEdoesget lack ofanationalECCEpolicytrulyrepresents For vulnerableanddisadvantagedchildren,the than toprimaryeducationandgenderparity. policy attentiontoearlychildhood(andliteracy) governments thusfarhavegenerallygivenless Among theEFAgoals,developingcountry ECCE: arightinitself adapted todiverseparticipation. and howprogrammesthemselvescanbestbe designed toincludethedisadvantagedinECCE particular attentiontohowpublicpolicycanbe pays have theleastaccesstothem.ThisReport most fromearlychildhoodprogrammesbutwho it isoftenthedisadvantagedwhowouldbenefit of vulnerability.Eveninhigh-incomecountries, disadvantage anditaggravatesothertypes less so.Povertyisaprincipalsourceof ECCE, likeEFAmoregenerally,isbotha LEARNING BEGINS AT BIRTH / 17

Recent demographic, economic, social school. Some evidence regarding primary school and political trends have increased the need for outcomes indicates that girls benefit more than comprehensive ECCE policies and programmes. boys from participation in ECCE. The programmes Urbanization and the resulting changes to also provide an opportunity to reduce stereotypes household structures have reduced the role of about traditional gender roles and to foster extended family members as carers. Growing gender equality at an age when young children numbers of working mothers with young children are developing understandings of identity, have increased the demand for non-parental child empathy, tolerance and morality. Participation care. Pressures to increase competitiveness in in good-quality ECCE is linked with achievement a world economy that is increasingly knowledge- at subsequent levels of education and contributes based have led to calls for improving children’s to the quality of the education system as a whole ‘school readiness’. World health crises (EFA goal 6). Moreover, when the transition to (particularly HIV/AIDS) and other emergencies primary education is well managed, ECCE has Good-quality ECCE (e.g. famine, natural disaster and war) require the potential to influence the quality of pedagogy contributes to responses to protect the safety and well-being in primary school, making it more child-centred, the quality of the of young children. These contextual trends have for example. influenced the types and coverage of ECCE Reaching the MDGs and reducing poverty education system programmes, as well as the extent to which depends on efforts to support young children’s as a whole nations have made progress towards achieving rights to health, education, protection and EFA goal 1. equality. Holistic ECCE can make a major difference in reducing poverty and hunger (MDG 1) and child mortality (MDG 4), and can A powerful boost to education help combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other and development diseases (MDG 6). This role of ECCE as part of a broader anti-poverty strategy deserves In addition to being an important goal in itself, far greater recognition by the international ECCE can contribute to the realization of the community (UNICEF, 2003). other EFA goals and the MDGs. Children who Recognizing the benefits of good-quality participate in ECCE and have positive early ECCE to children, families and society, most learning experiences make a better transition OECD countries provide children with access to primary school, and are more likely to begin to at least two years of free ECCE before they and complete it (EFA goal 2). By reducing dropout, begin primary school, and parents receive repetition and special education placements, maternal or parental leave benefits. Over the ECCE can improve the internal efficiency of past two decades, these countries have focused primary education and decrease costs for both on strengthening the quality and the coherence governments and households. Many ECCE of such services (OECD, 2001). Although a programmes provide carers with access to growing number of policy-makers elsewhere parenting education and other forms of support, realize the early years are a springboard for which in turn can improve adult learning and future academic and economic success, and skills (EFA goals 3 and 4). ECCE is also an for reducing poverty, access to good quality ECCE important instrument for promoting gender parity is still not widespread, particularly in the poorest (EFA goal 5). When young children attend ECCE countries. The time has come to move ECCE programmes, their older sisters or other female up the policy agenda in the developing world kin are relieved of care responsibilities, a and among international donors in order to common barrier to girls’ enrolment in primary achieve EFA and to reduce poverty. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART II. Monitoring Education for All

Chapter 2 The six goals: how are we doing?

This chapter looks at how countries have progressed since the World Education Forum in 2000, with a stronger focus on pre-primary education than in past editions (see also Chapter 6). It highlights the considerable progress towards achieving universal primary education and expresses a concern that countries trailing behind are those affected by internal conflict. Special attention is paid to children who have been left out of school. The growth of lower secondary education is emphasized and gender analysis is integrated throughout. The review of education quality focuses as always on repetition, dropout and completion, and on the supply and qualifications of teachers; new this year is reporting on the spread of national assessments of student achievement. Adult and youth literacy patterns are presented and some aspects of literate environments are discussed. The EFA Development Index, incorporating four goals, has been updated for 125 countries.

19 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 discussed inChapter 6. enrolment ratiosare analyses ofpre-primary 3B).Moredetailed Table annex, Statistical with missingdata(see high numberofcountries enrolment ratioduetothe not availableforthenet Corresponding valuesare averages oftheGER. are basedonweighted pre-primary education 4. Regionaltrendsin progress (seeChapter6). for evaluatingnational complementary basis can providea (see UIS,2006 school lifeexpectancy such aspre-primary 75%. Othermeasures, pre-primary GERofabout – allofwhichhavea Lucia andoneinEcuador Lebanon, twoinSaint in Romania,three education lastsfouryears For example,pre-primary pre-primary education. theoretical durationof country differencesinthe the GERmissesimportant progress basedsolelyon 3. Assessmentof began. in whichtheschoolyear ended, ratherthanthat the yearinwhichschool Report EFA GlobalMonitoring previous versionsofthe 2. Inachangefrom comprehensively. monitoring thisgoalmore the challengesinvolvedin 1. Chapter6discusses all programmes structured and set of learning ISCED defines education as , datapertainto pre-primary that offer a purposeful activities a : Table12) nices f1.%oe 99(al 2.1). an increaseof10.7%over1999(Table were enrolledinpre-primaryeducation2004, a dayforatleastonehundreddaysyear. are heldfortheequivalentofatleasttwohours are usuallyforchildrenaged3andabove, non-formal setting.Pre-primaryprogrammes activities, eitherinaformalinstitutionor offer astructuredandpurposefulsetoflearning all programmesthat,inadditiontoprovidingcare, defines pre-primaryeducation(ISCEDlevel0)as Standard ClassificationofEducation(ISCED) Table 2.1: Pre-primary enrolment in1999and2004, by region for 1999and2004. enrolment ratios(GER)globallyandbyregion Table 3B). unchanged since1999(seeannex,Statistical pre-primary enrolleesweregirls,aproportion due totrendsinChina.Some48%oftheworld’s Asia enrolmentsdeclinedbyalmost10%,mainly regions theincreasesweremodest,andinEast and SouthWestAsia(40.5%).Inmostother Saharan Africa(43.5%),theCaribbean(43.4%) Increases wereparticularlypronouncedinsub- care andeducation(ECCE). the educationcomponentofearlychildhood This sectionfocusesonpre-primaryeducation, spreading, butvery slowly Pre-primary education: Part II.Monitoring EFA 20 Source: rather moderateindevelopedanddeveloping increased from33%to37%.Increaseswere Centr./East. Europe N. America/W. Europe Latin America Caribbean South andWest Asia Pacific East Asia Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa Countries intransition Developed countries Developing countries World Worldwide, almost124millionchildren iue21displaysthepre-primarygross Figure 2.1 / CHAPTER 2 Annex, StatisticalTable 3B. 3 The globalpre-primaryGER School yearendingin 1 7 2 8 10.7 685 123 772 111 9111 0 1.3 15.5 408 19 40.5 154 18 151 -9.2 19 720 166 15 31 186 831 22 32 152 36 0.4 13.8 482 25 089 91 386 25 070 80 992004 1999 3 7 7.5 176 9 538 8 2.1 11.4 43.5 482 1 12.6 625 2 359 7 450 1 356 2 115 7 129 5 316 6 Total enrolment 7 6 43.4 25.0 965 520 673 416 (000) 1 The International 1999 and2004 between Change 2 (%) stable. increases elsewhere;theGERforEastAsiawas Pacific andtheCaribbean,muchsmaller regions, thereweremarkedincreasesinthe (eighteen percentagepoints).Amongdeveloping but morepronouncedintransitioncountries countries (fourpercentagepointseach), increase wasmoderate (betweentwoandten 2.2).The almost unchanged intwelve(Table seventy-seven, declinedinfifteen andremained 30% in2004,theratiohadincreased since1999in ten percentagepoints. Territories, whichhaddecreases ofmorethan Bangladesh andthePalestinianAutonomous ratios declined,sometimesquitemarkedly,asin quarter ofthecountries,pre-primaryenrolment Namibia andTunisia.Intheremainingone- occurred inAzerbaijan,Cameroon,Madagascar, than fivepercentagepoints.Morerapidchange quarters ofthecountries,buttypicallybyfewer also available,theGERsincreasedinthree- Among theforty-twoforwhich1999dataare In generaltheirrecentprogresshasbeenslow. 2.2). Saharan AfricaandtheArabStates(Figure primary GERsbelow30%in2004aresub- population growth. increase intheGERbecauseofcontinuinghigh sub-Saharan Africawasnotmatchedbyasimilar N. America/W. Europe between 1999and2004, by region Figure 2.1: Changes inpre-primary gross enrolment ratios Source: Countries intransition South andWest Asia Developing countries Developed countries Sub-Saharan Africa Centr./East. Europe Of 104countrieswithpre-primary GERsabove Most ofthefifty-twocountrieswithpre- Annex, StatisticalTable 3B. Latin America CentralAsia ArabStates 4 Caribbean East Asia A largeabsoluteenrolmentincreasein Pacific World 04 08 0 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 15 22 23 12 16 28 28 33 33 40 27 Gross enrolmentratios(%) 41 41 32 32 32 45 37 37 40 1999 55 58 57 59 59 71 61 73 73 76 2004 72 77 77 78 101 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 21

Figure 2.2: Pre-primary gross enrolment ratios in 2004 Table 2.2: Changes in pre-primary gross enrolment ratios between 1999 and changes since 1999 in countries with GERs below 30% and 2004 in countries with GERs above 30% in 2004

The GER has: Changes between Remained GER 1999 and 2004 almost (%) (percentage points) Decreased unchanged Increased Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Below -2 -2 to +2 2.1 to 10 Over 10 Burkina Faso 1.2 -0.6 Niger 1.4 0.3 (Percentage (Percentage (Percentage (Percentage Burundi 1.4 0.6 points) points) points) points) C. A. R. 1.7 … Sub-Saharan Seychelles Ghana Zimbabwe South Africa Mali 1.9 0.4 Africa Mauritius Lesotho S. Tome/ Uganda 2.1 -1.8 Equat. Guinea Principe* Ethiopia 2.2 0.8 Kenya Togo 2.4 0.1 Rwanda … 2.5 Arab States Morocco United Arab Qatar Côte d’Ivoire 3.2 0.8 Kuwait Emirates Lebanon Comoros 3.3 1.1 Bahrain Benin 4.4 0.3 Congo 5.6 3.7 Central Asia Armenia Georgia Senegal … 5.6 Mongolia Kazakhstan Guinea 6.1 … Eritrea 7.4 1.7 East Asia Niue Brunei Japan Rep. of Korea Madagascar 10.0 6.7 and the China Daruss. Thailand Papua New Gabon … 13.9 Pacific Samoa Palau Vanuatu Guinea Nigeria … 14.7 Macao (China) Gambia 18.2 -1.6 New Zealand Cameroon 19.6 7.6 Cook Islands U. R. Tanzania … 28.7 Solomon Namibia 28.9 9.4 Islands Malaysia Arab States Arab States Viet Nam Yemen 0.8 0.1 Philippines Mauritania 1.7 … Djibouti 1.8 1.4 South and Maldives India Algeria 4.7 2.2 West Asia Iran, Isl. Rep. Saudi Arabia 5.1 -0.1 Nepal* Iraq 5.7 1.0 Oman 6.2 0.2 Latin Chile* Colombia Bolivia Venezuela Libyan A. J. 7.6 2.8 America Costa Rica* Uruguay Aruba Cuba Syrian A. R. 10.3 2.1 and the Dominica Paraguay Mexico Egypt 14.4 3.9 Caribbean Guyana Argentina Ecuador Tunisia 21.7 8.0 Saint Lucia Peru Jamaica Sudan 23.0 2.6 Netherlands Nicaragua Panama Jordan 29.6 1.0 Antilles Barbados Bahamas Palestinian A. T. 29.9 -10.1 Dominican El Salvador Trinidad and Republic Brazil Tobago Central Asia Central Asia Br. Virgin Is Tajikistan 9.4 1.5 Kyrgyzstan 11.6 1.3 North Netherlands Greece France Finland … Uzbekistan 27.6 America Denmark Switzerland Norway Azerbaijan 28.2 6.2 and Western Cyprus United States Luxembourg Europe Canada Germany Spain East Asia/Pacific East Asia/Pacific Malta Belgium Iceland Lao PDR 8.5 0.5 Austria Cambodia 9.4 3.7 Italy … Timor-Leste 10.6 Sweden Fiji 15.7 -0.8 Portugal Indonesia 22.4 4.2 Israel Tonga 23.0 -6.7

South/West Asia South/West Asia Afghanistan 0.7 … Bangladesh 11.6 -14.4 Central Hungary Poland Romania and TFYR Czech Rep. Latin America/Caribbean Latin America/Caribbean Eastern Macedonia Lithuania Belize 28.2 0.6 Europe Albania Belarus Guatemala* 28.3 -17.5 Croatia Estonia Bulgaria Latvia Central/East. Europe Central/East. Europe Slovakia Russian Fed. Turkey 8.2 2.0 Rep. Moldova Ukraine*

05 1015202530 Number of countries Pre-primary GERs (%) (104) 15 12 46 31

* The apparent decrease in Guatemala is due to a change in the age group * Change in the age group. for which the GER is calculated, from 5-6 in 1999 to 3-6 in 2004. Notes: See source table for detailed country notes. Note: See source table for detailed country notes. Countries are listed in order of changes in pre-primary GERs. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 3B. Sources: Annex, Statistical Table 3B. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: Note: c. Countryestimatesarefor2003. b. Dataarefor2003. a. Dataarefor2002. * Unlessotherwiseindicated,dataarefortheschoolyearendingin2004. with enrolment ratios below 30% Table Current 2.3: andtarget pre-primary enrolment ratios for selected countries Turkey Tunisia Sudan Senegal Niger Mali Indonesia D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Burkina Faso Bangladesh Benin Country See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. Annex, StatisticalTable 3B;UNESCO-IIEP(2006). North AmericaandWestern Europe Source: Figure Changes ingenderdisparities 2.3: inpre-primary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004, by region group 3-5 3-5 4-5 4-6 4-6 3-6 5-6 3-5 3-5 4-6 3-5 4-5 Age Latest available Central andEasternEurope Annex, StatisticalTable 3B. UIS estimates* Countries intransition 11.6 South andWest Asia Part II.Monitoring EFA 22 Developing countries 22.4 … 21.7 23.0 Developed countries GER 4.4 (%) Sub-Saharan Africa 1.9 8.2 5.6 1.4 3.2 1.2 1999 b b c a b / CHAPTER 2 Latin America Arab States Central Asia The Pacific Caribbean East Asia 10.5 22.4 … … 21.7 23.0 NER (%) 2.8 7.9 3.2 1.1 3.2 1.2 World 2004 b c a b .508 .509 .510 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 (increase since1999) Attain levelsofEUandOECDcountries ECCE programmesofsomekind Pre-primary enrolmentratios All 3-to5-year-oldsattend 30% of0-to8-year-olds 30% of3-to5-year-olds (GER orNER) 30% GER 50% GER 5% GER 4% GER National targets 100% GPI ofGER 41% 35% 35% 10% 15% 10% 75% 2004 (decrease since1999) 2010 2006 2015 2007 2010 2015 2013 2010 2008 2015 2015 2015 2009 2015 line parity Gender Target year unrealistically ambitioustargets(seeTable2.3). 2015. Ingeneral,thesecomparisonsindicate with thetargetssetinnationalplansfor2010or compare nationalchangesinpre-primaryGERs target fortheECCEgoal,itisinstructiveto (UNESCO, 2003 classes declinedby36%between1999and2003 that thenumberofkindergartenandpre-primary occurred inChina,whereitwasofficiallyreported values. Adecreaseofovertwopercentagepoints and Seychellesbegantheperiodwithveryhigh decreased, Guyana,Mauritius,theNetherlands Among theeightcountrieswhoseGERs reversed (seeChapter6forfurtherdiscussion). declines observedduringthe1990sweremostly Estonia, Latvia,LithuaniaandRomania,where percentage points,andtheCzechRepublic, with increasesofbetweentwelveandthirty Kazakhstan, theRussianFederationandUkraine countries, includingBelarus,Georgia, noteworthy werethegainsregisteredintransition Cuba, Ecuador,JamaicaandMexico.Especially points) intheremainingthirty-one,whichincluded seven andrapid(morethantenpercentage percentage points)inforty-sixoftheseventy- Goal reportsforforty-fivecountries. plans, PovertyReductionStrategyPapersandMillenniumDevelopment national developmentandeducationsectorplans,EFAaction 3),whichsummarizesrecommendationsandtargetssetforthin Table 5. ThetargetsdiscussedherearecontainedinIIEP(2006:annex, 992004 1999 0.97 0.98 1.01 1.04 0.93 1.00 0.98 0.92 0.76 0.98 0.94 0.99 0.95 0.96 Gender parity index ofGER Keeping inmindthatthereisnoquantitative 0.95 0.98 1.01 1.03 0.98 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.87 0.98 0.93 0.99 0.97 0.97 Central andEasternEurope North AmericaandWestern Europe Latin America Caribbean South andWest Asia The Pacific East Asia Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa Countries intransition Developed countries Developing countries World b ). 5 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 23

Many countries with relatively high pre-primary Table 2.4: Changes in gender disparities in pre-primary GERs between 1999 GERs have an objective of universal pre-school and 2004 in countries with GPIs below 0.97 or above 1.03 in 2004 enrolment by 2015. This is the case for Chile and Countries with disparities in favour of boys Countries with disparities in favour of girls Mexico, whose current GERs are above 50%, but GPI GPI also for countries such as India, Kazakhstan and 1999 2004 1999 2004 Paraguay, which have GERs below 40%. Given Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa past growth rates, these national targets are Eritrea 0.88 0.90 Sao Tome and Principe 1.09 1.04 unlikely to be achieved. Burkina Faso 1.03 0.94 Cape Verde … 1.04 Lesotho 1.08 0.94 Central African Republic … 1.04 Gender disparities in pre-primary Ethiopia 0.97 0.95 Congo 1.59 1.06 education Comoros 1.07 0.96 Senegal 1.00 1.11 Côte d’Ivoire 0.96 0.96 Namibia 1.16 1.12 Figure 2.3 shows changes in gender disparities Arab States Arab States in pre-primary GERs between 1999 and 2004 Morocco 0.52 0.63 globally and by region. Overall, the ratio between Yemen 0.86 0.87 the female and male GERs, which provides the Syrian Arab Republic 0.90 0.91 Oman 0.88 0.91 gender parity index (GPI), increased slightly, Jordan 0.91 0.94 from 0.96 to 0.97. Indeed, it is higher at pre- Egypt 0.95 0.95 primary than at primary level, probably because Palestinian A. T. 0.96 0.96 overall pre-primary enrolment ratios are Bahrain 0.95 0.96 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 0.97 0.96 relatively low and tend to represent mainly the Central Asia Central Asia more affluent, among whom gender differences Tajikistan 0.76 0.93 Mongolia 1.21 1.08 are usually less pronounced than among the Uzbekistan … 0.93 Georgia 1.01 1.15 poor (see Chapter 6). Most regions are moving Armenia … 1.17 towards gender parity and considerable East Asia and the Pacific East Asia and the Pacific progress has occurred in those with high Papua N. Guinea 0.94 Philippines 1.05 1.04 Lao PDR 1.11 1.05 disparities. Notable improvements occurred in Fiji 1.02 1.06 the Arab States, where female enrolments in Indonesia 1.01 1.09 1999 were just three-quarters of male Cook Islands 0.98 1.11 enrolments, and in South and West Asia. Among Malaysia 1.04 1.12 Palau 1.23 1.16 countries in the Caribbean subregion, a slight Samoa 1.21 1.26 disparity in favour of girls is detectable. Tonga 1.22 1.36 In about two-thirds of the 165 countries for Niue 0.93 1.58 which pre-primary enrolment data by gender South and West Asia South and West Asia … are available, the GPIs vary between 0.97 and Afghanistan 0.80 Iran, Isl. Rep. 1.05 1.12 Pakistan … 0.83 1.03 (see annex, Statistical Table 3B). Among Nepal 0.73 0.90 the countries outside this range, the situation Latin America and the Caribbean Latin America and the Caribbean favours girls in thirty (GPIs above 1.03) and boys Cayman Is … 0.87 El Salvador 1.01 1.04 in thirty-two (GPIs below 0.97). Afghanistan, Anguilla … 0.90 Honduras … 1.04 … Morocco, Pakistan and Yemen have the lowest Turks/Caicos Is 0.90 Aruba 1.00 1.07 Grenada … 1.09 GPIs (Table 2.4). In Morocco, the GPI has Saint Lucia 0.95 1.11 improved since 1999 (from 0.52 to 0.63), but Montserrat … 1.15 apparently because of a decrease in male Saint Kitts and Nevis … 1.15 enrolment rather than an increase in female Dominica 1.11 1.18 enrolment. Some small progress towards North America and Western Europe North America and Western Europe United States 0.97 0.96 Malta 0.99 1.08 gender parity has occurred in Pakistan in recent Andorra … 1.11 years. Of the thirty countries where the gender Central and Eastern Europe Central and Eastern Europe disparities favour girls, about half are small Russian Federation 0.94 0.91 Pacific or Caribbean island states, and in many Slovenia 0.91 0.95 these disparities continue at primary and Turkey 0.94 0.95 Lithuania 0.97 0.96 secondary level. Since the poor are much less Czech Republic 1.06 0.96 likely to be enrolled than the relatively affluent, Latvia 0.95 0.96 it cannot be assumed that these patterns and trends will necessarily continue as enrolment Note: See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 3B. increases. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 from 83% in1999 for Statisticsdatabase. the UNESCOInstitute 8. Thesedataarefrom (sub-Saharan Africa). the NigerandSenegal Guinea, Eritrea,Mali, d’Ivoire,Equatorial Côte Comoros, theCongo, Republic, Chad,the Verde, theCentralAfrican Burkina Faso,Cape and Niue(Pacific); States); theCookIslands Arab Emirates(Arab the SudanandUnited Territories, SaudiArabia, Palestinian Autonomous 7. Djibouti,Oman,the closed thegendergap. Republic ofMoldovahave Nauru, Omanandthe Yemen. TheCookIslands, United ArabEmiratesand Senegal, theSudan, of Moldova,SaudiArabia, New Guinea,theRepublic Oman, Pakistan,Papua Nauru, theNiger,Niue, Ghana, Guinea,Mali, Eritrea, theGambia, d’Ivoire,Djibouti, Côte the CookIslands, Comoros, theCongo, Republic, Chad,the the CentralAfrican Burkina Faso,Burundi, 6. Thetwenty-sixare to 86% in2004 enrolment ratio education rose The globalnet in primary Central andEastern Europe,thegrossintake rate demonstrating asignificantincrease (57%). just 9.1%overtheperiod,with onlyYemen appears tohavebeenfarmore muted,averaging Tables 1and4).Theexpansion intheArabStates population ofover2million(see annex,Statistical and oftheseonlyTogoZimbabwehada available wastherateofincreaselessthan10%, Saharan Africancountriesforwhichdataare particularly dramatic.Inonlysevenofthesub- Niger andtheUnitedRepublicofTanzaniawere expansion inEthiopia,Guinea,Madagascar,the and byover50%insevenofthem.Therates 2.5, of thefourteencountriesshowninTable of newentrantsincreasedbyover29%ineach rapid. Overthefive-yearperiod,number sub-Saharan Africa,theexpansionwasespecially 4).Inseveralcountries,particularlyin Table in sub-SaharanAfrica(seeannex,Statistical in SouthandWestAsia,however,by30.9% number ofnewentrantsincreasedby11.5% of under-andover-agechildrenenrolled.The declines infertilityratesandthenumber decrease mainlyreflectedacombinationof entrants tograde1fellinsomeregions.This Between 1999and2004,thenumberofnew in many countries Access isimproving rapidly below 90%. four ofthetwenty-sixcountrieswithGERs parity inprimaryeducationisachievedonly remain majorissueseverywhere,andgender schooling andlevelsoflearningachievement children remainoutofschool.Thequality enter, ordropout,manyprimaryschoolage Whether becausetheyenterschoollate,never continuing lowsurvivalandcompletionrates. rapid increaseinnewentrantstograde1and West Asia.Thesechangesreflecttwotrends:a Saharan Africaandfrom77%to86%inSouth primary NERincreasedfrom55%to65%insub- coverage forprimaryeducation.Theaverage advances inthoseregionswiththelowest this modestglobalincreaseliespectacular 86% in2004(asshownbelowTable2.7).Behind in primaryeducationrosefrom83%1999to as awhole,theglobalnetenrolmentratio(NER) (UPE) hasbeenmadesinceDakar.Fortheworld Progress towardsuniversalprimaryeducation advancing inenrolment education: Primary Part II.Monitoring EFA 24 In allregionsexcept theArabStatesand / CHAPTER 2 6 twenty countries GIRs inmanycountries.Therateisbelow90% Statistical Table4).Regionalaveragesmasklow 88% to105%insub-SaharanAfrica(seeannex, 118% to131%inSouthandWestAsiafrom Between 1999and2004,theGIRincreasedfrom official agetoenterschool–isover100%. 1 dividedbythenumberofchildrenwhoareat (GIR) –thetotalnumberofnewentrantstograde the greatmajoritybeingoverage.Asindicated quarters oftheintakeare‘incorrect’age,with Mozambique, betweentwo-thirdsandthree- For example,inChad,Madagascarand Twenty-two oftheseareinsub-SaharanAfrica. up atleasthalfoftheintakeinthirty-one. available, theover-andunder-agegroupmakes nine developingcountriesforwhichinformationis efforts toexpandenrolment.Outoftheeighty- NIR doesnottellmuchaboutcurrentgovernment entrants areunderoroverthatage,however,the intake rate(NIR)of100%.Whenmanynew in grade1attheofficialageandtoreachanet intake rates. affected countriesarelikelyalsotohavelow Sierra LeoneorSomalia,severaloftheseconflict- Republic oftheCongo,Guinea-Bissau,Liberia, make thecalculationsforAngola,Democratic Mali andtheNiger.Whiledataarenotavailableto African Republic,theCongo,Djibouti,Eritrea, Source: Note: in selected countries of sub-Saharan Africa and percentage increase between 1999and2004 Table 2.5:Numberof new entrants into grade 1 Total Zambia U. R.Tanzania Senegal Rwanda Niger Mozambique Mali Madagascar Kenya Guinea Ethiopia Chad Cameroon Burundi onr % (%) (%) Country Most governmentsexpecttoenrolallchildren See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. Annex, StatisticalTable 4. 3 4 0. 15.4 104.5 143 3 537 1 9 0016. 10.9 67.7 051 10 992 5 00 (000) (000) 1999 5 8 088.6 13.5 8.4 9.1 50.8 12.7 88.0 7.5 49.5 380 8.0 54.6 342 1 82.0 12.6 284 252 43.8 5.4 456 714 46.8 12.6 242 190 81.2 771 6.7 295 30.3 254 7.2 133 80.7 897 5.3 536 173 162 1 38.3 215 495 41.5 892 29.5 242 119 474 189 175 335 146 7 and below65%intheCentral 2004 1999-2004 Increase 8 increase Annual THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 25

in Figure 2.4, which compares GIRs and NIRs for Figure 2.4: Comparison of gross and net intake rates in primary education, 2004 ninety-nine developing countries, late entry is also common in Latin America and the Caribbean. Sub-Saharan Africa East Asia/Pacific Eritrea Macao, China While late enrolment is better than no Niger Viet Nam enrolment at all, it has serious disadvantages for Mali Fiji Burkina Faso Rep. of Korea Marshall Is children, notably a later graduation age and thus Côte d’Ivoire Myanmar less likelihood of going on to the next level of Guinea Indonesia education, and potential learning problems due Chad Lao PDR Togo Vanuatu to the unsuitability of the curriculum for older Cape Verde Philippines children. The distribution of children’s ages when Senegal Cambodia Burundi first enrolling in school is systematically related Ghana South and West Asia to several background characteristics. Table 2.6 Namibia Maldives Mauritius Sri Lanka shows, for eight sub-Saharan African countries, Benin Iran, Isl. Rep. Pakistan Swaziland the share of grade 1 entrants who are at least Bangladesh Zambia two years over the official age and how that share South Africa Latin America/Caribbean varies according to gender, place of residence, Seychelles Dominica Nigeria Cayman Is household wealth and mother’s education. On Zimbabwe Turks/Caicos Is average, 34.5% of new entrants to first grade in Equat. Guinea St Vincent/Grenad. Kenya Bahamas these countries are at least two years over age. U. R. Tanzania Jamaica Mozambique Grenada The likelihood of over-age enrolment is greater Trinidad/Tobago Lesotho for particular groups, however: for instance, of the St Kitts/Nevis Ethiopia Saint Lucia children from the poorest fifth of households in Uganda Anguilla Nigeria who enrolled in grade 1, 44% were at least Madagascar Venezuela Rwanda Suriname two years over age, compared to 17% of those Aruba from the wealthiest fifth. Similarly, while 58% of Arab States Cuba Djibouti Montserrat rural enrollees in Mozambique were at least two Saudi Arabia Peru Br. Virgin Is years over age, the share for urban children was Sudan Oman Mexico Argentina 35%. In Kenya, 60% of the children with mothers Palestinian A. T. Barbados lacking education were over age, compared to U. A. Emirates Dominican Rep. Jordan Neth. Antilles one-third of those whose mothers completed Tunisia Belize primary education. These patterns were common Kuwait Panama Morocco Bolivia to all eight countries, and in five of the eight, boys Egypt Guatemala were more likely than girls to be over age. Bahrain Honduras Qatar El Salvador Lebanon Ecuador Nicaragua School participation on the rise Algeria Guyana Enrolment in primary education worldwide has Mauritania Iraq N. America/W. Europe increased by 6%, from 645 million to 682 million, Syrian A. R. Cyprus between 1999 and 2004 (Table 2.7). In the regions Central Asia Central/East. Europe where most countries are near or at UPE, Mongolia Turkey decreases in the school age population resulted 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 in falling enrolment. The Arab States achieved Intake rates (%) Intake rates (%) some increases (6% overall), but the biggest NIR GIR rises occurred in South and West Asia (19%) and sub-Saharan Africa (27%). Note: Only developing countries are included. See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 4. The primary GER tends to overestimate a country’s success in striving to reach UPE since it includes children who are repeating and those who are over and under age, while the NER may principal indicators of participation in primary underestimate coverage since it represents only education. Figure 2.5 shows them for children of the official school age. Other measures 100 countries for 2004. are being developed using age-specific enrolment Between 1999 and 2004, the GER increased rates and accounting for late entrants, but the in each developing country region except Latin quality of data is often insufficient. Thus, this America, where it fell from 121% to 118%. The Report continues to report GERs and NERs as the ratio increased from 94% to 110% in South and Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 worldwide has in primary Enrolment education increased by 6% by Sources: by background characteristics, ineightAfrican countries Table 2.6:Percentage of new entrants to grade 1whoare atleast two years over age, hrceitcBriaFs tipaGaaKnaMl oabqeNmbaNigeria Namibia Mozambique Mali Kenya Ghana Ethiopia BurkinaFaso Characteristic Richest 20%ofhouseholds Poorest 20%ofhouseholds Urban Rural Male Female Total Mother withprimaryeducation Mother withnoeducation Demographic andHealthSurveys2003forBurkinaFaso,Ghana,Kenya,MozambiqueNigeria;2001Mali;2000Ethiopiaa Table 2.7: Enrolment educationfor inprimary school years endingin1999and2004, by region thirty-nine sub-SaharanAfricancountrieswith have GERsbelow90%,asdofourteenofthe are morevaried.SixofthetwentyArabStates accross theArabStatesandsub-SaharanAfrica transition anddevelopedcountries.Thesituations South andWestAsia(exceptPakistan),the Pacific (apartfromthreeislandnations), America andtheCaribbean,EastAsia The GERsareabove90%throughoutLatin persistent highpopulationgrowthinbothregions. Africa, aconsiderableachievementgiven West Asiaandfrom79%to91%insub-Saharan Part II.Monitoring EFA 26 Sources: Central andEasternEurope North AmericaandWestern Europe Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean South andWest Asia East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa Countries intransition Developed countries Developing countries World Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia / CHAPTER 2 Annex, StatisticalTable 5. 726. 795. 956. 1140.1 43.6 51.1 36.4 42.8 31.0 64.6 31.6 67.9 31.4 19.5 58.3 24.4 49.7 59.9 22.0 56.3 16.7 47.9 39.7 53.7 42.7 69.0 47.5 76.4 48.3 17.2 74.4 34.3 69.7 17.2 17.7 416. 583. 715. 9333.6 29.3 51.9 17.1 37.3 45.8 69.7 14.1 . 775. 271. 013. 28.6 16.7 37.9 27.5 13.6 40.1 20.7 36.9 23.0 14.5 35.5 27.2 7.6 32.7 7.4 54.1 15.8 50.5 22.1 17.7 30.4 37.7 41.6 31.5 45.6 4.1 41.1 42.9 5.0 5.1 69.6 9.5 5 1 8 8 391997. 85.9 94.0 77.3 93.9 96.2 109.9 96.0 113.5 93.9 113.2 84.6 112.2 85.7 884 187 111.9 81.2 712 202 510 157 82.8 217 206 106.8 277 214 575 217 106.2 99.8 100.1 879 600 225 682 733 558 985 644 5492 3 961158. 90.7 95.2 95.3 89.2 96.7 94.9 94.0 101.5 93.4 101.7 117.6 99.6 81.5 102.9 117.9 64.9 121.0 630 22 734 77.1 51 90.7 120.7 637 66 95.6 55.0 489 25 857 52 259 85.0 69 93.3 705 67 96.7 90.9 206 70 88.6 107.3 101.4 79.0 100.0 700 36 102.2 424 101 725 926 34 13 772 419 79 67 834 15 418 70 00 (000) (000) 1999 0 2 1. 2. 7183.5 89.6 77.1 87.4 91.6 126.3 97.9 88.6 115.0 622 93.9 2 101.6 500 2 505 98.7 3 298 3 376 6 853 6 Total enrolment 2004 Gross enrolmentratios 1999 % (%) (%) were insub-SaharanAfrica.Theseincludedevery in atleastthirty-onecountries,ofwhichtwenty the GERsincreasedbyovertenpercentagepoints system toenrolchildren.Between1999and2004, increases), itdoesreflectincreasedcapacityofa improvement (forinstance,ifrepetition Republic (64%). Faso (53%),Mali(64%)andtheCentralAfrican found inDjibouti(39%),theNiger(45%),Burkina and post-conflictcountries).ThelowestGERsare data available(dataaremissingforfiveconflict While ahigherGERdoesnotalwaysimply 2004 nd Namibia. Net enrolmentratios 1999 % (%) (%) 2004 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 27

country whose GER in 2004 was below 90%, Figure 2.5: Comparison of gross and net enrolment ratios in primary education, 2004 apart from Côte d’Ivoire and the Gambia.

For all developing countries, the average NER Sub-Saharan Africa East Asia/Pacific rose from 81% in 1999 to about 85% in 2004. Mauritius Indonesia Cape Verde Philippines Regionally, NERs increased significantly in South Vanuatu U. R. Tanzania and West Asia (from 77% to 86%) and sub- Malaysia South Africa Viet Nam Saharan Africa (from 55% to 65%), and less Madagascar Tonga spectacularly in the Arab States and in Latin Lesotho Samoa America and the Caribbean. The NERs are below Equat. Guinea Marshall Is Macao, China Benin 80% in Nepal and Pakistan in South and West Myanmar Botswana Asia, in six of the eighteen Arab States with data Lao PDR Zimbabwe Solomon Is available, in twenty out of thirty-three sub- Zambia Saharan African countries and in one small Togo South and West Asia Bangladesh Swaziland Pacific island country (Solomon Islands). Again, India however, there are many instances of significant Kenya Maldives Gambia improvement. Iran, Isl. Rep. Namibia Nepal Figure 2.6 shows changes in NERs between Rwanda Pakistan 1999 and 2004. Almost all countries with ratios Mozambique Latin America/Caribbean Senegal below 85% in 1999 improved their situation, Br. Virgin Is several significantly, including Ethiopia, Lesotho, Ghana Montserrat Guinea Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, the Niger and the St Kitts/Nevis Nigeria St Vincent/Grenad. United Republic of Tanzania. On the other hand, Burundi Guatemala Brazil several countries that were close to UPE in 1999 Chad Suriname did not improve and some lost ground (Albania, Ethiopia El Salvador Cape Verde, Lithuania, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives Côte d’Ivoire Trinidad/Tobago Eritrea Venezuela and the Palestinian Autonomous Territories). Mali Jamaica Honduras Of the forty-five developing countries with NERs Burkina Faso Anguilla above 85% in 1999, the ratio was lower in twenty- Niger Nicaragua four of them in 2004. In this group it is proving Dominica difficult to attract and retain the most Arab States Cayman Is Lebanon Dominican Rep. Grenada marginalized out-of-school children. Syrian A. R. Bahamas Jordan Out-of-school children: mostly poor, Colombia Iraq Turks/Caicos Is rural and with uneducated mothers Palestinian A. T. Discussions of efforts to universalize primary Morocco N. America/W. Europe Kuwait Malta Switzerland education largely centre on intake and Oman participation (enrolment) ratios, completion rates United States Yemen Luxembourg and quality. The complementary approach of this Mauritania Andorra subsection is to give additional attention to those U. A. Emirates Saudi Arabia Central/East. Europe children who are not in school so as to better Estonia Djibouti understand their educational experiences, if any, TFYR Macedonia Romania and their background characteristics. The closer Central Asia Russian Fed. countries are to achieving enrolment of all Armenia Belarus children in first grade and retaining them Georgia Lithuania Turkey Kazakhstan throughout primary school, the more important Hungary Kyrgyzstan it becomes to identify those left out of school Croatia Mongolia Ukraine and prepare policies specifically for them. Much Azerbaijan Rep. of Moldova of the analysis in this subsection should be regarded as exploratory. 02040 60 80 100 120 140 02040 60 80 100 120 140 Enrolment ratios (%) Enrolment ratios (%)

How many are there? NER GER NER GER Calculating the number of children of primary school age who are not in school is not Note: Countries with NERs above 95% are not included. See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 5. straightforward. The results – which tend to be Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 calculation. be excludedfromthe education shouldalso enrolled inpre-primary school agewhoare 9. Childrenofprimary Sources: Table 2.8:Estimated numbers of children outof school, 1999–2004 (thousands) Not inschool Not inprimaryschool Annex, StatisticalTable 5;UIS database. 7millionchildrenwerenotenrolledinschool. 77 Institute forStatistics(UIS)suggeststhat,in2004, 2004. GovernmentreportingtotheUNESCO a particularlylargedecreasebetween2002and of around20millionbetween1999and2004,with reduction inthenumberofout-of-schoolchildren measures from1999to2004.Bothsetsshowa presentsestimatesofboth changing, Table2.8 2002/03. Toindicatehowthesituationhasbeen millionfor This numberwasestimatedat85.5 school childrenusedinthe caution. Untilrecentlythemeasureofout-of- widely quoted–thusneedtobeconsideredwith Part II.Monitoring EFA 28 enrolled ineitherprimaryorsecondaryschool. children ofprimaryschoolagewhowerenot measure wouldtakeintoaccountonlythose However, italsopointedoutamoreappropriate 2002/03, downfromalmost107millionin1998/99. 100 millionchildrenwereinthissituation suggestedthatalmost school. The2006Report primary schoolagewhowerenotin Report 1 4 0 5 0 0 0 9 0 3 1032 91 038 101 395 107 307 105 852 107 244 110 8129 8 2399 2 6887 841 76 828 86 824 93 379 92 787 94 172 98 1999 / CHAPTER 2 Source: Note: Figure 2.6:Changes netenrolment inprimary ratios between 1999and2004

has beenthenumberofchildren Net enrolment ratios (%) 100 20 40 50 60 70 80 90 30 See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. 2000 Annex, StatisticalTable 5.

Niger 1999 Burkina Faso Mali 2001 Eritrea Côte d’Ivoire

2004 Ethiopia Chad (increase since1999) Guinea EFA GlobalMonitoring 2002 Ghana Senegal

Mozambique S Namibia ub- S

Gambia aha 2003 Kenya r Swaziland an Af Togo r

Zambia i c aA 2004 Zimbabwe 2004 Botswana 9

(decrease since1999) Benin Equat. Guinea Lesotho Madagascar

was 30%(Pratham, 2005). schools werevisited, theaverageabsentee rate across Indiashowedthaton the daysthat extensive surveyofprimaryschools andpupils effective schooling.Forexample, arecent the numberofchildrenwhoare notreceiving by age.Asaresult,bothmay underestimate about thequalityofdatareportingpupils enrolment). Bothmeasuresraisequestions the pastyear(i.e.theyrecordattendance,not member hasgonetoschoolatleastonedayin head ofeachhouseholdisaskedwhether records ofenrolment.Inhouseholdsurveys,the used. Administrativedataarebasedonschool million. 2.8) was94 Table the basisofadministrativedata(shownin million, whereastheestimatemadesolelyon 115 children notinprimaryorsecondaryschoolwas accurate picture.Theresultingglobalestimateof populated countries,thesurveysgaveamore household surveysforothers.Forsomehighly for somecountriesandinformationfrom administrative enrolmentdatafromgovernments for theschoolyearendingin2002using estimated thenumberofout-of-schoolchildren characteristics (UIS/UNICEF,2005).They of-school childrenandsomeoftheirbackground improve understandingoftheexperiencesout- South Africa U. R. Tanzania

The differenceliesinthenatureofdata The UISandUNICEFhavebeenworkingto Cape Verde Mauritius Malawi S. Tome/Principe

Djibouti Saudi Arabia U. A. Emirates Mauritania Yemen Oman r Kuwait ab

Morocco S Palestinian A. T. tates Iraq Jordan Syrian A. R. Lebanon Egypt Qatar Algeria Bahrain C

Tunisia ent r Azerbaijan al Asia Mongolia Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 29

South/West East Asia and the Pacific Asia Latin America and the Caribbean North America and Western Europe Central and Eastern Europe 100

40 Net enrolment ratios (%)

20 Fiji Italy Peru Cuba Israel Brazil Spain Nepal Belize Malta Aruba Tonga Japan France Bolivia Cyprus Ireland Samoa Greece Iceland Finland Croatia Estonia Mexico Albania Norway Ecuador Panama Sweden Belgium Bulgaria Vanuatu Hungary Lao PDR Jamaica Slovenia Romania Denmark Australia Lithuania Maldives Bahamas Malaysia Colombia Barbados Dominica Viet Nam Viet Myanmar Argentina Cambodia Venezuela Nicaragua Guatemala Br. Virgin Is Virgin Br. Bangladesh Switzerland Luxembourg Netherlands Iran, Isl. Rep. New Zealand Rep. of Korea United States Macao, China Dominican Rep. United Kingdom Trinidad/Tobago Rep. of Moldova TFYR Macedonia 1999 2004 (increase since 1999) 2004 (decrease since 1999)

Table 2.9: Estimated numbers of out-of-school children by gender and region, 1999 and 2004

1999 2004 Total Male Female Total Male Female % % (000) (000) (000) Female (000) (000) (000) Female 77 million children World 98 172 40 717 57 455 59 76 841 33 252 43 589 57 are not enrolled

Developing countries 94 056 38 619 55 437 59 73 473 31 770 41 704 57 in school Developed countries 2 024 1 065 959 47 2 282 938 1 344 59 Countries in transition 2 093 1 034 1 059 51 1 086 545 541 50

Sub-Saharan Africa 43 289 20 368 22 922 53 38 020 17 914 20 106 53 Arab States 8 361 3 407 4 954 59 6 585 2 695 3 890 59 Central Asia 544 269 275 51 364 171 193 53 East Asia and the Pacific 6 827 3 381 3 446 50 9 671 4 757 4 914 51 East Asia 6 382 3 159 3 223 51 9 298 4 587 4 712 51 Pacific 445 222 222 50 373 170 203 54 South and West Asia 31 309 9 646 21 663 69 15 644 4 873 10 771 69 Latin America and the Caribbean 3 731 1 712 2 019 54 2 698 1 203 1 495 55 Caribbean 435 211 224 51 341 155 185 54 Latin America 3 296 1 501 1 795 54 2 358 1 048 1 309 56 North America and Western Europe 1 519 806 713 47 1 845 703 1 142 62 Central and Eastern Europe 2 592 1 129 1 463 56 2 014 936 1 078 54

Source: Annex, Statistical Table 5.

Further analysis in this section focuses Over the five-year period, the worldwide on the estimated 76.8 million children who in total is shown as declining very rapidly, by 2004 were not enrolled in either primary or almost 4% a year, from roughly 98.2 million secondary school, and on the global estimates to 76.8 million. Some three-quarters of the broken down by region for 1999 and 2004 decrease (16.7 million) occurred between 2002 (Table 2.9). and 2004 (Table 2.8). The number of out-of- Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 of-school children. absolute numberofout- countries withthehighest these arealsoamongthe and SaudiArabia.Sixof Ethiopia, Mali,theNiger d’Ivoire, Djibouti,Eritrea, Burkina Faso,Chad,Côte (over 40%)areBurundi, children outofschool of primaryschoolage the largestproportions 10. Thecountrieswith children in2004 were inNigeria, Pakistan, India out-of-school and Ethiopia numbers of The largest had morethan halfamillionchildrenofprimary which information ispublished,twenty-eight each exhaustive. tables, andthereforecannot be regardedas which isbasedoncountrydata inthestatistical included inthediscussion this subsection, or areinsufficientinconsistent.Theynot live incountrieswherethedataarenotavailable one-third ofallout-of-schoolchildrenworldwide China andtheSudan.Itisestimatedthatjustover Somalia andUganda.OthersincludeAfghanistan, Republic oftheCongo,Liberia,SierraLeone, African Republic,theCongo,Democratic Africa, includingAngola,Cameroon,theCentral Many ofthesecountriesareinsub-Saharan inconsistent withUnitedNationspopulationdata. detailed calculationsorwhoseenrolmentdataare that donotprovidesufficientinformationfor children outofschoolwasestimatedforcountries described above,theapproximatenumberof To arriveattheglobalandregionaltotals In whichcountries dothey live? from 59%in1999. children outofschoolin2004weregirls,down share hadfallento19%.Worldwide,57%ofall increasing to50%whileSouthandWestAsia’s 69%, butwithsub-SaharanAfrica’sshare combined sharehaddeclinedslightly,toaround (with 45%and31%,respectively).By2004,the quarters oftheworld’sout-of-schoolchildren West Asiawerehometomorethanthree- ending in2002(UNESCO,2005). Statistical Table12)to94%intheschoolyear education droppedfrom97%in1991(seeannex, populous country,wheretheNERinprimary Driving thistrendwasChina,theworld’smost from 6.4millionin1999to9.32004. increase inthenumberofout-of-schoolchildren, age population. context ofrelativelyhighgrowthintheschool million,inthe millionto38 and 2004,from43 achieved insub-SaharanAfricabetween1999 A substantial,thoughsmaller,reductionwas a verylargereductioninIndia(discussedbelow). millionin2004.Muchofthiswasdueto to 16 millionin1999 school washalvedfromaround31 database shows,thenumberofchildrenout was inSouthandWestAsia,where,theUIS country regions.Themostdramaticdecrease school childrenfellinalmostalldeveloping Part II.Monitoring EFA 30 Among the112developingcountries for In 1999,sub-SaharanAfricaandSouth East Asiawastheonlyregionthatsawan / CHAPTER 2 d’Ivoire, Mali,GhanaandMozambique. Arabia, theNiger,BurkinaFaso,Kenya,Côte India andEthiopia.TheywerefollowedbySaudi school childrenin2004wereNigeria,Pakistan, are available,thelargestnumbersofout-of- America andWesternEuropeisrepresented. every EFAregionexceptCentralAsiaandNorth a millionandchildrenoutofschool, Among thesixteencountrieswithbetweenhalf out ofschool,sevenareinsub-SaharanAfrica. millionchildren eight countrieswith1millionto2 about 23millionchildrenoutofschool.Ofthe a million.Fourcountriesaloneaccountedfor and intwelvecases,thecountrytotalwasover 2.7), school ageoutofin2004(Figure 500,000 out-of-school children, 2004 Figure 2.7: Developing countries withover below inBox2.1). Thenumberofout-of-school results ofanational surveyinlate2005(detailed figure islikelyanunderestimate, accordingtothe 15.1 millionto4.6million,although the2004 occurred inIndiabetween2002 and2004,from (Table 2.10). made insomeofthesecountriessince1999 Nevertheless, considerableprogresshasbeen Source: Note: U. R.Tanzania See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. out oftheglobalestimatedtotal76.8million. Mozambique Saudi Arabia Burkina Faso Iran, Isl.Rer. Côte d’Ivoire Philippines Colombia Myanmar Viet Nam Morocco Pakistan Among thecountriesforwhichreliabledata The largestreductionwasreported tohave Senegal Ethiopia These countriestogetheraccountfor43.3millionout-of-schoolchildren, Burundi Nigeria Ghana Guinea Yemen Turkey Kenya Nepal Annex, StatisticalTable 5. Brazil Niger Chad India Mali Iraq 0123456789 Out-of-school children(millions) 10 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 31

Table 2.10: Numbers of out-of-school children in selected increase opportunities and incentives for them countries in 1999, 2002 and 2004 (thousands) to re-enter the education system, which often necessitates new forms of provision. A second 1999 2002 2004 group is children who are likely to enrol but as Mali 1 113 1 089 1 172 late entrants, like many of their older brothers Côte d’Ivoire 1 253 1 144 1 223 Kenya 1 833 1 868 1 225 and sisters. The earlier discussion of intake rates Burkina Faso 1 205 1 264 1 271 showed that, particularly in Africa, a large Niger 1 393 1 381 1 326 proportion of children who enrol in primary school Ghana 1 329 1 307 1 357 are older than the official age when they do so. Saudi Arabia 1 345 1 371 1 630 The children in this group are ‘not yet in school’ Mozambique 1 602 1 572 1 089 rather than ‘out of school’. Of the children who do Ethiopia 4 961 4 633 3 615 not start school at the official age, however, many India … 15 136 4 583 Pakistan ……6 463 never enter. While some of the initiatives that are Nigeria ……8 110 required to entice children who have dropped out In Zambia 32 to come back to school may also be applicable of 100 primary Note: See source table for detailed country notes. to this group of children, additional measures Sources: Annex, Statistical Table 5; UIS database. school-age are likely to be necessary. In Zambia in 2002, for example, 68 of every 100 primary school age children were children were in school. Of the 32 not in school, not in school children was also reported to have fallen 8 had been enrolled and dropped out, 12 were significantly in Mozambique, and by one-third deemed likely late entrants and the remaining in Kenya. For Nigeria, which had the largest 12 were characterized as unlikely ever to enrol reported number of out-of-school children, there (UIS/UNICEF, 2005). are no estimates prior to 2004. Although the A breakdown of out-of-school children in 2004 NERs of the other seven countries in the table into the categories of dropouts, late entrants and improved, the number of out-of-school children never enrolled has been estimated by region. The increased slightly in four and decreased slightly analysis is dependent on age-specific enrolment in three. This highlights the fact that when fertility data supplied to the UIS by governments and the rates remain high, as in most countries of sub- results should be seen only as approximations. Saharan Africa, very large increases in the NERs Overall, of the roughly 76.8 million who were out are necessary if the absolute number of out-of- of school, 7.2 million had dropped out, 23.0 million school children is to fall significantly. were likely to enrol later and 46.6 million (roughly 61%) were unlikely ever to enrol, in the absence of Who are they? additional incentives. For every two boys unlikely To formulate effective policies to reduce the total ever to enrol there were nearly three girls. number of children who remain out of school, it The distributions of children across these is necessary to understand better who they are. categories vary substantially by region (Figure 2.8). Two sets of characteristics are relevant: In South and West Asia, around 75% are unlikely the numbers of children who (a) were initially ever to enrol and almost 14% are likely to enrol enrolled but dropped out, (b) are likely to be late. The proportion of those who will probably late entrants, and (c) are unlikely ever to enter enrol late is higher in sub-Saharan Africa: almost school unless new efforts are made; 28%. Overall, the proportion of children not in the dominant background characteristics school who are unlikely ever to enrol is greatest of out-of-school children. in the least educationally developed regions. These issues were partially addressed in the Conversely, in Latin America and the Caribbean UIS/UNICEF study (2005), whose results are and in East Asia and the Pacific the share of late reported here. New analyses based on that study entrants is much higher than that of those who are also presented. are not likely to enrol. Educational experiences. The children of Educational experiences vary by country primary school age who were not enrolled in within regions as well as by region. Figure 2.9 school in 2004 are not homogenous with regard to shows distributions for twenty countries, mostly schooling. Some were enrolled in primary school in sub-Saharan Africa. The contribution of late prior to that year, but dropped out. The challenge entrants varies significantly. In Kenya and for governments regarding this group is to Mauritania, this group appears to be the main 7

0 32 / CHAPTER 2

Part II. Monitoring EFA 0 2 Figure 2.8: Distribution of out-of-school children by exposure to school and by region, 2004

Enrolled but dropped out Expected to enter late Expected never to enrol

Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Arab States Arab States Central Asia Central Asia East Asia/Pacific East Asia/Pacific South West Asia South West Asia Latin America/Caribbean Latin America/Caribbean N. America/W. Europe N. America/W. Europe Central Eastern Europe Central Eastern Europe

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20406080100 0 20406080100 % of total number out of school % of total number out of school % of total number out of school Source: Bruneforth (2006b).

Figure 2.9: Distribution of out-of-school children in countries facing the greatest challenges, by exposure to school, 2004

Enrolled but dropped out Expected to enter late Expected never to enrol Kenya Kenya Rwanda Rwanda Mauritania Mauritania U. A. Emirates U. A. Emirates Mozambique Mozambique Ethiopia Ethiopia Chad Chad Ghana Ghana Namibia Namibia Burundi Burundi Guinea Guinea Education for All Global Monitoring Report Côte d’Ivoire Côte d’Ivoire Eritrea Eritrea Pakistan Pakistan Nigeria Nigeria Senegal Senegal Niger Niger Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Mali Mali Djibouti Djibouti

0 20406080100 0 20406080100 0 20406080 100 % of total number out of school % of total number out of school % of total number out of school

Source: Bruneforth (2006b).

contributor; in Ethiopia and Mozambique the most recent) for this purpose. In these countries, numbers of late entrants and of those who never 26% of all primary school age children were out enrol are similar; in the remaining six countries of school on average, the percentage was 24% for late entrants are a much smaller group; and, in boys and 28% for girls. The variation by gender, five of these countries, over three-quarters of however, proved to be the smallest among the those who were out of school in 2004 are unlikely characteristics investigated (Figure 2.10): gender, ever to enrol. residence, household wealth and mother’s Background characteristics. A disaggregation education. While 18% of primary-school age of out-of-school children on the basis of whether urban children were out of school, the share was they have ever attended school and, if not, 30% for rural children. Similarly, the likelihood whether it is likely that they will enter late is of being out of school was strongly influenced by useful for formulating differentiated policy the wealth of the child’s household. The rate was responses. A better understanding of the 12% for the children in the wealthiest one-fifth background characteristics of these children is of households, 25% in the middle fifth and 38% also useful. UIS/UNICEF (2005) used household in the poorest fifth. Finally, just 16% of children survey data for eighty countries (for 2001/02 or whose mothers had had some education were THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 33

Figure 2.10: Proportion of out-of-school among primary- is particularly large – Nicaragua, Peru and school-age children in eighty countries, by category Venezuela in Latin America; Indonesia in East Asia; Cameroon, Madagascar and Zambia in Male 24 sub-Saharan Africa; Algeria and Sudan in the Female 28 Arab States; and Kazakhstan in Central Asia. Urban 18 Mother’s education. On average a child whose Rural 30 Poorest 20% 38 mother has no education is twice as likely to Middle 20% 25 be out of school as a child whose mother has Richest 20% 12 some education. For South Asia and Latin Mother with no education 36 America, the multiple is close to 2.5, and in Mother with some education 16 twelve of the eighty countries it is 2.8 or higher. Total 26 A multivariate analysis was carried out with the data for sixty-eight countries to assess the 0 10203040independent effect of each separate variable. Share of out-of-school children in the primary-school-age population Having a rural rather than an urban background Girls are more was significant in thirty-one cases, being female Source: UIS/UNICEF (2005). likely never rather than male in thirty-nine cases, having a to attend school mother with some schooling in sixty-three cases and being poor rather than rich in sixty-five than boys themselves out of school, compared to 36% cases. More detailed studies were made of India, of those whose mothers had had no education. Indonesia, Mali and Nigeria. In addition to the Beyond these averages, the situation for each characteristics already mentioned, other groups characteristic varied by region and country: found to have a higher probability of being out of Gender. While 117 girls were not in school for school were, for India: orphans, child labourers, every 100 boys, their exclusion was particularly children of scheduled tribe households and those marked in the Arab States (134), and South and residing in particular states; for Indonesia, West Asia (129), and in individual countries members of households with a large number such as Yemen (184), Iraq (176), India (136) and of children, and those in particular regions; for Benin (136). Conversely, in Latin America and Mali, child labourers and those living in certain the Caribbean, for every 100 boys out of school regions; and, for Nigeria, children from male- there were 96 girls. headed households and those residing in the Place of residence. The share of children north. out of school was at least twice as large in A more recent analysis of who attends rural areas as in urban areas in twenty-four school and who does not in eight countries in of the eighty countries analysed. Burkina Faso, sub-Saharan Africa looked at the backgrounds Eritrea, Ethiopia and Nicaragua showed the of children who have reached the ‘official’ age largest differences. Because of the large size of for completing primary education but have never rural populations, inequalities in access result attended, and are very unlikely ever to do so. in the vast majority of out-of-school children Table 2.11 shows the results. being from rural households. Over 80% of out- Except in Namibia, girls are more likely never of-school children in sub-Saharan Africa and to attend school than boys; and in all countries South Asia live in rural areas. The share in rural and poorer children are more likely never some individual countries is even higher: to attend than urban and wealthier children. Ethiopia (96%), Burkina Faso (95%), Malawi While the gender differences are relatively small, (94%), Bangladesh (84%) and India (84%). those based on residence and, particularly, on Household wealth. Everywhere, the impact of household wealth are very wide. Even in countries household wealth on access to education is such as Ghana, Kenya and Mozambique, where large for boys and girls alike: children from the attendance rates average over 85%, the chances poorest 20% of households are three times as of a poor child not having attended school are likely to be out of school as children from the at least eight times those of a child from the wealthiest 20%. The impact is particularly large wealthiest group of households. in the Arab States and smallest in Central and It is possible to move beyond the rural-urban, Eastern Europe. There are countries in most male-female and poorest-richest dichotomies regions where the gap between rich and poor and examine the impact of several variables at Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 related to wealth related to place and mother’s are stronger of residence and gender than those Disparities education Sources: in eightsub-Saharan African countries Table 2.11: Percentages of children whohave never attended school, by background characteristics, Richest 20%ofhouseholds Poorest 20%ofhouseholds Urban Rural Male Female hsttldfessgiiatyfo hto . million This total differs significantly from thatof 4.6 school inamajority of states), equalto 6.1% of theagegroup. were 6to 10years old(the official agerange for primary million,or6.9% of the agegroup. Ofthese, 7.813.5 million indicated thatthenumberhadalmost been halved to aged 6to 13were outof school in2002. The 2005 survey millionchildren State governments hadestimated that25 out of school, by grade. disability; and(d) thenumberof children whohaddropped disabilities whowere attending andnotattending school, by management andgrade; (c) thenumbers of children with ‘Muslims’); (b) thedistribution of enrolment by school ‘scheduled tribe’, ‘scheduled caste’, ‘other backward castes’, state, classified by genderandsocial category (for instance, agegroups ineach children atage5andinthe6-10 and 11-13 objectives were to estimate (a) thenumbers of out-of-school in 2005 (Social andRural Research Institute, 2005). The independent survey of 87,874 households, undertaken The Government of Indiacommissioned anationwide Box 2.1: InIndia,anindependentsurvey profiles out-of-school children Bruneforth (2006 children outofschool(Bruneforth,2006 have eitherhighnumbersorproportionsof once. Thiswasdoneforeighteencountriesthat Part II.Monitoring EFA 34 gender. than thoserelatedtoplaceofresidenceand to wealthandmother’seducationarestronger In almostallthecountries,disparitiesrelated rate increases,buttheycanstillbesubstantial. the disparitiesdecreaseasnetattendance lowest inBurundi,GhanaandKenya.Overall, Faso, Ethiopia,GuineaandtheNiger greatest discrepancieswerefoundinBurkina quintile withamotherwholackseducation.The attend schoolthanaruralgirlfromthepoorest an educatedmotheris126timesmorelikelyto urban boyfromthewealthiestquintileandwith results aretroubling.Forinstance,inGuinea,an / CHAPTER 2 a ); DemographicandHealthSurveys2003forBurkinaFaso,Ghana,Kenya,MozambiqueNigeria2001Mali;2000Ethiopia ukn aoEhoi hn ey aiMzmiu aii Nigeria Namibia Mozambique Mali Kenya Ghana Ethiopia Burkina Faso 603. . . 2425171.6 43.6 12.3 1.7 26.5 9.8 18.1 2.6 24.9 2.5 7.1 7.5 23.3 8.0 4.7 32.4 19.7 74.6 12.8 35.8 18.7 3.0 69.0 23.5 51.4 5.3 65.9 3.9 8.8 37.8 7.8 6.3 8.9 35.7 19.7 82.8 13.6 17.2 14.9 26.0 64.3 78.3 53.8 20.2 62.1 70.9 58.1 65.7 c ). The The variations by social group were muchlarger thanthose while inrural areas they are 6.8% for boys and9.1% for girls. areas. In urban areas the rates for boys andgirlsare similar areas of 7.8% issignificantly higher thanthe4.3% inurban rates of 6.2%for boys and7.9% for girls. The rate inrural in India.The 6.9% rate for out-of-school children reflects in linewithpractice by thenationalandstate governments This analysis focuses onresults for the6to 13agegroup, had never enrolled. reported to have beenenrolled butdropped out, while68% Resource Center, 2005). Ofthose outof school, 32% were national survey organized by Pratham, alarge NGO(Pratham 14.0 millionout-of-school children resulting from aseparate 13.5 millionfigure for ages 6to 13isclose to anestimate of and differences inschool agepopulationestimates. The recorded intheschool statistics reported to theUIS, attendance reported inthehousehold survey andenrolment Possible reasons includedifferences between school 2.10.out-of-school children shown for 2004 inTable functioning well. indication thateducationsystemsarenot in manycountriesaroundtheworldarean of graderepetitionandthelowretentionrates primary schoolisequallyso.Thehighincidence through thegradesandultimatelycomplete but ensuringthatpupilsprogresssmoothly Increasing accesstoschoolisanimportantstep, and completion: still aconcern schoolPrimary progression in school(Box2.1). encourage morechildrentoenrolandremain are providingnewguidanceforprogrammesto a surveyofout-of-schoolchildren.Thefindings the GovernmentofIndiarecentlycommissioned In additiontotheongoingUIS/UNICEFwork, and Namibia. THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 35

Grade repetition world, the highest repetition rates are usually Although grade repetition rates depend partly found in grade 1. For example, in Nepal 43% on promotion policies,11 the high incidence of pupils repeat this grade, compared with 11% of repetition in some countries also reflects for grade 5. Grade 1 repetition rates close to 30% Grade repetition insufficient mastery of the curriculum by pupils or more are also found in Brazil, Guatemala, the reflects the and the low quality of education they receive. Lao People’s Democratic Republic and several quality of primary Reducing repetition should be made a policy countries in sub-Saharan Africa. priority. The incidence of grade repetition partly education In more than half of the 148 countries for reflects the quality of primary education, yet the which data are available, the share of primary high repetition rates for grade 1 in many countries school pupils who repeated a grade in 2004 also raise the issues of school transition and was less than 5%, having decreased – often readiness. Indeed, for most of these countries, considerably – since 1999 (see annex, Statistical particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa, a link Table 6). In several countries, the decline can be made between the high repetition rates, resulted from initiatives to improve quality, particularly in the first years of primary education, as reflected in national targets to reduce grade and low participation rates in pre-primary repetition (Table 2.12). However, repetition education (see Chapters 5 and 7 on the remains widespread in many parts of the world, relationship between ECCE and primary school including sub-Saharan Africa, where part of the readiness). education community considers it an appropriate way to help students in difficulty (Bernard et al., School retention and completion 2005). In more than half the sub-Saharan African All children should remain long enough in school countries (particularly the French-speaking to master the curriculum and thus acquire at 11. While grade repetition ones), the percentage of repeaters is close to or least basic literacy and numeracy skills. Several is an indication of pupils’ progress or even above 20%. In Equatorial Guinea it is 40%, more factors determine the levels of retention and, achievement, it also than three times the level in 1999. In other more generally, completion. Children leave school reflects wide variation in countries’ educational regions, grade repetition is much less frequent, prematurely for a variety of reasons, including the approaches and sometimes cultures although there are exceptions such as Brazil costs of schooling, the need to supplement family (Bernard et al., 2005). Some countries (21%) and Nepal (23%). income or take care of siblings, unfriendly school automatically promote Repetition rates vary by grade. In the majority environments (particularly for girls) and poor pupils, while others use more stringent of countries, particularly those in the developing education quality. achievement criteria.

by gender or place of residence: the out-of-school rates Pradesh (1.1 million), Rajasthan (0.8 million), Jharkhand were 10.0% for Muslims, 9.5% for scheduled tribes, 8.2% (0.6 million), and Assam, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh for scheduled castes, 6.9% for other backward castes and with around 0.5 million each. The situation varies not only 3.7% for the remaining social groups. Another focus of the across states but also within them. In 48 out of 598 districts survey was the schooling experiences of disabled children. nationwide, over 50,000 children are out of school. Ten Around 4.3% of all out-of-school children are disabled. states have at least one of these districts, but the majority Of all disabled children, 38.1% are not attending school. are in Bihar (20), Uttar Pradesh (15) and West Bengal (4).

Variations in the rates of out-of-school children across the More detailed estimates of the likelihood of being out of country are wide. They are highest in north-central and school depending on individual background characteristics north-eastern India. Among the major states, the rates are and state of residence were calculated. For instance, over highest in Bihar (17.0%), Jharkhand (10.9%), Assam (8.9%), 30% of rural Muslim children are out of school in Bihar, West Bengal (8.7%), Madhya Pradesh (8.6%), Uttar Pradesh around 17% in Jharkhand, 13% in Uttar Pradesh and 11% (8.2%) and Rajasthan (6.9%). By contrast, in the south, some in West Bengal. Scheduled caste children have out-of-school states appear to have virtually achieved universal schooling rates of 22% in rural Bihar and 26% in rural Jharkhand. for 6- to 13-year-olds: Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Of the major states, West Bengal has the highest rate for record out-of-school rates between 0.5% and 2.1%. Almost scheduled tribe children: 16%. Perhaps surprisingly, the half of all children out of school live in Bihar (3.2 million) and numbers of scheduled caste and Muslim boys who are out Uttar Pradesh (3.0 million), but seven other states have at of school are higher than those for girls. This is not the case least half a million each: West Bengal (1.2 million), Madhya for other backward castes or scheduled tribes. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 grade. entrance ageforthat population oftheoretical percentage ofthe expressed asa regardless ofage, entrants tothegrade, total numberofnew grade ofprimaryisthe 12. TheGIRtothelast Table 2.12: Changes inpercentage of school primary repeaters between 1999and2004 inrelation to nationaltargets Sources: Note: Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean East Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa Peru Nicaragua Mexico Haiti Costa Rica Brazil Cambodia Yemen Tunisia Saudi Arabia Oman Morocco Egypt Togo South Africa Mozambique Guinea Ethiopia Democratic Rep.oftheCongo Côte d’Ivoire Burkina Faso Benin The tableshowsonlythosecountrieswherethepercentageofrepeaterswasabout5%orabovein1999.Seesourcefordeta Annex, StatisticalTable 6;UNESCO-IIEP(2006). education. intake rate Arab States(80%) andsub-SaharanAfrica(57%) regions except forSouthandWestAsia(82%), the education isclosetoorwellabove 90%inall developed countriesand84% indevelopingones. for thatgradewas86%worldwide, almost99%in percentage ofthepopulation attheofficialage entering thelastgradeofprimaryschoolasa completion. In2004thenumberofchildren is bydefinitiontheminimumprerequisitefor Part II.Monitoring EFA 36 the lastgrade. those whodidenrolbutnotreachorcomplete education becausetheyneverevenenrolledand between thosewhodonotcompleteprimary children ofacohortbutdonotdistinguish school. Manyaregrossratesthatincludeall not revealhowmanychildrenactuallycomplete primary schoolcompletionareproxiesthatdo Overall, accesstothelastgrade ofprimary Among theseproxymeasuresisthe Most indicatorscurrentlyavailabletomeasure / CHAPTER 2 12 (GIR) tothelastgradeofprimary Percentage ofrepeaters Being enrolledinthelastgrade …… …… … 027.6 10.2 20.6 10.6 24.0 4.3 24.6 7.3 10.6 18.3 13.2 12.4 23.8 5.2 20.6 31.2 10.5 10.4 7.0 23.8 26.2 17.6 11.4 13.0 23.7 17.7 1999 . 10.5 4.8 4.7 6.9 6.6 9.2 4.2 0.8 5.4 4.0 8.0 6.0 23.1 2004 Decrease therepetitionrateinprimaryeducationfrom10.6%2004to2%2015 Reduce therepetitionratebyonepercentagepoint,from7.1%to6.1%,endof2006/07schoolyear Reduce therepetitionratefrom25%in1997to10%2007 Correct theschoolflowwithinfiveyearsbyreducingrepetitionanddropoutrates Reduce therepetitionrateto5%atelementarystageby2015 Reduce therepetitionratefrom13.8%to9%in2008,5%2013and3%2015 Reduce theshareofrepeatersfrom22.5%to11%in2009and5%2015 Reduce theprimaryrepetitionratefrom15%to10%in2015 Reduce therepetitionratebyonepercentagepointperyear2015 Reduce theshareofrepeatersfrom17%in1997to10%2015 Reduce therepetitionratefrom20.4%in2001to10%2015 gross Mauritania (69%), Morocco(76%)andYemen Arab Statesfor whichdataareavailable,except Survival ratesareclosetoor above90%inmost median fordevelopingcountries isbelow80%. education ismorestrictlyenforced, whilethe countries, wherelegislationon compulsory are closeto100%indeveloped andtransition Statistical Table7).Survivalratestothelastgrade education reachedthelastgrade(seeannex, a cohortofpupilswhohadaccesstoprimary for theschoolyearendingin2003,about87%of completed theprimarycycle. school andassesseshowmanyofthem focuses onchildrenwhodidhaveaccessto to completetheireducation.Thisapproach education systemsretainchildren,enablingthem can alsobeusedtoassesstheextentwhich (see annex,StatisticalTable7). the Niger,GIRtolastgradeisbelow30% (Figure 2.11).InBurkinaFaso,Chad,Djiboutiand In halfofthe132countrieswithdataavailable Completion rates(proxiedbysurvivalrates) National targets iled countrynotes. THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 37

Figure 2.11: Gross intake rates to the last grade of primary Figure 2.12: Survival rates to last grade and primary education education by region, 2004 cohort completion rates for selected countries, 2003

Sub-Saharan Africa World 86 Rwanda Burundi Developing countries 84 Lesotho Developed countries 99 Madagascar Countries in transition 91 Ghana Swaziland Benin Sub-Saharan Africa 57 Niger Arab States 80 Togo Central Asia 99 U. R. Tanzania Eritrea East Asia/Pacific 97 Mali South and West Asia 82 Cape Verde Latin America/Caribbean 98 Cameroon Mauritius N. America/W. Europe 99 Centr./East. Europe 90 Arab States Mauritania Morocco 0 20 40 60 80 100 Saudi Arabia GIR to last grade (%) Algeria Lebanon Oman Source: Annex, Statistical Table 7. Kuwait Palestinian A. T.

Central Asia Mongolia (67%). In Latin America and the Caribbean, despite Azerbaijan Tajikistan National the overall high level of access and participation in Kazakhstan averages often primary education, school completion remains an East Asia and the Pacific hide significant important UPE challenge, with survival rates less Lao PDR than 83% in the majority of countries. In some Myanmar disparities countries of this region, including the Dominican South and West Asia among groups Nepal Republic, Guyana and Nicaragua, fewer than 60% Bangladesh within countries of the children who enter primary school go on to Latin America/Caribbean reach the last grade. Nicaragua Ecuador Sub-Saharan Africa combines low levels of Guatemala access to school with low completion rates: fewer Colombia Panama than two-thirds of pupils reach the last grade in Bolivia Dominica the majority of countries. In some countries, Costa Rica among them Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Malawi, Barbados

Mozambique, Nigeria and Rwanda, more than Centr./East. Europe 60% of pupils who have access to school fail to Belarus reach the last grade. While not at such levels, 02040 60 80 100 school retention is also low in several of the South Survival and completion rates % and West Asian countries with data available; dropout rates before the last grade are over 30% Cohort completion rates Survival rates to last grade in Bangladesh and Nepal, for example. Note: See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 7. National averages often hide significant disparities among groups within countries. As Box 2.2 shows, both boys and girls who live in rural areas, are from poor families or have rates13 for selected countries. In most, cohort 13. The cohort completion mothers with no education are more likely to completion rates are lower than survival rates rate focuses on children who had access to primary drop out of school than other children. to last grade. The gap is particularly significant education, measuring how (above twenty percentage points) in Burundi, many of them successfully completed it. It is computed How many children actually complete school? Guatemala, Mali, Mauritania, Nepal, the Niger, as the product of the percentage of graduates Not all children who reach the last primary grade the Palestinian Autonomous Territories and Saudi from primary school (the number of graduates divided necessarily complete it with success according Arabia. In the last two, almost all children reach by the number of new to national standards. Figure 2.12 displays both the last grade but only 55% and 48%, respectively, entrants to the last grade) and the survival rate to last survival rates to last grade and cohort completion actually complete primary education. grade. 7

0 38 / CHAPTER 2

Part II. Monitoring EFA 0 2 Box 2.2: Subnational disparities in school retention in Africa: who are the children who drop out of school?

In the majority of countries in More than half of all children In Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Kenya, sub-Saharan Africa, more than who left primary school in Mali and Mozambique, more than one-third of primary school pupils Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Kenya, 80% of rural children who left Recent progress drop out before they reach the Mali and Mozambique did so primary school did not complete in getting last grade, and thus become part without completing it. it, while the percentages were of the out-of-school population. Exceptions to this pattern less than half for urban children. children into Who are these children? The UIS were Ghana and Nigeria, In Ethiopia, rural children were school has has examined their situation. where more than 80% of the sixty times more likely to drop benefited girls Using data from Demographic children who left school did so out than urban children. and Health Surveys of Burkina by completing it (Figure 2.13). In Burkina Faso, Mali and in particular Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Subnational disparities in Mozambique, more than 90% Mali, Mozambique, Namibia and school completion were most of the children from the poorest Nigeria, and analysing the pronounced between children 40% of households (the two population of those aged 10 to from urban and rural areas poorest quintiles) who left 19 who attended school at some and between those from primary school did not complete point and dropped out without poorer and richer it. Dropout was also frequent for completing their primary backgrounds. Overall, poor or the richer population (top 40%), education, the study shows that: rural children were ten times but far less so. The differences more likely to drop out than between poor and rich children urban or richer children. were most pronounced in Mali

Figure 2.13: Primary school dropouts by background characteristics

Burkina Faso

Education for All Global Monitoring Report Ethiopia Ghana Kenya Mali Mozambique Namibia Nigeria

0 20406080100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Dropout rates (%) Dropout rates (%) Dropout rates (%) Dropout rates (%)

Male Urban Mother has education Richest 40% Female Rural Mother has no education Poorest 40%

Sources: Bruneforth (2006a); Demographic and Health Surveys 2003 for Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique and Nigeria; 2001 for Mali; 2000 for Ethiopia and Namibia.

Retention and completion rates often reflect to 0.94 in 2004 (Table 2.13). Rapid progress was the state of learning achievement. In some registered in developing countries, especially in countries, completion can also reflect tough those with both low enrolment ratios and high selection policies due to limited availability of gender disparities (Figure 2.14). This was the places at lower secondary level. To achieve UPE case in Benin, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, in such cases, it is necessary both to improve the Ethiopia, the Gambia, Guinea, India, the Islamic quality of primary education and to expand access Republic of Iran,14 Morocco, Nepal and Yemen. to secondary education (UNESCO, 2005). Overall, about two-thirds of the 181 countries for 14. In the Islamic Republic which 2004 data were available had achieved of Iran, the sharp increase in girls’ enrolment Gender disparities in primary education gender parity in primary education by that year; compared to 2003 is mainly due to a data Recent progress in getting children into school some, including the Cook Islands, Dominica, reporting change: the 2004 data include adult has benefited girls in particular, with the global Mauritania, Malawi, the Netherlands Antilles, literacy learners, who are gender parity index (GPI) for the primary Qatar and Uganda, achieved it between 1999 and mostly female and who were not included in 2003. education GER increasing from 0.92 in 1999 2004. On the other hand, in some countries GPIs THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 39

Table 2.13: Changes in gender disparities in primary education by region between 1999 and 2004

Gross enrolment ratios and Nigeria, where poorer children 1999 2004 were fifty to seventy-five times more Male Female Male Female likely to leave school without GPI GPI % % (F/M) % % (F/M) completion than rich children. World 104.2 95.8 0.92 109.3 103.0 0.94 Differences between children of mothers with and without some Developing countries 104.5 94.9 0.91 110.2 103.2 0.94 primary education were strong, Developed countries 102.0 102.5 1.00 102.1 100.6 0.99 but generally less important than Countries in transition 100.7 99.4 0.99 107.9 106.8 0.99 urban/rural or rich/poor differences. Sub-Saharan Africa 85.4 72.5 0.85 96.3 85.4 0.89 The exception was Kenya, where Arab States 94.6 82.4 0.87 98.0 88.3 0.90 school-leavers without educated Central Asia 99.2 98.2 0.99 102.3 100.9 0.99 mothers were fourteen times more East Asia/Pacific 112.4 111.4 0.99 113.9 112.5 0.99 likely to have dropped out than those East Asia 112.8 111.7 0.99 114.2 112.8 0.99 with educated mothers. Pacific 94.6 93.2 0.99 99.4 96.3 0.97 Gender disparities among children South and West Asia 102.6 84.6 0.82 114.7 104.8 0.91 who dropped out were very much Latin America/Caribbean 122.6 118.8 0.97 119.7 116.1 0.97 smaller than the differences related Caribbean 116.6 113.4 0.97 127.8 124.7 0.98 to the other background Latin America 122.9 119.0 0.97 119.4 115.8 0.97 characteristics, and were at a N. America/W. Europe 102.4 103.3 1.01 102.5 100.8 0.98 noticeable level only in Namibia. Centr./East. Europe 101.6 97.5 0.96 102.8 100.1 0.97

Source: Annex, Statistical Table 5.

Burkina Faso Ethiopia is part of an overall challenge involving the Ghana Girls face Kenya dismantling of gender discrimination and cultural barriers Mali of the economic and political disadvantages concerning their Mozambique confronting girls and women (UNICEF, 2005a). Namibia Gender disparities in primary education often roles in the home Nigeria stem from difficulties girls face in obtaining and in society 010020 40 60 80 access to school. Among these obstacles are Dropout rates (%) poverty and the related issue of direct and Total indirect costs of education, distance to school, language and ethnicity,15 social exclusion and the school environment.16 In addition, girls face cultural barriers concerning their roles in the home and in society. The challenge is to implement policies tailored to overcoming decreased during the period; they include Aruba, Chile, the Dominican Republic, Kenya, Saint Lucia, Tonga and the United Republic 15. In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, for example, girls from ethnic minorities are less likely to attend school (Lao PDR Ministry of of Tanzania. Education, 2004). Ethnicity, race and language as barriers to education are particularly apparent in Latin America and the Caribbean, where a Despite the overall positive trends, significant focus on educational disparity favouring girls can mask illiteracy and low gender disparities remain, mostly at the expense school participation among girls from indigenous groups. Bolivia, for instance, reports more girls in school than boys, yet more than half of girls. Such gaps are now concentrated in the of indigenous girls drop out of school before age 14 (UNICEF, 2005a: p.47). In Central and Eastern Europe, hidden within the statistics on girls’ Arab States, South and West Asia, and sub- education are disparities among ethnic minorities, with minority girls Saharan Africa, where overall about 90 girls are being less likely to enrol in school or to attend. ‘They face triple discrimination, as gender compounds the effects of bigotry and poverty’ enrolled in primary school for every 100 boys (UNICEF, 2005a: p.39). (Table 2.13). In Afghanistan, Chad, the Central 16. An Oxfam study in the Philippines noted that, despite the achievement of parity, gender bias against girls and women was ‘still deeply rooted in African Republic, the Niger, Pakistan and Yemen, the school system’, reflected in textbooks, school policies and practices, the GPIs are particularly low (under 0.75). For and curricula. Especially serious are school climates that ‘create conditions which engender violence and sexual harassment’. Expulsion these three regions, gender parity in education of pregnant teenage girls remains prevalent (Bernard, 2005). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 school, girlstend well asorbetter have access to access have to perform as Once they than boys U. R.Tanzania the countrieswith dataavailable,themedian to performaswell asorbetterthanboys.For 2005 made toimproveschoolsanitation (UNICEF, between 1999and2004after investmentwas girls increasedbytwenty-six percentage points success. InGuinea,forinstance,theGER countries aretakingupthechallengewith complete it(LewisandLockheed,2006).Some need togainaccessprimaryeducationand the educationalsupportandphysicalsafetythey multiple sourcesofexclusionandtogivinggirls Source: Note: Figure 2.14: Changes ingenderdisparities educationgross inprimary enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 Part II.Monitoring EFA 40 Equat. Guinea See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. Saudi Arabia Mozambique Burkina Faso Côte d’Ivoire Madagascar Syrian A.R. Cape Verde Mauritania Swaziland Cameroon Comoros Morocco Lebanon Once theyhaveaccesstoschool, girlstend Senegal Ethiopia Countries withGPIsbetween0.97and1.03inboth19982002arenotincluded.Nodata availableforPakistanandTurkey Djibouti Lesotho / CHAPTER 2 Gambia Malawi Uganda Burundi Zambia Nigeria Algeria Tunisia Guinea Yemen Eritrea Ghana Congo Sudan a Kenya Annex, StatisticalTable 5. Benin Qatar Egypt Niger Chad Togo Mali ). Iraq 0 A S 1999 ub- r ab S S aha 0.2 tates r an Af 2004 0.4 r i (increase since1999) c a P fGR GPIofGERs GPI ofGERs 0.6 0.8 1.0 line parity Gender 2004 1.2 (decrease since1999) 2005 enter theworkforce thanarepoorgirls(UNICEF, four timesmorelikelytoleave schoolearlyand it isespeciallysoforboys.In Chile, poorboysare completion isageneralissue, inmanycountries and theCaribbean,forexample, whileschool annex, StatisticalTable7).In Latin American likely tostayinschoollongerthanboys(see sub-Saharan Africa,girlsarealsogenerallymore Statistical Table6).Almosteverywhereexcept median formaleswascloseto5%(seeannex, was lessthan4%forfemalesin2004whilethe percentage ofrepeatersinprimaryeducation Papua N.Guinea Dominican Rep. Neth. Antilles Macao, China Iran, Isl.Rep. Cook Islands Afghanistan Br. Virgin Is El Salvador Saint Lucia Solomon Is Guatemala Cambodia a Tajikistan Mongolia Viet Nam Dominica Paraguay Thailand Pakistan Lao PDR Portugal : p.46). Estonia Turkey Tuvalu Tonga Aruba Nepal Brazil Palau Chile Cuba India Niue 0 Eu Latin Ame S East Asia/Pa C outh/West Asia ent r ope r al Asia 0.2 r i c a/ c ifi C 0.4 c a r in1999. ibbean 0.6 0.8 1.0 line parity Gender 1.2 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 41

Secondary education: Transition to secondary education continuing momentum High transition rates from the final grade of primary school to lower secondary education It is important to look at education beyond are common not only in developed countries the primary years, for several reasons. First, and those in transition, but also in developing Demand for secondary and tertiary education are part of the countries. The median rates in 2003 were close and participation EFA goals and the Millennium Development Goals to 90% or above in all but one region (Figure 2.15): in secondary of gender parity and equality. Second, achieving in sub-Saharan Africa the median was less than UPE not only creates demand for higher levels 65%. Countries with transition rates below 40% education has of education but also is itself dependent on include Burkina Faso, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, been growing progress in secondary and tertiary education for Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. an adequate supply of competent teachers and On the other hand, almost all those who reach for sufficient secondary school places to increase the last grade of primary education go on to the incentive to complete primary school. Finally, secondary education in Botswana, Ghana, in a world increasingly reliant on higher levels of Seychelles and South Africa. knowledge and training for successful social and While there are few variations in transition professional integration, many governments have rates across regions, the range within them made the universalization of basic education,17 is often substantial. The greatest differences rather than simply primary education, a medium- between the highest and the lowest country rates term objective. are found in Latin America and the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States region, Pressure from below with spreads of 87, 66 and 55 percentage points, Demand for and participation in secondary respectively. education have been growing as many countries In spite of the relatively high average transition are making good progress towards achieving rates in many regions, the level of participation UPE. In 2004, some 502 million students were in secondary education tends to be much lower enrolled in secondary schools, an increase of 14% than at primary level. Worldwide, the average over 1999. Increases were particularly significant secondary GER was 65% in 2004, compared with in the developing country regions, especially the 106% in primary education (see annex, Statistical Arab States, South and West Asia, and sub- Tables 5 and 8). The regional patterns of primary Saharan Africa: in each, the number of secondary and secondary enrolment ratios are similar, students rose by 20% or more during the period. though the disparities are greater for secondary

Figure 2.15: Transition rates from primary to general secondary education, median values and regional variations, 2003

Botswana Palestinian A.T. Kazakhstan Australia Sri Lanka Anguilla, Bermuda Ireland Croatia 100 Tajikistan Turkey 80

Israel

60 Maldives

Vanuatu 40 Mauritania Transition rates (%) Transition

U. R. Tanzania

20 Maximum Median Suriname Minimum 0 Sub-Saharan Arab Central East Asia/ South and Latin America/ N. America/ Centr./East. 17. The ISCED definition of Africa States Asia Pacific West Asia Caribbean W. Europe Europe basic education is primary education (first stage) plus Source: Annex, Statistical Table 7. lower secondary education (second stage). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Figure 2.17: Changeinsecondary gross enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 Source: by level andregion, 2004 Figure 2.16: Secondary gross enrolment ratios Part II.Monitoring EFA 42 Sources: Note: Latin America/Caribbean

GERs (%) GERs (%) N. America/W. Europe South andWest Asia 100 120 140 160 100 120 140 160 Sub-Saharan Africa Centr./East. Europe 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 / CHAPTER 2 See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. 0 0 East Asia/Pacific Annex, StatisticalTable 8. Annex, StatisticalTable 8;UIS database. Arab States Niger Central Asia 1999 Nepal S outh/West Asia Bangladesh Mozambique Regional average Burkina Faso 0

2004 India Total se Lowe Rwanda Uppe

Maldives 120 100 80 60 40 20 (increase since1999) r Chad r Gross enrolmentratios% se 30 Iran, Isl. Rep. se c onda c Uganda c onda onda 51 Guatemala Senegal r y r r y y

El Salvador Mali 66 Ecuador 73 Côte d’Ivoire Paraguay 86 90 Zambia 90 101 2004 Nicaragua Costa Rica Guinea (decrease since1999) Dominican Rep. Benin Panama Malawi

Venezuela S

Equatorial Guinea ub- Saint Lucia S

Regional average aha Colombia Latin Ame r terms, increaseswerehigherinsub-Saharan about one-thirdofthesecountries.Inrelative noteworthy, exceedingtenpercentagepointsin available (Figure2.17).Theincreaseswereoften increased in117ofthe150countrieswithdata Statistical Table8). than inCentralandWestAfrica(seeannex, particularly thoseinthesouthernhemisphere, developed inEnglish-speakingAfricancountries, among countries.Secondaryeducationismore levels ofparticipationconcealsignificantvariation Africa. Inthatregionasinothers,theoverall secondary GERsarebelow30%insub-Saharan much lowerintheremainingregions,and Participation ratesinsecondaryeducationare Asia, andLatinAmericatheCaribbean. found inCentralandEasternEurope, and NERsexceeding90%(Figure2.16). education, withGERsabove100%onaverage have almostachieveduniversalsecondary education. NorthAmericaandWesternEurope Mexico Ethiopia an Af Between 1999and2004,secondaryGERs High secondaryGERs(about90%)arealso Bahamas Eritrea r i c r i a c

Trinidad/Tobago a andthe Comoros Belize Zimbabwe Regional average

C Lesotho Argentina a r ibbean Neth. Antilles Togo Jamaica Swaziland Bolivia Ghana Chile Cameroon Guyana Gambia Peru Cuba Kenya Br. Virgin Is Gabon Aruba Namibia Grenada Botswana Brazil Mauritius Dominica Uruguay South Africa Barbados Seychelles THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 43

Africa, the Arab States, and East Asia and the In cross-national comparisons, secondary Pacific, with gains of 25% in the former region education is often considered as a whole. It is and about 13% in the latter two. Secondary GERs useful, however, to highlight what happens in doubled in some countries, including Ethiopia and its lower and upper stages, in terms of both Mozambique, albeit from low initial levels. Despite level of participation and gender disparities. the global trend, however, some countries In a context where achieving basic education recorded substantial decreases, among them (of often nine years) for all is becoming a goal The level of Malawi, the United Arab Emirates and Zimbabwe, in many countries, it is increasingly important participation in whose GERs declined by 15% or more. to differentiate between lower and upper lower secondary secondary education and to look more closely Two distinct stages at the lower level in particular. is much higher Secondary education is diverse. In addition to The overall secondary GERs discussed than in upper being subject-focused, in contrast to primary above mask sometimes substantial disparities secondary education, it consists of two levels. Lower between lower and upper secondary education. secondary (ISCED level 2), which is usually The level of participation in lower secondary considered the second stage of basic education, is much higher than in upper secondary, with is generally designed to continue the basic worldwide average GERs of 78% and 51%, programmes of the primary level, and its last respectively, in 2004 (see annex, Statistical year often coincides with the end of compulsory Table 8). As Figure 2.16 shows, this difference in education. Upper secondary (ISCED level 3) participation is found in all regions except North provides a bridge between school and university America and Western Europe, and Central and or prepares students to enter the labour market Eastern Europe; in those two regions the levels (UNESCO, 1997). of participation are very similar throughout

Arab States Central Asia East Asia and the Pacific 160 140 120 100 80

60 GERs (%) 40 20 0 Fiji Iraq Niue Palau Egypt Qatar China Oman Tonga Japan Sudan Jordan Samoa Yemen Kuwait Tunisia Kiribati Bahrain Georgia Djibouti Vanuatu Lao PDR Lebanon Morocco Australia Malaysia Viet Nam Viet Mongolia Myanmar Tajikistan Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Philippines Mauritania Kazakhstan Cook Islands Saudi Arabia New Zealand Macao, China U. A. Emirates Palestinian A. T. Syrian Arab Rep. Republic of Korea Brunei Darussalam Papua New Guinea Regional average Regional average Regional average

North America and Western Europe Central and Eastern Europe 160 140 120 100 80

60 GERs (%) 40 20 0 Italy Israel Spain Latvia France Cyprus Ireland Greece Finland Iceland Croatia Austria Estonia Canada Belarus Albania Ukraine Norway Belgium Sweden Bulgaria Portugal Hungary Slovakia Slovenia Romania Denmark Germany Lithuania Switzerland Luxembourg Netherlands United States Rep. Moldova Czech Republic United Kingdom TFYR Macedonia Regional average Regional average 1999 2004 (increase since 1999) 2004 (decrease since 1999) Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 secondary enrolment. one-third) oftotal significant share(about does TVErepresenta Cameroon andRwanda available, onlyin which 2004dataare African countriesfor 19. Amongsub-Saharan the UISdatabase. 18. Thesedataarefrom a gapbetween what islegally compulsory and whatis the reality There is ten percentagepointsbetween1999and2004. the otherregions,thoughratiodidincreaseby was 73%in2004,comparedwith90%orabove Africa, wheretheaverageGERinbasiceducation far away.Thisisparticularlysoforsub-Saharan in manycountries,universalparticipationisstill education) isincreasinglybecominganobjective (combining primaryandlowersecondary the countriesineachcase. education compulsory–fewerthan40%of the fewestcountriesmakinglowersecondary (Figure 2.15).Theyarealsotheregionswith with GERsin2004of64%and36%,respectively of participationinlowersecondaryeducation, Africa aretheregionswithlowestlevels enforcement feasible. in lowersecondaryschooltomakesuch enforced andwhetherthereareenoughplaces two issues:whetherthelawsaresufficiently legally compulsoryandwhatistherealityraises between 20%and60%.Thisgapwhatis secondary isofficiallycompulsory,theGERsvary Mauritania, MoroccoandYemen,wherelower participation averagesarebelow80%.InDjibouti, secondary educationcompulsory,actual while threeoutoffourArabStatesmakelower high, withGERsabove90%in2004.Bycontrast, education isindeedcompulsoryandparticipation and EastAsiathePacific,lowersecondary countries inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean, countries, allcountriesintransitionand80%of supposed tobeuniversal.Inalldeveloped which meansparticipationatthatlevelis lower secondary(seeannex,StatisticalTable4), quarters ofthem,compulsoryeducationincludes making educationcompulsory.Inaboutthree- the statisticaltables,192reportedhavinglaws percentage points. comparison, theglobalaverageistwenty-seven Caribbean (thirty-onepercentagepoints);by percentage points)andLatinAmericathe high inEastAsiaandthePacific(forty-two differentials betweenthetwolevelsareespecially participationrate secondary education.The Part II.Monitoring EFA 44 worldwide in2004, around10%wereenrolled in 500 millionstudents insecondaryeducation and vocationaleducation(TVE). Ofthemorethan academically orientedprogrammes andtechnical Secondary educationtypically includesboth Technical andvocational education Overall, whileuniversalbasiceducation South andWestAsia,sub-Saharan Of the203countriesorterritoriescoveredin / CHAPTER 2 18 and WestAsia,sub-SaharanAfrica, It ismuchlesscommoninCentralAsia,South Netherlands Antilles,PanamaandSuriname. enrolment insome,includingHonduras,the representing about40%oftotalsecondary Latin AmericanandCaribbeancountries, is verydiverse.TVEwellestablishedinmany However, thesituationindevelopingregions compared with8%inthedevelopingworld. about one-fifthoftotalsecondaryenrolment, Eastern Europe,whereTVEstudentsrepresent developed countries,especiallyinCentraland enrolment inTVEprogrammesishighermore TVE (seeannex,StatisticalTable8).Overall, in secondary education Gender disparities secondary enrolments,onaverage. representing between1%and6%oftotal are enrolledfor every100boys. Lesotho andSuriname), roughly120girls (Dominican Republic,Honduras, Kiribati, 100 boys;bycontrast,infive other countries are enrolledatsecondarylevel forevery Guinea, TogoandYemen),fewer than50girls of girls.Infivecountries(Afghanistan, Chad, tend tobemorepronouncedthanthoseinfavour Overall, genderdisparitiesinfavourofboys several LatinAmericanandCaribbeancountries. observed indevelopedcountriesaswell girls, whiledisparitiesattheexpenseofboysare those wheredisparitiesareattheexpenseof overall secondaryenrolmentratiostendtobe girls areatadisadvantage.Countrieswithlow the expenseofboysastherearecountrieswhere there areasmanycountrieswithdisparitiesat the expenseofgirls.Atsecondarylevel,however, In primaryeducationtheyarenearlyalwaysat complex insecondaryeducationthanprimary. Jordan, Mauritius,Qatar,SwazilandandTunisia. includes afewcountriesfromotherregions: America andWesternEurope.Thelistalso Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean,North and EasternEurope,EastAsiathePacific, Table 8).MostofthesecountriesareinCentral it insecondaryeducation(seeannex,Statistical primary education,onlyone-thirdhavereached are availablehaveachievedgenderparityin two-thirds ofthecountriesforwhich2004data secondary thaninprimaryeducation.Whileabout differences inparticipationlevelsaregreater the genderdisparities.Almostinvariably, The higherthelevelofeducation,greater Patterns ofgenderdisparitiesaremore 19 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 45

The average GPI for secondary education the only developed country where a similar as a whole often hides substantial differences percentage is found (20%), at least among between upper and lower secondary. Figure 2.18 countries for which data are available. Women (see p. 48) shows that gender gaps, when they are well represented in these programmes. exist, are often wider in upper than lower Their share in ISCED 4 enrolment was above secondary. In countries where gender disparities 50% in the majority of countries with data affect female students, most of which are in the available for 2004, and above 60% in one-third Arab States, South and West Asia, and sub- of them (see annex, Statistical Table 8). Saharan Africa, girls’ share of enrolment is lower at the upper secondary level. Similarly, gender disparities in favour of girls in developed Tertiary education: enrolments countries and in many countries of Latin up but access still limited America and the Caribbean are usually more pronounced at the upper secondary level. Tertiary education is linked to the EFA goals in Gender disparities in secondary education, at least two ways: as a component of the gender particularly those affecting girls, stem from equality goal and as an important provider of disparities in primary education. In countries teachers and administrators. Worldwide, some where girls have limited access to primary 132 million students were enrolled in tertiary school, especially those in South and West Asia, education in 2004, about 40 million more than and sub-Saharan Africa, this disadvantage in 1999. Three-quarters of the growth took place persists through secondary education, even in developing countries, where the total number Worldwide, when girls do as well as, or outperform, boys, of tertiary students rose from 46 million in 1999 some 132 million as seen earlier. Indeed, the gap tends to widen to 76 million in 2004 (see annex, Statistical students were between the lower levels of schooling and upper Table 9). East Asia, led by China, accounts for enrolled in tertiary secondary. As previous editions of the EFA about 60% (18 million) of the increase. Global Monitoring Report have indicated, factors Figure 2.19 indicates that participation in education in 2004, such as puberty, pregnancy and early marriage, higher education is on the rise in almost all about 40 million as well as household and societal factors, have countries for which data are available. GERs more than in 1999. a strong influence on gender patterns for upper increased by more than two percentage points Three-quarters of secondary school participation and retention. between 1999 and 2004 in two-thirds of the the growth took Gender disparities in favour of girls are 119 countries with data. Increases of more than place in developing linked to girls’ tendency to perform better than ten percentage points were observed in more boys, to their lower repetition rates and higher than thirty countries, mostly developed countries countries graduation rates, and to their leaving the school and countries in transition. However, large system later (UNESCO, 2005). This phenomenon increases were also recorded in several is becoming increasingly common around the developing countries, including China, Macao world and requires policy attention if the goal (China) and Mauritius, all of which more than of gender parity is to be fully achieved. doubled their participation level during the period. Post-secondary non-tertiary education Despite the continuing expansion of tertiary In many countries, particularly developed ones, education worldwide since 1999, only a small some graduates of secondary schools enrol in share of the relevant age group has access to programmes that prepare them for specific this level (UIS, 2006a). The world tertiary GER occupations. These programmes, which are not was around 24% in 2004, but participation varies part of tertiary education, are classified at ISCED substantially by region. In North America and level 4 and often last less than two years. In the Western Europe, the average GER was around countries where these programmes exist, 70%; in Central and Eastern Europe and in the enrolment is seldom more than 10% of total Pacific it was around 50%. In the Arab States, secondary enrolment, though in some small Central Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, and Latin developing countries, such as the British Virgin America and the Caribbean, the participation Islands, Dominica, Jamaica, Seychelles, and the level was between 20% and 28%. It is much Turks and Caicos Islands, enrolment in ISCED lower in South and West Asia (10%) and sub- level 4 programmes is equivalent to one-fifth to Saharan Africa (5%). two-thirds of secondary enrolment. Ireland is Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 (GPI of0.72). at theexpenseofwomen gender disparitiesfound Guatemala arehigh available, onlyin the regionwithdata 20. Amongcountriesof more prevalent education than at lower levels disparities are in tertiary Gender in LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean much variation,however.Ingeneral, thesituation 0.78 in1999.Developing-country regionsdisplay males in2004:theoverallGPI was0.87,upfrom female participationremained belowthatof occurred indevelopingcountriesovertheperiod, 1999. Incontrast,whilesomeimprovement situation ofmaleshastendedtoworsensince among females(theaverageGPIis1.27),andthe participation intertiaryeducationishigher In developedandtransitioncountries, data areavailable(seeannex,StatisticalTable9). and Peru,outofthe148countriesforwhich2004 exists onlyinAndorra,Cyprus,Georgia,Mexico education thanatlowerlevels.Genderparity Gender disparitiesaremoreprevalentintertiary different patterns indifferent regions Gender disparities level: attertiary Part II.Monitoring EFA 46 with GPIsgenerally wellabove1.Incontrast, Pacific isclose tothatofdevelopedcountries, / CHAPTER 2 Source: Note: Figure 2.18: Genderdisparities insecondary gross enrolment ratios by level, 2004 S. Tome/Principe Equat. Guinea Mozambique Burkina Faso South Africa Cape Verde Countries withGPIsbetween0.97and1.03atalllevelsarenotincluded.Seesourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. Seychelles Zimbabwe Swaziland Botswana Mauritius Annex, StatisticalTable 8. Comoros Namibia Rwanda Senegal Ethiopia Lesotho Gambia Malawi Uganda Burundi Nigeria Zambia Guinea Eritrea Ghana Congo Kenya Benin Niger Togo Mali 0.0 S ub- Lowe . . . 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 20 S aha and inthe r se r an Af c onda GPI ofGERs r i c r a y 1.0 line parity Gender . 1.4 1.2 Total se in gettingmorewomentertiaryeducation. Tanzania andYemen,aremakinggreatprogress Malawi, Morocco,Uganda,theUnitedRepublicof Ethiopia, theLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic, Macao (China).Others,however,including including Burundi,theCongo,Gambiaand developing worldisworseninginsomecountries, presence ofwomenintertiaryeducationthe Saharan Africa(0.62).Thealreadymarginal GPI: 0.88),SouthandWestAsia(0.70)sub- observed inmostcountriesofEastAsia(average gender disparitiesfavouringmenaremainly h 034Rpr argued, genderparityin the 2003/4Report are inschool.This isgenderparity.However, as and ensurethatequalnumbers ofgirlsandboys still toincreasegirls’access to education, In muchoftheworld,main challengeis what aboutgenderequality? Beyond genderparity: . 1.8 1.6 c onda r y Palestinian A.T. U. A.Emirates Uppe Saudi Arabia Syrian A.R. Libyan A.J. Kazakhstan Mauritania Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Tajikistan Mongolia Morocco Armenia Lebanon Djibouti Bahrain r Algeria Tunisia Kuwait Yemen Jordan se Sudan Oman Qatar Egypt Iraq c onda 0.0 A C r ent r y . . . 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 ab r S al Asia tates GPI ofGERs 1.0 line parity Gender . 1.4 1.2 . 1.8 1.6 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 47

East Asia/Pacific Latin America/Caribbean N. America/W. Europe Guatemala Cambodia Gender Gender Switzerland Gender St Vincent/Grenad. Lao PDR parity parity Malta parity St Kitts/Nevis Papua N. Guinea line line Austria line Turks/Caicos Is Solomon Is Belgium Dominica Vanuatu Germany Ecuador Netherlands Viet Nam Saint Lucia Cyprus Australia Cuba Norway Indonesia Barbados United Kingdom Cook Islands Paraguay Andorra Thailand Peru El Salvador Sweden Marshall Is Jamaica Denmark Macao, China Aruba Finland Brunei Darussalam Anguilla Spain Palau Belize Luxembourg Fiji Costa Rica Iceland Tonga Br. Virgin Is Ireland New Zealand Trinidad/Tobago Portugal Philippines Mexico Argentina Samoa Centr./East. Europe Panama Turkey Malaysia Grenada Kiribati Bulgaria Neth. Antilles Albania Bahamas TFYR Macedonia South/West Asia Montserrat Ukraine Afghanistan Cayman Is Lithuania Brazil Pakistan Belarus India Colombia Venezuela Poland Nepal Nicaragua Romania Iran, Isl. Rep. Uruguay Slovakia Sri Lanka Dominican Rep. Croatia Bangladesh Honduras Estonia Maldives Suriname Rep. Moldova

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 GPI of GERs GPI of GERs GPI of GERs

Lower secondary Total secondary Upper secondary

education does not necessarily mean gender Education quality must There is also equality. There is no gender equality, for accompany expansion no gender equality example, when women tend to be concentrated when sexual in certain tertiary disciplines, such as education, Because the EFA goal on the quality of education violence and social sciences, humanities and health. (discussed at length in the 2005 Report) involves harassment exist Evidence shows that men’s educational school inputs, processes and outcomes, past underachievement, where it exists, has not yet editions of the EFA Global Monitoring Report in schools resulted in their falling behind economically have employed multiple indicators on education and politically, and that women may need still expenditure, teachers (qualifications, deployment higher qualifications than they have thus far and availability) and pupil/teacher ratios to attained in order to compete successfully for monitor international patterns and longitudinal jobs, equal pay and managerial positions trends. These indicators represent key enabling (UNESCO, 2003a). There is also no gender factors to ensure that students learn well in equality when sexual violence and harassment school and that such learning is relevant and exist in schools, when teaching materials are valuable to their lives. biased and when teachers are not aware of A new report by the World Bank Independent gender issues. Public policies aimed at Evaluation Group (2006) underscores the fact that promoting gender equality in education thus countries have placed high priority on increasing need to go beyond initiatives that focus enrolment in primary schools, but have paid far exclusively on enrolment ratios (UNESCO, 2005). less attention to the crucial issue of whether Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Palestinian A.T. Source: Note: Figure 2.19: Changes gross intertiary enrolment ratios between 1999and2004 Brunei Daruss. U. A.Emirates U. R.Tanzania Macao, China Rep. ofKorea New Zealand Saudi Arabia Mozambique Burkina Faso South Africa Madagascar Libyan A.J. Cape Verde Kazakhstan Mauritania Philippines Kyrgyzstan Azerbaijan Zimbabwe Swaziland Cameroon Botswana Mauritius Tajikistan Mongolia Viet Nam Malaysia Australia Comoros Morocco See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. Thailand Armenia Lebanon Lao PDR Vanuatu Rwanda Ethiopia Senegal Djibouti Lesotho Georgia Gambia Malawi Uganda Burundi Bahrain Nigeria Algeria Tunisia Kuwait Angola Yemen Eritrea Annex, StatisticalTable 9. Congo Japan Tonga China Qatar Egypt Mali Iraq 20 S A East Asia/Pa C 1999 ub- ent r ab 30 r S S al Asia aha Gross enrolmentratios(%) tates 05 07 09 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 r an Af 2004 c ifi c r i (increase since1999) c Part II.Monitoring EFA 48 a / CHAPTER 2 TFYR Macedonia Trinidad/Tobago United Kingdom Czech Republic Neth. Antilles Rep. Moldova United States Iran, Isl.Rep. 2004 Netherlands Luxembourg Switzerland Bangladesh El Salvador Costa Rica Argentina Honduras Colombia Lithuania Paraguay Denmark Romania Slovenia Slovakia Hungary Uruguay Bulgaria Portugal Sweden Belgium Panama Norway Ukraine Albania Belarus Canada Mexico Estonia Austria Croatia Finland Iceland Greece Ireland Cyprus Bolivia Poland Turkey France (decrease since1999) Malta Latvia Aruba Spain Israel Brazil Chile Cuba Italy 20 Latin Ame S N. Ame C ent outh/West Asia 30 r al andEaste Gross enrolmentratios(%) r 05 07 09 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 i c r a/W. Eu i c a/ C a r r r ibbean n Eu ope r ope school qualityandlearningoutcomes. not necessarilyimplyatrade-offwithimproving Expanding accesstoprimaryschoolingdoes Learning outcomes qualifications. aspects ofteacherdeployment,trainingand comparative assessments)anddocuments assessments alongwithnewfindingsfrom (through thedevelopmentofnational and nationaldevelopment. have afargreaterimpactonpovertyreduction investment inprimaryeducationwouldthus they doonaccess,withtheideathatcurrent the sameemphasisonlearningoutcomesas that countriesanddevelopmentpartnersplace children arelearningadequately.Itrecommends the cognitivedimension. In practice,however, student learningismainlyassessedinterms of broader skillsandcompetencies;attitudes, valuesandbehaviours. 21. Intheory,learningoutcomesincludesubject-based knowledge; Evaluation ofEducationalAchievement (IEA);the those oftheInternationalAssociation forthe international andofficialassessments, notably Report regions andsystems. to comparepupilachievementsacrossschools, system, butalsotoaddressissuesofequityand strengths andweaknessesofaneducation they take,canbeusednotonlytoevaluatethe points. Learningassessments,whateverform (public) examinationsatmajorsystemtransition tests, performanceandportfolios);external based assessmentsofpupilprogress(basedon assessments (accordingtogradeorage);school- subject-specific achievements;standards-based skills; nationalmonitoringofthecurriculumand assessments ofacademicachievementorbasic forms: forexample,participatingincomparative outcomes overtime.Thismonitoringtakesmany learning andgaugingprogressin have committedthemselvestoassessingstudent Since the1990s,moreandgovernments of learning achievement The move towards nationalassessments training. improving pre-serviceandin-serviceteacher allocation ofresourcesacrossschoolsand to basiceducation,increasingefficiencyinthe for example,byshiftingmorepublicexpenditure can effectivelyenhancebothaccessandquality– This sectionlooksatlearningoutcomes Previous editionsofthe have discussedtheresultsofcomparative EFA GlobalMonitoring 21 Policies THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 49

OECD-sponsored Programme for International Table 2.14: Countries classified according to their experience Student Assessment (PISA); and regional studies with pupil learning assessments in Latin America (LLECE), sub-Saharan Africa Participated in regional Did not participate in regional (SACMEQ and PASEC) and the Pacific Islands or international assessment or international assessment (PILL). Region-based assessments have the Conducted A: Argentina, Bolivia, Botswana, C: Bangladesh, Gambia, advantages of providing more culturally valid tests at least Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Myanmar, Pakistan, Viet Nam of pupil knowledge and skills than do international one national Cuba, Djibouti, Dominican Rep., assessment Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, assessments, and of being more adaptable to India, Jordan, Lebanon, Malawi, emergent policy needs (Scheerens, 2006). Mexico, Morocco, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, With no new comparative assessments Qatar, Republic of Korea, available, this Report looks at national Singapore, South Africa, Uruguay, assessments of learning outcomes, an especially Venezuela, Zambia significant development since the Dakar Forum No evidence B: Belize, Bahrain, China, D: Angola, Bahamas, Barbados, of having Honduras, Iran (Isl. Rep.), Benin, Burundi, D. R. Congo, (Encinas-Martin, 2006). In some countries, conducted Kenya, Malaysia, Mozambique, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, national assessments have developed in parallel a national Philippines, Russian Federation, Jamaica, Kazakhstan, Liberia, assessment Seychelles, Syrian A. R., Thailand, Libyan A. J., St Kitts and Nevis, with comparative regional or international Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, St Lucia, St Vincent and the assessments; in others, they are in lieu of them Turkey Grenadines, Sri Lanka, Sudan, (see below). Suriname, Tajikistan National assessments22 are meant to provide national stakeholders with systematic information Note: More complete data on national learning assessment activity would alter this classification for certain countries. Source: Encinas-Martin (2006). about the status of students’ learning outcomes and the extent to which students attain nationally defined standards or proficiencies. National assessments describe levels of pupil achievement, and foreign languages, mathematics and not of individual students but of a whole education sometimes natural and social sciences, system, or some clearly defined part of it (e.g. rather than assessing cross-curricular fourth grade pupils or 9-year-olds) (UNESCO-IIEP, knowledge, skills or competencies as does, 2001). The scientific validity of national for instance, PISA. assessments varies greatly making it difficult to Assessments are usually carried out by a unit compare learning achievements among countries. in the ministry of education or by a national Nevertheless, national learning assessments are research institute. a potentially useful tool to monitor educational The annex presents only the basic parameters quality, address national policy issues and pinpoint of national learning assessments; information is areas for government attention and programme limited regarding which stakeholders are involved, intervention. how transparent the compiled data are and The annex to this Report contains an whether assessments influence policy initiatives up-to-date overview of national assessment and reforms. It seems possible, however, to and evaluation activities undertaken by countries roughly gauge the degree of a country’s 22. National learning in sub-Saharan Africa, the Arab States, Asia and commitment to assessing student learning by assessments are known under a variety of names, the Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. cross-referencing its participation in regional or including system assessments, learning Although incomplete, this review of national international assessments, on the one hand, and assessments and assessments underscores the diversity of national assessmentss on the other. Table 2.14 assessments of learning outcomes. developing country efforts, definitions and shows a sampling of countries with strong 23. Table 2.14 is incomplete experiences in this area. Several trends are commitments to pupil learning assessments because in some cases there was no information noticeable: (found in category A) as well as some of those on national assessments, National learning assessments in many with the least experience (category D).23 and in others the available information was incomplete, countries have developed quite recently In sum, national assessments of learning ambiguous or both. Some countries have undertaken (mainly since 1995, especially after 2000). outcomes have become much more prevalent national assessments but no Most countries assess student learning in the in developing countries in recent years. Despite information about the studies has been published or primary grades only, though some in Asia and the enormous heterogeneity of such assessments otherwise made available. Encinas-Martin (2006) Latin America monitor progress at both primary as regards target population, frequency, policy provides references for or links to all relevant and secondary level. relevance, scientific rigour and other factors, they preliminary or final project Assessments are curriculum-based and clearly indicate an important new development in documents, and discusses the next steps in this subject-oriented, typically covering official national activities to monitor education quality. research project. 7

0 50 / CHAPTER 2

Part II. Monitoring EFA 0 2 New findings from comparative assessments: reduce pupil achievement in mathematics and which factors count the most? science, especially among boys. The negative While no new comparative assessments have impact of after-school paid employment pertained become available, new analyses of previous to both high-income and middle-income countries assessments have been published that add to (Post and Ling Pong, 2006). the understanding of which factors contribute to successful learning. Equity issues: how much does student Socio-economic background. Recent studies achievement vary? of pupil achievement continue to validate a core In addition to comparing countries according to conclusion from earlier research: pupils from mean achievement levels, it is equally important higher socio-economic backgrounds (those having to examine the distribution of learning outcomes It is important a parent with post-secondary education or one within countries. If the spread of student to examine the with high occupational status, or having grown achievement around some mean level is extensive distribution up in a home with many material possessions, in a given country, that is indicative of low of learning especially books) tend to perform better than education equity (Scheerens and Visscher, 2004). outcomes those from disadvantaged socio-economic One way to address the equity dimension of backgrounds. The positive relationship between pupil achievement is by examining socio- within countries measures of socio-economic status and student economic gradients of learning achievement, also achievement obtains in all countries, at all age known as the ‘learning bar’ (OECD, 2004b; Willms levels, and for all subjects and competencies. and Somers, 2001). Recent comparative studies Some recent studies have paid greater have shown that the level, slope and strength of attention to the influence of other family socio-economic gradients of pupil achievement characteristics on pupil achievement, by vary by country and by school (Mullis et al., 2003; examining immigrant status, language spoken OECD, 2004b; Willms, 2006). For example, among at home, family structure and paid employment. non-OECD countries in the Progress in Immigrant or native. The OECD (2006)24 International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) Education for All Global Monitoring Report reported that the achievements of immigrant and among fourth graders, some (including Belize, non-immigrant children on PISA tests of reading, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Israel, Romania and mathematics and science in 2003 differed widely Singapore) had socio-economic gradient lines in many national school systems. In Austria, with steep slopes, indicating high inequality. Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Countries or territories with relatively flat slopes Netherlands and Switzerland, learning disparities (i.e. low inequality) included Colombia, Hong Kong between 15-year-old immigrant students and (China), Kuwait, Latvia and the Russian Federation native students of the same age were significant, (Willms, 2006). and there were few disparities between first and Using data for fourteen sub-Saharan African 24. The study focused second generation immigrants. In Australia, countries from the second study by the Southern on seventeen countries and territories with large Canada and New Zealand however, the and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring immigrant populations: Australia, Austria, achievement gap between immigrants and Educational Quality (SACMEQ II), Ross et al. (2005) Belgium, Canada, non-immigrants was small and not considered compared national school systems according to Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg, significant (after adjustment for socio-economic performance (mean achievement levels) and the Netherlands, New 25 Zealand, Norway, Sweden, status). Public policy has clearly made a equity (socio-economic gradients of learning Switzerland and the United States, among difference in these three countries. achievements). As Figure 2.20 shows, Kenya, OECD countries, along Language and family structure. In eighteen Mauritius and Seychelles were the best with three non-OECD PISA participants: of twenty high-income countries, students who performers, with the highest average scores the Russian Federation, Hong Kong (China) and spoke the test language at home had significantly in mathematics. However, a different picture Macao (China). higher scores in mathematics literacy than emerges when considering the equity aspect of 25. The study suggested students whose home languages differed from achievement (the slope and length of the socio- that achievement disparities between the test language (Hampden-Thompson and economic gradient lines). On this dimension, immigrant and native Johnston, 2006).26 There was also a significant Kenya, Mozambique and the United Republic of adolescents were more likely to be found in highly achievement gap between students from two- Tanzania were the top performers, with relatively streamed education systems. parent homes and students living in other family flat gradients and above-average mathematics

26. These findings are structures in fourteen of the twenty countries. achievement. By contrast, Mauritius, Seychelles based on PISA 2003 and Paid employment. After-school activities and South Africa showed steep socio-economic obtain after adjusting for socio-economic status. involving paid employment have been found to gradients, indicating more inequitable systems THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 51

with large gaps in mathematics achievement Figure 2.20: Mathematics achievement scores of grade 6 pupils in relation among pupils from different socio-economic to socio-economic status, SACMEQ II (2000–2002) backgrounds.27 Mathematics scores Teaching staff: numbers 660 and qualifications count Mauritius Providing an education of good quality means teachers must be recruited in adequate numbers, 610 trained to be effective and deployed where they are needed. This subsection discusses mainly Seychelles primary school teachers, but also highlights differences with secondary teachers when 560 relevant. ECCE personnel, particularly pre- Kenya primary teachers, are discussed in Chapters 6 Mozambique and 8. South Africa U. R. Tanzania 510 Swaziland Pupil/teacher ratios are improving Botswana Uganda in most countries but are still high in many Zanzibar The pupil/teacher ratio (PTR)28 measures the (U. R. Tanzania) 460 number of teachers in relation to the size of the Lesotho pupil population, and so has implications for Namibia Malawi quality. Generally, ratios above about 40:1 make it Zambia difficult for teachers to maintain adequate quality 410 standards. In 2004, the ratio was below 40:1 in -120 -80 -40 0 40 80 120 160 200 84% of the 174 countries with data available Socio-economic level of pupils’ home environment (Table 2.15). Most of the 28 countries that have a Note: The socio-economic gradient lines summarize the regression relationships between the mathematics ratio exceeding 40:1 are in sub-Saharan Africa, achievement of grade 6 pupils and the socio-economic level of their home environments. The achievement scores in mathematics were transformed to an overall SACMEQ mean of 500 and standard deviation of 100. although a few are in East Asia and the Pacific, The socio-economic level of the home environment was assessed via a composite index combining and South and West Asia. Among the regions, information on the parents’ education and characteristics such as house construction, home lighting and possessions. The index scores were transformed to an overall SACMEQ mean of zero and a standard sub-Saharan Africa has the highest median PTR deviation of 100. That is, the index scores were ‘centred’ so that a value of zero represented the socio- (44:1), and country variations within the region are economic level of the home environment of an ‘average SACMEQ pupil’. Source: Ross et al. (2005). particularly striking: the Congo, Ethiopia and Malawi, for example, have ratios of 70:1 or above, while Seychelles has a ratio of 14:1. Chad, Mozambique, Afghanistan and Rwanda also have Between 1999 and 2004, PTRs declined in high ratios, between 62:1 and 69:1. Such high most regions and countries with data available ratios impede learning. (107 out of 146 countries). The decline was most PTRs are higher at primary level than at prevalent in East Asia, the Arab States, and North lower-secondary (except in East Asia, where they America and Western Europe (regions that already are similar at both), and lower-secondary PTRs had PTRs below 30:1). A slight decline occurred in tend to be higher than those at upper-secondary sub-Saharan Africa, but in the Pacific and in South level, particularly in South and West Asia, and and West Asia, PTRs increased, reaching a sub-Saharan Africa (see annex, Statistical median of 40:1 in the latter. Ratios increased in Table 10A). more than one-fourth of the 146 countries, with the highest percentage increases in Afghanistan (80%), Bahamas (40%), United Republic of 27. Ross et al. (2005) and Lee et al. (2005) discuss the complex reasons behind the large variations in student achievement. Tanzania (39%) and the Congo (35%). Countries

28. PTRs discussed in this Report are based on headcounts of pupils with high ratios in 2004 also had high ratios in and teachers. They are calculated by dividing the total number of pupils 1999 (see annex, Statistical Table 10A). enrolled at a specified level of education by the number of teachers at that level. The PTR depends on an accurate count of teachers who have For particular countries, two trends are 29. As the 2006 Report teaching responsibilities. In some countries, some teachers may work pointed out (UNESCO, 2005), part-time, and figures for full-time teachers are not always available. evident. First, the substantial increases in primary the number of teachers in In addition, forms of school organization such as multigrade and double 29 Afghanistan did not grow to shifts may not be taken into account when calculating the PTR, which is a PTRs in Afghanistan, the United Republic of keep up with a large influx of national average. Further, data on teachers may include other education Tanzania, the Congo and Kenya were new pupils, particularly girls personnel, and separate data on the latter are difficult to collect in an (who were previously internationally comparable way (UNESCO, 2005). accompanied by increases in the total number excluded). 7

0 52 / CHAPTER 2

Part II. Monitoring EFA 0 2 Table 2.15: Distribution of countries by pupil/teacher ratios at primary level by region, 2004

RegionBelow 15 15-24 25-39 40-55 55 and above

Sub-Saharan Seychelles Mauritius Botswana, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Rwanda, Africa Namibia, Swaziland, Lesotho, Niger, Togo, Mozambique, Sao Tome and Principe, Guinea, Eritrea, Zambia, Chad, Malawi, Ghana, South Africa, Burkina Faso, Uganda, Ethiopia, Congo Comoros, Gabon, Burundi, Benin, Mali, Nigeria, Gambia, Madagascar, Cameroon, (37) (1) (1) Zimbabwe, Kenya (13) U. R. Tanzania (16) (6)

Arab States Qatar, Saudi Arabia, U. A. Emirates, Bahrain, Syrian A. R., Algeria, Palestinian A. T., Mauritania Kuwait, Lebanon Oman, Jordan, Iraq, Tunisia, Egypt Morocco, Sudan, Djibouti (18) (4) (8) (5) (1)

Central Asia Azerbaijan, Georgia Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Mongolia (7) (2) Kyrgyzstan (4) (1)

East Asia/ Tokelau, Niue, Brunei Cook Islands, New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji, Republic Timor-Leste Cambodia Pacific Darussalam Marshall Islands, Malaysia, Japan, of Korea, Myanmar, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Indonesia, Tonga, Lao PDR, Philippines, Thailand, China, Nauru, Viet Nam, Papua New Guinea (27) (3) Macao (China), Kiribati (15) (7) (1) (1)

South/West Maldives, Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal India, Bangladesh Afghanistan Asia (9) Sri Lanka (3) (3) (2) (1)

Latin America/ Bermuda, Cuba, Turks and Barbados, Argentina, St Kitts/Nevis, Guyana, Chile, Jamaica, Caribbean Caicos Islands, Cayman St Vincent/Grenad., Trinidad/Tobago, Paraguay, Colombia, Islands, British Virgin Grenada, Aruba, Dominica, Mexico, Guatemala, Islands, Anguilla Suriname, Bahamas, Neth. Antilles, Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Montserrat, Brazil, Peru, Honduras, Nicaragua Costa Rica, Saint Lucia, Ecuador, (37) (6) Belize, Bolivia, Panama (21) (10)

N. America/ Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Finland, Canada, Cyprus, United W. Europe Italy, Greece, Luxembourg, Kingdom, Ireland, France, Malta Education for All Global Monitoring Report Portugal, Belgium, Israel, Andorra, Switzerland, Austria, Spain, Germany, (22) United States (15) (7)

Centr./East. Hungary, Poland, Latvia, Slovenia, Belarus, Russian Europe Estonia, Lithuania Federation, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Ukraine, Republic of Moldova, (17) (5) TFYR Macedonia, Albania (12)

Total: 174 36 71 39 20 8

Note: Countries are listed in ascending order of PTR. The total number of countries in each category is given in parentheses. See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 10A.

Primary school of teachers, but these were insufficient to match Afghanistan, where about forty-four girls teaching is increases in enrolment. Second, some countries, to 100 boys are enrolled in primary school). predominantly including Mali and the Syrian Arab Republic, At higher levels of education, women’s share did manage to decrease PTRs despite large of the teaching force is much lower, particularly a female enrolment increases. in tertiary education, where teaching is occupation predominantly a male occupation (Figure 2.21). Female teachers In most regions, primary school teaching is Teacher training and qualifications predominantly a female occupation. The Teacher training. Figures showing the proportion exceptions are South and West Asia, and sub- of trained teachers can give some indication of Saharan Africa (see annex, Statistical Table 10A). the likely quality of teaching staff. In about half In Afghanistan, Benin, Chad and Togo, women the countries with 2004 data available (seventy- make up one-fifth or less of the primary teacher six for primary and fifty-nine for secondary), one- workforce, and gender disparities persist in fifth of teachers in both primary and secondary primary school participation (particularly in education lacked pedagogical training. At primary THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 53

Figure 2.21: Percentage of female teachers in primary, Figure 2.22: Changes in the percentage of trained primary secondary and tertiary education, regional medians, 2004 teachers between 1999 and 2004

Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Namibia Arab States Rwanda Central Asia Benin South Africa East Asia/Pacific Ghana Eritrea South and West Asia Lesotho Latin America/Caribbean Seychelles Botswana N. America/W. Europe Swaziland Centr./East. Europe Zambia Niger 0 20 40 60 80 100 Mauritius

Percentage of female teachers Arab States Algeria Tertiary Secondary Primary Oman Kuwait Source: Annex, Statistical Tables 10A and 10B. Central Asia Kyrgyzstan The percentage Azerbaijan of trained primary East Asia and the Pacific teachers has level in Lebanon, Nepal and Togo, fewer than Myanmar half are trained according to national standards. Lao PDR increased slightly Viet Nam In Lebanon and Nepal this is the result of an Macao, China since 1999 in half of the countries increase in the education level required for South and West Asia teacher training (UIS, 2006b), compounded in Nepal with data Bangladesh Lebanon with a very low PTR (14:1). Most of the Maldives eleven countries in the world where more than Latin America and the Caribbean 50% of secondary teachers are untrained are in Guyana Latin America and the Caribbean30 (see annex, Bahamas Dominica Statistical Table 10B). Trinidad/Tobago The percentage of trained primary teachers Br. Virgin Is Anguilla increased slightly between 1999 and 2004 in Panama about half of the forty-one countries with data Nicaragua Turks/Caicos Is available (see annex, Statistical Table 10A). The Barbados improvement was remarkable (more than a 60% Costa Rica Montserrat increase) in Bahamas, Namibia and Rwanda Aruba Cuba (Figure 2.22). In Namibia, this improvement was Neth. Antilles accompanied by an increased supply of teachers Central and Eastern Europe and hence a reduction in the PTR, although half Croatia of Namibia’s teaching force still has no training. In Rwanda and Bahamas, growth in the 0 20 40 60 80 100 proportion of trained teachers (by 68% and 62%, Trained teachers (%) respectively) was paralleled by a decrease in 1999 2004 (increase since 1999) 2004 (decrease since 1999) absolute numbers of teachers, the latter trend Note: Within each region, countries are listed in ascending order of the proportion leading to a deterioration in the PTR (which rose of trained teachers in 1999. See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 10A. 31 by 14% and 40%, respectively). 30. The eleven countries are The percentage of trained primary teachers Bangladesh, Belize, Burundi, Dominica, Grenada, Nepal, declined in fifteen of the forty-one countries Nicaragua, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the with data for the two years. The decline was the PTR increased. In Bangladesh, on the other Grenadines, Togo and the particularly high in Bangladesh, Nepal and the hand, the decrease in the percentage of trained United Arab Emirates. Niger. In Nepal and the Niger (which has a policy teachers was accompanied by a slight decline 31. Rwanda increased the proportion of trained teachers of hiring untrained teachers – para-professionals in the PTR. by reorganizing teacher training institutions, opening or para-teachers – to support an increase in the Teacher qualifications. Countries also differ new teacher training colleges enrolment ratio of more than 50%), not only did in terms of their teacher qualifications (Box 2.3). and subsidizing two church- based teacher training the proportion of trained teachers decline but The percentage of trained teachers as an institutions (UNESCO, 2005). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: secondary education. teachers have completed lower- Congo, for example, only57% of not meet therequirement. In the proportions of teachers whodo of these countries still have high low minimum qualification, some education isrequired. Despite this for instance, onlylower-secondary the United Republic of Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Mozambique and qualifications. IntheCongo, countries require lower minimum Asia andthePacific, afew In sub-Saharan Africa, andEast secondary level (Figure 2.23). completion of theupper- months to three years after qualifications ranging from six necessary minimumstandard tertiary qualification, withthe non-tertiary qualification ora requiring eitherapost-secondary, show amajority of countries primary teaching. The results standards qualification for according to theirminimum which itclassified countries special survey onteachers in In 2005, theUIScarried outa Box What does 2.3: ittake to beateacher? Acomparative perspective UIS (2006 and South WestAsia.InCentralandEastern especially insub-Saharan Africa,theArabStates, primary school-agepopulations upto2015, that somecountrieswillstill face increasing the UnitedNationspopulation estimatesindicates slowed worldwidesince1990, the2004revisionof Although therateofpopulation growthhas demographic patterns,whichdifferbyregions. Education systemsneedtoadaptchanging to reach UPEineach region? How many teachers are needed rather thaninactualnumbersoftrainedteachers. changes intheminimumteachingstandards percentage oftrainedteachersmaybedueto example ofLebanonshows,changesinthe in cross-countrycomparisons.Moreover,asthe indicator ofteacherqualityisthuslimitedutility Part II.Monitoring EFA 54 / CHAPTER 2 b : p.52). St Vincent/Grenad. Figure 2.23: Percentage of teaching primary staff having theminimumacademicqualification,2004 Saint Kitts/Nevis Antigua/Barbuda Guinea-Bissau U. R.Tanzania Equat. Guinea Mozambique Burkina Faso Sierra Leone Cape Verde Montserrat Nicaragua Cameroon Cambodia Viet Nam Dominica Maldives Grenada Lao PDR Vanuatu Rwanda Ethiopia Panama Gambia Burundi Uganda Nigeria Bhutan Congo Nepal China Benin Brazil Chad Mali Teachers withrequiredqualifications(%) 0 Upper secondary Lower secondary 04 08 100 80 60 40 20 and 4.0million teachersby2015.Somecountries, are currentlyemployed, orbetween2.4million an averageof6%moreteachers eachyearthan Sub-Saharan Africancountries willneedtorecruit achieve UPEwhilereducingtheir PTRsto40:1. will havetoproduceeachyear inorderto in numbersofteachersthatselected countries showsthepercentageincrease 2.24 Figure challenges andguaranteeUPEby2015? need toadaptrespondthesedemographic be moreorlessstable. Europe, theprimaryschool-agepopulationwill the Caribbean,andNorthAmericaWestern of school-agechildren.InLatinAmericaand growth willresultindecreasesthenumber Pacific, bycontrast,sharpdeclinesinpopulation Europe, CentralAsia,andEastAsiathe How willnationalteachingworkforces Serbia/Montenegro Papua N.Guinea Saudi Arabia Côte d’Ivoire Cook Islands Syrian A.R. Bangladesh Saint Lucia Kyrgyzstan Seychelles Swaziland Botswana Mauritius Tajikistan Indonesia Myanmar Barbados Lebanon Anguilla Senegal Georgia Lesotho Malawi Ukraine Guyana Belarus Zambia Algeria Tunisia Guinea Bolivia Eritrea Ghana Gabon Kenya Niger Togo Iraq Fiji Teachers withrequiredqualifications(%) 0 Post-secondary, non-tertiary 04 08 100 80 60 40 20 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 55

Figure 2.24: Annual percentage increase in numbers of primary teachers required to reach UPE in selected countries, 2004–2015

Sub-Saharan Africa S. Tome/Principe Tertiary Cape Verde Namibia Nigeria Kazakhstan Kenya Ghana U. A. Emirates Madagascar Argentina Cameroon Ecuador Zambia South Africa Togo Peru U. R. Tanzania Sudan Uganda El Salvador Rwanda Jamaica Gambia Trinidad/Tobago Comoros Zimbabwe Senegal Costa Rica Malawi Macao, China Guinea Benin Samoa Mozambique Chile Burundi Mongolia Ethiopia Bahamas Eritrea Cayman Is Mali Aruba Burkina Faso Azerbaijan Niger Bermuda Congo Croatia Chad Cuba Egypt Arab States Iran, Isl. Rep. Syrian A. R. Morocco Kuwait Jordan Neth. Antilles Egypt Oman Oman Philippines Iraq Suriname Kuwait Tonga Qatar Palestinian A. T. 0 20 40 60 80 100 U. A. Emirates Teachers with required qualifications (%) Saudi Arabia Mauritania

East Asia and the Pacific Brunei Daruss. Lao PDR Cambodia including Chad, the Congo, Burkina Faso and the Niger, will need to recruit at least 10% more South and West Asia Nepal teachers each year than are currently available to Bangladesh meet the goal by 2015. Meeting this tremendous Pakistan challenge may not be feasible in all cases, raising Afghanistan important questions about possible alternative Latin America and the Caribbean models of education. For other countries, the Bahamas Paraguay percentage increases needed may seem relatively Guatemala modest, but the absolute numbers involved are North America and Western Europe very high: Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Pakistan France and Saudi Arabia combined need more than United States 65,000 additional teachers per year (UIS, 2006b). Israel Luxembourg Although demographic patterns are important, Spain the issue of teacher shortages goes beyond Ireland demographics and leads to the question of 02468101214 whether increased public spending is feasible. Average annual increase (%) Opportunities in the labour market are opening up Source: UIS (2006b: Table A.2.6). worldwide. They offer new outlets for existing and Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 on average, thanhealth workers. the study also found that, overall, teachers were less absent, than publicschool teachers in the samevillage). Interestingly, where private-school teachers hadlower absenteeism rates likely to beabsent asthose inpublicschools (except inIndia, civil-servant teachers, andteachers inprivate schools were as Finally, contract teachers were more likely to beabsent than rates, asdidschools closer to ministry of education offices. Schools withbetter infrastructure had lower absenteeism or teacher inspections. opportunities inthearea orin-service orotherrecent training, was notcorrelated withteacher salaries, alternative salary less absent thanthose bornelsewhere. Teacher absenteeism Teachers whowere borninthearea where they taught were colleagues; andmore males thanfemales were absent. and olderteachers thanfor theirless educated andyounger recorded amonghead teachers, better-educated teachers the absences were unauthorized. More absences were On average, 19%of teachers were absent, andinmost cases those whowere working anothershift. on duty according to theschool attendance book,andexcluded full-time teachers whowere absent butwere supposed to be country from October 2002 to April2003. They counted the randomly selected publicandprivate primaryschools per researchers conducted unannounced visits to about100 In Bangladesh, Ecuador, India,Indonesia, Peru andUganda, Source: in sixdeveloping countries Box 2.4: Patterns of teacher absenteeism Chaudhury et al.(2005). teachers inruralareas(Mulkeen,2005).Insome areas, withseriousshortagesofqualified qualified teachersareusuallyfoundinurban several developingcountries,moreandbetter particular ethnicandsocialbackgrounds.In enrolment ofgirls,andteachersfrom of femaleteachersincountrieswithlow certain groups.Particularlyseriousareshortages quality. or materials,whichwouldjeopardizeeducation other pedagogicalcomponents,suchastextbooks An alternativewouldbetoreducespendingon achieve EFA(seeannex,StatisticalTable11). that needtoincreaseteachernumbers primary educationinamajorityofthecountries represent 75%ormoreofpublicexpenditureon could bedifficult,asteachersalariesalready retain teachers,butfinancingsuchincreases Salary increasesmaybeneededtorecruitand potential teachers,particularlyqualifiedones. Part II.Monitoring EFA 56 Some countrieshaveteachershortagesin / CHAPTER 2 programmes’. the umbrellaof‘learningandlife-skills of structuredlearningactivitiesthatcomeunder there isnocommonunderstandingofthetypes that meettheneedsofyouthandadults.Yet, ‘equitable access’tolearningprogrammes (Philander, 2006). mortality, health-relatedabsenteeism,orboth teacher supplythroughincreased countries, theHIV/AIDSpandemicisaffecting Campaign ForEducation,2006).Inseveral others faceproblemsofteachermigration(Global home ortojoinotherclasses(Box2.4).Still cause schoolstocloseandstudentsbesent countries, highratesofteacherabsenteeismcan fga 4 of goal To monitorEFAgoal3 programmes Learning andlife–skills combining goals3and4(UNESCO,2003 learning programmesforyouthandadults inamorequalitativeway, 2003/4 future anddevelopusefulwork-relatedskills” (UNESCO,2000 environment andneeds,helpthembecome activeagentsinshapingtheir Such opportunitiesshouldbebothmeaningfulandrelevanttotheir they need,theremustbearangeofoptionsforcontinuingtheirlearning. complete schoolwithoutacquiringtheliteracy,numeracyandlifeskills opportunity forongoingeducation.Forthosewhodropoutofschoolor for Actionstates(Paragraph36):‘Allyoungpeopleshouldbegiventhe 34. for alladults.’ 33. ‘Achieving…equitableaccesstobasicandcontinuingeducation programmes.’ are metthroughequitableaccesstoappropriatelearningandlife-skills 32. ‘Ensuringthatthelearningneedsofallyoungpeopleandadults competencies andoutcomesoflearning through ananalysisoflearningneeds,skills,key a frameworkforunderstandingthem,example One waytointerpretgoals3and4isconstruct Grasping theconcept and learning. links betweenformalandnon-formaleducation analysis alsoprovidesanopportunitytolookat and fragmentationofgoals34.Suchan tools thatreflectanunderstandingofthediversity and adults,usingmoreinterpretivemonitoring life-skills programmesavailabletoyoungpeople examine moresystematicallythelearningand approaching, itisincreasinglyimportantto widely recognized’(UNESCO, 2000 quality oflifeforindividuals, communitiesandsocietiesmustbe more sustainable livelihoods, goodhealth,activecitizenshipandtheimproved reduction strategies.Thevitalroleliteracy playsinlifelonglearning, integrated intothemainstreamofnational educationandpoverty continuing educationmustbegreatlyexpanded anddiversified, Under goal3theexpandedcommentaryofDakarFramework Under goal4thecommentarystates(Paragraph 38):‘Adultand EFA GlobalMonitoringReport 33 remains achallenge.Bothcallfor 34 With the2015targetyearquickly 32 a ). and thelatterpart opted toidentifyanddescribe a ). a ). The THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 57

activities.35 A second way is to deconstruct the Figure 2.25: Core features of learning and life skills programmes components of the goals, using a bottom-up, more inductive approach. This involves examining Types of learners: the categories of learning activities that are Young people, school leavers, learners with special needs, women, adults, identified by countries and regions themselves as rural/migrant populations meeting adult and youth learning needs. Previous Types of learning activities: editions of the EFA Global Monitoring Report, Adult basic education, life-skills programmes, while adopting this approach, have pointed to the livelihood skills/skills development, other nationally defined non-formal learning activities difficulty of arriving at an overview of who is doing Learners what in support of the learning needs of young Types of providers: L e s Community/mobile learning centres, schools, a e people and adults (UNESCO, 2002, 2003). Taking rn iti workplaces, media, libraries, private industry, ing activ this approach should involve examining both social partners, civil society, international non-governmental organizations Providers qualitative and (where available) quantitative data M o nt ni me Types of monitoring/assessment: at national level. More systematic monitoring at torin ess g and ass Management information system, inspection, country level should document youth and adult self-monitoring/peer review, external evaluation, learning from the perspective of provision, national/regional qualification systems, national evaluation participation and access, and should pose Source: Connal and Sauvageot (2005). fundamental questions, such as what the learning outcomes are and what actions countries are taking to include the excluded. Learners may be adults or out-of-school Box 2.5: Ethiopia’s first efforts to monitor youth re-entering basic education, or they may be provision and participation young people needing basic education, life-skills36 or livelihood skills. What characterizes the Ethiopia’s Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP III) calls for structured learning activities involved is a large increased access to adult and non-formal education in order to combat the diversity of provision and providers, including the problem of adult illiteracy. Ethiopia focuses on three types of activities: public, private and civil society sectors as sole alternative programmes for out-of-school children aged 7 to 14; literacy providers or in partnership. Figure 2.25 presents programmes for people over 15; and basic skills training for youth and a conceptualization of these categories. adults in Community Skill Training Centers (CSTCs). The youth and adult A first step in monitoring learning and life- functional literacy programme aims to reach 5.2 million learners by 2011, while some 143,500 adults are to be trained in various skills in the skills programmes is to investigate elements of country’s 287 CSTCs. The government will formulate policy, develop provision, participation and access to non-formal curricula and set standards for quality, professional assistance and access learning activities at national or subnational level. to school buildings. Civil society is being encouraged to provide non-formal Non-formal learning in Ethiopia is an interesting education services (Ethiopia, Ministry of Education, 2005). While ESDP III example because it is integrated into the national includes no key performance indicators for non-formal education, the Education Sector Development Programme Ministry of Education has begun collecting data on participants in the (Box 2.5). programmes.

Source: Shenkut (2006).

35. The Adult Literacy and Life Skills (ALL) survey and the OECD Definition and Selection of Key Competencies (DeSeCo) are examples of instruments developed to measure competencies. The ALL survey Instruments for monitoring learning builds on foundation skills, including prose literacy, document literacy, numeracy and problem-solving. Additional skills assessed involve and life-skills programmes familiarity with the use of information and communication technology (Statistics Canada/OECD, 2005). The DeSeCo framework goes beyond There are great variations among regions and assessment of skills. It defines ‘competencies’ as: ‘abilities to meet complex demands, by drawing on and mobilizing psychosocial resources countries when it comes to developing monitoring (including skills and attitudes) in a particular context’. Competencies systems for non-formal learning. The European are classified into three broad categories: using tools (e.g. language, technology) interactively; interacting in heterogeneous groups; and Union has made progress in identifying key acting autonomously (OECD, 2005b). competencies that can be integrated into Member 36. Life skills can be described as ‘a group of psychosocial competencies States’ employment policies. Competencies are and interpersonal skills that help people make informed decisions, solve problems, think critically and creatively, communicate effectively, build closely linked to developing a European healthy relationships, empathise with others and cope with and manage their lives in a healthy and productive manner’ (WHO, 2003). The Inter- Qualifications Framework (Council of the Agency Working Group on Life Skills in EFA arrived at a minimum consensus that life skills are not a domain or subject, but cross-cutting European Union, 2006). Botswana, Cape Verde, applications of knowledge, values, attitudes and skills that are important Namibia and South Africa have education policies in the process of individual development and in lifelong learning (UNESCO, 2004b). that build bridges between formal and non-formal Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 781 millionadults revision. based onthe2002 in the2006Reportwere while thedatapublished population estimates, the 2004revisionofUN 2.16isbasedon Table of adultilliteratesin 38. Theestimatednumber Republic ofTanzania. Jordan andtheUnited in Cambodia,India, studies havebeendone and theUIS.Diagnostic Lifelong Learning(UIL)) the UNESCOInstitutefor for Education(UIE,now the UNESCOInstitute with assistancefrom designed byUNESCO methodology was 37. TheNFE-MIS acquire minimal literacy skills have yet to young peopleand adults. of progressin meeting thelearningneedsof Report programmes. The2008 complexity ofmonitoringlearning andlife-skills than higher-levelaggregateindicators. access tolearningandeducationmoreeasily at lowerlevelscanrevealareasofinequityin Rao, 2004).Properlycollecteddisaggregateddata horizontal datasharingtakesplace(Mathewand flow verticallytohigherlevels,butvirtuallyno education andeachhasitsownsetofdata.These indicators. Manyagenciesprovidenon-formal where thereisagreatpotentialforusingthe developing NFEmonitoringfirstatdistrictlevel, be thatitismorerealistictostartsmallby policy fornon-formaleducation.Thelessonmay India’s approachtoEFAwaslackinginvisionand efficiency. Oneofthemainconclusionswasthat participation, input,process,output,outcomeand indicators wasdevelopedtomeasureaccessand religious educationandleisure.Asetofdraft generation training,non-formalhighereducation, education), lifeskills,ruraldevelopment,income out-of-school childrenandyouth(equivalency in NFEareassuchasliteracy,basiceducationfor and privateagenciesprovidinglearningactivities mapping exercisefoundtwenty-fivetothirtypublic non-formal education.TheAndhraPradesh methodologies forproducingnationaldataon comparable monitoringandevaluation tested andimplementedasetofinternationally Pradesh andMadhyaPradesh,havedeveloped, education (ConnalandSauvageot,2005). their ownconceptualframeworksfornon-formal level, andprovidecountrieswithatooltodefine incremental approach,startingatsubnational subnational level.Thestrategyistotakean by policy-makersandplannersatnational designed togeneratereliablestatisticsforuse using itonapilotbasis. has beendeveloped,andseveralcountriesare management informationsystem,orNFE-MIS, To improvethissituation,anon-formaleducation formal educationaregenerallydifficulttoobtain. and internationallycomparabledataonnon- 2006). recognize learningacquiredpreviously(Katahoire, frameworks andaccreditationsystemsthat establishment ofnationalqualification learning. Thepolicieshavefacilitatedthe Part II.Monitoring EFA 58 These examplesreflectsome ofthe Two pilotprojects,intheIndianstatesofAndra Overall, however,reliableandtimelynational / CHAPTER 2 will includeamoresystematic assessment 37 EFA GlobalMonitoring The NFE-MISis a problem. of individuals’literacyskills,thiswillremain more direct,ratherthanindirect,assessments literacy levelsinmostcountries.Untilthereare with cautionsincetheytendtooverestimate based onconventionalmeasures,mustbetreated current cross-nationalliteracydata,whichare emphasized, environments. Asthe2006Report some issuesaboutthemonitoringofliterate on adultandyouthliteracypatternsraises environments. Thissectionupdatesinformation adults, andmoreattentiontoliterate expanded literacyprogrammesforyouthand pronged strategy:UPEofgoodquality,greatly Monitoring Report Literacy wasthefocusof2006 Literacy: thechallengeremains numbers ofilliterates andthosewithrelatively change inthecountries withveryhighabsolute 2.17). of highpopulationgrowth(Table numbers ofilliteratescontinued torisebecause in thefirsttwooftheseregions, theabsolute literacy ratesoftenpercentage pointsormore Caribbean (70%).Despiteincreasesinadult Africa (61%),theArabStates(66%)and low inSouthandWestAsia(59%),sub-Saharan improved inallregions,butremainparticularly national literacyrate.Theaveragerates of almostthirteenpercentagepointsinthe million)inChina,andacorrespondingincrease 94 reduction inthenumberofilliterates(by from 67%to77%,mainlybecauseofamarked developing countriestheliteracyrateincreased literacy raterosefrom75%to82%.For by currentestimates(Table2.16). will declinebyonlyabout100millionworldwide, the numberofadultswithoutbasicliteracyskills programmes inthecomingdecade,by2015 effort tosignificantlyexpandadultliteracy international communityjointomakeaconcerted East Asia.Unlessnationalpolicy-makersandthe in SouthandWestAsia,sub-SaharanAfrica majority ofadultsdeniedtherighttoliteracylive changes inpopulationestimates. previously unavailabledataforAfghanistanand given inthe2006Reportreflectsinclusionof skills. Theincreasefromthefigureof771million women, haveyettoacquireminimalliteracy About 781millionadultsworldwide,64%ofthem Global patterns of adultliteracy Progress towardstheliteracy goalrequires Between 1990and2004,theglobaladult , whichadvocatedathree- 38 EFA Global The vast THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 59

Table 2.16: Estimated numbers of adult illiterates (age 15+) in 1990 and 2000–20041, and projections to 2015, by region

1990 2000-2004 2015 Percentage change Total Total Total % % % 1990 to 2000-2004 (000) Female (000) Female (000) Female 2000-2004 to 2015 World 874 019 63 780 657 64 684 160 65 -10.7 -12.4

Developing countries 857 407 63 770 255 64 674 244 65 -10.2 -12.5 Developed countries 14 855 64 9 062 63 9 318 75 -39.0 2.8 Countries in transition 1 757 78 1 340 76 599 61 -23.7 -55.3

Sub-Saharan Africa 132 597 61 143 885 61 168 007 59 8.5 16.8 Arab States 63 659 63 57 812 66 55 111 67 -9.2 -4.7 Central Asia 569 79 382 72 232 57 -32.8 -39.3 East Asia and the Pacific 232 691 69 125 359 71 80 765 71 -46.1 -35.6 East Asia …… 123 758 71 78 907 71 … -36.2 Pacific …… 1 600 57 1 858 54 … 16.1 South and West Asia 379 849 60 399 016 63 344 529 66 5.0 -13.7 Latin America and the Caribbean 41 838 57 38 572 55 26 225 54 -7.8 -32.0 Caribbean …… 35 637 55 25 198 54 … -29.3 Latin America …… 2 935 51 1 027 46 … -65.0 North America and Western Europe 11 324 64 6 312 62 2 422 63 -44.3 -61.6 Central and Eastern Europe 11 494 75 9 320 79 6 871 78 -18.9 -26.3

1. Data are for the most recent year available during the period specified. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 2.

Table 2.17: Estimated adult literacy rates (age 15+) in 1990 and 2000–20041, and projections to 2015, by region

1990 2000-2004 2015 Literacy rates (%) Literacy rates (%) Literacy rates (%) GPI GPI GPI Total Male Female (F/M) Total Male Female (F/M) Total Male Female (F/M) World 75 82 69 0.84 82 87 77 0.89 87 91 84 0.92

Developing countries 67 76 58 0.76 77 83 70 0.84 84 88 79 0.89 Developed countries 98 99 98 0.99 99 99 99 0.99 99 100 99 0.99 Countries in transition 99 100 99 0.99 99 100 99 0.99 100 100 100 1.00

Sub-Saharan Africa 50 60 40 0.67 61 70 53 0.77 67 73 61 0.84 Arab States 50 64 36 0.56 66 77 55 0.72 79 86 71 0.82 Central Asia 99 99 98 0.99 99 100 99 0.99 100 100 100 1.00 East Asia and the Pacific 82 89 75 0.84 92 95 88 0.93 96 97 94 0.96 East Asia ………… 92 95 88 0.93 96 97 94 0.96 Pacific ………… 93 94 93 0.98 93 94 93 0.99 South and West Asia 47 60 34 0.58 59 71 46 0.66 68 78 58 0.74 Latin America and the Caribbean 85 87 83 0.96 90 91 89 0.98 94 95 94 0.99 Caribbean ………… 70 70 70 1.00 97 96 97 1.01 Latin America ………… 90 91 90 0.98 94 95 94 0.99 North America and Western Europe 98 98 97 0.99 99 99 99 1.00 100 100 100 1.00 Central and Eastern Europe 96 98 95 0.97 97 99 96 0.97 98 99 97 0.98

1. Data are for the most recent year available during the period specified. 39. Absent from this list is Source: Annex, Statistical Table 2. Nigeria, for which observed data are now more than twenty years out of date. Some evidence suggests that the number of adult illiterates in Nigeria could low literacy rates. Figure 2.26 examines progress growth means that the illiterate population has be more than 20 million. in the ten countries with more than 10 million declined in only the Islamic Republic of Iran, 42. Another minor exception is North America and illiterates, which together account for about 70% Egypt, Brazil, Indonesia and China, while it has Western Europe, where both of the world’s illiterate population.39 Literacy rates increased in Morocco, Ethiopia, Pakistan and the illiteracy rate and the number of illiterate youth have increased in all ten countries, but population Bangladesh and is little changed in India. have increased slightly. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 50% (UNESCO,2005: 66.) levels ofadultliteracy by rather thanimproving the levelofilliteracy), literacy goal(i.e.halving earlier formulationofthe in accordancewithan the rateofadultilliteracy terms ofareductionin measure progressin Report Teamdecidedto EFA GlobalMonitoring in improvingliteracy,the monitor nationalprogress all adults.’Tobetter continuing educationfor access tobasicand women, andequitable by 2015,especiallyfor in levelsofadultliteracy 50 percentimprovement in 2000read:‘Achievinga goal formulatedatDakar illiteracy rates,theEFA between maleandfemale illiteracy andthedisparity reduce bothoveralladult emphasized theneedto international community of theliteracygoalby while earlyformulations discussed thefactthat, 41. ThepreviousReport Nauru andNigeria. Liberia, Mozambique, Gambia, Eritrea, the be addedtothislist: countriesthatshould six rates aremissingfor 40. Recentadultliteracy experienced increases intheGPIsince1990. achieved, onaverage. Allregionshave the remainingregionsgender parityhasbeen Asia (0.93)isabovetheglobal average,whilein and sub-SaharanAfrica(0.77). TheGPIinEast South andWestAsia(0.66),the ArabStates(0.72) regions withthelowestadult literacyGPIsare men (i.e.theadultliteracyGPIis0.89).The are consideredliterateforevery100adult adultwomen recorded in1990.Globally,only89 This shareisvirtuallyunchangedfromthe63% a simplestatementfromtheireverydaylife. who cannotreadandwritewithunderstanding Women accountfor64%oftheadultsworldwide women are themost affected Gender disparities inadultliteracy: 2.27). reach theEFAliteracygoalby2015(Figure continue, however,mostwillfinditdifficultto have improvedsince1990.Ifcurrenttrends Guinea). Inmostofthesecountriesliteracyrates is inEastAsiaandthePacific(PapuaNew States (Mauritania,MoroccoandYemen)one Bangladesh, NepalandPakistan),threeareArab Togo), fourinSouthandWestAsia(Afghanistan, Guinea, Mali,theNiger,Senegal,SierraLeoneand Republic, Chad,Côted’Ivoire,Ethiopia,Ghana, Burkina Faso,Burundi,theCentralAfrican Fourteen areinsub-SaharanAfrica(Benin, Source: Note: 2. Brazil,Egypt,Ethiopia,Indonesia,Morocco,IslamicRepublicofIran. of nationalliteracydefinitions,assessmentmethods,sourcesandyearsdata. 1. Dataareforthemostrecentyearavailableduringperiodspecified.Seeintroductiontostatisticaltablesint Figure 2.26: Changes inadultliteracy (age 15+)between 1990and2000–2004 incountries withmore than10millionilliterates Part II.Monitoring EFA 60 below 60%(seeannex,StatisticalTable2). twenty-two countriestheadultliteracyrateis Million illiterates 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 The mostrecentestimatesindicatethatin / CHAPTER 2 See sourcetablefordetailedcountrynotes. 0 Annex, StatisticalTable 2. 634.6 1990 2000-2004 543.3 India China Bangladesh Pakistan Other countries 2 40 India China Bangladesh Pakistan Ethiopia Indonesia Brazil Egypt Iran, Isl.Rep. Morocco 41 7 6 6 2 17 93 10 11.7 12.6 8.4 61.0 14.5 90.9 16.6 42.6 49.3 10.9 49.9 78.3 34.2 6.6 45.2 35.4 -1.7 24.3 90.4 13.8 28.6 -52.0 88.6 30.0 13.6 268426 79.5 71.4 19.6 87019 273066 77.0 82.0 52530 18.9 52.3 181331 47.1 48818 40405 -36.5 63.2 23554 40817 38.7 -13.3 15100 19815 -18.4 15052 -8.6 23791 10.6 14210 17369 10509 17411 10106 11501 9140 particularly amongyoungercohorts. reverse trendisgrowingelsewhereintheworld, are Jamaica(1.16)andLesotho(1.23).This of genderdisparitiesfavouringwomen;examples thirds themalerate.Severalcasesexist,however, cases thefemaleliteracyrateislessthantwo- and YemenamongtheArabStates.Inallthese countries ofSouthandWestAsia;inMorocco Bangladesh, India,NepalandPakistan,among in WestandCentralAfrica;Afghanistan, disparities favouringmenareespeciallyprevalent countries (seeannex,StatisticalTable2).Gender between adultmenandwomenremaininsome and WestAsia,theArabStates(Table2.17). disparities arehighest:sub-SaharanAfrica,South regions wherebothilliteracyratesandgender The increasesareespeciallynotableinthethree where thepopulationisstillgrowing rapidly. illiterate youth,exceptinsub-Saharan Africa 1990, resultinginadecline thenumberof literacy rateshaveincreasedinallregionssince recent developmentsinschoolexpansion.Youth aged 15andover(Tables2.162.18),reflecting tend tobehigherthanfortheoverallpopulation Literacy ratesamongthepopulationaged15to24 Youth literacy same, withSouth andWestAsia(GPIof0.79), the literacy. However, theregionalpatternsare the generally lesspronouncedthan thoseinadult 1990 00 00 (%) (000) (000) Despite overallprogress,significantdisparities Gender disparitiesinyouthliteracy are Numbe 2000-2004 r ofillite 1 r tsLite ates C to 2000-2004 he annexforabroaderexplanation hange 1990 1990 (%) 2000-2004 r (%) a c y r ates 1 C to 2000-2004 (percentage hange 1990 points) 42 THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 61

Figure 2.27: Estimated adult literacy rates (age 15+) for 1990 and 2000-20041 and projections and targets for 2015

Sub-Saharan Africa Arab States

Chad Mauritania Morocco Niger Yemen Guinea Sudan Benin Algeria Egypt Senegal Iraq Ethiopia Tunisia Saudi Arabia C. A. R. Syrian A. R. Côte d’Ivoire Oman Bahrain Togo Qatar Ghana Jordan

Burundi Asia Malawi Bangladesh Rwanda Nepal Pakistan Uganda Papua N. Guinea D. R. Congo India Lao PDR Cameroon Cambodia Zambia Iran, Isl. Rep. Malaysia U. R. Tanzania Myanmar Madagascar Latin America and the Caribbean Kenya Guatemala Cape Verde Nicaragua Swaziland Jamaica Honduras Botswana El Salvador Lesotho Bolivia Dominican Rep. South Africa Brazil Mauritius Europe Namibia Malta Equat. Guinea Turkey

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Adult literacy rates (%) Adult literacy rates (%)

1990 2000-2004 2015 projection 2015 target 1990 2000-2004 2015 projection 2015 target

1. Data are for the most recent year available during the period specified. See the introduction to the statistical tables in the annex for a broader explanation of national literacy definitions, assessment methods, sources and years of data. Note: Only countries with literacy rates below 90% in 2000–2004 are included; they are presented in ascending order. See source table for detailed country notes. Source: Annex, Statistical Table 2.

Arab States (0.87) and sub-Saharan Africa being proclivity to become literate are closely related the regions with the greatest gender disparity in to the quality of the literate environments at youth literacy (see annex, Statistical Table 2). home, school and work, and in the wider community. The presence of printed, written and Literate environments: visual materials encourages adults to adopt and neglected but necessary integrate an array of literacy skills and activities in Literacy is not only about individuals, but also their everyday lives. Access to books, magazines about literate communities and societies. Indeed, and newspapers significantly contributes to the as the 2006 Report argued, the motivation and reading and language achievement of students. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: 1. Dataareforthemostrecentyearavailableduringperiodspecified. young adults(aged 15–24) in1990and2000–2004 Table 2.18: Estimated literacy rates andnumbers of illiterates among Centr./East. Europe N. America/W. Europe Latin America/Caribbean South/West Asia East Asia/Pacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa Countries intransition Developed countries Developing countries World Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia Annex, StatisticalTable 2. Part II.Monitoring EFA 62 902000-2004 1990 839. 1 2 . -19.3 59.0 0.4 -0.2 -35.5 019823 1 -7.5 310493 -83.3 3.6 98.7 17.3 -61.2 99.5 2.0 109 98.3 3694 6 99.7 -63.2 415 92180 86 -34.7 2.7 47 63.1 21.1 96.0 72.2 0.6 92.7 23.7 767 4206 17 -0.2 280 8.0 61.5 122 426 -11.7 4269 98.0 14 768 894 46836 99.7 30 -11.6 95.4 332 82.5 4.8 97.7 471 72.9 66.6 3.6 99.7 083 67.5 410138 156 99.4 973 99.2 212138 157 84.8 99.7 87.3 80.9 84.3 Literacy rates … … … … An informative starting pointisEaston (2006 time? measured andcompared across countries andover skills: opportunities for theapplication anduse of literacy (spaces) thatprovide four interrelated types of who argues thatliterate environments are locations howand assessment: environment. The second involves issues of monitoring the question of whatprecisely constitutes aliterate challenges. The first isconceptual andrevolves around environments, theconcept raises two formidable Notwithstanding policy andscholarly interest inliterate Box 2.6:What isaliterate environment? ages 15-24 / CHAPTER 2 a given level of thesystem —andby of virtue open equivalence between skills already acquired and which thelearner may accede by establishing sequences of formal schooling to two forms: (a) access to continuing education inoneorbothof diverse readers; facilities and the use of relevant languages to reach documents, whose existence presupposes publishing magazines, messages, letters andother practical the neoliterate: books, brochures, newspapers, access to reading material of direct interest to (%) 96.6 76.8 92.1 98.0 Number ofilliterates 902000-2004 1990 … … … … ages 15-24 (000) 1 , by region can literate envir 364 3 375 6 745 392 In literacy Percentage change rates 1990 to2000-2004 …… …… …… …… onments be of illiterates In number a ; 2006 b ), education for all Overall progress towards Index. whole, includingthroughtheEFADevelopment where theworldstandswithregardtoEFAasa individual EFAgoals.Thisfinalsectionconsiders The earliersectionsofthischapterlookedatthe the conceptualandmeasurementchallenges. discusses beyond theLiteracyDecade.Box2.6 communities, sothatliteracywillbesustained especially inschoolsandmarginalized should nurturedynamicliterateenvironments, democracy’ (UnitedNations,2001 ensuring sustainabledevelopment,peaceand population growth,achievinggenderequalityand poverty, reducingchildmortality,curbing essential forachievingthegoalsoferadicating ‘creating literateenvironmentsandsocietiesis social dimensionofliteracy,recognizingthat international communityhasunderscoredthe Nations LiteracyDecade(2003–12),the Moreover, inconjunctionwiththeUnited Africa. The strategies include linkingschool libraries assistance of Book AidInternational, insub-Saharan of thepeople’) have beenundertaken, withthe strategies to expand thereach of libraries (‘universities material andto continuing education. Cost-effective towards libraries can enhance access to reading regard to allfour opportunity types. For example, policy Government can play animportant policy role with literate environment. — invaring forms anddegrees —constitutes atruly The combination of all four types of opportunity literate skills. or non-profit endeavours thatrequire andexercise opportunities to establish andhelpmanagebusiness exercise literate skills; cooperatives orextension systems thatrequire and tasks in,for example, local governments, agricultural opportunities to assume new organizational roles and or elements of knowledge of interest to thelearner; and trade apprenticeship) thatconfer otherskills or livelihood training, short-term professional training of organized non-formal education (e.g. life-skills or age-neutral enrolment policies; or(b) varieties b ). Thisinitiative THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 63

Where are we now Saharan Africa, that are or have recently and how far have we come? been affected by conflict also means the Now that information is available for the global picture is not as positive as that school year ending in 2004, it is very clear painted by examining only countries for that considerable – but uneven – progress which data exist. has been made since Dakar: The number of children not in school has Pre-primary enrolments are up, but not very declined but remains much too high. significantly. In some regions, pre-primary Moreover, there is some evidence that education has become the norm (e.g. North countries which are getting within closing America and Western Europe, Latin America distance of UPE are finding it very difficult and the Caribbean); in others it is still very to succeed in the final stages of attracting The number rare (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa). Other aspects the most marginalized children and retaining of ECCE are discussed extensively elsewhere them through the full primary cycle. of children not in this Report. Considerable progress is being made towards in school has Access to primary school is improving, a fact gender parity, in particular in countries where declined but reflected in data on new entrants and on gender differences in education are still high, remains much primary enrolments, especially in the three but disparities remain predominant, too high regions that were, and remain, farthest from particularly in secondary education. About the goal: sub-Saharan Africa, South and West two-thirds of countries with data available for Asia, and the Arab States. Primary school 2004 have achieved gender parity in primary progression and completion remain major education; in the remainder, the disparities concerns, however, especially in these same mainly favour boys. However, in only one-third regions but also to some extent in Latin of the countries with data available for America and the Caribbean. The lack of data secondary education has gender parity been for a number of countries, mainly in sub- reached at that level, and disparities in secondary are much more pronounced than in primary education; they can favour either girls or boys. No major new information is available on learning outcomes, but new analyses of past to community libraries, rotating boxes of books by assessments, together with a new evaluation motorbike among schools, setting up reading tents, report from the World Bank, confirm that helping children produce books for young and old, quality remains a major issue, particularly setting aside special reading corners for adult women for children from poorer backgrounds. Key and making libraries mobile with donkey carts and teacher indicators suggest the same: while camels (Makotsi, 2005). The existence of libraries pupil/teacher ratios have generally improved and book publishing are key conditions for slightly, they remain much too high, as do the sustainable literate environments. proportion of teachers who are not qualified In addition to conceptual clarification, there is a need and trained, and the rate of teacher to develop clear indicators of literate environments absenteeism. The issue of quality is not and their multiple dimensions. For example, while confined to the three regions with the greatest government policies regarding formal education are enrolment challenges. It is also a concern in quite explicit, official policies regarding the literate East Asia and the Pacific, and in Latin environment (e.g. on the production and publication of written texts, the housing and dissemination America and the Caribbean. of information, the development of media outlets The scope of the global literacy challenge and the languages used in courts, schools and remains much as depicted in the 2006 Report, administration) are less explicit and considerably which had literacy as its special theme: about more complex to assess. Measures of the literate one in five adults is still not literate (one in environment should also address the equity four adult women) and those who are not dimension: to what extent, and why, are some denied literate live mainly in South and West Asia, access to opportunities that constitute a rich literate environment? sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia. Monitoring instruments remain to be Sources: Easton (2006a, 2006b); Makotsi (2005). developed for the learning needs of youth and adults, and for the literate environment. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 actual literacylevel. may overestimatethe based onanytest,and caution: theyarenot be interpretedwith methods, andthusshould ‘conventional’ assessment are basedon 44. Theliteracydataused education. primary orinsecondary are enrolledineither primary schoolagewho includes childrenof 43. ThetotalprimaryNER EDI are positive Changes inthe Table 2.19: Distribution of countries by EDIvalues, by region, 2004 it focusesonthefourmosteasilyquantified: measures ofallsixEFAgoals;currently,however, is updatedannually.Ideally,itshouldinclude in the2003/4 attainment oftheEFAagenda.Itwasintroduced measure ofacountry’ssituationwithregardtothe The EFADevelopmentIndex(EDI)isacomposite The EFA Development Index Part II.Monitoring EFA 64 Source: not fullycapturetheglobalEFAsituation. obtained fromtheEDIisthusinformativebutdoes Leone, SomaliaandtheSudan.Theoverallpicture Democratic RepublicoftheCongo,Liberia,Sierra the CentralAfricanRepublic,Congo, development. TheyincludeAfghanistan,Angola, are likelytosufferfromlowlevelsofeducational these areinconflictorpost-conflictsituationsand mean thatmanycountriesareexcluded.Severalof While 125countriesareincluded,datalimitations together withdetailedvaluesandrankingsfor2004. explanation oftheEDI’srationaleandmethodology, givesadetailed Appendix 1tothisReport full achievementofEFAassummarizedbytheEDI. a ratio,from0to1,where1wouldrepresentthe ranges from0%to100%or,whenexpressedas is expressedasapercentage,theEDIforcountry measures ofthefourgoals.Sinceeachmeasure The EDIgivesequalweighttothefourproxy Total andEasternEurope Central N. America/W. Europe Latin America/Caribbean South andWest Asia East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa by thetotalprimarynetenrolmentratio; universal primaryeducation(goal2),proxied the survivalratetograde5. quality ofeducation(goal6),proxiedby rate; gross enrolmentratiosandtheadultliteracy average oftheGPIsforprimaryandsecondary the gender-specificEFAindex(GEI)whichisan gender parityandequality(goal5),proxiedby rate forthoseaged15andabove; adult literacy(goal4),proxiedbythe / CHAPTER 2 Annex, Appendix1,Table 1. EFA GlobalMonitoringReport Far fromEFA: EDI below 0.80 9812 45 28 1 8 19 94 92 2 203 125 28 19 49 29 133 20 11 16 1 49 2 1 6 10 31 2 5 Intermediate position 44 EDI between 0.80 and0.94 43 8332 41 24 3 3 18 61 26 19 16 1 28717202 23169 and EDI between 0.95 and0.97 Close toEFA 2 countries: 125 calculations for2004byregion.Ofthe below 0.60. French-speaking WestAfrica,havescores Guinea, MaliandtheNiger,whichareallin on allEDIcomponents.BurkinaFaso,Chad, there isaneedforsignificantimprovement primary NERsabove95%),butingeneral Bangladesh, Cambodia,IndiaandMalawihave very highscoresinonearea(forinstance, represented. Again,somecountrieshave countries inSouthandEastAsiaarealso sub-Saharan Africa;someArabStatesand 0.43 and0.79.Two-thirdsofthesearein Twenty-nine haveanEDIscorebetween in seventeenthiscategory. increased inthirty-twocountriesandfell islands. From2003to2004,theindex countries areinsouthernAfricaorsmall EDI. Mostoftheeightsub-SaharanAfrican low adultliteracyratespulldowntheoverall quality proxy).InthecaseofArabStates, because ofrelativelylowsurvivalrates(the American countriesinthiscategoryarethere NER ofatleast95%.MostthefifteenLatin Sixteen ofthesecountrieshaveatotalprimary many combinationsoftheproxymeasures. 0.94. Spreadacrossallregions,theydisplay Forty-nine haveanEDIvaluebetween0.80and including KazakhstanandKyrgyzstan). Chile) andCentralAsia(fourcountries, (six countries,includingBarbados,Cubaand some areinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean Most areinNorthAmericaandEurope,but or beingclosetoachieving,theEFAgoals. above andarecategorizedashavingachieved, Forty-seven haveanEDIscoreof0.95and al .9summarizestheresultsofEDI Table 2.19 EFA achieved EDI between 0.98 and1.00 Subtotal sample number of countries Total THE SIX GOALS: HOW ARE WE DOING? / 65

Changes in the EDI between 2003 and 2004 could Figure 2.28: The EDI in 2004 and change since 2003 be assessed for 115 countries. For any given country, changes in the proxy measures are small Lesotho 0.797 -2.4 Lesotho from one year to another. Across the whole Kenya 0.797 8.9 Kenya sample of countries, however, changes are in a India 0.789 6.5 India positive direction and are greatest among those Saudi Arabia 0.787 -0.2 Saudi Arabia Cambodia Cambodia countries ranked lowest. From 2003 to 2004, on 0.774 1.7 Morocco 0.746 -0.4 Morocco average, the index increased by 1.6% overall and Lao PDR 0.741 -0.5 Lao PDR by 4.3% among countries in the lowest EDI Mauritania 0.730 14.1 Mauritania category. Bangladesh 0.722 8.9 Bangladesh There are, however, important variations Equat. Guinea 0.708 2.8 Equat. Guinea Rwanda 0.686 -4.0 Rwanda within the country categories. Of the forty-four Ghana 0.682 3.0 Ghana countries in the top group, the index fell in Nepal 0.668 2.5 Nepal fourteen; of the forty-seven countries in the Djibouti 0.665 5.8 Djibouti middle group, it fell in seventeen; and of the Senegal 0.646 -1.0 Senegal Burundi 0.646 -1.1 Burundi twenty-four countries in the bottom group, it fell Eritrea 0.644 -1.2 Eritrea in nine. Yemen 0.642 3.1 Yemen Apart from Zambia, all of the countries Ethiopia 0.627 17.0 Ethiopia showing the greatest progress (an improvement Mozambique 0.599 10.4 Mozambique Mali 0.529 7.5 Mali in the EDI of 9% or more) were in the lowest Burkina Faso 0.511 15.6 Burkina Faso group: Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Niger 0.499 9.0 Niger Kenya, Mauritania, Mozambique and the Niger. Chad 0.428 -2.7 Chad The largest reductions were in Bahamas and 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 -10 01020 the Dominican Republic. Of those countries EDI Change since 2003 (%) in the lowest category, Rwanda had the largest reduction, of about 4% (Figure 2.28). Note: Only countries with an EDI score below 0.800 are included. Source: Annex, Appendix 1, Table 3. Significant increases in the proxy measures have been recorded in individual countries, although in some cases, such as adult literacy, the increases result from new surveys providing projections reported in the 2006 Report. Those better information than the previous estimates, projections indicated that many countries were while in other cases they reflect real annual likely to achieve the EFA goals by 2015, but that positive change The most important examples a substantial group would not if trends did not of actual progress are: accelerate. The countries most in danger of Adult literacy: Niger, Burkina Faso and Egypt missing the goals45 are in sub-Saharan Africa, Total primary NER: Mozambique, Ethiopia, South and West Asia, and the Arab States. Kenya and Bangladesh The considerable success achieved so far, GEI: Ethiopia and Mauritania particularly in these regions, demonstrates that Survival to grade 5: Mauritania, South Africa further progress can be made. To do so requires India, Zambia, Kenya, Ethiopia and Bangladesh. that efforts be intensified. What is now particularly 45. Of eighty-seven countries that had not achieved UPE urgent is attention to: by 2002 and for which Where we are going? all the goals – those for ECCE and adult projections were made, twenty were projected to There is now huge momentum towards achieving literacy continue to receive less attention than achieve it by 2015, forty-four were seen as making good EFA, especially the UPE goal. However even this those to do with schooling, in part reflecting progress but insufficient to reach the goal by 2015, and goal is unlikely to be met by 2015 unless efforts the Millennium Development Goals’ emphasis twenty-three were are further accelerated. Most encouraging of all on primary education and on gender; considered at risk of not achieving the goal. Of is that the greatest progress is occurring in the quality at all levels – now that most children seventy-three countries with adult literacy rates below regions that are farthest from the goals, in part in the world are enrolled in primary school, 97% for which projections because so many countries in these regions it is essential for them to acquire basic skills; were made, only twenty- three looked likely to meet entered the twenty-first century with a relatively including children and adults who are the goal. Sixty-three countries out of 149 had shallow educational base. marginalized or excluded, and hence not achieved or would likely achieve gender parity at both No new projections have been carried out enrolled in school or adult literacy primary and secondary for this Report; the extra year of data it contains programmes. Consideration of disadvantaged education by 2015 and eighty-six were unlikely has not resulted in significant changes to the children is central to Chapter 3. to achieve it. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 66 Chapter PART II.Monitoring Education for All

© AFP/Tang Chhin Sothy to earnalivelihood. passes byachildwhoscavenges in PhnomPenh,Cambodia, a boyonhiswaytoschool Side bysidebutworldsapart: 3 Tackling exclusion: Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 lessons from country experience

Education for All, as conceived at the 2000 World Education Forum in Dakar, requires an inclusive approach that emphasizes the need to reach groups that might not otherwise have access to education and learning. This chapter offers some examples of policies and programmes that have been effective not only in advancing education generally, but more particularly in identifying and overcoming barriers that deprive marginalized groups of the same learning opportunities as others. A sound education plan is essential for promoting inclusion. Such plans require the equitable allocation of resources, sufficient numbers of trained and motivated teachers, and a comprehensive approach encompassing all the EFA goals.

67 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 five countries. marginalized inallforty- attention tothe capture allgovernment documents, soitmaynot include allplanning and didnotnecessarily government documents focused onlyonpublished Educational Planning.It International Institutefor by theUNESCO conducted forthisReport 1. Thereviewwas Country plans more children contain many proposals to attract to school IIEP, 2006). governments considermarginalized(UNESCO- see whichcategoriesofchildrenandadults of out-of-schoolchildren,werereviewedto including thetwentywithhighestnumbers National educationplansofforty-fivecountries, what dogovernment planssay? Reaching theunreached: PART II.Monitoring EFA 68 and ruralareasastargetgroups.InLatin nomadic familieslivingindispersedsettlements special needs,workingchildren,andmigrant have identifiedgirlsandwomen,childrenwith in theArabStatesandTurkey,governments countries. InSouthandWestAsiancountries, sub-Saharan andfourEastAsianPacific identified astheprioritytargetgroupinsixteen according toregion.Girlsandwomenare governments categorizeasmarginalizedvary marginalized. groupsparticular of children asthemost children. These countries’ education planstarget significant proportion of theworld’s out-of-school Ethiopia, India,NigeriaandPakistan account for a and Economic Development (2002); Ethiopia: Sources: (2004); Resource Development (2003); India, NigeriaandPakistan Box 3.1: Marginalized children inEthiopia, The groupsofchildrenandadultswhom / CHAPTER 3 children girls andilliterate girls andwomen; working urban areas, withanemphasisonout-of-school Pakistan: Disadvantaged children inrural and disabled children; girls populations; children enrolled inKoranic schools; Nigeria: Children of indigenousandnomadic children livingbelow thepoverty line deprived children; children from minority groups; scheduled caste/scheduled tribechildren; urban communities; children withspecialneeds;girls; of migrant families; children incoastal fishing areas where noschooling isavailable; children as children livinginsmallsettlements orremote afford school fees; hard-to-reach groups such India: Working children; children whocannot poor children children invillages withnoordistant schools; children; school dropouts; girls;working children; Ethiopia: Over-age school children; pastoralist Pakistan: Ministry of Education (2002), Ministry of Finance 1 Ministry of Education (2003). Nigeria: India: Ministry of Education Ministry of Human education atthe lower-secondarylevel. early schoolleavers tocatchupwithformal training orincome-generating activitiestoallow introduce literacycoursescoupled withvocational For example,SenegalandGuatemala planto for olderchildren,usuallythose aged9to14. countries). Theseprovideaccelerated education are increasinglycommon(citedintwenty-five notably inareaswherechildrenworkonfarms. introduce flexibleschoolschedulesandcalendars, services. Inaddition,sixcountriesintendto designing mobileclassroomsandintroducingbus boarding schoolsandlocalvillageschools, priority. Strategiesalsoincludebuildingmore schools accessibleinremotelocationsasakey Fifteen plansidentifyincreasingthenumberof barriers facedbypeoplelivinginremoteareas. government strategiestoovercomethemany parents andthewidercommunity. through informationcampaignstargetedat Another eightplantoraisedemandforeducation to introducelocallanguagesintothecurriculum. mostly inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,intend that schoolsaregirl-friendly.Eightcountries, the numberoffemaleteachersandensuring education, notablyforgirls,suchasincreasing measures toaddressculturalobstacles and scholarships.Eighteencountrieslist enhancing measuressuchasfreeschoolmeals uniforms, andtheintroductionofdemand- and theprovisionoflearningmaterials measures suchastheabolitionoftuitionfees the opportunitycostsofeducationthrough countries) istoreduceboththedirectcostsand most commonapproaches(citedintwenty-two to attractmorechildrenschool.Oneofthe Ethiopia, India,NigeriaandPakistan. regarded asbeingparticularlymarginalizedin describescharacteristicsofchildren out. Box3.1 children andchildsexworkers,arerarelysingled potential groups,suchasorphans,HIV-positive countries andthelatterbytwenty-one.Other marginalized, theformergroupbytwenty-four areas arementionedmostoftenasbeing children livingindispersedsettlementsrural teenagers. Inamajorityofcountries,girlsand additional categoriesofgirls,includingpregnant identified asmarginalized,alongwithsome in dispersedsettlementsorruralareasare and linguisticminorities,populationsliving America andtheCaribbean,childrenofethnic Programmes foreducationallyexcludedyouth National plansalsodiscusssomeofthekey The countryplanscontainmanyproposals TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 69

Legislative and constitutional barriers some key policies that have been used to to education still exist in many countries. overcome these barriers for disadvantaged Forty-three countries have no constitutional groups, most notably the very poor and, in guarantee of free and compulsory basic particular, girls, orphans and vulnerable children education, while thirty-seven limit education affected by AIDS, those engaged in child labour, to citizens and legal residents, discriminating youth who missed out on formal education, against the children of migrants, guest workers children and youth caught in armed conflict, and temporary residents.2 A birth certificate is and children with disabilities (Table 3.1). Some still legally required for enrolment in many are universal (such as abolishing school fees) countries, denying access to those without the while others are targeted. Many of the examples relevant documents (UNESCO, 2005b).3 Girls also are elaborated on elsewhere in the chapter. suffer from specific discriminatory legislation: pregnant girls are routinely expelled from school Lowering the cost of education in many African countries. to individual households The number of children out of school in the poorest 20% of households is more than triple Tackling exclusion: 4 promising that in the richest 20% (UIS/UNICEF, 2005). Direct policies and programmes costs to households remain a significant barrier to primary school access and attainment in more While many countries have made considerable than ninety countries. Direct costs include five progress in introducing policies that focus on the types of fees (for tuition, textbooks, compulsory educational needs of marginalized children and uniforms, parent-teacher associations or youth, serious barriers to enrolment, retention community contributions, and school-based 2. The figures are taken from the report of the Special and attainment persist. This section examines activities such as exams). A survey of ninety-four Rapporteur on Education, UN Commission on Human Rights (2002). It is important to note that the lack of constitutional guarantees does not imply that Table 3.1: Some policies to tackle exclusion* education is not provided. Nonetheless, the existence of Policy goal Type of intervention Examples constitutional guarantees is a significant marker of the extent to which countries consider Reduce the direct costs Abolishing school fees or providing Measure by the Government of Burundi abolishing education to be a fundamental of schooling school fee waivers primary school fees in 2005 human right that should be protected. Create financial incentives, Providing grants or scholarships The Gambia’s Scholarship Trust Fund for Girls offsetting household costs, to for members of marginalized groups 3. Children may lack birth stimulate demand for schooling certificates for many reasons, which vary by country. A Providing financial incentives for Bursary programme in Swaziland certificate is often not perceived orphans and vulnerable children as a fundamental right, or it may require a payment not all Create incentives to overcome Providing cash grants and supporting Baljyothi programme in Andra Pradesh, India, families can afford (see the need for child labour community-based efforts for child enabling children and youth to enter schools UNESCO (2005b) for a detailed labourers discussion). Bolsa Escola (merged in 2004 with other income 4. Exclusion results from transfer programmes) cash grant programme in interrelated factors such Brazil, providing income support to poor families as poverty and economic to encourage school attendance deprivation, gender inequality, geographic and physical Provide non-formal education Providing bridging education Equivalency education programmes in Indonesia location, political and legal opportunities for youths and for youths and adults giving young people and adults a second chance conditions, cultural factors, adults who have missed out to obtain education disease and health constraints. Some factors relate to the formal schooling availability of good schooling, Educatodos community school programme in its cost and the provision of Honduras, giving youths and adults who dropped learning resources. Others out a chance to complete basic education relate to household characteristics such as Provide relevant education Offering programmes to meet the Healing Classrooms Initiative in northern Ethiopia, household income and parental opportunities for children and needs of children and young people in providing support for the psychosocial and motivation. Some causes of exclusion are general and youths affected by conflict post-conflict situations education needs of children in refugee camps interrelated; for example, girls who are out of school are also found in rural areas and many Provide appropriate education Offering education opportunities that Inclusive Education Fund in Uruguay, integrating are infected or affected by opportunities for the disabled respond to the needs of the disabled the disabled into mainstream education HIV/AIDS. Other factors affect particular groups such as ethnic or linguistic minorities. See Sayed et al. (Forthcoming) for * The table indicates some of the main types of measures being used to lower barriers to education. They are not mutually exclusive and may be applied to other a discussion of the concept of contexts or groups. For example, stipend programmes may be a viable strategy in conflict-affected contexts for demobilized children and youth. exclusion in South Africa and India. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 insecurity designation. for thegovernment’s food identified throughcriteria targeted poorareas sentinel siteswere Tigray regions.The People), Amharaand Nations, Nationalities,and Oromia, SNNP(Southern sites intheAddisAbaba, olds intwenty‘sentinel’ from asurveyof8-year- al.,2005)analyseddata et Ethiopia (Woldehanna of childhoodpovertyin 5. TheYoungLivesstudy many countries Between 2000 school fees abolished and 2005 for thesurgein ordertomaintainadequate enrolment but also makesitnecessarytoplan anticipated. Removingschool feesincreases on thefirstdayofschool,double thenumber additional primaryschoolpupils arrivedtoenrol measure tookeffect.InBurundi, almost500,000 students enteredtheschoolsystem afterthe Burundi (2005).InKenya,1.2millionadditional (2004), MozambiqueVietNam(2004)and (2002), Kenya(2003),MadagascarBenin Tanzania (2001),CambodiaZambia Timor-Leste (2001),theUnitedRepublicof abolished schoolfees,includingLesotho(2000), medicine. also itisnecessarytobuyfoodandanti-malaria rural incomesattheirlowestthattime,but peaks betweenJanuaryandMarch.Notonlyare In Zambia,theneedforeducationalexpenditure share (Bentaouet-KattanandBurnett,2004). tuition andtextbooksrepresentingthelargest expenditure constitutes43%ofspending,with textbooks anduniforms.InIndia,household primary education,alargeproportionbeingfor 44% oftotalpublicandprivatespendingon In VietNam,householdexpenditureconstitutes the largestcostitem,whileinZambiaitisfood. and Zambia.InNigeriaUganda,transportis of variousitemsinMalawi,Nigeria,Uganda (UNESCO, 2005 of householdexpensesvariesconsiderably transport andfood.Therelativeimportance Forthcoming). Otherhouseholdcostsinclude are noneofthesecharged(WorldBank, countries revealsthatonlyinsixteen and ZambiaCentralStatisticsOfficeORCMacro(2003). Sources: Uganda (2001) andZambia (2002) Table 3.2: Tuition andothercosts to households for educationinMalawi (2002), Nigeria(2004), PART II.Monitoring EFA 70 Zambia Uganda Nigeria Zambia Uganda Nigeria Malawi Between 2000and2005manycountries Households’ abilitytopaymaybeseasonal. / CHAPTER 3 Malawi NationalStatisticsOfficeandORCMacro(2003),NigeriaPopulationCommission(2004),UgandaBur Percentage oftotalannualhouseholdexpenditureduringprimaryeducation Percentage ofstudentswhosehouseholdsspentmoneyoneachitemforprimaryeducation Tuition b 31 71 99 3 5 98 99 79 88 1 0.2 19 39 1 57 29 10 67 16 70 73 13 14 92324 65317111 1 .Tbe32compares costs 3.2 ). Table association teacher Parent- – development School fund 73036 31 83 69 0.3 3 57 – – Examination fees . 19 2 98 81 2 0.2 2 Educational Services,2005). million,anincreaseofabout16%(Ghana 4.3 millionto in basiceducationincreasedfrom3.7 districtsinthecountry.By2005,enrolments 138 to besuccessfulandasaresultextendedall curricular activities.Thisprogrammewasjudged such aschargesforschool-basedextra- provided toschoolsabolishallschoollevies deprived districts.Thecapitationgrantwas capitation grantsprogrammetofortyselected and SportsinGhanaintroduced,2004,apilot free andcompulsory,theMinistryofEducation Constitutional provisionofmakingeducation parents andinresponsetothe1992 quality. Toreducethecostofeducationto in school. major determinantofwhether 8-year-oldsare of Ethiopiashowsthathousehold wealthisthe 1,000 ruralandurbanhouseholds infiveregions (Lloyd etal.,2006).Similarly,a2002surveyof significantly increasethelikelihoodofdropout member orthebirthofanextrasiblingboth sudden lossofremittancesfromahousehold factor inexplaininghighdropoutrates.The economic constraintsonhouseholdsareakey Frontier provincesinPakistanconcludesthat in ruralareasofthePunjabandNorthWest a longitudinalstudyofprimaryschoolattainment educational outcomesandpoverty.Forexample, Many studieshighlightthelinkbetween increase access for themarginalized Providing financialincentives can economic shocks (Woldehannaetal.,2005). and theability of thehouseholdtoabsorb household size,birthorder,livestock ownership Boarding fees – – 5 Child enrolmentisalsoaffected by Uniforms/ clothing 84 3358 eau ofStatisticsandORCMacro(2001) upisTransport Supplies Books/ – TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 71

Private School Sport Maintenance Furniture, Food tutoring reports fund fees tools, etc. Other Percentage of students whose households spent money on each item for primary education 34 4 15 –––2 Malawi 62 23 ––18 14 14 Nigeria 20 5 – –––22 Uganda 24 12 – 24 10 – 4 Zambia

Percentage of total annual household expenditure during primary education 18 5 ––111Nigeria 14 17 – –––6 Uganda 62 13 – 1 ––1 Zambia Well-targeted and -managed cash incentive programmes can be important Providing financial incentives for enrolment Box 3.2: Stipends and scholarships increase by offsetting household costs is, therefore, education access for girls equity-promoting an excellent strategy to increase access for measures the marginalized. Examples of such targeted In the Gambia, the Scholarship Trust Fund for Girls incentives include direct monetary transfers is designed to increase girls’ access to, retention as well as cash stipends and scholarships or in and performance during upper basic and bursaries, as in Brazil, Colombia, Kenya, Mexico, secondary education. In low-income regions, the Nicaragua and Pakistan. They can be conditional fund awards full scholarships for tuition, books and on specified levels of school participation, examination fees to one-third of the girls in schools attendance or achievement. Financial incentives with low enrolment. In less deprived regions, 10% of the girls who excel in science, technology and can also take the form of vouchers to be mathematics receive full scholarships. In 2004, exchanged for specific education or health more than 13,800 lower-secondary girls and more services. than 2,600 upper-secondary girls received The effects on primary school enrolment and scholarships. As a result of the programme, girls’ retention are greater in countries with relatively enrolment in three regions rose from 32% in 1999 low enrolment, such as Bangladesh and to 65% in 2004/05 at lower-secondary level and Nicaragua, than in those with a higher enrolment from 11% to 24% at upper-secondary level. ratio, such as Mexico. Financial incentives can Source: World Bank (2005b). also have a positive effect on secondary school enrolment, particularly for girls. Evidence of the impact of large-scale cash incentive programmes is limited mainly to Latin America (Chapman, countries with high rates of HIV-prevalence 2006).6 Well-targeted and -managed cash have introduced measures that support the incentive programmes can be important equity- educational needs of orphans. Swaziland has promoting measures. a comprehensive bursary programme (Box 3.3). In Zambia, where more than 15% of children Financial incentives help orphans under 15 have lost at least one parent to HIV/AIDS and vulnerable children enrol (DeStefano, 2006), a programme transferring An orphan is 13% less likely to attend school cash to the most vulnerable households (often than a non-orphan. In sub-Saharan Africa just grandparents caring for children affected by AIDS) under 10% of children under the age reduced school absenteeism by 16% in nine 6. Less rigorous evidence of 17 have lost at least one parent to HIV/AIDS months (Chapman, 2006). In addition to directly is available for other low-income countries, (UNAIDS, 2006). In Kenya, children’s school affecting school attendance, this type of though some research on scholarship programmes participation fell by 5% upon the death of a father programme has important indirect effects on has been done in the Gambia, and by 10% upon the death of a mother (Evans education by improving young children’s health, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Malawi, among others and Miguel, 2005). Governments and NGOs in nutrition and living conditions. (Chapman, 2006). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 case, children whocannot pay thebalance may besent home. charges exceed thevalue of thebursary, asisfrequently the are notsympathetic to these children’s needs. Iftotal school problems. Moreover, some school administrators andteachers selection criteria andprocedures have compounded these teachers andgenerally very pooraccounting practices. Poor and local politicians, over-inflation of school fees by head claims for non-vulnerable children of teachers, civilservants student, doublesponsors, duplication of claimvouchers, claims for non-existent children, multipleclaimsfor thesame and abuses of bursary fundshave beenwidespread, including and teachers to accommodate more children. Mismanagement originally justified because there were notenoughclassrooms children already enrolled can receive bursaries, acondition and thedeath certificate(s) of theirparent(s). Also, only applied because they cannot furnishtheirown certificate birth efficiency of theprogramme. Some eligiblechildren have not Concerns remain, however, abouttheeffectiveness and pandemic would result insignificant declines. though ithadbeenwidelyanticipated thattheHIV/AIDS and retention rates have eitherimproved orremained stable, paternal orphansreceived bursary andenrolment support By 2005, five outof sixdoubleorphansandthree outof four US$7.5 millionin2004. increased very rapidly, from US$0.22 millionin2002 to attending primaryandsecondary schools. Total funding to provide bursaries for orphansandothervulnerable children Faced withthese conditions, thegovernment in2002 began affordability isacritical issue. rural areas and50%inurban areas (in2000/2001), school schooling. With theincidence of poverty ataround 75% in Swaziland still levies fees for primaryandsecondary considerably greater thaninmany othercountries because doubled since 2000. The impact oneducation islikely to be The annualgrowth rate inthenumberof orphanshas 49) of 42.6% in2004, compared to 16.1% adecade earlier. with anoverall rate of HIVinfection amongadults (aged 15to Swaziland hastheworld’s highest prevalence of HIVandAIDS, Source: the Swaziland experience Box 3.3: Bursaries for orphansandvulnerable children: Bennell (2005). deemed theworstformsofchildexploitation. almost 60%(126million)arevictimsofwhat under age15(ILO,2006). child labourers,three-quartersofwhomare in recentyears,therearestillaround218million chronic poverty.Whileitsincidencehasdeclined Child labour can improve school attendance the needfor childlabour Eliminating orreducing PART II.Monitoring EFA 72 / CHAPTER 3 7 is directlyrelatedtowidespread 8 It isestimatedthat available. the low-incomegroup. Evaluationsofthenewprogrammeare not yet schooling, healthcareornutrition),allprovided cashtransferstoroughly each oftheformerprogrammeshaditsown emphasis(e.g.promoting households thatmeetconditionssuchasschool attendance.While 9. TheBolsaFamíliaprogrammeoffersasingle benefittopoor 8. Therewere246millionchildlabourersin 2000. years. of compulsoryschoolingandnolessthan 14 the minimumageforemploymentatnoless thantheageofcompletion Convention138whichsets ILO 7. Childlabourisdefinedbythe1973 and PortelaSouza,2003). school andworkingtoattend(Cardoso enabled childrenwhopreviouslywereoutof worked. Thecashtransferprogrammehas 5% ofgirlsand9%boysattendedschool to 15attendedschoolanddidnotwork,while In 2000,92%ofgirlsand84%boysaged10 has declinedandschoolattendanceincreased. programme. programmes toformtheBolsaFamília merged withseveralotherincometransfer Portela Souza,2003).In2004,BolsaEscolawas households of5millionchildren(Cardosoand programme, whichprovidedassistancetothe almost allBrazilianmunicipalitieshadjoinedthe financial incentivestopoorfamilies.By2002 increase educationalattainmentthrough school attendance,reducechildlabourand programme wasdesignedtostimulateregular attendance andhealthvisits.TheBolsaEscola human developmentobjectives,suchasschool support forpoorfamiliestocompliancewithkey inequality bylinkingaminimumlevelofincome programmes designedtoreducepovertyand children towork.Brazil,forexample,hasseveral attendance byremovingorreducingtheneedfor programmes toincreaseschoolenrolmentand labour. prostitution, andotherillicitformsofchild of children,debtbondage,childslaveryand all signatorycountriestoeliminatetrafficking be working.The1999Conventioncompels and statingthatnochildunderage15should compulsory schoolingendsinanycountry, children canwork,definingitastheageatwhich Moreover, itsetstheminimumageatwhich pursue nationalpoliciestoabolishchildlabour. significant becauseitcompelscountriesto of 1999.TheMinimumAgeConventionis and theWorstFormsofChildLabourConvention of 1973anditsaccompanyingrecommendation; of childlabour:theMinimumAgeConvention ILO conventionsthatdirectlyaddresstheissue Many countrieshaveintroducedcashsubsidy To date,153countrieshavesignedthetwo 9 Since theearly1990schildlabour TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 73

Community efforts that provide flexible and Box 3.4: Tackling child labour in Andra Pradesh: responsive forms of schooling are also important the Baljyothi programme strategies to tackle child labour, as the example of the Baljyothi programme in India demonstrates Andhra Pradesh has more working children than (Box 3.4). any other state in India. By 2000, 20% of children aged 5 to 14 in the state worked full time, and 60% A second chance at learning of these had never attended school. Just over for adults and young people half were girls. The state government collaborated Many adolescents are not in school and with an NGO, Pratyamnya, in an effort to provide do not benefit from any non-formal learning education opportunities to all working children aged 10 to 14. The Baljyothi programme is the opportunities. In Bangladesh, India, Nepal result. and Pakistan alone, this is the case for some 250 million youngsters aged 11 to 18 (Robinson, Baljyothi has opened about 250 schools for 2004). Adults and young people need a second working children in slum areas that lack public chance to access education. A variety of non- schools. It relies on strong community backing and formal ‘bridging’ programmes offer equivalency uses a variety of strategies to attract children. The education to people who were once in primary schools follow the government curriculum so that pupils can eventually transfer to public schools; school but did not complete the cycle. For 1,110 did so in 2000, five years into the programme. example: By then, over 31,000 children were enrolled in Indonesia’s 2003 Education Law provides for Baljyothi schools — 18,473 girls and 12,696 boys. non-formal education to replace, complement In the slum of Borabanda, where Baljyothi started, A variety of non- and/or supplement formal education only 200 children were out of school in 2000, down from 6,000 when the programme began. formal ‘bridging’ (Indonesia, 2003). Equivalency education offers programmes programme packages equivalent to primary, Source: Jandhyal (2003). lower-secondary and upper-secondary offer equivalency education. In 2005, over 500,000 persons education to participated. However, fewer than 25% of the people who were participants took the national examinations that In 1995, the government of Honduras once in primary year (Indonesia Ministry of National Education, established Educatodos, an alternative school but did not 10 2005; Yulaelawati, 2006). programme that targets the 540,000 out-of- complete the cycle Uganda has a three-year programme of school youth and adults (age 19 or above) who Basic Education for Urban Poverty Areas, have not completed nine years of basic offering non-formal basic education to urban education. It operates in a variety of locations, out-of-school children and adolescents aged 9 including factories, microenterprises, NGOs, to 18. It is module-based and contains adapted government installations, vocational centres versions of the main subjects taught in primary and schools, making it easy for learners of all schools, as well as pre-vocational training ages to attend. All learning is student-centred. (Katahoire, 2006). A flexible schedule requires an average of two Since the mid-1990s India’s Open Basic and a half hours of group work per day. It Education (OBE) programme has targeted draws on volunteer facilitators, from varied neoliterates who have successfully completed academic and economic backgrounds, as literacy and post-literacy programmes. teachers. They receive a government stipend Participants may choose to learn in Hindi, and transport and food allowances. English or a regional language, and there is Educatodos has been highly successful in no upper age limit. The programme offers raising the educational profile of out-of-school education on three levels, each equivalent to youth and adults. Since its inception it has a level of basic education in the formal school enrolled more than 500,000 students in its 10. The 2005 total included 11 7,290 ‘target learners’ taking system. Participants may take examinations primary school programme (grades 1 to 6). Package A (primary), whenever they feel prepared. The Ministry of The completion rate for this programme 416,605 studying Package B (lower secondary) and Human Resource Development and employers averaged 61% between 1996 and 2003 23,713 taking Package C (upper secondary). recognize the OBE certificate, which may also (Schuh-Moore, 2005). 11. OBE level A is equivalent be used to enter secondary and post-secondary The strength of non-formal education to Classes 1-3, level B is education. programmes for youth and adults is that they equivalent to Classes 4-5, and level C to Classes 6-8 of the are adaptable to local contexts. They are effective formal school system. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Switzerland andUNICEF. the Netherlands,Norway, funded byIreland,Japan, Children UK.Itwas International andSavethe Committee, Handicap the InternationalRescue collaboration withCaritas, and carriedoutin managed byUNICEF described herewas Reintegration programme Demobilization and 13. TheDisarmament, Ploughshares, 2005). conflict (Project during thecourseof killed bythefighting at least1,000peopleare of thestate),andinwhich gain controlofallorpart armed factionsseekingto one state(orormore armed forcesofatleast combat involvesthe conflict inwhicharmed is definedasapolitical 12. Anarmedconflict war practised by seeking to turn target children warlords alike, New forms of armies and and youth, them into soldiers Although thenumberofarmedconflicts and youth affected by conflict Providing relevant educationfor children and inadequatepoliticalfinancialsupport. education, withless-qualifiedteachersandstaff, education isstilloftenperceivedassecond-rate populations (Rose,2003).Second,non-formal on thepoorestareasandmostdisadvantaged they donotplaceanincreasedfinancialburden however. First,itisimportanttoensurethat and productivework.Theyfacetwochallenges, the useoflocallanguages,relevantcurriculum when theyarecommunity-basedandcombine PART II.Monitoring EFA 74 to teachersand studentsalike.Thesevalues confidence, respect, toleranceandsolidarity programme aimstoconveyvalues suchas reconciliation. InBurundi,apeace education children andyouthforpeace and national the veryspecificexperiences ofwarandprepare during andafterconflictmust takeintoaccount tolerance andothervaluesconducivetopeace. effective waytoreducetensions,andpromote conflicts, educationoffersanincreasingly As moreyoungpeoplearedrawnintolong-term to turnthemintosoldiers(seemappage75). warlords alike,targetchildrenandyouth,seeking of war(Singer,2004),practisedbyarmiesand Centre, 2006). of conflict(InternalDisplacementMonitoring displaced withintheirowncountriesasaresult of December2005some24millionpeoplewere effect onthescaleofinternaldisplacement.As million(UNHCR,2006),ithasnothadasimilar 19 refugee population,currentlyestimatedat has ledtoacontinuousreductionintheworld’s Centre, 2005). and injuriesinallotherregions(HumanSecurity Africa wasgreaterthanthecombineddeaths century, thebattle-relatedtollinsub-Saharan Ploughshares, 2005).Atthebeginningofthis Asia bearingtheheaviestburden(Project are foughtinpoorcountries,withAfricaand basic educationandhealthservices.Mostwars of disease,malnutrition,andanabsence security, humanrightsviolations,thespread civilian populations:thecollapseoflawand continues tohaveterribleconsequenceson (Human SecurityCentre,2005),armedconflict today thanwasthecasetwentyyearsago decline worldwide,andwarscausefewervictims The provisionofbasiceducationservices The natureofconflictischanging.Newforms While thedownwardtrendinmilitaryconflicts / CHAPTER 3 12 is in (Caramés etal.,2006). protection agenciesmonitoredtheprocess community schoolsprovideaccess.Child Programme introducedbyUNICEFhelped education. ACommunityEducationInvestment that allowedthemtoresumetheirprimary six-month RapidResponseEducationProgramme families. Childrenaged10to14tookpartina efforts weremadetoreunitethemwiththeir and psychologicalcareeducationwhile interim carecentres,wheretheyreceivedmedical area andimmediatelytransferringthemto bringing formerchildsoldierstoademobilization children(Becker,2004).Thisinvolved 7,000 48,000 formercombatants,includingnearly United Nationsdisarmedanddemobilizedsome challenge. InSierraLeone,forexample,the (Rwantabagu, 2006). and atthesecondarylevelintocivicseducation environmental education,musicandsports, subjects suchastheKirundilanguage,art, are integratedintoprimaryschoolcurriculain 2006). Agroup isworkingtodraftahuman rights Special Needs Education (BalescutandEklindh, Opportunities andtheSalamanca Statementon Nations StandardRulesforthe Equalizationof Convention ontheRightsof Child,theUnited to educationasallchildren, recognizedbythe 2006). rights ofpeoplewithdisabilities(Schindlmayr, the worldhavelegislationaimedatassuring Eklindh, 2006).Onlyaboutforty-fivecountriesin of disabledchildrenareinschool(Balescutand have adisability,andinAfrica,fewerthan10% more thanone-thirdofout-of-schoolchildren developing countries.Estimatesindicatethat cultural life.Some80%ofthedisabledlivein barriers fromparticipatingfullyinsocialand the worldarelimitedbybothphysicalandsocial The estimated600milliondisabledpersonsin Reaching theworld’s disabled 2006). Sierra Leone,only506weregirls(Caramésetal., 2004). Ofthe6,845childsoldiersdemobilizedin abuse thatisacommonresultofconflict(Becker, in rehabilitationbecauseofthestigmasexual combat, ortheymaybereluctanttoparticipate overlooked becausetheydonotserveindirect demobilization programmes.Perhapsgirlsare many armedconflicts,butfewareincludedin Demobilized childsoldiersareanother Children withdisabilitieshave thesameright Significant numbersofgirlsareinvolvedin 13 TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 75

Map 3.1: Children and armed conflict 2003 The vast majority of armed conflicts involve the use of child combatants under 18 years of age. In over half of the states at war in 2003 there were reports of combatants under 15.

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO

LEBANON AFGHANISTAN ISRAEL IRAQ PAKISTAN NEPAL PALESTINIAN A. T. ALGERIA INDIA MYANMAR

CHAD © Project Ploughshares SENEGAL SUDAN PHILIPPINES NIGERIA SOMALIA LIBERIA ETHIOPIA COLOMBIA SRI LANKA CÔTE KENYA D’IVOIRE UGANDA D. R. BURUNDI CONGO INDONESIA

ANGOLA

States in armed conflict in 2003 with less than 1/3 of population under 15 years of age

States in armed conflict in 2003 with more than 1/3 of population under 15 years of age The boundaries and names shown and the Child fighters under 15 years of age reported designations used on this map do not imply in armed conflict during 2003 official endorsement or acceptance by UNESCO.

Based on United Nations map. Source: Project Ploughshares (2003).

convention to promote and protect the rights and educationists, as well as some disability dignity of persons with disabilities, a process that organizations, argue that separate, ‘specialist’ was set out in UN General Assembly Resolution services are needed. They suggest that for people 56/168 of 19 December 2001. If adopted and with some types of disabilities (e.g. those with ratified, this first human rights convention of the deafness, blindness or both), small specialized twenty-first century will ensure that people with units and schools are required. Advocates of disabilities enjoy the same rights as everybody inclusive education argue that disabled children else (Schindlmayr, 2006). do better in mainstream settings rather than in Views differ on how best to overcome separate ones. Uruguay is an example of a exclusion of the disabled. Some mainstream country promoting an inclusive policy (Box 3.5). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Vanuatu andZambia. the Grenadines,Tajikistan, Poland, SaintVincent and Malawi, Malaysia,Mexico, Lebanon, Madagascar, Democratic Republic, the LaoPeople’s Cyprus, Georgia,Kenya, Burundi, Cambodia, 14. Barbados,Benin, 2 developing 124 were spending 4.8% of GNP countries for over halfthe are available which data less than In 2004, stipends –that providedincentivesbyalleviating of targetedinterventions forgirls–suchas by faith-basedgroupsandNGOs, andtheuse provision bothbypublicschools andthoserun encouragement ofpluralism in education including expansionofschool availability, through acombinationofseveral strategies, Bangladesh hasincreasedaccessforgirls multi-pronged strategies.Forexample, the educationneedsofmarginalizedrequires the educationsystemitself.Tosuccessfullymeet plan, whichmayentailacompleteoverhaulof within somekindofcomprehensiveeducation programmes dependsontheirbeingintegrated Even moreimportantly,thesuccessofsuch effectively, andtheriskofcorruptionabuse. administrative costrequiredtomanagethem carrying outsuchprogrammesarethesignificant education. Amongthedifficultiescountriesfacein most disadvantagedchildrenfromgettingan the barriersthatpreventworld’spoorestand examples ofpoliciesandprogrammestoremove The precedingsectionhighlightedpromising education plans Developing sound PART II.Monitoring EFA 76 Source: inclusive specialeducation policy. problems, Uruguay hascontinued to fundits basic education. Despite recent economic ensure thatallchildren receive agoodquality disabilities. The country’s holistic policy aimsto schools to helpthemto integrate children with which promotes inclusive practices inregular Uruguay hascreated anInclusive Education Fund, they received personalized support. successfully integrated into regular schools, where children withdisabilities have been initiative, 3,900 disabled students inthese classes. Through this introduced to thelearning needsof support the Itinerant specialeducation teachers have been mainstream classes offering individual support. disabilities. These classes were replaced by elimination of classes restricted to children with innovative andprogressive initiatives, suchasthe education policy in1985, leading to many into regular classrooms. Itformulated its special in theintegration of physically impaired children Uruguay isregarded asapioneerinLatinAmerica with disabilities: Uruguay’s example Box 3.5: Mainstreaming children / CHAPTER 3 Skipper (2005). secondary education,whicharediscussedbelow. of effectiveteachersandthecapacitytoexpand financial frameworkandfunding,theavailability features ofasoundeducationplan?Anadequate education planning.What,then,aresomekey an integratedandcomprehensiveapproachto through asingleintervention.Rather,itrequires education reform(UNESCO,2005 and coupledwithacommitmenttosystemic because itsstrategiesareholistic,multi-pronged has beenabletoexpandtheeducationofgirls perceived highcostsofeducation.Bangladesh demand-side constraintssuchastherealand registered ineighteencountries. 3.2).Increasesof30%ormorewere (Figure education asashareofGNP,someconsiderably about two-thirdsincreasedpublicspendingon with comparabledataforboth1999and2004, 1999 hasbeenmixed.Outofthe106countries The overalltrendineducationexpendituresince Kuwait, Lesotho,Malaysia,NamibiaandTunisia. was over7%ofGNPinCapeVerde,Kenya, exceptions tothispattern.Theshareofeducation 3.1).Thereare in sixofthesecountries(Figure 3%, andthesharewaslowereventhanin1999 as theNigerandPakistan–sharewasbelow several thatarefarfromtheEFAgoals,such than 4.8%ofGNP.Infifteenthese–including for whichdataareavailablewerespendingless 2004, overhalfthe124developingcountries between 5%and6%ofGNPoneducation.In with advancededucationsystemstypicallyspend global benchmarks,mostdevelopedcountries of educationforall.Whiletherearenoclear indicators ofgovernmentcommitmenttothegoal whole andprimaryeducationinparticulararekey The levelsofpublicfundingforeducationasa spending needed Financing EFA: more andbetter-targeted government budget intheComoros,Kenya, accounts forone-quarter ormoreofthe 2004 (seeannex,StatisticalTable 11).Education majority ofthecountrieswith dataavailablefor ranges from10%tomorethan 40%inthevast relation toothernationalpriorities. Theshare to educationisoneindicator of itsimportancein and WestAsia(threeoutofthefivewithdata). of thetwenty-onecountrieswithdata)andSouth Latin America(wherethesharefellintwelveout GNP fellinforty-onecountries,particularly hand, educationspendingasapercentageof Overcoming exclusionisnotaccomplished The shareofgovernmentexpendituredevoted 14 b ). ntheother On TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 77

Figure 3.1: Countries spending less than 3% of GNP Figure 3.2: Total public expenditure on education as a share of GNP on education, 2004

14 Dominican Rep. Pakistan Public expenditure Gambia on education as % 12 Bangladesh of GNP has increased St Vincent/Grenad. Marshall Is Cambodia since 1999 Niger Uruguay 10 Kiribati Lao PDR Lebanon Vanuatu Kazakhstan Malaysia Togo 8 Albania El Salvador Lesotho Tajikistan Malawi Zambia 6 Mexico Guyana Saint Lucia 012345 Burundi

Total public expenditure on education as % of GNP Congo 4 Benin 1999 Eritrea

2004 (increased since 1999) 2004 public expenditure on education as % of GNP, Total Lao PDR Togo Public expenditure 2004 (decreased since 1999) Kazakhstan on education as % of GNP 2 Gambia Cambodia has decreased since 1999

Source: Annex, Statistical Table 11.

0 02468101214 Total public expenditure on education as % of GNP, 1999 Malaysia, Morocco, Oman, Thailand and Tuvalu. At the other end of the spectrum are countries Sub-Saharan Africa South and West Asia such as the Dominican Republic, the Gambia, Arab States Latin America/Caribbean

Indonesia, Jamaica and Panama, which allocate Central Asia North America and Western Europe less than 10% of central government expenditure East Asia and the Pacific Central and Eastern Europe to education. About three-quarters of the thirty-six Source: Annex, Statistical Table 11. countries with relevant data available increased the share of education in total government expenditure between 1999 and 2004 (Figure 3.3). In Cameroon, Cuba, Georgia, Nicaragua, The previous section focused attention on Tajikistan and Ukraine, the increases were about the need for government to remove or reduce 30% or more. Substantial decreases (more than household costs of education, such as school a 15% reduction in the share of education) were fees. Many governments have done so. However, registered in Azerbaijan, Colombia, the Gambia, such initiatives can have serious implications India and Peru. for public finances (Box 3.6). In a majority of the countries that have given a relatively higher priority to education in public Balanced spending across levels spending since 1999, the consequences for the and regions is needed education system have proved to be positive, While the percentages of GNP and total in the form of improvement in the primary government expenditure allocated to education education GER. Other countries, such as India, are important indicators of commitment, equally have managed to increase coverage with no significant is the distribution of education major change in the share of public spending spending across the different levels of the on education and in several countries the share system, and across regions and subregions. has increased but the GER has decreased. Thus, Most of the countries for which data are the efficiency of public spending is as important available allocated less than 50% of their total as the share of education in the total. education expenditure to primary education in Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: educationbetweenand changeinGERprimary 1999and2004 Figure 3.3: Changeinpublicexpenditure oneducationinselected countries Change inGER 1999 and2004 (percentage in primary education between points) Annex, StatisticalTables 5and11. -20 has increasedsince1999 government expenditure education as%oftotal Public expenditureon B r S azil outh Af Uk fees. in lightof the removal of school in its nationalpriorities particularly increasing importance of education public spendingshows the a percentage of GDPandof overall Tanzanian spending oneducation as 2000 to 4.3% in2004 (Figure 3.4). education grew from 2.1% of GDPin lost fee revenue. Publicspendingon spending very rapidly to offset the enrolment butalso forcing uppublic resulting inalarge increase in abolished school fees in2001, The United Republic of Tanzania Box 3.6: Education financing andtheremoval of school fees: theTanzanian experience r Togo aine East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa r i c -10 a PART II.Monitoring EFA 78 1999 and2004(percentagepoints) government expenditurebetween on educationas%oftotal Change inpublicexpenditure Pe / CHAPTER 3 r Colombia u Cuba -15 -10 10 -5 5 0 Gambia Tajikistan Aze r Central andEasternEurope North AmericaandWestern Europe Latin AmericaandCaribbean South andWest Asia baijan GER inprimaryeducation has increasedsince1999 10 Ni c a r agua Source: of Tanzania, 1995/96–2004/05 Figure 3.4: Priority given to educationinpublicspendingby United Republic Public expenditure on education as % of GDP Mo 20 India United RepublicofTanzania (2005). 0 1 2 3 4 5 r o Came cc 1995/96 o r oon 1996/97 30 towards EFA. far fromwhatisrequiredtoaccelerateprogress expenditure atthislevelworldwidestillseems education isthepriorityinmostcountries, nevertheless fallensince1999.Evenifprimary Nepal, theshareofprimaryeducationhas universal, however,suchasBangladeshand countries whereprimaryeducationisnotyet are closetoreachingUPE(Figure3.6).Insome perceptible incountriesthathavereachedor later inthischapter).Thisshiftisalready require expansionatsecondarylevel(discussed is likelytointensify,asthespreadofUPEwill primary andsecondaryeducationinparticular Africa (amongthecountrieswithdata). West Asiaandsixteencountriesinsub-Saharan Islamic RepublicofIranandNepalinSouth spending lessthan2%includeBangladesh,the track toachieveUPE.Countriesinthatcategory – analarmingfigureinthosecountriesnoton quarters oftheninetycountrieswithdataavailable as apercentageofGNPisbelow2%inthree- and Kuwait.Publicspendingonprimaryeducation those stillfarfromtheEFAgoals,suchasEritrea 3.5).Thisisparticularlyworryingfor 2004 (Figure areas. of teachers,particularlythoseworkinginrural Key strategiesexisttoenhancethemotivation EFA goals,particularlyinsub-SaharanAfrica. of trainedteachersisabarriertoreachingthe Chapter 2showedthattheseriousshortage but undervalued resource Teachers for EFA: acrucial 1997/98 The competitionforresourcesbetween 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 79

Figure 3.5: Basic education as a share of total spending on education in selected countries

Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and the Caribbean Eritrea Dominican Rep. Zambia El Salvador Senegal Peru Nicaragua Congo Argentina Burundi Chile Mauritius Antigua/Barbuda Uganda Costa Rica Malawi Paraguay Seychelles Belize Guyana South Africa Colombia Cape Verde St Kitts/Nevis Swaziland Jamaica Kenya Grenada Lesotho Saint Lucia Mexico What amounts Bolivia Arab States Barbados to a teacher- Mauritania St Vincent/Grenad. Oman motivation crisis Morocco North America and Western Europe has far-reaching Kuwait Greece Tunisia Spain consequences Malta Italy for EFA Central Asia Switzerland Tajikistan Ireland Azerbaijan Netherlands Kyrgyzstan Austria Mongolia France Portugal Finland East Asia and the Pacific Cyprus Lao PDR Norway Philippines Israel Rep. of Korea Iceland Tonga Denmark Australia Central and Eastern Europe Malaysia Romania Fiji Rep. Moldova New Zealand Slovakia Marshall Is Croatia Bulgaria Czech Rep. South and West Asia Estonia Bangladesh Belarus Nepal Hungary Iran, Isl. Rep. Poland

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 024681012 Public current expenditure as % of GNP Public current expenditure as % of GNP

Primary education Other levels of education

Note: Countries are ranked in increasing order of total spending on education as % of GNP. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics database.

Teacher motivation and incentives indicated that teachers at their school were There is growing concern that existing incentives ‘poorly’ or ‘very poorly’ motivated. Motivation (both monetary and non-monetary) are seriously levels among primary school teachers varied inadequate both to recruit teachers and to keep considerably within each country. What amounts teachers fully committed to their work in the to a teacher-motivation crisis has far-reaching regions with the greatest EFA challenges. That consequences for EFA. A key finding is that is the main finding of research in Ghana, India, working in rural schools is more difficult and Lesotho, Malawi, Sierra Leone, the United demotivating than teaching in urban schools, Republic of Tanzania and Zambia (Bennell and mainly because of poor living and working Akyeampong, 2006). In five of these countries, conditions. The unattractiveness of living and well over one-third of teacher respondents working in rural areas means most teachers Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Rep. ofKorea education inselected countries since 1999 Figure 3.6: Comparison of changes andsecondary inspendingonprimary Source: New Zealand S Bangladesh outh Africa S Costa Rica S Mauritius aint Lucia Barbados Australia waziland Morocco S Hungary Monaco Norway Burundi Finland lovakia Bolivia Poland Aruba Nepal Oman Chile UNESCO InstituteforStatisticsdatabase. -40% P Expenditure as%oftotalcurrenteducationalexpenditure,1999-2004change r ima -30% r y edu since 1999 has decreased expenditure total education The sharein and Mexicohave performance-basedincentive increases (Gordon andVegas,2005).Chile governments forhiring,training orsalary provides fundingtostateand local areas. Brazil’sfinanceequalization reform of teachersingeneral,notjust thoseinrural teacher supplyandimprovethe performance introduced incentivestrategiestoincrease to increaseincentivesforruralteachers. describesstrategies 3.7 urban colleagues.Box rates, teachershavetoworkharderthantheir turnover ishigherand,withvacancy 3.3),teacher and experiencedteachers(Table rural schoolshaverelativelyfewerqualified strongly resistruralpostings.Consequently, PART II.Monitoring EFA 80 c ation -20% Several LatinAmericancountrieshave / CHAPTER 3 -10% S e c onda r y edu %2%40% 20% 0% c ation 10% total education has increased The sharein expenditure since 1999 30% 87.91% trainers (Dembélé, 2004). a higherratioofstudentteachers toteacher considered cost-effectiveinpart becauseof the three-yearone,andprogramme is are aseffectivethosewho graduatedfrom The teacherstrainedinthenew programme year comparedwith200beforethereform. increased numbersofnewteachers–1,522per training fromthreeyearstotwoanddelivered initiated in1998shortenedthecycleofinitial Guinea, aprimaryteachereducationprogramme Uganda andtheUnitedRepublicofTanzania.In include Ghana,Guinea,Malawi,Mozambique, Saharan Africa,wherecountriesgoingthisroute cycle isagrowingtrend,particularlyinsub- mentors. Theshorteningoftheteachertraining enough school-basedteacherswhocanactas able toserveastrainingenvironmentsand support thosebeingtrained,sufficientschools however. Itrequiressignificantresourcesto of trainingwithworkisnotstraightforward, school-based (UNESCO,2005).Theintegration in schools.InCuba,allpre-servicetrainingis can nowspendtwo-thirdsoftheirtrainingtime training. IntheUnitedKingdom,traineeteachers moving towardsshorterandmoreschool-based service training.Moreandmorecountriesare is toreducethelengthoftimespentonpre- A strategytoincreasethesupplyofteachers by reforming teacher training Increasing thesupplyof teachers and Romaguera,2005). performance-related paysystem(Mizala is thatteachersaremorereceptivetoa important effectofthisincentiveprogramme quality forteachereducationprogrammes.One which resultedinmoreapplicantsofbetter of about156%inbasicsalariesforteachers, incentive policywasintroducedafterincreases effect onstudentperformance.Theteacher System). Preliminaryevidenceshowsapositive (National SchoolPerformanceAssessment Nacional deEvaluacióndelDesempeño incentives forschoolsandteachers,theSistema In 1996,Chileintroducedapolicyofmonetary and Marshall,2005;SawadaRagatz,2005). improved theirprofessionalstatus(diGropello teachers’ participationindecision-makingand in ElSalvadorandHondurashaveincreased school-based managementpoliciesintroduced and Romaguera,2005).Decentralization systems (McEwanandSantibañez,2005;Mizala TACKLING EXCLUSION: LESSONS FROM COUNTRY EXPERIENCE / 81

Table 3.3: Unqualified primary school teachers Box 3.7: Incentives for rural teachers: what works by location* (percentage, rounded)

Country Rural Urban It is possible to fill posts in rural and remote areas if teachers are adequately compensated and working Ghana 18 4 conditions are improved. Here are some strategies that Lesotho 35 5 have been shown to be effective: Malawi 77 86 Sierra Leone 43 11 Provision of good-quality housing with running water U. R. Tanzania 62 29 and electricity. This is probably the most cost-effective Zambia 29 9 way of attracting and retaining teachers at hard-to-staff *As a percentage of the total number of teachers in the schools rural schools. surveyed in this study. Source: Bennell and Akyeampong (2006). Supplementary pay, such as the 20% rural hardship allowance in Kenya and the 5% allowance in Nigeria. Pay supplements have to be sufficiently large to have an effect, however, and this can pose budgetary problems. Secondary education and the EFA More attractive career structures for primary school agenda: increasing strains teachers, with regular promotions based on clearly As more countries approach UPE, the pressure specified and transparent performance-related criteria. to expand secondary education is rising Teachers who work at hard-to-staff rural schools can, dramatically, bringing new equity issues to for example, be given accelerated promotion and/or preferential access to professional development the fore.15 opportunities.

The mismatch between demand Source: Bennell and Akyeampong (2006). and supply of secondary education Many studies have demonstrated the benefits of secondary education. It results in greater democracy (Bregman and Bryner, 2006), instance, between 2002 and 2008, and from increases social cohesion (Lewin, 2006), helps 0.5 million to 1.2 million in the United Republic of achieve the Millennium Development Goals – Tanzania, where no new fully funded government especially the health-related ones (World Bank, secondary schools have been built since 1980 15. There is no single 2005a), sustains household demand for primary (Lewin, 2006). The low level of provision coupled approach to the organization of secondary education. education (Lewin, 2006) and contributes to with increasing demand will place a serious In general, countries countries’ competitiveness in an increasingly strain on education systems. It is critical for distinguish between primary, and lower secondary and global economy (World Bank, 2005a). governments to begin to establish policies upper secondary, between basic and secondary, or Chapter 2 described enrolment in secondary and programmes to cope with the challenge. between primary and secondary. The ages at which education, making the distinction between the Meeting the increasing demand for secondary compulsory education begins lower-secondary and upper-secondary levels. education will likely require substantial increases and ends also differ among countries. In Africa, students A comparison of secondary enrolment in in domestic and international financing to are expected to stay in school until age 13, on developed and developing countries between 1960 developing countries. Cost estimates vary; one average, compared to the and 2000 reveals that the rate of enrolment study suggests that spending on secondary age 16 in Europe. This section takes secondary growth did not keep pace with growth in demand education will need to rise to an average of 2.3% education generally to be 16 education beyond five or six for secondary schooling. The gap between the of GNP in sub-Saharan Africa to reach a 50% years of primary schooling. Where it is necessary to developed and developing countries with respect transition rate from primary education (Lewin, distinguish between lower to the number of 15-year-olds with at least some 2004).17 secondary and upper secondary, the section secondary education is increasing. South Asia and follows the UNESCO Institute sub-Saharan Africa lag far behind; indeed, access Reducing inequity in access and coverage for Statistics definitions. to secondary education has increased only Amid the growing demand, access to secondary 16. This analysis draws on Bloom (2004), which reviews minimally in sub-Saharan Africa. education remains highly inequitable. secondary school enrolments between 1960 and 2000 with A shortage of secondary school places is likely Marginalized children (the poor, certain ethnic projections up to 2010. to be a major problem as the number of children groups, the disabled and, often, girls) are mainly 17. The author points out completing primary education grows. Projections excluded (Bloom, 2004). In sub-Saharan Africa, that the calculations involved do not take into account show that in sub-Saharan Africa, the region with the excluded are disproportionately poor, rural changes in unit cost that may arise from various reforms, the lowest enrolment ratios, demand for and female. About 50% of boys from the highest such as changes to the secondary school places will rise significantly – income quintile complete grade 7, but only 4% curriculum, or from, for example, changes to the from 0.4 million to 1.0 million in Uganda, for of girls from the lowest quintile. About 50% of dropout and repetition rates. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 a public-privatepartnershipthroughwhich95% disadvantaged families.Itisalsotheresultof food, alongwithstipendsforfemales, to governmentincentivepoliciesthatprovide from 33%to50%.Thisprogressisattributable of femalesinsecondaryenrolmentsincreasing with schoolenrolmentsdoublingandtheshare made significantprogressoverthepastdecade, clear regulatoryframework(WorldBank,2005 encouragement oftheprivatesector,withina poor childreninpost-primaryeducation)and initiatives suchaslotteriestosupportenrolling education (includingdemand-sidefinancing levels, withincreasedgovernmentspendingon will prioritizedtheexpansionofalleducation Republic ofKoreaisanexample.Strongpolitical to expandsecondaryeducationcoverage.The girls (Lewin,2004). urban boyscompletegrade7butonly7%ofrural PART II.Monitoring EFA 82 section 64). (South Africa of Department Education, 1998: and individualsberunonanon-profit basis provide agoodeducation, serve poorcommunities receive asubsidy, schools must bewell managed, ofDepartment Education, 1998: section 56).To increase by asmuchfive percent’ (South Africa of publiceducation incertain provinces might learners were to transfer to publicschools, thecost schools are cost-effective for thestate: ‘Ifall meet. South African policy recognizes thatprivate cost providers that could nototherwise make ends funding islimited, itisvery significant for lower- education andcombat racism. While thepublic secondary schools ifthey provide good-quality The South African Government fundsprivate Source: schools canincrease access for thepoor Box 3.8: InSouth Africa, subsidies to private Another exampleisBangladesh,whichhas Many countrieshavemadesignificantefforts / CHAPTER 3 Lewin andSayed (2005). a ). oscnayeuain(o 3.8). to secondaryeducation(Box of public-privatepartnershiptoincreaseaccess to localneeds(WorldBank,2005 is decentralized,toensurethattheyrespond management structureofsecondaryschools in allrecognizedschools).Inaddition,the (public fundspay90%ofteachers’salaries of privateschoolsreceivepublicfinancing sustainable. and ensurethatprogresstowardsEFAis priorities, makethebestuseofavailablefinancing resources beallocatedtoreflectnational effectiveness andimpact.Onlyinthiswaycan marginalized, aremonitoredforequity, good-quality educationforall,particularlythe policies andprogrammesdesignedtoprovide enrolments, itismoreimportantthaneverthat good-quality educationthatmeetstheirneeds. and otherexcludedgroupstogainaccess orphans, girls,women,peoplewithdisabilities in remoteareasormakingiteasierforthepoor, specific obstacles,motivatingteacherstowork of financialandotherincentivestoovercome communities andcivilsociety,thepower creative potentialofformingallianceswithlocal budgetary commitments. evaluated and(d)aresupportedbythenecessary enduring, (c)arecarefullymonitoredand the educationsystem,(b)aresustainableand programmes togetherwithsystemicreformsof tackle exclusionarethosethat(a)coupletargeted who aremarginalized.Successfulprogrammesto serve, especiallywhenitcomestoreachingthose as manyanddiversethecommunitiesthey path forachievingtheEFAgoals.Theroutesare This chapterhasshownthatthereisnosingle Conclusion South Africahasdevelopedadifferenttype With manycountriesincreasingprimary The examplesdescribedhereillustratethe a ). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART II. Monitoring Education for All

Chapter 4 International support: making better use of more aid

Ideally, programmes to achieve the EFA goals would be funded entirely from domestically generated resources. However, if the goals are to be met by 2015, aid is essential. About US$11 billion per year is needed right now if early childhood and adult literacy programmes are to expand and if all children are to complete primary school. Recent promises of additional aid are encouraging, but the resources have yet to materialize. Meanwhile, aid to basic education remains at less than half the amount needed annually. Moreover, there are many constraints: not enough of the aid reaches the low-income countries, nor is it sufficiently predictable; renewed attention to economic growth means increased competition from other sectors; and a lack of capacity in the education sector results in relatively low disbursement rates. At the same time, both donors and developing country governments have begun to adopt new ways of working in order to increase aid effectiveness.

85 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 income countries. and seventy-ninemiddle- Low IncomeCountries’ LDCs, twenty-two‘Other (and territories):fifty of developingcountries among threegroups statistics differentiate 3. TheOECD-DAC education. including onbasic domestic expenditure, debt andsotoincrease would beusedtoservice domestic resourcesthat allow countriestoretain effect ofdebtreliefisto for around10%ofit.The within ODAandaccounts 2. Debtreliefisincluded Global MonitoringReport reviewed inthenext basic educationwillbe international flowsfor cooperation, andprivate South-South aidand developments in organizations. Important countries andmultilateral from OECDdonor only publicofficialflows This chapterexamines tables intheannex. introduction totheaid are providedinthe many termsusedhere 1. Explanationsof S1 billion US$15 The United education promised in aidfor Kingdom an extra EFA . (ODA) increase inOfficialDevelopmentAssistance billion,or60%,annual that wouldmeanaUS$50 European Unionmembersandresultedinothers in July2005confirmedearlierpromisesby through debtrelief.Inparticular,theG8Summit effectiveness ofdevelopmentaid,including commitment toincreasethelevelsand meetings raisedexpectationsofanaccelerated In 2005severalhigh-profilereportsand Expectations andpromises PART II.Monitoring EFA 86 will monitorprogress. Development Assistance Committee(OECD-DAC) adopted twelvetargetsfor2010. OECD’s to theseobligationsinprinciple andparticipants to theircitizensandparliaments. Donorsagreed accountability ofdonorandrecipient governments processing costs,untieaidand strengthenthe recipient countries,reducetransactionand aid morecloselyinlinewiththestrategiesof concrete obligationstostructureandcoordinate countries inMarch2005.Thedeclarationcontains by overonehundredindustrializedanddeveloping Paris DeclarationonAidEffectiveness,adopted of aideffectiveness.Indoingso,itreferredtothe their sustainableeducationalstrategies’. resources necessary’forcountriesto‘pursue committed themselvestohelp‘identifythe in SaintPetersburgJuly2006,theG8countries required toreachtheEFAgoals.Attheirmeeting to contributesimilarlyprovidetheexternalaid education andcalleduponothergovernments billionoverthenexttenyearsfor of US$15 Kingdom Governmentpromisedtheequivalent chapter, andtouniversalprimaryeducation. Fast TrackInitiative,describedlaterinthis though thefinalG8communiquédidreferto flows wouldincreaseresourcestoeducation, Nations summitsdidnotspecifyhowthenewaid forward. ThedecisionstakenattheG8andUnited Fund andtheWorldBankcarriedtheseinitiatives annual meetingsoftheInternationalMonetary Assembly’s ‘Millennium+5’summitandthe Development Fund. Development AssociationandtheAfrican Fund, theWorldBank’sInternational poorest countriestotheInternationalMonetary to writeoffalldebtsowedbyalargegroupofthe 2015. Simultaneously,acommitmentwasmade for Africancountries–andfurtherincreasesto The UNsummitalsoaddressedthequestion More recently,inMarch2006,theUnited Later intheyear,UnitedNationsGeneral / CHAPTER 4 1 by 2010–includingadoublingoftotalaid of aidgoingtothepoorestcountries. on education,butalsoforanincreaseintheshare that allowsnotonlyforanincreaseinexpenditure reach theEFAgoals,itwillbeneededinaform aid istobenefitthepoorestcountries’efforts 2006 directed toAfghanistanandIraq(WorldBank, increase; andoverhalfofthetotalincreasewas emergency andfoodaidrepresented70%ofthe and 2004,debtrelief,technicalcooperation, increase inaidishardtopredict.Between2001 Bank, 2006 annual growthratefrom2001to2004(World faster between2004and2010thantheaverage 2006 ‘cannot beassumedasadonedeal’(OECD-DAC, five years,fullachievementoftheaidpromises view isthat,whileaidwillincreaseoverthenext agreement inlate2005.Overall,theOECD-DAC’s Government anditscreditorssignedan relief forIraqandAfghanistan,theNigerian particular debtreliefframework,andsignificant 6 o3%(iue4.2). 26% to32%(Figure developed countriesorLDCs, increasedfrom for theverypoorestofthese, thefiftyleast over 2000–2004ataround46%, thoughtheshare the OECD-DACaslow-income remainedstable going totheseventy-twocountries categorizedby organizations one-quarter.TheshareoftotalODA three-quarters ofthetotalandmultilateral In 2004,bilateraldonorsdeliveredalmost to almostUS$72billion(2003constantprices). and 2004disbursementsgrewfromUS$57billion 4.1).Between2000 2000, thenincreased(Figure fell duringtheearlyandmid-1990s,stabilizedto Disbursements ofODAtoalldevelopingcountries is increasing Total aidto developing countries to educationsince Dakar? What’s new inaid allocated tocountries inthelower-andupper- as morecountriesqualify. countries. Theamountwillincrease billionoverfortyyearsforseventeen US$37 that willresultinanestimatedsavingof Development Committeefinalizedarrangements nineteen countriesandinMarchtheWorldBank billionofreliefto Monetary FunddeliveredUS$3.4 countries. InJanuary2006,theInternational news sofarrelatestodebtreliefforthepoorest Will theaidpromisesbemet?Thebest a b ). Anotherconsiderationisthatifincreased .18).RealODAwouldneedtogrow50% : p. a ). Further,thecompositionofany 3 Over halfofall aidis 2 In additiontothis INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 87

middle-income categories, a fact that underlines Figure 4.1: Total ODA, 1990–2004 (net disbursements in constant 2003 US$ billions) the political considerations in aid distribution. 80 Figure 4.3 shows the distribution of ODA 72.0 69.0 across regions in 2000 and 2004. Sub-Saharan 70 All donors

Africa maintained its position as the main 60 57.5 57.4 recipient in 2004 with one-third of the total, but 50.3 South and West Asia also benefited from large 50 46.0 DAC countries 38.8 40.4 increases. However, the region receiving the 40 largest increase in aid was the Arab States, 30 mainly a result of increases for Iraq. Aid flows 19.1 18.0 16.1

Constant 2003 US$ billions 16.0 to all other regions were constant, and thus 20 Multilateral fell as proportions of the total. Turning to 10 commitments, and to future flows of ODA, 0 32% of the increase between 2000 and 2004 1990 1995 2000 2004 was to the fifty LDCs and a further 45% to the Source: DAC online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2a. twenty-two other low-income countries. The increase in multilateral commitments was almost entirely for these groups. ODA is a composite of (a) financial resources Figure 4.2: Distribution of total ODA disbursements by income group, 1990–2004 that are distributed across such sectors as 80 education, health, agriculture and roads; 72.0 69.0 (b) direct budget support; (c) debt forgiveness 70 All developing countries and emergency and food aid; and (d) free- 60 57.5 57.4 standing technical cooperation. Almost three- quarters of the total ODA in 2004 was allocated 50 40 to sectors (including sector technical 33.1 30.6 All low-income countries cooperation), though in recent years the share 30 27.0 25.8 of sector aid has fallen as debt relief and Least developed countries Constant 2003 US$ billions 20 22.7 emergency aid have increased at a faster rate 20.0 16.9 (Figure 4.4). 10 14.9

0 Total aid to education — and to basic 1990 1995 2000 2004 education — is also increasing Source: DAC online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2a. Aid commitments to education for all developing countries expanded significantly between 2000 and 2004, from US$4.6 billion to US$8.5 billion (2003 prices)4 – an increase of 85% (Figure 4.5). Figure 4.3: Distribution of total ODA disbursements, selected regions, Even higher growth occurred in the flows to 2000 and 2004 (constant 2003 US$ billions) low-income countries. These increased from US$2.5 billion to US$5.5 billion and by 2004 25 24.3 accounted for almost two-thirds of all education Bilateral Multilateral aid. The increases raised the share of aid for 20 18.5 education among all sectors for all developing 15.6 countries from 10.6% in 2000 to 13.6% in 2004 15 11.8 (Figure 4.6). More relevant in terms of additional 10.8 10.1 support for the EFA goals is that education’s 10 6.8 7.1 share of total sector aid to the LDCs rose from 5.8 5.7 Constant 2003 US$ billions 5 12.7% to 17.3%. These increases both in the 2.0 1.7 absolute levels of aid to education and in the 0 shares suggest that advocates have had some 20002004 2000 2004 2000 2004 2000 2004 2000 2004 2000 2004 success in raising awareness of the importance Central and Latin America/ East Asia and South and Arab States Sub-Saharan Eastern Europe Caribbean the Pacific West Asia Africa of education in the international community.

Source: DAC online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2a. 4. All aid to education data in this chapter are in 2003 prices. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 2005 processes’ (OECD-DAC, recipient’s budgetary in accordancewiththe transferred aremanaged treasury. Thefundsthus government’s national to thepartner external financingagency resources froman through atransferof partner country’sbudget ‘a methodoffinancinga direct budgetsupportas 6. TheOECD-DACdefines in detail. early childhoodeducation Chapter 8discussesaidto skills foryouthandadults. education andbasiclife education, primary comprises earlychildhood OECD-DAC aidstatistics 5. Basiceducationinthe aid to education Basic education now represents 39% of direct a ). S Figure 4.4: Total ODA disbursements by type, 2000 and2004 cooperation forgiveness Non-sector Emergency ource: technical Food aid Sector Debt DAC onlinedatabase(OECD-DAC,2006 aid 1020304050600 1.4 1.5 PART II.Monitoring EFA 88 years, particularly inseveralsub-SaharanAfrican income countriesbysomeUS$0.3 billion. around US$0.6billionin2004 andforalllow- countries wouldthushavebeen augmentedby Total aidtobasiceducationfor alldeveloping unspecified’ aidisdedicated to basiceducation. Here itisassumedthatabouthalfof‘level explained,theshareisunknown. year’s Report some supporttobasiceducationbut,aslast and US$1.5billionannually.Thecategoryincludes and 2004thesetotalledbetweenUS$1billion the category‘levelunspecified’.Between2000 of education,significantamountsareincludedin giving toEFA. donors andgovernmentsofpoorcountriesare further underlinetheincreasedattentionthat 59% in2004(Figures4.5and4.7).Theseshifts basic educationincreasedfrom37%in2000to whose shareoftotaleducationaiddevotedto 2000. developing countries,comparedwith30%in education, accountingfor39%in2004all becoming themajorrecipientofdirectaidto past fewyearshasresultedinbasiceducation billionin2004.Thispositivetrendthe US$3.3 aid foreducation,fromUS$1.4billionin2000to education increasedatahigherratethantotal countries: directaidcommitmentsforbasic A similartrendisvisibleacrossalldeveloping with mostofthegrowthcomingsince2002. increased fromUS$0.5billiontoUS$1.6billion, 4.7),commitmentsforwhichhave (Figure to educationhasgonebasic Constant 2003US$billions 6.9 8.5 What aboutgeneral budgetsupport?Inrecent In additiontodirectallocationseachlevel In theLDCs,muchofincreaseinaid / CHAPTER 4 2000 5 The changeisevengreaterfortheLDCs, 2004 c 53.7 ), Table 2a. -17% 5%5%150% 50% -50% Change 2000-2004 14% 58% 81% 148% S by income group, 1999–2004 Figure 4.5: Distribution of aidcommitments to education ource: Constant 2003 US$ billions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CR scholarships and traineeships,thanforlow- developing countries, andmainlyfunds The shareismuchgreaterfor higher-income 4.8). and 27%forbasiceducation in 2004(Figure it isstillverysignificant–42% foralleducation education ODAcommitments hasbeenfalling, (OECD-DAC, 2006 billion ODA commitmentsin2004ofUS$91.0 billion.Theseamountscomparewithtotal US$3.4 billionto the increasewasfromUS$1.8 to US$4.4billion,whileforlow-incomecountries billion estimated tohaveincreasedfromUS$2.6 education, aidtoalldevelopingcountriesis 4.1).Withregardtobasic billion(Table to US$6.4 billion countries theincreasewasfromUS$3.4 billionin2004;forlow-income in 2000toUS$9.5 billion estimated tohaveincreasedfromUS$5.6 to educationforalldevelopingcountriesis to basiceducation. countries, andthathalfoftheseamountswent billionwasforalllow-income of whichUS$0.8 billionindevelopingcountries2004, US$0.9 budget supporttoeducationwasabout Secretariat, 2006).Thiswouldimplythatdirect half ofthatisallocatedtobasiceducation(FTI goes totheeducationsectorandthataround estimates that20%ofgeneralbudgetsupport countries. TheFastTrackInitiativeSecretariat billiontoalllow-income including US$4.2 billion, developing countriesamountedtoUS$4.7 control. over whichtherecipientgovernmenthasgreater aid hasbeenreplacedwithdirectbudgetsupport, countries, someprojectandsectorprogramme S onlinedatabase(OECD-DAC,2006 9920 0120 032004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1.2 2.6 5.0 While theshareoftechnicalcooperation in Combining allcategoriesofaid,theamount 6 1.4 2.5 4.6 In 2004,directbudgetsupporttoall 1.5 2.6 4.8 c: al 3a). Table c 1.8 3.4 5.9 ), Table 2. 2.0 4.1 7.0 2.6 5.5 8.5 countries Least developed countries All low-income countries All developing INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 89

Figure 4.6: Share of education in total sector-allocable aid commitments, Figure 4.7: Distribution of aid commitments to basic education 1999–2004 by income group, 1999–2004

20% 3.5 3.3 17.3 All developing 16.5 Least developed countries 3.0 countries 15% 13.6 All low-income 12.7 12.5 All developing 2.5 2.7 countries 11.9 2.1 13.6 countries 12.7 13.2 2.0 10% 1.6 10.9 10.6 10.7 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.3 Least developed 1.6 1.6 countries

Share of education 1.0 5% 1.1 1.2 Constant 2003 US$ billions in total sector-allocable aid in total sector-allocable 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0% 0.0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2. Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2.

income ones. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Table 4.1: Estimates of total ODA commitments for education and basic education technical cooperation represents just over 20% by income group, 2000 and 2004 (constant 2003 US$ billions) of total ODA, compared with over 60% in East Asia Education sector Basic education (OECD-DAC, 2006b). Developing Low-income Developing Low-income In sum, since 2000 ODA has increased and countries countries countries countries a greater share has been allocated to the poorest 2000 2000 countries. In addition, positive changes have Direct 4.60 2.48 Direct 1.40 0.98 occurred across the education sector. They From ‘level unspecified’ 0.68 0.38 include increases in (a) the share of education From budget support 1.00 0.93 From budget support 0.50 0.47 in the total amount of aid committed to sectors Total 5.60 3.41 Total 2.59 1.83 and (b) the share of aid to education which is 2004 2004 directly allocated to basic education. Overall, Direct 8.55 5.53 Direct 3.32 2.70 however, the share of ODA commited directly to From ‘level unspecified’ 0.56 0.29 basic education is just 3.6% of the total – 4.8% From budget support 0.94 0.85 From budget support 0.47 0.43 if the wider definition is used – and one-third of Total 9.49 6.38 Total 4.35 3.42 this goes to middle-income developing countries. Change since 2000 69.3% 87.2% Change since 2000 68.1% 86.6% Different donors, different priorities Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2. Donors are not a homogenous group. Table 4.2 shows the contribution of each donor to total bilateral aid for the education sector as a whole Figure 4.8: Share of technical cooperation in aid commitments to and for basic education. In both cases, just a few education and basic education, 1999–2000 and 2003–2004 averages donors dominate. In 2003–2004, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States 50 together contributed 72% of all bilateral aid to 43.8 41.9 Education education. For basic education, over two-thirds 40 was contributed by Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. If aid to basic education is to increase as % of aid 30 Basic education Technical cooperation Technical 28.6 significantly, more donors will need to become 26.7 more heavily involved, or these three major 20 donors will need to increase their contributions, 1999-2000 average 2003-2004 average or both. Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2.1. Overall, roughly one-third of all education aid goes to LDCs, one-third to other low-income countries and the remainder to middle-income Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 S Figure 4.9: Share of educationaidacross income group by donor, 2003–2004 average United Kingdom ource: DAC countries United States New Zealand Netherlands Luxembourg Switzerland All donors Australia Germany Denmark Portugal Sweden Belgium Norway Canada CR Austria Finland Greece Ireland France Japan Spain S Italy to education andbasiceducation,2003–2004 average Table 4.2: Shares of donors inbilateral aidcommitments S Note: onlinedatabase(OECD-DAC, 2006 ource: Dono All DACcount France Japan Germany United Kingdom United Netherlands Canada Norway S Belgium S Australia Austria Greece Denmark Italy Portugal Finland Ireland S New Zealand Luxembourg pain weden witzerland %10 100% 100% 0% DAC countriesonly. r CR S S tates PART II.Monitoring EFA 90 onlinedatabase(OECD-DAC,2006 20% es eeoe onre te o-noecutisMiddle-incomecountries Otherlow-incomecountries Least developedcountries / CHAPTER 4 r ies 0 0 80% 60% 40% in DACcount Sha r to education e ofthecount c 0 100 100 ), Table 2. 033.3 6.7 5.4 20.3 19.1 16.9 . 26.0 21.0 8.0 7.4 5.6 1.6 0.6 8.6 2.9 7.3 3.2 4.1 0.2 3.9 1.9 2.9 1.7 2.1 0.6 2.1 0.2 1.9 0.9 1.7 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.3 0.4 1.1 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.4 r ies’ aid c ), Table 2. r y in DACcount Sha to basiceducation 0% r e ofthecount 20% r ies’ aid r 0 0 80% 60% 40% y %100% 0% Figure 4.10: Distribution by educationlevel S United Kingdom ource: DAC countries United States New Zealand Netherlands Luxembourg Switzerland All donors Australia Germany Denmark Portugal Belgium Sweden 20% Norway CR Canada Austria Finland Greece Ireland France Japan Spain S Italy onlinedatabase(OECD-DAC,2006 %100% 0% 0 0 80% 60% 40% 20% Basic education 40% 60% c ), Table 2. All donors DAC countries Portugal Luxembourg Ireland Finland Sweden Denmark Norway Canada Italy Netherlands New Zealand Switzerland United States Belgium United Kingdom France Japan Spain Germany Australia Austria Greece 80% INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 91

of total aid to education by donor, 2003–2004 average

Education, level unspecified Secondary education Post-Secondary Education Austria France Portugal Belgium Germany Japan Italy New Zealand Spain Finland Luxembourg Ireland Denmark Switzerland Greece Sweden Australia Canada Norway Netherlands United States United Kingdom

DAC countries All donors

0%20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

developing countries (Figure 4.5). Individual 2003–2004 (11.8%) is similar to that of the Donors’ priorities donors vary substantially in how they distribute bilateral donors and the reduction in the share of across education their aid among these groups. In spite of repeated sector-allocable aid for education that occurred levels vary widely calls for a greater concentration of education aid between 1999 and 2001 has been substantially in the poorest countries, half of the bilateral reversed, reaching 13.5% in 2004 (see annex, donors shown in Figure 4.9 allocate more than Aid Table 4). The share of multilateral education half of their aid for education to middle-income aid that goes to basic education (52%) is higher countries. On the other hand, eight donors than that of the bilaterals (38%). allocate less than 30% to countries in this group. After the International Development Donors’ priorities across education levels also Association, the European Commission is the vary widely, as Figure 4.10 shows. Overall, almost biggest multilateral donor for education. Its two-fifths of total allocable education aid is for support is in the form of grants. Provisional basic education. For bilateral donors as a group 2005 data indicate that almost half of its the share is slightly lower, and for nine of the disbursements for education were for basic twenty-two DAC donors it is less than one- education while a further 13% were for ‘level quarter. On the other hand, for six donors the unspecified’. Post-secondary education received share is over 60%. The situation is complicated 27%. Commitments were highest for sub- by the large share of ‘level unspecified’ for several Saharan Africa (30%) and South and Central Asia donors. Encouraged by DAC, donors are (19%), with non-EU European countries receiving continually seeking to disaggregate these 13%. The largest commitments were for allocations further. Bangladesh, Eritrea, India, Pakistan, Papua New While the grants and concessional loans Guinea and Turkey. Aid for education was almost of the multilateral aid organizations are largely equally divided among specific projects (37%), funded by the bilateral donors and as such are technical cooperation (33%) and sectorwide covered by the previous discussion of total aid, it programmes (30%). The Commission allocates is interesting to see what priority the multilaterals greater shares of its education aid to sub- give to education in their overall aid programmes Saharan Africa and to basic education than (Table 4.3). Generally, the share for education in do donors overall. 7

0 92 / CHAPTER 4

PART II. Monitoring EFA 0 2 Table 4.3: Multilateral ODA: commitments of major donors to education, 2003–2004 average

Total ODA Aid to education Aid to basic education

Amount Education Amount Basic education Constant 2003 (constant 2003 as % of (constant 2003 as % of total aid US$ millions US$ millions) total ODA US$ millions) to education International Development Association 9 590.4 1 023.6 14.0 676.7 66.1 European Commission 8 083.5 469.5 8.4 155.5 33.1 Asian Develoment Fund 1 629.9 243.5 16.1 94.4 38.8 African Development Fund 1 397.9 164.7 13.8 49.8 30.3 UNICEF 618.2 55.7 15.1 55.2 99.0 Inter-American Development Bank Special Fund 431.9 36.7 9.6 4.6 12.5

Total multilateral 21 751.8 1 993.6 11.8 1 036.2 52.0

Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2.

Aid to education from the developing have three to six and eleven have seven to twelve. country perspective The countries with the most bilateral donors are In this section, the focus switches to the Ethiopia, Mali, Mozambique and the United countries that receive ODA for their education Republic of Tanzania. Of the countries with two sectors. Three questions are posed. First, which or fewer donors, fifteen also lack any multilateral countries receive the largest amounts of donor presence, apart from UNICEF and/or education aid and what are their characteristics? UNESCO. This revealing distribution poses Second, for individual countries, what is the important questions about the capacity of global No very importance of aid to the education sector and aid to raise education levels in a wide range of to basic education in relation to total aid receipts, countries, an issue revisited in the final section

Education for All Global Monitoring Report significant concentration of and how does it vary across countries and of this chapter. regions? Third, how dependent on aid for the The education sector increasingly has to education aid on education sector are countries becoming? compete with other sectors, and with other forms the poorest Table 4.4 shows the twenty countries of ODA, for external financial support. In 2004, countries can be receiving the highest amounts of education aid education in developing countries received 10.2% observed as yet commitments in 2003–2004 (the amounts are of total ODA and around 13.6% of sector ODA. averaged for the two years). The geographical Roughly two-fifths was for basic education. These spread is wide: eight are in sub-Saharan Africa, averages, however, are heavily influenced by the five in South and West Asia, three each in North situation in a few large aid-receiving countries Africa and in East Asia, and one in Central and and hide very diverse experiences among Eastern Europe. Seven of the twenty countries countries and regions. Table 4.6 provides more are LDCs, seven are other low-income countries detailed information. For a sample of seventy- and six are lower-middle-income countries, nine poor and middle-income countries (here including four in the top ten. In the next highest shown aggregated by region), the average share twenty countries, half of the recipients are of total ODA directly allocated to the education lower-middle-income. Thus, no very significant sector in 2004 was 12.4% and education’s share concentration of education aid on the poorest of all sector ODA was around 16.1%. However, countries can be observed as yet. The aid tables for almost half of these countries (thirty-five), the in the annex provide more information on the share of sector-allocable ODA going to education education aid received annually by 148 countries was less than 10% while for 14 countries it was between 1999 and 2004, in total and per person over 25%. for 2003-2004. The relative importance given to education in Countries vary greatly in the number of total aid is not the same for all regions. Countries bilateral donors contributing to their education in South and West Asia and the Arab States in sector. Table 4.5, showing this information for 2003–2004 received a much larger share for the seventy-two poorest countries, reveals education (over 20% of total aid and over 30% of significant differences. Thirty-six of these sector-allocable aid) than did countries in other countries have two donors or less, twenty-five regions. In sub-Saharan Africa, the average INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 93

Table 4.4: Twenty countries receiving Table 4.5: Number of bilateral donors to education the highest total amounts of aid for in the seventy-two poorest recipient countries education, 2003–2004 average Number Total number of donors of countries Examples Aid to education (constant 2003 12 1 U. R. Tanzania US$ millions) 11 2 Ethiopia, Mozambique China 826.2 Bangladesh 516.0 10 1 Mali India 472.1 9 3 Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Zambia Morocco 280.2 Viet Nam 244.2 8 2 Pakistan, Uganda U. R. Tanzania 189.3 7 2 Indonesia, Nicaragua, Senegal Pakistan 150.4 Algeria 143.2 6 5 Afghanistan, Benin, D. R. Congo, Rwanda, Viet Nam Ghana 131.9 5 4 Angola, Kenya, Niger, Sudan Tunisia 119.7 Cameroon 114.9 4 8 Eritrea, Ghana, Guinea, India, Malawi, Nepal, Timor-Leste, Yemen Nepal 114.5 3 8 Bhutan, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Haiti, Lao PDR, Vanuatu Indonesia 113.6 Cape Verde, Djibouti, Georgia, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritania, Zambia 113.2 2 11 Mongolia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Somalia, Togo South Africa 110.5 Turkey 108.1 Central African Republic, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya 107.0 1 14 Guyana, Kiribati, Liberia, Myanmar, Republic of Moldova, Ethiopia 104.6 Sao Tome and Principe, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Tonga Afghanistan 104.1 Armenia, Azerbaijan, Comoros, Gambia, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, 0 11 Senegal 99.3 Sierra Leone, Saint Lucia, St Vincent/Grenad., Uzbekistan, Zimbabwe

Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2. Source: FTI Secretariat (2005).

Table 4.6: Aid for education and basic education as share of total aid and sector aid in seventy-nine countries, 2003-2004 regional averages

Share Share of Share of basic Share of basic of education education in total education education in total Regional average in total aid sector-allocable aid in total aid sector-allocable aid Sub-Saharan Africa (22 countries) 11.0% 16.2% 2.5% 3.6% Arab States (9 countries) 24.0% 31.8% 1.1% 1.5% Central Asia (7 countries) 7.1% 8.9% 1.7% 2.1% East Asia and the Pacific (8 countries) 14.2% 15.8% 1.2% 1.4% South and West Asia (5 countries) 21.1% 31.5% 10.0% 12.4% Latin America and the Caribbean (23 countries) 8.6% 9.8% 1.5% 1.9% Central and Eastern Europe (5 countries) 11.0% 12.5% 1.7% 2.0% All developing countries 12.4% 16.1% 2.3% 2.9%

Sources: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 2; annex, Statistical Table 11.

share for education across twenty-two countries lower. The very large differences between was just 11% of total aid and 16% of sector- countries in the importance given to education allocable aid. The distribution of aid among the need to be investigated further if a better different levels of education also varies by understanding is to be achieved of the likely country and region. In South and West Asia, impact on the EFA goals of increased overall countries on average used almost 50% of levels of ODA. education aid for basic education, compared with How important is aid to financing countries’ just over 20% in sub-Saharan Africa and in Latin education systems? The answer is difficult to America and the Caribbean. In the Arab States provide, since countries vary in the ways they and in East Asia and the Pacific, the share was report aid and expenditure from domestic Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 education sector and Ugandaare Ethiopia, India ownership of examples of government policies strong initiative, looks atnationaleffortstostreamline Implementation TrackingTool,anotherDAC agencies arepresented.The Country at nationalandsectorlevel, indevelopment (OECD-DAC, 2006 Sourcebook onEmergingGood Practice for DevelopmentResults,Principles inAction: example inUgandaandMali. consultative workshopsarebeingheld,for In additiontothesurveywork,subregional and aworksheetforeachparticipatingcountry. questionnaire, agovernmentquestionnaire December 2006.Thesurveycomprisesadonor is topublishtheconsolidatedresultsin all countriesthatindicatedinterest.TheOECD before thesurveywaslaunchedinMay2006 Nicaragua, Senegal,SouthAfricaandUganda questionnaires weretestedinCambodia,Ghana, survey everytwoyearsfrom2006to2010.Draft quantitative indicatorsincludesaninternational monitoring progressontwelvequalitativeand Effectiveness, establishedin2003.Workon are ledbytheOECD-DAC’sWorkingPartyonAid 86). Effectiveness (seepage by theOECD-ledParisDeclarationonAid effectiveness ofaidasawhole,exemplified international effortstoimprovethequalityand should beviewedwithinthewidercontextof effectiveness ofaidintheeducationsector Report Previous editionsofthe Streamlining aidto education 4.12). education sectorasawhole(Figure education isgenerallylowerthanforthe contribution ofaidtoexpenditureinbasic returned tolaterinthischapter.The to thelong-termunpredictabilityofaid,are of thesizetheseshares,particularlyrelating 4.11).Someconsequences for over20%(Figure current expenditureoneducation,andinseven countries, aidaccountsforover10%oftotal estimates canbemade.Intwenty-fourofthe the OECD-DACforsixtycountries,somerough disbursements ofeducationaidasreportedby UNESCO InstituteforStatisticsandon education expenditureasprovidedtothe However, usinginformationondomestic budget supportcanonlybeapproximated. revenue andtheimpactoneducationofdirect PART II.Monitoring EFA 94 In March2006,theDACpublished Efforts tocarryforwardtheParisDeclaration / CHAPTER 4 have arguedthatanyanalysisofthe d ), inwhichexamplesofwork EFA GlobalMonitoring Managing several donors andsuchexamplesshowwhy of aidisparticularly commonincountrieswith Ethiopia. Indeed,thesituation ofmultipleforms presents the exampleof 4.7 at once:Table cases, allthesearrangements andothersexist distribution asthegovernment seesfit.Insome the governmentasgeneralbudget supportfor sector-specific atallbutrathertransferredto whole educationsector.Finally,aidmaynotbe comprehensive programmethataffectsthe be usedtoprovideadditionalsupporta programme. Goingonestepfurther,theymay education, andspreadacrossawhole subsector, suchasprimaryorsecondary government budgetbutearmarkedforagiven Alternatively, fundsareaddedtothe traditional externallysupportedproject. of activitiesidentifiedinadvance–the education isprovideddirectlyforadiscreteset arrangements. Usually,externalfundingfor complex anddiversenatureofcurrentaid effectively, itisusefultoreviewbrieflythe for managingaidintheeducationsectormore al.,2005). et subscribe totheharmonizationagenda(Killick donors participatebutsomedonotreally demonstrates theproblemsarisingwhenall about sectorexperiences.One,onMozambique, positive, butthestudiessayrelativelylittle USAID, 2005).Ingeneral,theassessmentsare (IDD andAssociates,2006;Lawsonetal.,2005; in severalsectors,oftenincludingeducation be triggeredbyindicatorsofactionsoroutputs direct budgetsupport,whoseflowstendto Those thathavebeenmadefocusmainlyon maximize thebenefitsofnewprocedures. donors andgovernmentsintheireffortsto taking placeandthelessonsemergingfor work andmutualprogressassessments. carrying outofjointfieldmissions,analytic (‘parallel projectimplementationunits’)and budgets, reductionofduplicationeffort channelling ofaidintogovernmentsector ownership ofeducationsectorpolicies, exists. Theseincludestronggovernment the principlesinParisindicatorsalready back asfartenyears,evidenceofmany experience ofsectorwideprogrammesgoing and Ugandaareexamples),wherethereis countries. Insomeofthem(Ethiopia,India (OECD-DAC, 2006 policy andpractice,includingatsectorlevel Before examiningpromisingmechanisms So far,fewstudiesexistofthechanges a ), inmorethansixty INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 95

Figure 4.11: Shares of aid and national spending in total expenditure Figure 4.12: Shares of aid and national spending in total expenditure on education, 2004 on basic education, 2004

Mexico Malaysia Iran, Isl. Rep. Mexico Malaysia Iran, Isl. Rep. Argentina Algeria Colombia Argentina South Africa Oman Chile Philippines Tunisia Tunisia Costa Rica Chile Philippines Morocco Colombia Costa Rica South Africa Pakistan Croatia Mauritius Indonesia Syrian A. R. Grenada Indonesia Bangladesh Morocco Mauritius El Salvador Azerbaijan Paraguay Swaziland Jordan Peru Kenya Peru Jamaica Kenya Paraguay Swaziland El Salvador Azerbaijan Dominican Rep. St Vincent/Grenad. Lesotho Fiji Nepal Uganda Dominican Rep. Cameroon Namibia Kyrgyzstan Lesotho Seychelles Bangladesh Ethiopia Jamaica Bolivia Belize Fiji Belize Uganda Rep. of Moldova Saint Lucia Guyana Rep. of Moldova Antigua/Barbuda Nepal St Vincent/Grenad. Bolivia Togo Mongolia Madagascar Mauritania Tajikistan Senegal Malawi Georgia Cape Verde Mauritania Guyana Malawi Nicaragua Lebanon Guatemala Mongolia Benin Djibouti Saint Lucia Tonga Burundi Tajikistan Nicaragua Kyrgyzstan Congo Senegal Eritrea Burundi Cape Verde Congo Zambia Zambia Gambia Lao PDR Eritrea Tonga Lao PDR

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Share in total expenditure on education Share in total expenditure on basic education

Aid National expenditure Aid National expenditure

Sources: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c) Table 2; annex, Statistical Table 11. Sources: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c) Table 2; annex, Statistical Table 11. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 S ‘Project grants’tendtobemanagedbyuniqueproject implementationunits. by theMinistryofEducation. ‘Grants’ mainlysupporttheEducation ‘Pooled grants’aremainlyfortheTeacher DevelopmentFund. ‘Multi-subsector’ meansarangeofactivitieswithin aparticularlevel,e.g.primary. ‘TVET’ standsfor‘technicalandvocationaleducation andtraining’. Note: and type of aid,2004/05 to 2009/10 Table 4.7: Donors theEthiopian supporting educationsystem by subsector ource: World Bank(IDA) UNICEF UNESCO UNDP European Commission African DevelopmentFund United States United Kingdom Sweden Netherlands Japan Italy Ireland France Finland Belgium Yizengaw (2006). PART II.Monitoring EFA 96 / CHAPTER 4 S ector DevelopmentProgrammeandarereceived directly TVET Tertiary Primary TVET Tertiary Teacher training Multi-subsector Multi-subsector Primary Tertiary Multi-subsector Primary Non-formal Primary Teacher training Multi-subsector Teacher training Non-formal Multi-subsector Tertiary Multi-subsector Teacher training Primary Multi-subsector Non-formal Primary Tertiary Teacher training TVET Primary Tertiary TVET Primary Multi-subsector Primary Teacher training Secondary Primary Tertiary Primary Teacher training Teacher training usco Typeofsupport Subsector Concessional loan Concessional loan Grant Technical assistance Technical assistance Technical assistance Grant Grant (pooled) Project grant Project grant Concessional loan Concessional loanandtechnical Grant Grant Grant Grant (pooled) Project andgrant(pooled) Grant Technical assistance Project Grant Grant (pooled) Grant (pooled) Grant (pooled) Project Project andgrant Project Grant (pooled) Technical assistance Project andtechnicalassistance Grant andtechnicalassistance Grant andproject Grant andproject Grant (pooled) Grant (pooled) Grant (pooled) Grant Grant Project grantandtechnical Grant andtechnicalassistance Grant (pooled) Grant (pooled) assistance assistance azna itNamand Zambia. Tanzania, Viet Rwanda, Uganda,theUnited Republic of Mozambique, Namibia,Nepal, theNiger, Ghana, India,Kenya,Madagascar, Malawi,Mali, Benin, BurkinaFaso,Cambodia, Ethiopia, joint reviewmechanismsinclude Bangladesh, in sub-SaharanAfrica.Countrieswithregular place in2006(Packer,2006).Ofthese,thirtyare to haveeducationsectorwideprogrammesin At leastfortycountrieshaveorareexpected monitoring reviews? How common are joint to bemoredonor-driven. in someothercountriestheprocessappears 1995. There,thegovernmentisclearlyincharge; education sector,havingheldovertwentysince the longestexperienceofjointreviewsin Though itisnotaid-dependent,Indiahas are expectedto: targets andperformanceindicators.Thereviews project) againstanagreedsetofobjectives, of theeducationsector(orsubsectororlarge offer aperiodicassessmentoftheperformance increased government-donordialogue.Theyalso on aid.Jointreviewsprovideanarenafor exclusively) incountrieswithhighdependence of aidmanagement,primarily(thoughnot programmes andtoadoptcommonpractices to combinetheirsupportaroundsectorwide associated withattemptstoencouragedonors monitoring reviewprocess.Jointreviewsare government, andwitheachother,isthejoint sector andtoincreasedonors’alignmentwith simplify aidarrangementsintheeducation A commoncharacteristicofrecenteffortsto small steps intherightdirection? Joint monitoring reviews: which tomodeltheircoordinationefforts. and examplesofsuccessfulexperienceson meanwhile governmentsneedencouragement Harmonization willtaketime,butinthe there ispressureforgreaterharmonization. and governmentpartners. improve accountabilitytofundingsources and evaluation; of (harmonized)frameworksformonitoring improve theefficiencyandtransparency among aidagencies; promote amoreefficientdivisionoflabour more effectivesupportofnationalpriorities; increase countryownershipandprovide INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 97

What stakeholders are involved? they make it much easier to identify inequities A sample of reviews undertaken in 2005 in levels of financing and performance across shows that the number of participants varies a country and to showcase good local practice. considerably. In India, with a programme A look at the aides-mémoires for Ethiopia, supported by three donors, the government India and Rwanda gives additional insight into appointed ten members in 2005 and the donors what issues were considered most important. a further ten. Teams of two or three people The Rwandan aide-mémoire explicitly sets the visited eight states. At the other extreme, review process within the wider context of 121 people took part in the joint monitoring poverty reduction. India’s reviews are clearly review mission in Rwanda, which was held structured around a small set of national, entirely in the capital, Kigali. The range of higher-order education outcomes relating 121 people took stakeholders was very broad, including to access, equity and quality in elementary part in the joint members from lower administrative levels education. The needs and demands of the most monitoring in the education system and from civil society. disadvantaged children receive considerable review mission In Ethiopia, sixty members were divided into attention in all three cases, as do financial six groups to visit selected regions. In Malawi, management and accountability. Running in Rwanda, which of sixty-eight participants, roughly a third were through the reports for the three countries was held entirely from donor agencies or international NGOs. is the thread of weak or severely constrained in the capital, Reviews are people-intensive. Most joint reviews capacity for introducing reforms, improving Kigali involve all agencies working in the education quality and managing systems. In Ethiopia, the sector, whether they provide budget support, report states that the lack of a long-term plan work through projects or contribute through for comprehensive capacity-building at regional technical assistance. and woreda (district) level constitutes a major Very specific documentation is prepared bottleneck and that adequate resources are not for joint monitoring reviews, either because provided for capacity-building. In the other two of requests made during the previous review or countries, capacity development is addressed to enable analysis of particular themes during more in relation to particular issues, such as the current one. For example, in Ghana in 2004, teacher training. a 131-page performance report was prepared, along with a 51-page progress and assessment How influential are the reviews? framework that provided data on each set of It is difficult to judge to what extent joint activities under the major policy headings. monitoring reviews are influential and initiate In addition, quarterly budget summaries change. Perhaps as a result of the reviews’ were provided, along with a ranking of the comprehensive nature, the reports often fail to performance of individual districts against distil messages in a way that prioritizes needs specific performance criteria. In the first review and identifies what is possible and what is of a new national programme in India, in 2005, practical. Studies over time are required to test the government provided extensive the extent to which recommendations have been documentation and reports by each of the eight accepted, put into practice and had an impact. states to be visited, focusing primarily on the Government participants in the Indian and programme’s main development objectives. Ethiopian reviews have reported that they do lead to action, and in Uganda changes in the Processes and issues way grants move to schools and are used by The reviews take different approaches. In local communities resulted in part from review some, the emphasis is on monitoring progress findings. There is less evidence that the reviews systematically against national targets; in feed into wider national processes, such as others, it is on implementation practice those associated with poverty reduction and management. Reviews in Ethiopia, India strategies. Nor is it yet known to what extent the and Uganda, for instance, appear to have reviews influence donor practice. A systematic concentrated more on targets while those in study of the review processes and outcomes Madagascar and Rwanda have had a greater could be beneficial for both governments focus on implementation. Some reviews include and donors in their efforts to improve the field visits, others do not. While field visits are effectiveness of aid in the education sector. complex, time-consuming and relatively costly, Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 while augmenting sector support self-defeating Downgrading development would be capacity be self-defeating. augmenting broadsectorsupport wouldlikely downgrade capacitydevelopment effortswhile national budgetarypriority.Any moveto countries wheresuchefforts arenotaccorded way mayreducecapacity-buildingeffortsin be undermined.Moreover,providingaidinthis systems andprovidingsectorwidesupportcould emphasizing themaximumuseofnational in thistrend.Someofthebenefitsgainedfrom aid anddirectbudgetsupport.Therearerisks reflects theincreasingshifttowardsprogramme in bothbilateralandmultilateralagencies, of theirstaffwithsectorskills.Thisisthecase increasing, donorsarereducingthenumber while ODAcommitmentsforeducationare form oftechnicalcooperation.Unfortunately, support andbyworkingtorevisethecontent increasing thequalityoftheirowntechnical the capacityavailabletogovernmentsby implementation capacity. requires strengtheningbothpolicy-makingand To moveforwardeffectivelyonallthesefronts expansion ofsecondaryandtertiaryeducation. applied inacontextofincreasingdemandforthe necessity, allthesemeasureswillhavetobe school andimprovingachievementlevels.Of children, measurestoretainallchildrenin to concentratemoreonthehardest-to-reach achieving broadincreasesinaccessandstart from therelativelystraightforwardstrategyof programmes asgovernmentsswitchattention pointing tothegrowingcomplexityof (UNDP, 2005).Othersarelessoptimistic, improve capacityareundertakensimultaneously to thescalingupofaid,providedefforts in absorptivecapacityshouldnotbeanobstacle Some institutionshavearguedthatlimitations Capacity the LDCs(FTISecretariat,2006). education, andlowerstillforbasiceducationin for alldevelopingcountries,evenlowerbasic rates arerelativelylowintheeducationsector funds inthewaysagreedupon.Disbursement governments havethecapacitytospendthese sectors willbeevidencethatdevelopingcountry levels ofaidandhowitisdistributedacross Among thefactorsthatwillinfluencefuture Scaling up aidfor education PART II.Monitoring EFA 98 How candonorshelp?Donorsinfluence / CHAPTER 4 seventy-six countries showedthattheaidreceived An analysisof aid flowsbetween1975and2003 in the problemofitsvolatilityand unpredictability. that arehighlydependenton aid muststillface Even withgreateralignment, however,countries Predictability programmes. between donoractivitiesandnational importance ofeffortstoincreasealignment Such levelsofdependenceunderlinethe education andmuchmoreinsomecountries. average of42%totalexpenditureonprimary concluded thataidwouldneedtoreachan reaching universalprimaryeducationby2015 the WorldBanktocalculatefinancinggapfor goes ashigh63%.Aninitialattemptin2002by costs willneedtobecoveredbyaidandtheshare Track Initiative,onaverageone-quarterofthe twenty countryplanssofarendorsedbytheFast of thetotaleducationbudget(Figure4.11).For than 2%oftotalexpenditureonprimaryeducation. over policydecisions.Evenafterthat,aidwasless because ofconcernthatitwouldlosesovereignty amounts ofaidforprimaryeducationuntil1993, Government ofIndiarefusedofferssubstantial used andintroducesgreaterunreliability.The governments’ influenceoverhowresourcesare to bereachedfasterbutpotentiallyreduces aid involvesatrade-off:itallowsanobjective implications ofaiddependence.Thereceipt Very differentissuesarisefromtheextentand Aid dependence in whichtheremainingresourcesareused. there isanurgentneedtore-examinetheways including forcapacity-building,inaideducation Given thedecliningshareoftechnicalcooperation, (Fredriksen, 2005): these potentiallynegativeeffectsinclude country. of theeducationsectoraswellout helping addressthecausesofbraindrainout improving coordinationamongdonoragencies; giving grantstonationalteams; good practice; practitioners canbenefitfrominternational supporting knowledgeexchangeso technical assistanceandexternaltraining; creating newcapacitythroughlong-term national andregionalcapacity,ratherthan using, retainingandstrengtheningexisting In severalcountriesdonorsprovideover20% Changes thatcouldhelpdonorsminimize INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 99

by developing countries was far more volatile Over the past year the FTI has continued to than domestically generated revenue and that evolve. Technical support of various kinds has aid disbursements were only weakly related to been provided to seventy-four countries to help commitments (Bulir and Hamann, 2006). Both them develop education sector plans; concept volatility and the gap between aid commitments notes on capacity development, fragile states, and disbursements appear to have increased in HIV/AIDS and an expanded financing mechanism recent years. Between 2000 and 2003, lenders have been prepared; and the education plan promised 50% more than was actually disbursed. appraisal guidelines and framework documents More worrying, the differences tended to be larger have been revised to provide a more holistic A limited number for countries with lower per capita income. approach to gender issues. Sector plans have of countries have These trends partly arise from implementation now been endorsed by local donor groups for benefited from bottlenecks and constraints within recipient twenty countries and the plans of a further twelve countries. In addition, ‘donor development countries are expected to be endorsed by the end the FTI Catalytic agencies that make aid commitments are of 2006.8 By the end of 2008, the secretariat Fund different from those that approve aid funding estimates, the plans of fifty-nine countries may (parliaments) and disburse aid (ministries of have been through this process. finance)’ (Bulir and Hamann, 2006: p. 4). Donors In addition, the FTI has added some value need to work harder to provide guarantees of by making extra resources available for improving longer-term, more predictable financial aid so the quality of education sector planning and that countries can take the decisions necessary programme development, and, in a few cases, to increase both the demand for and the supply by providing additional funds for endorsed plans of education without worrying about having to through the Catalytic Fund. So far, however, reverse them if aid is reduced. It may also be the amounts in the Catalytic Fund remain quite prudent for developing country governments that small (though pledges have been accelerating are highly reliant on aid to assess which activities recently) and a limited number of countries have are the most important to sustain and should benefited. As of August 2006, total donor payments therefore be funded domestically. into the fund were US$230 million, though with a further US$450 million pledged by a total of eleven The Fast Track Initiative: donors by the end of 2008. Six donors had pledged encouraging a global compact over US$10 million each. Of these, the European The Fast Track Initiative (FTI) was established in Commission, the Netherlands and the United 2002 to encourage a global compact that would Kingdom were responsible for 85% of total lead to the development of ‘credible’ education pledges. Disbursements as of August 2006 sector plans and to greater – and more amounted to US$96 million to eleven countries; predictable – external financial support. The World in addition, formal commitments amounted to Bank hosts its secretariat, and over thirty donors US$130 million. The number of donors to the 7. The Catalytic Fund share its governance and costs. Last year’s EFA Education Programme Development Fund provides up to three years of transitional support for Global Monitoring Report concluded that, while increased from two to eight over the past year, and education sector plans in the political visibility of and rhetorical support for commitments for 2005–2007 total US$46 million, countries with four or fewer bilateral donors, each the FTI had increased substantially, no significant almost half from Norway. contributing a minimum of US$1 million in aid. The increases in resources for its Catalytic Fund or Though there has been some growth in the Education Programme Education Programme Development Fund had resources available, it is now apparent that the Development Fund finances technical assistance to help yet resulted.7 Nor could the FTI yet claim wider Catalytic Fund, as initially conceived, is not countries develop the plans. success in leveraging significant additional sustainable. It was designed as a temporary 8. The countries with endorsed plans are Burkina external funds for basic education. In addition, the source of funding for countries with few donors, Faso, Djibouti, Ethiopia, 2006 Report pointed to often anecdotal evidence the expectation being that good performance the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guyana, Honduras, Kenya, that agencies’ in-country education advisors would attract additional donors. In practice, new Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritania, Mozambique, questioned the value added by the initiative either ones have not been forthcoming and, since there Nicaragua, the Niger, in bringing in extra funding or in enhancing policy is a trend among donors to reduce the number the Republic of Moldova, Tajikistan, Timor Leste, dialogue, particularly in countries where the latter of countries they support, the problem is likely Viet Nam and Yemen. Those expecting endorsement by is well established. More positively, the Report to grow. Similarly, the hoped-for solution of the end of 2006 are Albania, Benin, Bhutan, Burundi, recognized that the FTI had become an important ‘silent partnerships’, in which donors with no Cambodia, Cameroon, Mali, coordinating mechanism for the donor agencies programmes in a country would allocate funds Mongolia, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal and and a positive influence on donor harmonization. for basic education through a donor that did have Sierra Leone. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 efficiency inthe greater internal FTI countries evidence of There is efforts unless donors undertakeanaggressive, effectiveness will havealimitedimpactonEFA framework oftheFTIandtoincrease its greater internalefficiencyin the FTIcountries. more rapidlyandthereissome evidenceof shows thatgrossenrolment ratios haveincreased eight countriesandacontrolgroupof performance onseveralindicatorsbetweenthese to primaryeducation.Acomparisonof proportion oftotaleducationexpendituredevoted recorded inpupil/teacherratiosandthe On theotherhand,noprogresshasyetbeen repetition rate(UmanskyandCrouch,2006). spending notdevotedtosalariesandaverage devoted toeducation,proportionofrecurrent salaries, percentageofrecurrentexpenditure been madetowardsthebenchmarksforteacher endorsed countriesindicatesthatprogresshas analysis oftheexperiencesfirsteightFTI- be occurring.Althoughtheperiodisshort, towards theEFAgoals.Therearesignsthismay will improveandcountriesmovefaster their endorsementbylocaldonors,policy-making background forthedesignofeducationplansand indicative framework,whichprovidesthe indicators andbenchmarksincludedinthe expectation isthat,ascountriestakenoteofthe to thegenerationofexternalfunding.Another recent promisesofadditionalaidarefulfilled. the educationsectorwellineventthat into designingtheFTIprocesseshavepositioned Further, theconsiderableeffortsthathavegone one formalaria,tuberculosisandHIV/AIDS. than throughasingle‘globalfund’suchasthe through acountry-by-countryapproachrather increasing overallresourcesforbasiceducation the feasibilityofFTI’s‘virtualfund’model, stimulated. Theincreasesbegintodemonstrate attention tobasiceducationfinancingthatithas are consistentwiththeaddedinternational attributed solelytotheinfluenceofFTI,they commitments tobasiceducationcannotbe would reducethenumberofpotentialnewones. contributions, anextensionforexistingrecipients nature ofthefundand,withoutlargeincreasesin this makessense,itwouldsignificantlyalterthe considering extendingthefundingperiod.While suddenly facesacut-off,donorsarenow a countryreceivingpaymentsfromthefund expected. Toovercomethesituationinwhich a presence,haveprovedmorecomplicatedthan PART II.Monitoring EFA 100 Ultimately, however,effortsto improvethe The FTI’spotentialimpactisnotlimited While therecentincreasesinODA / CHAPTER 4 2006): Among changesthismightrequireare(Sperling, required forFTItobecomeafullyglobalcompact. high-level pushtomakethecommitments reach theEFA goals hasbeenlimited,including its directinfluence ontheabilityofcountries to trusted bydevelopingcountry governments,yet initially envisaged.Theorganization isgenerally the centralleadershipposition forEFAthatwas of thesedomains,UNESCOhas yettomoveinto Africa, andHIV/AIDSeducation. development, teachertraininginsub-Saharan initiatives inliteracy,educationforsustainable greater harmonization;andthroughongoing good practicesoftechnicalcooperationand Group; byexercisingleadershipinpromoting the FTI,E-9countriesandHigh-Level by strengtheningconnectionsamongUNESCO, through advocacyatthe‘Millennium+5’summit; dialogue ondevelopmentinthecomingyear: to placeEFAattheforefrontofinternational 2005). Atthesametimeitpointedtoopportunities probably unrealistic–expectations(UNESCO, Education Forum(Dakar),reflectedhigh–and with theotherconveningagenciesofWorld including resourcemobilization’,throughdialogue ‘a conciseglobalplantoachievetheEFAgoals, that theExecutiveBoard’scallfor suggested to coordinateEFA.The2006Report the activitiesofUNESCOinrelationtoitsmandate presentsandcommentson Each yeartheReport the role of UNESCO Global EFA coordination: and Pakistan. population countriessuchasIndia,Nigeria a needtoembracemoreconsistentlyhigh- decreases inqualityofschooling; is notdramaticincreasesinclasssizeand as abolishingfees,toensurethattheoutcome governments takefar-reachingstepssuch or bilaterally,foraquickresponsewhen provision offunds,eitherthroughtheFTI over ifperformanceagreementsaremet; to five-yearfundingprogrammeswillberolled including anexpectationthatcurrentthree- more predictableandlonger-termfunding, meet aspecificsetofobligations; automatically eliminatedforcountriesthat to thoseofthedebtreliefmodel,withdebts commitment offundsforEFAinwayssimilar Although activitiesareunder wayineach INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 101

in capacity development, where one would have gatherings, will be directed at literacy, education expected it to excel. An institutional reform for work, teacher training, technology and programme now being implemented may reverse learning outcomes. Activities will concentrate this situation. The reform aims to put EFA at the on capacity-building, monitoring and evaluation, core of all UNESCO education activities and to and national planning processes. The global strengthen UNESCO’s field presence and leadership roles for UNESCO include: orientation considerably by (a) decentralizing supporting national leadership by reinforcing authority and resources to the field (especially the the role of its Education Sector as a four existing regional bureaux, to which a fifth has clearinghouse of ideas and by strengthening been added in Bucharest for Europe and North its field operations to give better support to America), (b) reducing overlap and providing clear governments; accountability for topic areas and programmes, promoting South-South cooperation, and (c) changing the internal organizational particularly through the E-9 countries, in the culture into one that generates openness and areas of teaching and learning best practices, flexibility, in a context of clear alignment of innovative financing and innovations in programmes with institutional and global information and communications technology; priorities. The outcome of the reform launched in and through exploring potential donor support June 2006 may determine whether UNESCO can for this cooperation; become effective in two particular EFA-related coordinating activities to reduce national areas in coming years: further development of financial and capacity gaps of the countries a global action plan and regional EFA reviews. least likely to achieve EFA; The call for a global action plan by members promoting policy analysis based on evidence of UNESCO’s Executive Board in March 2005 and research by gathering, collating and emerged from a desire to increase coordination disseminating information through among stakeholders in the EFA movement, headquarters staff and UNESCO institutes. particularly those who convened the Dakar It is unclear whether the EFA Global Action Plan meeting in 2000: UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, will result in greater interagency coordination or UNFPA and the World Bank. In response, will mainly guide UNESCO’s own future. In either UNESCO UNESCO initiated a consultative process aimed at case it will be important to reform the supporting is preparing harmonizing the approaches of these multilateral international machinery as well, especially the an EFA Global organizations in supporting the development and High-Level Group, so that it becomes more implementation of EFA national plans. To this end action-oriented and less of a forum for general Action Plan it has prepared an EFA Global Action Plan, which discussion whose outcomes cannot be monitored. the heads of the four UN coordinating agencies UNESCO has also signalled its intent to for EFA, plus a World Bank representative, coordinate country assessments of progress discussed in draft at a meeting of the United towards the EFA goals halfway towards the target Nations Development Group Principals in July date of 2015. The Asia-Pacific Regional Bureau 2006. Support for the finalization of the plan was has begun monitoring country progress with a provided at the G8 submit in St Petesburg. A more focus on ‘reaching the unreached’. The Latin fully developed version will be presented to the America and the Caribbean Regional Bureau will High-Level Group Meeting on Education for All in work within the framework of the Regional November 2006. Project for Education in Latin American Countries Overall, the plan is designed to achieve (PRELAC), which plans to report in March 2007 on greater consistency at global level and provision the relevance of educational services, equity and of more effective support to EFA at national level. the right to education, effectiveness in achieving At its heart are the concept of ‘one country, one educational goals and management efficiency. plan’; a strategic focus on the countries having The Caribbean is planning a regional EFA report the greatest needs; a concern for the whole EFA by the end of 2007. Similarly, the Africa Regional agenda; and the intent to create a clear division Bureau expects to make a substantial review in of labour among international agencies in 2007 focusing on the ‘external efficiency of supporting national EFA plans and efforts. education’. These country assessments may UNESCO’s own contributions, in addition to prove very useful; however, it is not yet clear what convening the High-Level Group, the EFA Working incentives exist for countries to participate, as Group, the E-9 meetings and other EFA-related there has been no indication of how they might Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 would befinancedby aid. we assumehalfofthis billionayear.Here US$2 would requirearound programmes to2015 of themliteratethrough million that making550 millionandestimated 771 of illiterateadultsat the minimumnumber put 9. The2006Report basic education in total ODA for countries will need to more The share of than double low-income significantly higherfigure(UNESCO,2002 EFA GlobalMonitoringReport funding requirementforlow-incomecountries. per year,onaverage,astheadditionalexternal billion authors arrivedatanestimateofUS$3.7 governments shouldberesponsiblefor,the assuming theincreaseindomesticresourcesthat to provideschoolingforallofthemandthen of schoolagechildrento2015,theinputsrequired Bruns etal.(2003).Bycalculatingthenumber for externalfinancialsupport,isthestudyby universal primaryeducation,andtherequirements assessing theglobalcostofprovidingaquality The mostcomprehensiveandreliablebasisfor $11 billionayear isneeded programmes inparticular. either forEFAingeneralorUNESCO’s together tohelpsetprioritiesatthegloballevel, is asyetnomechanismforbringingcountries benefit fromthereviewfindings.Finally,there PART II.Monitoring EFA 102 eurmn fsm S1 billion. requirement of someUS$11 would resultin anaverageannualexternal funding each oftheliteracyandearly childhoodgoals billionfor cover alltheEFAgoals;allocating US$1 primary educationbyeveryboy andgirldoesnot prices). Inaddition,completion ofadecent-quality billionto2015(at2003 increase toaroundUS$9 the annuallevelofexternalsupportwouldneedto required. Tomakeupforthisdeficiency,from2005 in low-incomecountrieswerewellbelowthose additional ODAcommitmentstobasiceducation Development, 2005).Between2001and2004, base year(UKDepartmentforInternational billion. to US$6.8 a yearofexternalfinancebringingtheannualtotal billion estimated, wouldrequireanextraUS$3.1 instability. Theseconsiderations,theReport affected byconflict,naturalcalamityandgeneral countries; and(c)rehabilitatesystemsincountries particularly inmanysub-SaharanAfrican the HIV/AIDSpandemiconeducationsystems, the coststothem;(b)copewithfullimpactof for childrenfrompoorerhouseholds,byreducing demand forschoolinggirls,andmoregenerally required to(a)inducehouseholdsincreasetheir optimistic. Inaddition,extraresourceswouldbe fifteen-year periodusedinthestudywasoverly of governmenteducationexpenditureoverthe it wasarguedthattheimplicitannualgrowthrate An assessmentofthisstudybythe2002 The initialestimatesused2000asthe / CHAPTER 4 arrived ata 9 a ). First, S1 billionestimated requirement. US$11 billion,less thanhalfofthe will beUS$5.4 constant, thetotalallocation for basiceducation by 2010,andthesharetobasic educationremains amount ofaidincreasesby60% fromits2004level as recentinternationalpledges suggest,thetotal and aportionofbudgetsupport areincluded.If, ‘level unspecified’flowstotheeducationsector billionifhalfofall billionoraboutUS$3.4 US$2.7 significantly overpreviousyears,butonlyto in low-incomecountries2004hadincreased fifths. Asaresult,theamountforbasiceducation increased fromlessthanone-thirdtoabouttwo- education inthesector’stotalallocation 2004. Overthesameperiod,shareforbasic increased from10.6%to13.6%between2000and share oftotalODAthatisallocatedtosectors 4.6showed,education’s automatically. AsFigure towards thegoals.Suchanincreasewillnotoccur double ifthereistobeacceleratedprogress low-income countrieswillneedtomorethan appear conservative. progress towardstheotherEFAgoalsaswell– billionayearto countries by2015,atleastUS$11 year toapproachuniversalprimaryeducationinall billiona ‘revised’ estimates,then–atleastUS$9 translate intoverylargeexpenditureneeds.These educational infrastructureisinpoorconditionwill low-income countrieswithmanywhose way. Thecombinationofseveralhighlypopulated are inconflictorregardedas‘fragile‘some such asCôted’Ivoire,Haiti,SomaliaandSudan, United RepublicofTanzaniaandZambia).Others, India, Indonesia,Nigeria,Pakistan,Uganda,the several haveverylargepopulations(Bangladesh, the low-incomecategoryonOECD-DAClist, billion. estimated atUS$2.7 Their totalannualexternalrequirementis endorsement oftheirplansbytheend2008. twenty-five othercountriestosubmitandobtain million.TheFTIexpects a populationofover20 However, onlythreeofthesetwentycountrieshave billionannually. required isestimatedatUS$1.2 is from37%to83%).Thetotalexternalsupport expect tofund76%ofthisdomestically(therange billion.Onaverage,nationalgovernments US$4.9 plans currentlyendorsedisestimatedat expenditure forprimaryeducationinthetwenty (FTI Secretariat,2005).By2008,thetotalrequired prepared for,andendorsedthrough,theFTI check isprovidedbytheeducationsectorplans The shareofbasiceducationintotalODAfor Of thetwenty-sevenremainingcountriesin How realisticaretheseestimates?Apartial INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT: MAKING BETTER USE OF MORE AID / 103

While the general outlook for an increased United Kingdom commitment of US$15 billion for level of ODA is favourable, including the portion education over the next decade is encouraging. for supporting sector activities, the competition The gesture inspired the finance and education for it is increasing. This competition takes several ministers of twenty African countries, meeting in forms. First, evidence in recent government Abuja, Nigeria, in June 2006, to develop ten-year poverty reduction programmes indicates that the education programmes by September 2006. emphasis on education, health, water and other Several have already been prepared for the FTI social expenditure is increasingly accompanied by and, overall, it would probably be best to continue more focus on infrastructure and other activities using the FTI rather than to develop new regarded as contributing more directly to processes and mechanisms. economic growth. Second, the emphasis on In addition to increased aid levels and more secondary and tertiary education is increasing. effective management of aid processes, more While attention has been given internationally to emphasis needs to be given to evaluating attainment of the EFA goals, several countries education activities and programmes supported The price tag for whose primary school completion levels are still by donors. For governments, it is in their interest the EFA agenda low plan a major expansion of their secondary and to understand more systematically the nature, is US$11 billion tertiary subsectors. Almost half of bilateral aid level and causes of changes resulting from to education is allocated to tertiary education expenditure. For donors, it is likely that their own a year already, though much of it is for scholarships citizens will increasingly demand evidence of to attend donor institutions. results as increases in aid budgets are proposed. The overall size of the financing gap and the increasing competition are not the only problems. While the multilateral development banks, the Conclusion UN agencies and, to a lesser extent, the EC work almost exclusively with low-income countries, the At US$11 billion a year, the price tag for fulfilling bilateral donors, whose programmes constitute the EFA agenda is higher than originally expected. three-quarters of total ODA, distribute their Even if aid promises are met, the resources resources very unequally. While some countries allocated for basic education will be inadequate have ten or more active donors in the education if the current share of education in total aid and sector, many more have two or fewer (Table 4.5), its distribution across levels and income groups and the trend among bilateral donors is to reduce are maintained, and further harmonization does the number of countries in which they have not occur. The share of total aid going to basic programmes. Eight of the first twenty countries education must at least double and be more whose plans were endorsed by the FTI have focused on low-income countries rather than a maximum of two donors. If bilateral donors on middle-income ones. Aid modalities need to continue directing their support to smaller be further streamlined, and competition from the numbers of countries, more resources must full Millennium Development Goals agenda and be channelled to the FTI Catalytic Fund, to some the infrastructure lobby addressed. Developing new mechanism with a global reach or to the countries must demonstrate that their education multilateral agencies, if the aid that becomes sectors are capable of absorbing the aid required. available for education is to be used in the A closer alignment of donor activities with countries where the need is greatest. national programmes and other changes in the The volatility and short-term nature of aid way aid is delivered are needed to minimize risks were discussed earlier. It is particularly important arising from growing aid dependence. The FTI for governments to be able to count on the continues to develop the frameworks to bring sustainability of resources to support their together credible education sector plans and education sector initiatives. Countries need help to additional external resources. Greater efforts expand enrolments rapidly while at the same time will be needed internationally to convince donors providing the conditions that lead to lower dropout to increase the volume and predictability of aid rates and higher learning achievement. Schools for basic education. Governments of low-income and other infrastructure need to be built now, countries must be persuaded to give greater teacher-training colleges need to be up and priority to education in their discussions with running now, curriculum reform and material donors, and to allocate to it a greater share design need to be undertaken now. The recent of the savings from debt relief. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART III. Early childhood care and education

Chapter 5 The compelling case for ECCE

The early childhood years set the foundations for life. Ensuring that young children have positive experiences, that their rights are guaranteed and that their needs for health, stimulation and support are met is crucial to their well-being and development. In a context where family and community structures are evolving and countries are going through rapid social and economic changes, early childhood programmes complement the roles of parents and other carers in raising children during the early years. After discussing the rights of children, this chapter reviews the evidence on the multiple benefits of early childhood programmes: easier transition to primary, better completion rates, reduced poverty, increased social equality and high economic returns. It makes the case for expanding and improving ECCE programmes in order to meet EFA goal 1.

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0 106 / CHAPTER 5

PART III. Early childhood care and education 0 2 Early childhood early childhood programmes either are universal in a changing world or cover at least two-thirds of the population in only a minority of countries, mostly developed All societies have arrangements for taking care and transition ones.2 Moreover, some developed of and educating their young children. These countries, notably the United States, do not arrangements have evolved over time and are provide for universal coverage. In many diverse across cultures, in keeping with developing countries, especially those of differences in family and community structures, sub-Saharan Africa, early childhood programmes and the social and economic roles of men and are available only to a small fraction of the women (Blumberg, 2006). However, current social population, typically affluent urban families. For and economic trends are disrupting many existing instance, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, child care arrangements. In Central and Eastern with 12 million children aged 0 to 6, has only Europe, and Central Asia, the transition from 1,200 pre-primary schools, and 60% of these are planned to market economies has led to the private schools located in the capital province of Current social breakdown of institutions that took care of young Kinshasa, where just 10% of the total population and economic children while their parents were at work. In lives (Youdi, 2005). trends are developing countries, urbanization, work-driven This chapter makes the case for early migration and the increasing participation of childhood programmes. First, young children disrupting women in the labour market are transforming have rights, and early childhood programmes many existing family structures. The prevalence of nuclear are one instrument to guarantee that these child care families, in which fewer adults are available to rights are respected. Second, research on arrangements take care of young children, is increasing, while human development emphasizes that young extended families are declining. Armed conflict, children have specific needs and that the extent the HIV/AIDS pandemic and environmental to which these are satisfied affects the outcomes degradation have resulted in large numbers of their development into youth and adults. In this of orphans and, more generally, of families developmental perspective, participation in early Education for All Global Monitoring Report confronted with major difficulties in the childhood programmes is beneficial because it upbringing of young children.1 leads to improved outcomes, including better Expanding and improving comprehensive early nutrition, health and education, in both the short childhood care and education (ECCE), especially and the long run. Moreover, from an economic for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged point of view, investment in early childhood children can help to meet these challenges. Early programmes offers a high pay-off in human childhood programmes may include basic health capital and there is a strong case for public and nutrition interventions, such as vaccination intervention. Early childhood programmes not campaigns; parenting programmes, through only benefit children and families, they reduce which parents receive support and advice; and social inequality, and benefit communities and various centre-based activities, ranging from societies at large. Most of the evidence presented crèches for very young children to pre-primary in this chapter comes from programmes schools that lay the foundations for primary influenced by evolving perceptions of early schooling. They can help compensate for childhood in Europe and North America; much disruption of societal arrangements and ensure more empirical research on programmes that young children’s rights and interests are influenced by other traditions is needed. promoted; they can also contribute to the well- being of families and societies. Their aim should not be to substitute for the care provided by young Guaranteeing the intrinsic children’s primary carers – who may include 1. According to UNAIDS rights of young children (2006), there were parents and other family or community members 15.2 million AIDS orphans aged 0 to 17 in 2005, – but to improve and supplement it when needed. There are several human rights intruments 12 million of whom lived There is less consensus among policy-makers specific to children’s rights. In 1959 the United in sub-Saharan Africa. about the need for early childhood programmes Nations General Assembly adopted the 2. It should be noted, though, that the regional than there is about the desirability of achieving Declaration of the Rights of the Child. Although gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary education universal primary education. Although the not legally binding, the Declaration affirms some for Latin America and 738 million children aged 0 to 5 represented 11% of the most basic principles of children’s intrinsic the Caribbean is close to two-thirds at 62%. of the world’s population in 2005 (see Chapter 6), rights, including the provision of health care, THE COMPELLING CASE FOR ECCE / 107

housing, social security, education, and protection 2005) gives a clearer understanding of the from neglect, cruelty and exploitation. human rights of all young children and the In 1989, the United Nations General Assembly obligations of parties to fulfil them.5 It gives adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child a working definition of early childhood as from (CRC), the most widely ratified human rights birth to age 8, encompassing ‘all young children: treaty in the world. As a legally binding at birth and throughout infancy; during the instrument, the Convention marks the beginning pre-school years; as well as during the transition The Convention of a new stage for children’s rights during which to school’. on the Rights new international standards need to be translated The committee warns in particular about of the Child is into domestic laws and practices.3 The CRC has discrimination against young children through since served as an example for human rights such practices as inadequate feeding, selective the most widely documents such as the 1990 African Charter on abortion, genital mutilation and neglect. It also ratified human the Rights and Welfare of the Child and the 1996 mentions discrimination against children with rights treaty European Convention on the Exercise of disabilities, infected or affected by HIV/AIDS, in the world Children’s Rights. and on the basis of ethnic origin, class or caste The CRC rests upon four major (Paragraph 11, a and b). Parties are reminded interdependent principles: of their obligation to develop comprehensive life, health and development (Articles 6, 24); policies covering health, care and education non-discrimination (Article 30); for young children. The document also states consideration of the best interests of the child that parties should provide assistance to parents (Article 3); and carers, including provision of parenting the right to be heard (Article 12). education, counselling and quality childcare The Convention emphasizes child well-being as services, backed up by monitoring systems well as child development and calls upon States (Paragraphs 20, 21) (OHCHR, 2005). Parties to assure that the views of children are The working document specifies that early given due weight in accordance with their age childhood education should be directly linked to and maturity (Article 12). Children should be children’s right to develop their personalities, guided in a manner consistent with their talents and mental and physical abilities from ‘evolving capacities’ in the exercise of their birth. Early childhood development programmes rights (Article 5). The CRC emphasizes the right are among several activities to meet young 3. General Assembly of all children to education and calls for primary children’s right to education. These activities may Resolution 44/25 of education to be made compulsory and available be home- or community-based, or they may be 20 November 1989 adopted the convention, which free to all (Article 28). It also calls for parties to pre-school programmes. They should allow for entered into force on 2 September 1990, after provide assistance to parents and legal guardians empowerment and education of parents and ratification by twenty parties. Two optional protocols in their child-rearing responsibilities, and to make other carers. (on the sale of children, childcare services and facilities available, The committee actively monitors national child prostitution and child pornography, and on the especially to working parents (Article 18) progress in children’s rights, including those involvement of children in armed conflict) entered into (OHCHR, 1989). of early childhood (Box 5.1). force in 2004. As of May 2006, Providing ECCE of good quality is a powerful 192 countries and territories had ratified the CRC, the means of guaranteeing the rights of young Tensions between a universal standard latest being Timor-Leste children, especially those who are vulnerable and culturally specific contexts (2003). and disadvantaged. The CRC establishes a universal standard. While 4. The committee monitors implementation of the CRC, the CRC recognizes parents as having primary meeting three times a year Using the Convention on the Rights to examine national reports. responsibility for their children, it also makes NGOs and national human of the Child to promote early childhood rights institutions clear that parents are expected to give representing children’s programmes ‘appropriate’ direction to and guidance on rights are encouraged to submit comments The CRC itself has few provisions specific to the children’s active exercise of their rights. This has on the national reports. youngest age group. Recently, however, a broader been interpreted by some to mean that parents 5. A non-binding ‘General discussion has developed on how to apply child are supposed to adapt their actions to reflect the Comment’ called ‘Implementing Child Rights rights in early childhood. In 2005 the Committee rights of the child as coded in the CRC and that in Early Education’, it draws attention to rights and needs 4 on the Rights of the Child put early childhood on children’s evolving capacity to exert autonomy in early childhood and comments on the need its agenda, noting that young children have over their lives and to exercise their rights has to formulate policies, laws particular needs for nurturing, care and guidance. greater weight than the parents’ right to decide and practices that focus specifically on early The working document that emerged (OHCHR, what is best for the child. childhood. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 childhood inEurope. of theunderstanding of linked totheevolution childhood programmes, the developmentofearly for ahistoricalaccountof Chartier andGeneix(2006) of theresearch,and based, foracriticalaccount on whichthissectionis 6. SeeWoodhead(2006), Ghana NGOCoalition ontheRights of the Child(2005); Republic of Ghana(2005 Sources: Finally, theCommittee ontheRights of theChild,recommended that: commented that: The GhanaNGOCoalition ontheRights of theChild(2005) subsequent government report to thecommittee emphasized: effective administrative mechanismsfor early childhood.The fundamental issues registration, suchasbirth data collection and the Committee ontheRights of theChild. NGOsmadeacase for of anexchange amongtheGovernment of Ghana,local NGOsand In 2005 and2006, early childhoodpolicies inGhanawere thefocus Ghana’s example Box 5.1: Monitoring progress inchildren’s rights: hamper implementation). local level, capacity limitations of onthe part district assemblies implementation shouldbeachieved (the committee noted that, at effective interministerial coordination of activities related to CRC all levels of CRC implementation can bemaintained; budgetary allocations shouldbeprioritized andincreased, so that and to asylum seeker andrefugee children; entire country andpays specialattention to abandoned children setting upanefficient registration birth system thatcovers the Ghana shouldstrengthen its system of data collection, e.g. by of policy measures. early childhoodpolicy-making) hastheeffect of delaying adoption and Children’s Affairs andtheMinistry of Education contribute to an overlap inministry mandates (e.g. both theMinistry of Women analysis are notinplace; unavailable because systems for data collection, collation and data inareas relevant to children’s rights are inadequate or attached to every primaryschool. of 4)part theGhanaEducation Service and (starting from age Strategic Plan of theMinistry of Education madepre-schools inclusion of ECCD inmainstream basic education: the2003 role andcoordinating implementation; along withaNationalCoordinating Committee playing anadvisory Policy andtheformation of thirty-seven ECCD District Committees, establishment of anEarly ChildhoodCare andDevelopment (ECCD) communities to register anddeaths; births through anincrease inthenumberof assistants regularly visiting improved data managementfor children’s statistics, inparticular Committee ontheRights of the Child (2006 PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 108 CRC, butwasrejected ongroundsthatthe CRC A similarprovision hadbeenproposedforthe of need’(OrganizationAfrican Unity,1990). and eldersatalltimesto assistthemintime of thefamily,torespecthisparents, superiors upon thechildadutytowork ‘forthecohesion of theChildaddsanextradimension byimposing The AfricanCharterontheRightsandWelfare / CHAPTER 5 a , 2006 b , 2006 c , 2006 d ); b ). ‘developmental perspective’onearlychildhood: has emergedamongthosewhosharethis including, mostrecently,thoseofearlychildhood. shape policiestoprotectchildren’srights, generalities, theCRChasundeniablyhelped can match.Despiteitsimperfectionsand CRC astatusthatfewotherinternationaltreaties periodic monitoringbytheUnitedNationsgive CRC anditsproceduresofaccountabilitythrough Nevertheless, thenearuniversaladoptionof adopting auniversalnormativeframework. al.,2005). that havenotratifiedtheCRC(Alstonet the UnitedStatesareonlysignatoryparties private domainontheother.Indeed,Somaliaand and concernaboutpublicintrusionintothe children’s andparents’rightsontheonehand, arguing fromaneedtofindbalancebetween United States,haveobjectedtotheseprovisions, the roleofparents,somecountries,including the Conventionhasstressedimportanceof the child’sbestinterestsareatstake.Although empowered tointerveneonbehalfofthechildif between thechildandstate.Thestateis to imposedutiesuponchildren(Alstonetal.,2005). was notanappropriateinstrumentthroughwhich and developmentstudies. research oneducation,socialpolicy,health,law anthropology andeconomics,aswellinapplied diverse asbiology,psychology,sociology, impact onhumandevelopment,infieldsas scientific interestinearlychildhood,andits there isalonghistoryofphilosophicaland has beenamplyconfirmedbyresearch.Indeed, during thefirstyearsoflife.Thisintuitiveidea development isshapedbytheirexperiences Children’s physicalandpsychological a sensitive period Early childhood: communicating, learningandplaying. and capacities, waysofrelating, transformations marktheacquisition ofskills to thebeginningofschooling. These socio-emotional facilitiesfrom earliestinfancy in children’sphysical,mental, cognitiveand Numerous progressivetransformations occur stages andmilestonesofdevelopment. children andadults,comprisesdistinctive emotional functioningdiffersfromthatofolder Young children’sphysical,mental,socialand These examplesreflectthedifficultiesof The CRCalsoestablishesadirectrelationship 6 A broadconsensus THE COMPELLING CASE FOR ECCE / 109

Early childhood is the period when humans Similarly, a child who never hears language, are most dependent on secure, responsive or receives extremely poor care (as in some relationships with others (adults, siblings and orphanages), will likely suffer developmental peers) to assure not just their survival but also deficits. Such effects have led some to envisage their emotional security, social integration, the first years of life as an extended critical and cognitive skills. period, a window of opportunity for development, Young children’s development is especially closed by age 3. sensitive to negative effects from early Researchers still have much to learn, undernutrition, deprivation of care and of however, about the persistence of such effects responsive parenting, and ill treatment. and the ability of the brain to overcome them. If children’s basic needs are not met, or they Furthermore, the brain continues to grow and are maltreated or abused, the repercussions mature well into adolescence. Hence, the idea are often felt throughout childhood and into of a window of opportunity closing by age 3 is adulthood. difficult to support. In general, although some While early development can be summarized critical periods do exist, the concept of ‘sensitive in terms of universal general principles, the periods’ is more relevant to understanding early development pathways vary and are linked to childhood (Bailey, 2002; Horton, 2001). Sensitive individual capacities and special needs, gender, periods are times in development when the ethnicity, and economic, social and cultural absence of some kind of stimulus results in The first circumstances. development going awry. Sensitive periods are three years Neurobiology and other brain research fields have generally longer than critical periods and of life are the been especially influential in recent decades, as characterized by more flexibility in the timing of they have highlighted the role of the early years input or experience to the brain and in the brain’s most important in the formation of the human brain (Center for ability to learn and develop over time. Thus, it may for brain Early Education and Development, 2002; Mustard, never be too late to acquire a skill (as the notion development 2002, 2005). Brain cell connectors (synapses) of a critical period implies), but acquiring it early form rapidly in the first few years of life: the is preferable. For example, adults are certainly density of synapses peaks at age 3, after which able to learn a second language, but it is less comes a plateau and then a period of elimination, intuitive for them than for young children, and when the density decreases to adult levels. they typically do not learn it as well. Because of this pattern of synapse formation, the first three years of life are the most important for brain development. Moreover, research has Early childhood programmes shown that: can enhance development the overall environment (physical and emotional) within which the child is raised The understanding of early childhood as a time has an impact on brain development; of sensitive periods leads naturally to the notion early exposure to toxic substances such that early childhood programmes can supplement as nicotine, alcohol and drugs can have the care and education that young children receive devastating effects on the developing brain, at home, in their families and communities. particularly during pregnancy when the brain Moreover, recent publications (France and Utting, is being formed; 2005; Luthar, 2003; Masten, 2001) emphasize the a negative experience or the absence of flexibility and adaptability of humans, as well as appropriate stimulation is more likely to have their resilience to trauma. This implies that early serious and sustained effects on a young child childhood programmes can not only benefit all than on older children. children but also compensate for young children’s For very specific aspects of brain development, negative experiences as a result of conflict certain ‘critical periods’ exist before age 3, during (within the family or society) and nutritional or which adequate stimulation must be received or emotional deprivation. To sum up, participation development is impaired, in some cases in comprehensive early childhood programmes permanently. For instance, the absence of a of good quality can significantly alter the reasonable amount of light in the first weeks after developmental trajectory of a child. Health, birth alters the development of the visual system nutrition and education are areas where such (e.g. development of binocularity is not possible). benefits have been consistently identified. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 on Jukes(2006). 7. Thisisbased children aged5 die every year or understill More than 10 million Young childrenareparticularlyfragile building blocks for development Good health andnutrition: PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 110 programmes. establishing comprehensiveearlychildhood mortality arecertainlyafirststeptowards as ECCEornot,measuresdesignedtoreduce weaning practices.Whetherformallyclassified facilitate improvementsinbreastfeedingand complemented byparentingprogrammesthat and childmortalitydramatically,especiallywhen water andpropersanitationwouldreduceinfant children.) Extendingtheprovisionofsafedrinking discusses theimpactofHIV/AIDSonyoung malaria, measlesandHIV/AIDS.(Box5.2 prevented ortreated:diarrhoea,pneumonia, of fivetransmittablediseasesthatcanbe still dieeveryyear.Morethanhalffromone more than10millionchildrenaged5orunder have reducedchildmortalityconsiderably,yet public healthpriority.Vaccinationcampaigns infant andchildmortalityhaslongbeenakey of HIV/AIDS onchildren’s education: Research hasdocumented thenegative impact childhood infections. immunizations and drugtherapy for common should receive goodnutrition,appropriate infection, early diagnosis isrequired, andthechild children diebefore age2.To reduce theimpact of HIV r progresses disease those withHIV. Without antiretroviral therapy, the rarely fatal inhealthy children cause highmortality in with less responsiveness to drugs. Illne than otherchildren, withgreater intensity andoften from common childhooddiseases more frequently needles, andsexual abuse. Children withHIVsuffer transfusion, use of contaminated syringes and breastfeeding. Otherroutes of infection are blood the mother’s pregnancy, labour, delivery orduring (UNAIDS, 2006). Children may contract HIVduring Each day 1,800children become infected withHIV Box 5.2: HIV/AIDS’s toll onyoung children / CHAPTER 5 enrol inschool. Studies includingchildren from of HIVoncognitive development before children These consequences are to dueinpart theeffects poorer visual-motor functioninginolderchildren. pre-school andearly school-age years, andwith achievement, withweaker languageskillsinthelate are associated withlower IQandacademic countries hasdemonstrated thatHIVinfections Cognitive development: apidly and45% of HIV-infected research inhigh-income 7 sses . Reducing that are Source: deficiency orundernutrition,ratherthanthe mostly inchildrenwhoinitiallysufferedfromiron effects weremeasuredintheshorttermand stimulation ofmalnourishedchildren.Their nutritional supplementsandpsychosocial These areironsupplements,deworming, (as variouslydefined)andlanguagedevelopment. major impactonoutcomessuchasattention,IQ in rigorousexperimentalstudiesashavinga development. development; andonsocio-emotional and untiladolescenceoradulthood;onmotor including languageskills,bothintheshortterm negative impactoncognitivedevelopment, numbers ofchildren.Undernutritionhasa below normal–impairsthedevelopmentoflarge essential nutrients,resultinginheightorweight undernutrition –severeorchroniclackof broader thanjustassuringsurvival.Forinstance, components inearlychildhoodprogrammesis and otherconsequences of thedisease. affected children andcompensating for theemotional treatment and through efforts aimedatincluding fight against thepandemic through provision of Early childhoodprogrammes can play arole inthe Access to treatment isthuscrucialfor young children. Four typesofinterventionhavebeenidentified The caseforincludinghealthandnutrition death onschool attendance may begreater. primary schooling, theeconomic impact of parental common for early childhoodprogrammes thanfor 3.3). Indeed,asuser fees are more (see Box it islikely to besimilarto thatinprimaryschool participation inearly childhoodprogrammes, but Few data exist ontheimpact of orphanhoodon education comes whenoneorbothparents die. the greatest effect of thedisease onchildren’s with some turned away from school. Probably suffer from thestigma attached to thedisease, schooling. Children from AIDS-afflicted families impact of theHIV/AIDS pandemic onchildren’s School attendance: of children livingwithHIVimproves after treatment. behaviour (skills required for everyday activities) Socio-emotional development: with antiretroviral therapy. in cognitive functioncan bereduced orreversed infancy to school agefindthatsuchdeficits Jukes (2006). evidence isincreasing of the the adaptive THE COMPELLING CASE FOR ECCE / 111

general child population. However, there is ECCE participation improves primary also evidence, from a smaller number of studies, school attendance and performance of a long-term impact of pre-school health The positive impact of ECCE programme interventions on cognition. For example, a participation on education at the primary level seminal study in Jamaica (Grantham-McGregor and beyond is well documented (Arnold, 2004; et al., 1991) found that the impact of psychosocial Bertrand and Beach, 2004; Mustard, 2005; Young, stimulation on cognitive ability could be traced 1996, 2002)8. Such programmes can enhance until adolescence. physical well-being and motor development, A holistic view of social and emotional development, language Nutrition and education child development development and basic cognitive skills. ECCE is gaining ground reinforce each other programmes can improve school readiness; Combined nutritional and educational make enrolment in the first grade of primary interventions are more likely to be successful school more likely; reduce delayed enrolment, than interventions that focus on nutrition alone. dropout and grade repetition; and increase Studies in Guatemala and Viet Nam (Watanabe completion and achievement. Effects of et al., 2005) found that nutrition packages had participation in ECCE programmes on the a much larger and longer-lasting impact on acquisition of both cognitive and non-cognitive children receiving sufficient cognitive stimulation. skills have also been identified. An important implication is that, where health or The most robust evidence comes from the nutrition problems commonly recur (for example, evaluation of particular programmes in both with seasonal variations in nutritional intake or developed and developing countries. Pre-school disease transmission, or where communities experience in the United Kingdom resulted in are constantly exposed to diseases for which no improved measures of intellectual development, simple preventive measures exist), educational independence, concentration and sociability interventions are as important as those for health. during the first three years of primary schooling Undernutrition has a negative impact on (Sylva et al., 2004). The benefits were higher the school participation and achievement. Studies in longer children participated in pre-school. Pakistan (Alderman et al., 2001), the Philippines In a disadvantaged district of Nepal more than (Mendez and Adair, 1999) and the United Republic 95% of children attending an ECCE programme of Tanzania (Jukes, Forthcoming) have shown went on to primary school, compared to 75% of that stunted children (those who are short for non-participants; the grade 1 repetition rate of their age) are less likely to enrol in school, and participants was one-seventh that of non- more likely to enrol later and to drop out. Poverty participants; they had significantly higher marks explains part of this correlation – children from on grade 1 exams (Arnold et al., 2000). The poor families are more likely both to be Turkish Early Enrichment Project in low-income, undernourished and to remain out of school – low-education areas of Istanbul, comprising but there is also a direct, causal impact of parenting skills and pre-schooling, resulted in undernutrition on schooling. Parents of stunted 86% of the children still being in school after children may consider them less mature and seven years, compared with 67% for non- favour their healthier siblings instead in participants. Over the long run, participant enrolment decisions. Stunted children may also children had higher school attainment, were find it more difficult to walk to school and, once more likely to attend university, began working there, may suffer from discrimination and stigma. at a later age and had higher occupational status Given the links between health and nutrition, (Kagitcibasi et al., 2001). on the one hand, and education on the other, Participants in a Myanmar ECCE programme a holistic view of child development is gaining were more likely to enrol in primary school and ground, with early childhood programmes had better exam results and test scores over the designed to address both issues. For example, first three years of schooling (Lwin et al., 2004). a programme providing iron supplementation Children who had attended pre-school in Kenya, and deworming treatment resulted in increased Uganda and Zanzibar (in the United Republic of attendance at pre-schools in Delhi, India (Bobonis Tanzania) had better language skills than non- et al., Forthcoming). A pre-school feeding participants and achieved better results in school programme in Kenya had a similar impact until grade 4 (Mwaura, 2005, 2006). Controlling for 8. This is based on (Vermeersch and Kremer, 2004). GDP, the higher an African country’s pre-primary Arnold et al. (2006). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 for children from on Jukes(2006). discussion isbased 9. Thefollowing ECCE isstronger The impactof poor families is naturaltoconsidertheseprogrammesas From aneconomicperspective,therefore,it these persisttosomeextentinthelongterm. health, nutritionandeducationoutcomes, ECCE programmescanthusresultinimproved childhood pays off Investing inearly schools canbemade‘readyforchildren’. children’s schoolreadinessandhowprimary curricula. Chapter7looksmorecloselyatyoung children andadoptfriendlyteachingmethods in thefirsttwoorthreegradesarestillyoung enhanced ifprimaryschoolsrecognizethatpupils early childhoodprogrammesarefurther for primaryschoolingthroughparticipationin advantaged children(Arnold,2004). dropout andrepetitionratesthanthoseformore for childrenfrompoorfamiliesintermsoflower Arnold, 2004).TheimpactofECCEisstronger repetition rate(MingatandJaramillo,2003; completion rateandtheloweritsprimaryschool enrolment ratio,thehigheritsprimaryschool PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 112 group. Allwere as the remaining 65 children constituted acontrol high-quality pre-school programme atages 3and4; randomly assigned to agroup thattook ina part at be to assessed 58 of 123 low-income African-American children Michigan (Schweinhart et al.,2005). Inthestudy, Perry Preschool programme of 1962–67 inYpsilanti, the United States. The best known istheHigh/Scope from asmallnumberof experiments conducted in Much of theevidence cited intheliterature comes non-participants are notbiased by selection effects. in whichcomparisons between participants and long run) coupled withanintervention framework data (following programme participants over the in early childhoodprogrammes requires longitudinal Rigorous evaluation of thereturns to investment cost-benefit analysis suggests thattheprogramme earning more thanUS$20,000 ayear). Detailed and higherearnings atage40(60%vs 40% of graduation from secondary school (65% vs 45%); enhanced success atschool, includinghigherrates led to increased IQ at age5(67% vs 28% above 90); groups suggest thatparticipation intheprogramme Comparisons between theprogramme andcontrol several times later inlife, most recently atage40. Box 5.3: Economic returns of ECCE programmes intheUnited States The benefitsofmakingyoungchildrenready / CHAPTER 5 high riskof school failure were sessed sessed annually untilage11,and accumulating overthepastdecade. are lessavailable,butevidencehasstarted childhood programmesindevelopingcountries 2003). Heckman (2000,2006;andCarneiro, recent yearsbyNobel-winningeconomistJames learning. Thispointhasbeenmaderepeatedlyin programmes areafoundationforfurther the skillsacquiredthroughparticipationinECCE targeting olderchildren,youthoradults;and investments arereapedislongerthanforthose the horizonoverwhichreturnstoECCE than thoseofothereducationalinterventions: programmes arepositive.Indeed,theyhigher show thatthereturnstoinvestmentinECCE 5.3) programmes intheUnitedStates(Box education? capital, notablythosemadeatotherlevelsof they comparewithotherinvestmentsinhuman programmes profitableinvestments?Howdo compare theirbenefitswithcosts.AreECCE investments inhumancapital,andtotry school participationby7.7percentagepoints health programmeinDelhiincreasedaverage et al.,2006). Infant Health andDevelopment Program (McCormick Centers (Temple andReynolds, Forthcoming) andthe and Masse, forthcoming), the Chicago Child-Parent include theCarolina Abecedarian Project (Barnett Other thoroughly studied United States programmes benefit/cost 1 ratio. : were highenoughto yielda5.8 taxes dueto higher earnings) andtheprivate returns (education savings, welfare savings andincreased however, theotherpublicreturns to theprogramme non-participants. Even excluding crimesavings, because participants committed fewer offences than procedures andincarceration thatwere avoided consisted of ‘crime savings’, thecosts of legal background. For example, 66% of thereturn children withanespecially disadvantaged social provided very high-quality care andeducation to small-scale experiment conducted inthe1960s that childhood programmes ingeneral. Itpertains to a ratio isnotrepresentative of United States early A majorqualification isthatthisextremely high a 17.1 :1benefit/cost ratio. US$258,888 (inconstant 2000 dollars) — cost US$15,166 perparticipant andyielded Comparably rigorousevaluationsofearly Studies ofthecostsandbenefitsspecific 9 A pre-school THE COMPELLING CASE FOR ECCE / 113

for girls and 3.2 for boys (Bobonis et al., challenging conventional class- and race-based Forthcoming). With output per worker in India beliefs about inherited abilities and pointing to estimated at US$1,037, and the returns to each the formative significance of the early years additional year of education for girls in India at 5% (Hunt, 1961). The underlying assumption was that and boys at 9%, among other considerations, the targeted intervention could compensate for less Delhi programme would increase the net present favourable family and community background. value of lifetime wages by US$29 per child while This premise has since been empirically verified. costing only US$1.70 per child, or US$2.06 The High/Scope study cited in Box 5.3 is an counting the US$0.36 per child for teacher wages example of a programme that helped level the necessitated by the additional demand for playing field for disadvantaged children as they education that the health programme would entered primary school. Other United States entail. Thus, the return in the labour market studies demonstrating that the benefits of early would be US$14.07 per dollar spent. childhood programmes are higher for Other developing country studies, though marginalized children include the STAR lacking experimental design, also suggest high experiment in Tennessee (Krueger and Whitmore, returns. In Bolivia the Proyecto Integral de 2001, 2002). Although most studies in developing Early childhood Desarrollo Infantil, a home-based programme of countries have not used experimental design, programmes early childhood development and nutrition, had research in such diverse places as Cape Verde, can also reduce benefit/cost ratios between 2.4:1 and 3.1:1, with Egypt, Guinea, Jamaica and Nepal have higher ratios for children from groups with high consistently found that most disadvantaged gender inequality infant mortality, high malnutrition and low school children benefit from ECCE programmes.10 enrolment (Van der Gaag and Tan, 1998). Other Early childhood programmes can also reduce economic analyses in Colombia and Egypt find gender inequality. In some cases, the impact of ratios of about 3:1, and the benefits in Egypt could participation on health has been found to be be as high as 5.8:1 if ECCE programmes are higher for girls than for boys (Jukes, 2006); targeted to children most at risk (Arnold, 2004). indeed, early childhood programmes can In summary, while rigorous research compensate for the priority that is given to boys (i.e. relying on experimental design and in access to basic health care in some societies. longitudinal data) on benefit/cost ratios for Similarly, girls who participate in early childhood ECCE programmes is still limited, existing studies programmes are much more likely to begin show high returns. United States programmes school at the appropriate age and complete studied showed returns higher than those to primary school than girls who do not (Arnold, other educational interventions. Evidence from 2004). Among Nepalese children who took part in developing countries also suggests strong returns an ECCE programme, an equal proportion of girls but so far has been based on less rigorous and boys began first grade, compared with 39% analysis. of girls and 61% of boys who did not participate (Arnold et al., 2000). Access to early childhood programmes is relatively gender-equal in a Early intervention majority of countries (see Chapter 6). can reduce inequalities It is important to preserve this equality, especially when scaling up projects that have Even before quantitative evidence started previously reached mostly families of privileged accumulating on the impact of good quality early backgrounds. Above all, the impact of early childhood programmes on child development, childhood programmes on gender inequality proponents of such programmes were concerned depends on how children are socialized in these with the possibility of reducing social inequality. programmes, and on pedagogy and curriculum Their argument, now supported by research, (see Chapter 7). is that intervention during the early years can The differential impact of ECCE programmes compensate for vulnerability and disadvantage, on the disadvantaged, whether poor children or regardless of underlying factors such as poverty, girls, is an important argument for targeting gender, race/ethnicity, caste or religion. Thus, the programmes, especially when resources are large United States public early childhood project constrained. Yet, targeting can be controversial. Head Start was launched in 1964 as part of the It is not always free of the patronizing idea that 10. See Arnold (2004) ‘War on Poverty’ on the basis of theoretical work the poor cannot raise their children satisfactorily, for a review. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 increased to devote to attention It istime to ECCE to (Heckman, 2006:p.2). in disadvantagedyoungchildrenissuchapolicy’ the economyandinsocietyatlarge.Investing and atthesametimepromotesproductivityin initiative thatpromotesfairnessandsocialjustice Heckman observes:‘itisararepublicpolicy from disadvantagedbackgrounds.AsJames experiments intendedtosupportyoungchildren several mentionedabove,stemfrompoliciesor the studiesdocumentingbenefits,including reduction ofsocialinequality.Indeed,many and disadvantagedchildren,facilitatingthe childhood programmesarehighforvulnerable consistent evidencethatthebenefitsofearly (see Chapter8).Whateverthepolicy,thereis probably dependsonpoliticalandculturalfactors interventions oraimforuniversalECCEcoverage backgrounds. young children,whatevertheirsocial educational experiencesandsocializationtoall providing thesamehealthandnutritionservices, playing fieldthroughuniversalprogrammes However, thereismuchscopeforlevellingthe that generatevulnerabilityanddisadvantage. engineering alonecansolvethepoliticalissues or ofthebeliefthatscience-basedsocial PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 114 Whether countriesfocusontargeted / CHAPTER 5 frameworks inplaceforachievinggoal1. managed, whilealsoexaminingthebroaderpolicy programmes aredesigned,functionand and Chapters78lookatthewayECCE Chapter 6reviewsitsprovisionaroundtheworld is timetodevoteincreasedattentionECCE. respected andtoreduceinequality.Clearlyit schooling, toguaranteethattheirrightsare children, topreparethemforelementary to improvethehealthandnutritionofyoung programmes ofhighqualityhavethepotential in thewordsofEFAgoal1,iscompelling: the mostvulnerableanddisadvantagedchildren’, early childhoodcareandeducation,especiallyfor for ‘expandingandimprovingcomprehensive childhood programmes.Itconcludesthatthecase This chapterhasreviewedthebenefitsofearly Conclusion 7 0 0 2 Early days in a state-run kindergarten in Budapest, Hungary, 1948. Education for All Global Monitoring Report © David Seymour / Magnum Photos

116 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART III. Early childhood care and education

Chapter 6 Worldwide progress in early childhood care and education

This chapter first examines the changing contexts — smaller households, more working women, maternity benefits, new gender roles — in which the provision of care and education for young children has historically evolved. It then assesses national progress towards the ECCE goal for three groups: children under age 3, those between age 3 and the primary school entry age, and vulnerable and disadvantaged children. Finally, the chapter characterizes the type, composition and professional status of the carers and educators in ECCE programmes. Among the chapter’s main findings: many countries lack programmes addressing the diverse needs (health, nutrition, care, education) of children under 3; few countries have established national frameworks to coordinate ECCE programmes; access to pre-primary education has expanded worldwide, but coverage in sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States remains low; and children from poorer and rural households enjoy fewer ECCE opportunities than those from richer and urban ones.

117 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 or decline. population maystabilize young childreninthe total born, theproportionof more childrenarebeing adults livelonger,evenif increased longevity.As population isaffectedby share ofthetotal 2. Theearlychildhood education. before entryintoprimary normative agespan group asreflectingthe focuses onthe0to5 ages 0to8,thischapter childhood’ asspanning Report the programmes. Although target populationofECCE under 6arethemain provision limited,children are lowandpre-school rates toprimaryeducation countries whereintake 8). Especiallyinpoorer school at7(inonecase, countries childrenbegin in one-quarterof education is6orearlier; entrance ageforprimary territories theofficial of 203countriesand 1. Inthree-quarters in shapingECCE been influential the social roles of women have EFA GlobalMonitoring defines ‘early Changes in of singlemotherhood (Mookodi,2000).The in marriagerates andthegrowingprevalence sub-Saharan Africa,surveys point todeclines the 1990s(Chant,2004).Throughout muchof headed householdsinurban areas roseduring American country,theincidence offemale- it doubled(Prud’homme,2003). IneveryLatin countries (e.g.IrelandandUnitedKingdom) between1983and1996,insome 58% the numberofsingle-parentfamiliesgrewby households. IntheEuropeanUnion,forexample, of single-parent,especiallymother-headed, of earlychildhoodcare(Heymann,2002). members becomescriticaltotheprovision employed, theavailabilityofotherhousehold households whereallworking-ageadultsare When childrenunderage6areraisedin is whethertheadultsworkoutsidehome. As wellassizeandcomposition,akeyfactor lower willbetheratioofadultstochildren. family and,onceitexceed5.5members,the household, thelesslikelyitwillbeanuclear changes intheircomposition.Thelargerthe Middle EastandNorthAfrica(Bongaarts,2001). membersinLatinAmericato5.6the 4.8 average householdsizesrangingfrom developing countriesduringthe1990sshowed nuclear family.Surveyscarriedoutinforty-three more complexhouseholdstructurestowardsthe of lowerfertilityratesandatrendawayfrom adults perhouseholdhavedecreasedbecause recent years.Thenumbersofbothchildrenand fallen byhalf,reaching2.5to3.0membersin household sizeinEuropeandNorthAmericahas offspring. Sincethe1850s,average of thecareandupbringingtheiryoung Households andfamiliesarethefirstorganizers structures Changing household andfamily especially influentialinshapingECCEprovision. and thesocialrolesofwomenhavebeen Changes inhouseholdstructures,fertilitylevels have developedineachcountryandregion. care arrangementsandeducationprogrammes as aresultofhistoricalprocesses,diversechild neatly organizedintoasuccincttypology.Rather, of youngchildrenvariesgreatlyandcannotbe How countriesprovideforthecareandeducation childhood provision Households, children andearly PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 118 Another changeisthegrowingnumber Changes inhouseholdsizealsoreflect / CHAPTER 6 future development. ways thathaveimplicationsforthechildren’s differ fromthoseintwo-parenthouseholds in householdsheadedbysinglemothersmay nature andpatternsofparent-childinteractions decreased from17%in1970to11%today. children belowage6tothetotalpopulationhas population (Table6.2).Worldwide,theratioof terms, butalsoastheshareoftotal childhood canbeviewednotonlyinabsolute by 2020. children isexpectedtoincreaseby35million Saharan Africa,wherethenumberofyoung continue incomingdecades,exceptsub- decline intheearlychildhoodpopulationwill projections indicatethatmoderategrowthor of educationalattainment.UNpopulation in thelabourforceandrisetheirlevels family planningprovision,women’sparticipation first marriage,whichareinfluencedbygrowing lower fertilitylevelsandhighermeanagesat of theearlychildhoodpopulationreflectboth at amoremoderatepacesince1990. States theirnumbercontinuestogrow,although contrast, insub-SaharanAfricaandtheArab population ofyoungchildrenhasstabilized.By to alesserextent,inSouthandWestAsia,the 1970s. InLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanand, childhood populationwerealreadyevidentinthe and Pacificregion,declinesintheearly and transitioncountries,aswelltheEastAsia million(Table6.1).Inthedeveloped to reach776 projected, however,andby2020itisexpected million.Anotherincreaseis now at738 million.Itthenslowlydeclinedandstands 744 millionto aged 0to5increasedfrom617 Between 1970and1990theworld’spopulation demand forearlychildhoodprogrammes. school entranceagedefinesthepotential The numberofyoungchildrenbelowprimary regional diversity of young children The changingdemographics and at aboutoneyoung childperfiveinhabitants. where theshare remainedvirtuallyunchanged developing regionsexceptsub-Saharan Africa, pronounced decreasesoccurred inallother sharply inurbanareasofChina. Less from 19%to9%asfertilitylevels dropped share oftheearlychildhoodpopulation declined in EastAsiaandthePacificwhererelative decrease isapparentinallregions,andnotably The changingdemographicsofearly The stabilizationand,insomecases,decline 1 2 This WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 119

Table 6.1: Change in population aged 0 to 5 since 1970 with projections to 2020 and regional distribution

Population aged 0 to 5 (millions) Projections 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 World 617 646 744 735 738 755 774 776

Developed and transition countries 108 103 105 88 87 88 88 86 Developing countries 509 543 639 646 650 667 686 690 of which: Sub-Saharan Africa 63 84 110 135 147 161 173 182 Arab States 26 34 42 44 47 49 51 52 East Asia and the Pacific 222 194 216 188 175 173 177 174 South and West Asia 141 173 199 205 206 214 217 215 Latin America and the Caribbean 54 62 67 68 68 68 67 66 Worldwide, the ratio Note: In Tables 6.1 and 6.2, data for East Asia and the Pacific refer to developing countries only; Australia, Japan and New Zealand are included in the developed country category. The total for developing countries is higher than the sum of the five regions because it also includes data for Bermuda, of children below Cyprus, Israel, Mongolia and Turkey. Source: UN Population Division (2005). age 6 to the total population has decreased from 17% Table 6.2: The share of children aged 0 to 5 in the total population worldwide and by region, 1970–2020 in 1970 to 11% today

Population aged 0 to 5 (percentage of total population) Projections 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 World 17 15 14 12 11 11 11 10

Developed and transition countries 109977 776 Developing countries 19 16 16 13 13 12 12 11 of which: Sub-Saharan Africa 21 22 21 20 20 19 18 18 Arab States 21 21 19 16 15 14 13 13 East Asia and the Pacific 19 14 13 10 9 8 8 8 South and West Asia 19 18 18 15 13 13 12 11 Latin America and the Caribbean 19 17 15 13 12 11 11 10

Note: See Table 6.1. Source: UN Population Division (2005).

Women’s employment, and the Caribbean (ILO, 2004). They were child-rearing and child care considerably lower in South Asia (35%) and the Most cultures have defined child-rearing and Arab States (28%). Increases in women’s non- child care as women’s work and belonging to agricultural employment have mainly occurred the family sphere. The compatibility of woman’s in certain labour market sectors – e.g. clerical, productive activities with child care responsibility retail and other services – in relatively low- varies by economic system (Blumberg, 2006). status, insecure jobs. In professional and In many households worldwide the care of young managerial positions, including positions children is organized with the help of female kin of political authority, gender discrimination or friends. Like mother-centred child-rearing, continues. Thus, women are overrepresented such care arrangements are informal. in non- and semi-professional work and receive Since the 1950s a growing number of women lower salaries than men, in both developed and in developing and developed countries have developing regions. In addition, a substantial become economically active. In 2005 the labour percentage of women work in the informal force participation rates for women were over sector, in which steady employment, job 55% in East Asia, South-East Asia and sub- promotions and social security are tenuous Saharan Africa, and about 50% in Latin America at best (ILO, 2006a). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 providers of care well. working inagriculture as was extendedtowomen 5. In1954,theconvention both. or the leave’sduration, benefitlevelorextend the provisions andraise supplement statutory employersmay by providedvoluntarily or collective bargaining provisions resultingfrom 4. Maternityleave see Kamerman(2000 3. Formoreinformation, in theEuropeanUnion. about developments Moss andDeven(1999) Administration (2004).See and USSocialSecurity Berkowitch (1999) the majordirect continue to be to children Mothers b ), PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 120 possess lesseconomic powerrelyonrelatives mothers whowork intheinformalsectoror who (Blumberg, 2006). equally fromearlychildhood provision decisions andthatboysgirls willbenefit welfare willbeconsideredapriority inhousehold within thefamily,morelikelythatchildren’s power andthelevelofadultgenderequality The greaterthewoman’srelativeeconomic of theirrelativecontrolovereconomicresources. economic activityistheimpactonearlychildhood labour. farming isassociatedwithanincreaseinchild ever athome.Insomecasesthefeminizationof who inanycasemaynowbeneededmorethan to explorecareandeducationoptionsforchildren This additionalworkrarelyallowswomentime their farminganddomesticresponsibilities. countries, womenhavehadtoincreaseboth male migrationtourbancentresinsome care support.Inresponsetothepredominantly grandmothers, co-wivesanddaughters)forchild rely onotherwomeninthecommunity(aunts, most mothersworkinagriculture,theytendto is weaker(O'Connor,1988).Incontextswhere employment patternsandpre-primaryeducation however, theassociationbetweenfemale school programmes.Indevelopingcountries, associated withhigherenrolmentratiosinpre- female labourforceparticipationarestrongly fathers’ rolesascarers. seek toredressthissituationandenhance established parentalleavepolicies(seebelow) and upbringingofyoungchildren.Recently typically hadlimitedinvolvementinthecare of caretochildren.Fathersandothermenhave mothers continuetobethemajordirectproviders strong familynetworks. active womenwhoseactivitiesareembeddedin illustrate thecomplexstatusofeconomically their wagestoparents.Thesepatterns expected torelinquishasignificantportionof (e.g. Singapore,Thailand),youngwomenare (UNDP, 2002,2005).Moreover,insomecountries economic contributiontothehouseholdisless child care),sothemonetaryvalueoftheir be inlessvisible,non-marketactivities(including work morehoursthanmen,theirtendsto since themid-1990sshowthat,whilewomen Overall, historicalpatternssuggest that Equally importanttomothers’increased In moredevelopedcountries,higherratesof Despite theirincreasedwork-relatedactivity, Comparative time-usesurveyscarriedout / CHAPTER 6 leave womenshould receiveacashbenefit that compulsory). The conventionstatedthatwhile on (six beforeandsixafterchildbirth, thelatterbeing entitlement toamaternityleave oftwelveweeks informal sectorworkersandtheunemployed. other occupationsand,insomecountries,to occupations; later,coveragewasextendedto provided tomothersemployedincertain payment level).Statutoryleavewasinitially longer unpaidleave(oranextensionatalower some casespaidleavewassupplementedby worker’s wageswerereplacedbybenefits.In maternity leaveduringwhichallorpartofthe United Stateshadenactedlawsproviding except Australia,Austria,Switzerlandandthe By the1970s,allmajorindustrializedcountries legislated unpaidmaternalleave(Gauthier,1996). maternity leavepoliciesandeightothershad First WorldWar,thirteencountrieshadpaid enactment ofsocialinsurancepolicies.Bythe Germany underBismarckaspartofabroad of bothmothersandchildren. situation, wouldpromotethephysicalwell-being childbirth, whileprotectingtheireconomic pressure forabrieftimebeforeandafter argued thatrelievingwomenofworkplace equally. where available,andtotreatboysgirls likely tousestructuredearlychildhoodservices, young children’swelfare.Theyarealsomore and use,awiderrangeofoptionstoassuretheir sector, bycontrast,aremoreapttoknowabout, female children.Motherswithjobsintheformal male childrenoftentakesprecedenceoverthatof working hours.Insuchcontexts,thewelfareof for childcareorkeepchildrenwiththemduring time ofchildbirth. health ofworkingwomenandtheirbabiesatthe enacted morethanacenturyagotoprotectthe employment provisionforsickleave,werefirst Laws onmaternityleave,initiallylinkedto have enhancedthecareandwell-beingofinfants. Historically, maternalandparentalleavepolicies infantpolicies supporting care Maternity andparental leave in industryandcommerce, The firstconventionappliedto allwomenworking which wassignificantlyrevised in1952and2000. adopted itsfirstMaternityProtectionConvention, leave policies(ILO,1980,1985).In1919,theILO played animportantroleinpromotingmaternal Paid maternityleavewasfirstestablishedin The InternationalLabourOrganization(ILO) 3 Supporters ofmaternalleave 5 and stipulated 4 WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 121

would be at least two-thirds of their wage. The More recently, a fourth challenge has been ILO reported that women had access to paid added: to prepare young children for primary maternity leave in fifty-nine countries by 1960 schooling. This objective, which necessarily and in more than a hundred countries by the implies a need for qualified professionals 1980s (ILO, 1980, 1985). In 1999 a survey by the and state accreditation, could emerge only International Social Security Association reported after the basic needs of most children (food, In Europe, model that 128 countries of the 172 responding had safety and care) were regularly met (Chartier institutions were some type of maternity leave provision (US Social and Geneix, 2006). founded by well- 6 Security Administration, 1999). During the 1960s Until the eighteenth century, the only known educators and 1970s, the trend in most OECD countries was institutions involved in early childhood education towards longer and more generous maternity were churches, which condemned infanticide leaves, with benefits replacing all or most of and set up charitable orders to take in, baptize women’s wages. The current situation of and raise abandoned children or orphans. Noting maternal leaves in developing countries is the marked improvement in such children’s life examined later in this chapter. expectancy compared with those not thus In 1974 Sweden introduced parental leave, sheltered (who often died within their first year), which enabled either the mother or the father public authorities in some European countries (at the couple’s discretion) to take time off from organized limited health care for abandoned work. Other Nordic countries later followed suit. children, and placed them with rural families, Transition countries also have paid, job-protected generally until about the age of 13 (Jablonka, parental leave, as well as extended child-rearing 2006). Few, if any, institutions catered to the leave with varying benefit levels. Compared to whole of early childhood until bottle-feeding most OECD countries, the duration of these made wet nurses unnecessary in the mid- leaves is long – e.g. three years in Hungary nineteenth century. Day nurseries welcomed and Slovakia, four years in the Czech Republic. abandoned or sick children, whereas crèches Not all leave policies were designed to meet (nido in Italy, Krippe in Germany and ‘nursery’ the needs of working mothers or parents. In quite in England) offered day care to healthy children a few countries (e.g. Armenia, Georgia, Poland (Chartier and Geneix, 2006). and Uzbekistan, and, to some extent, Austria, In Europe, emergent approaches to early Finland and Germany), paid leave policies were childhood education became embodied in model designed to encourage low-skilled women to institutions founded by well-known educators. withdraw from the labour force during periods of Examples include J. H. Pestalozzi and the high unemployment. In many cases these policies Yverdon Institute (1805-1815), Andrew Bell included subsidized home care of infants and and Joseph Lancaster’s monitorial system toddlers by their mothers, rather than investment (1798-1810), the infant school founded by in more costly centre-based care (Kamerman Robert Owen in Scotland (1816), Friedrich and Kahn, 1991). Fröbel’s Kindergarten at Blankenburg (1837) and the scuole infantili of Father Ferrante Aporti The emergence and formalization at Cremona (1828). During the twentieth century, of early childhood provision several exemplary institutions catering to young Europe and North America children – the Casa dei Bambini of Maria Beginning in the nineteenth century European Montessori in Rome (1909), Ovide Decroly’s École and North American countries started to organize de l’Ermitage in Brussels, Roger Cousinet and 6. Sixteen weeks was the more formal arrangements to care for, socialize Jean Piaget’s Maison des petits in Geneva and average basic paid leave, typically including six to and educate young children. The formalization A. S. Neill’s famous Summerhill School – eight weeks before and after of early childhood provision evolved in response attracted educators from near and far. They childbirth. In almost half the countries the cash to multiple challenges, notably: focused almost exclusively on well-cared-for benefit replaced the full wage (or the maximum addressing the needs of abandoned, deprived children above the age of 3 – that is, clean, covered under social or neglected children and the children of poor weaned children who could walk, talk and feed insurance). With some variation in benefit levels, working mothers; themselves (Chartier and Geneix, 2006). this is the standard for maternity policies in the EU. providing an enriching pre-school education The development of early childhood In ninety-five of the countries (including all European for middle-class children; institutions throughout the nineteenth century ones), health and medical providing a safe and affordable environment in different parts of Europe reflected salient care is provided. Increasingly, in Europe, for the children of working women. historical forces: industrialization, demand for adoption is covered as well. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 parental leave accommodate policies were Maternal and developed to right to care for herchild a mother’s Spielschule in France, institutions tookroot.Forexample, vs allchildren).Agreatvarietyofearlychildhood learning, provisionforspecificsocialclasses political issues(e.g.custodialcarevsearly women workers,debateoverideologicaland PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 122 d’asile ‘infant schools’intheUnitedKingdom, activities foryoungchildren.Examplesinclude philanthropic institutions,organizededucational initially establishedbycharitable,religiousor care fortheyoungestchildren.Otherschools, and Netherlands, ‘dameschools’inGreatBritain in theformallabour forcewhowanteddecent, revolved around thegrowingnumberofwomen class children,athirdfocustook shape.It children andenrichingtheeducation ofmiddle- In additiontoprovidingprotection forneglected policies andprogrammes(Berkovitch, 1999). reconsider thetraditionalrole ofearlychildhood countries inEuropeandNorthAmericabeganto Gatenio Gabel,2003;KamermanandKahn,1976). for middle-classchildren(Kamermanand demand grewforaformofenrichedexperience underwent asignificantincreaseinthe1920sas during thenineteenthcentury,andtheirnumbers nursery schoolsslowlybecamemorecommon and massiveimmigration.Kindergartens nineteenth centuryduetorapidindustrialization became morenumerousinthelatterpartof and providingbasicchildcaresupervision– of Fröbel.Daynurseries–custodialinnature, kindergarten programmesbasedonthework Massachusetts inthe1830sandlater education programmesestablishedin and nurseryschools,developingfromtheearly for the‘unfortunate’childrenofworkingmothers; under voluntaryauspicesanddesignedtocare day carecentres),firstestablishedinthe1830s day nurseries(equivalenttotoday’schildcareor institutions wererootedintwodevelopments: (Chartier andGeneix,2006). targeting childrenfromallsocialbackgrounds learning andemphasizedfreeplay,while progressive movements,dispensedwithearly kindergartens, supportedbyliberalor over bygovernmentauthorities.Non-religious in Italy.Manysuchschoolswereeventuallytaken in Germany, escuelas depárvulos During andaftertheSecondWorldWar, In theUnitedStatesearlychildhood scuole dellemaestre / CHAPTER 6 in France, écoles gardiennes in Germany, bewaarscholen Kleinkinder-Bewahranstalen in Spainand speelscholen in Italyprovidedbasic in theNetherlands, in Belgium, scuole infantili garderies in the salles while younger children continuedtobecared covering onlya smallpercentageofchildren) provision developedfortheolder group(though from 3tocompulsoryschool age. Centre-based programmes forthoseunder age3andeducation paradigm basedonagesegmentation: care African countriesdevelopedan earlychildhood shows considerableregionalvariation.Most schooling. for childminding,andthetransitiontoprimary reduction, safeandaffordableenvironments emphasized infantandchildhealth,poverty developing countriesandaidagencies young childrenwerenotbeingmet,many than inEurope.Asthebasicneedsofsomany since 1970)andhasinvolveddifferentrationales in developingcountriesismorerecent(typically The existenceofearlychildhoodprogrammes Developing countries and socializationofallchildren,ontheother. working mothers,ontheonehand,andeducation custodial careofdisadvantagedchildren was therelativepolicyemphasisgivento by country,akeydistinguishingfactorinmost Although theextentofpublicresponsibilityvaried evolving largelyaftertheSecondWorldWar. the nineteenthcentury,topublicresponsibility, the movementfromprivatecharity,beginningin – inEuropeandNorthAmerica,atleastis intervention andtheorganizationofactivities). national specificities(timetables,levelsofstate won thedayeverywhere,withallowancesfor and runbyhighlyqualifiedprofessionals,had education forchildrenfromallbackgrounds of thepublicnurseryschoolasaplaceoffering By theendoftwentiethcentury,model employment andwagegaps(OECD,2005 1970s, whichinturnreducedthegender significant expansionofchildcareinthelate participation inthelabourforcedrovea her child.InSweden,women’sincreased to accommodateamother’srightcarefor leave policies(asnotedabove)weredeveloped public pre-schoolsystem.Maternalandparental force participationbydevelopingastandard governments facilitatedincreasedfemalelabour and workweek(Kamerman,2005).Insomecases, providing basicchildcareduringtheworkday to adapttheneedsofworkingparentsby Increasingly, pre-schoolswereredesigned affordable carefortheiryoungchildren. The formalizationofearlychildhoodprovision Thus, theoverarchinghistoricalpattern a ). WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 123

for by parents or kinship networks. In some to establish and operate; in some contexts, post-colonial countries, pre-schools retained disadvantaged children received priority access. the structure established by the former colonial Qualified pre-primary teachers, often suffering power, supplemented with national elements. from low status, were in short supply in all In post-independence Morocco, for example, countries (UNESCO-IBE, 1961). kuttabs (Koranic schools) survived as a source The 1974 survey broadened the definition of early learning for boys aged 4 to 7 (Chartier of pre-schools to include day nurseries, and Geneix, 2006). kindergartens, residential nurseries, children’s Throughout the Caribbean, services and homes, educational centres, special institutions supports for young children evolved in common for handicapped children and religious institutions ways. Health issues related to birth and (Mialaret, 1976). More than half of the seventy- The twentieth immunization were considered the traditional eight countries responding had pre-school century saw responsibility of governments, while early programmes for 2-year-olds and nearly all had a significant childhood provision in all other areas relied programmes for 3-year-olds. Coverage was upon the initiative of concerned citizens and/or limited and uneven in most developing countries. expansion of organizations such as UNICEF, the Bernard Many authorities, both government and non- early childhood van Leer Foundation and religious institutions. government, were involved in pre-school programmes Except in Barbados, Grenada, and Saint Kitts education, and evidence of national coordination and Nevis, the predominance of private or of programmes was limited. The survey also charitable initiatives is the defining feature of provided a four-category classification of early childhood programmes in the subregion pre-school education: (1) state institutions (Charles and Williams, 2006). administered by ministries, typically the ministry Latin America had few early childhood in charge of education; (2) private institutions programmes before 1970. Governments organized by individuals, small groups, officially historically took little interest in child care or recognized associations or religious organizations; pre-primary education and relied on private (3) institutions administered by local or provincial organizations (Myers, 1983). Pre-schools mainly authorities; and (4) semi-private institutions run served the children of urban households, and the by an individual, group or association, but under upper and middle classes. However, beginning in government supervision. the 1970s pressures to expand access to early The 1988 survey, based on responses from 7. The survey defined ECCE childhood education grew steadily, with many eighty-eight countries, focused for the first time programmes as those governments initiating and expanding formal on ECCE programmes7 and identified five types providing care and/or education for children from programmes for 3- to 5-year-olds (UIS, 2001). of institutions: kindergartens, nursery schools, birth until age 6 or 7 (entry age for primary education) in The Asia and Pacific region demonstrates ECCE institutions attached to primary schools, day a variety of institutions and 8 settings, some organized by considerable diversity. In the decades following care centres and others. About half the countries ministries, others by NGOs. the Second World War, early childhood reported having kindergartens; about 40% had 8. Crèches, pouponnières, programmes were relatively undeveloped. In institutions attached to primary schools. Half the pre-schools, play groups, institutions serving sick or East and South-East Asia, pre-primary education ECCE programmes charged fees and two-thirds disabled children, institutions expanded slowly, mainly in urban and affluent provided a full day’s programme to meet the combining health and education components, areas, and was delivered by private providers. needs of working mothers (Fisher, 1991). Koranic schools, India’s anganwadi centres and Children from poor and socially marginalized Overall, the twentieth century saw a significant so forth. families were largely excluded from expansion of early childhood programmes, 9. Pre-primary education is institutionalized ECCE (Kamerman, 2005). many initiated and sustained by private agencies defined as ‘programmes at the initial stage of organized and charitable groups. Not only was there a instruction, primarily What historical international surveys tell us designed to introduce very substantial increase in the number of young young children, aged at least Three surveys sponsored by UNESCO, in 1961, children spending time in non-parental care 3 years, to a school-type environment and to provide 1974 and 1988, provide comparative historical (nurseries or child care centres), but more a bridge between home and school’. Variously referred to information on early childhood provision. The children participated in structured, purposeful as infant education, nursery first, synthesizing results from sixty-five learning activities both before and, more typically, education, pre-school education, kindergarten countries, reported that while pre-primary after age 3. Programmes involving the latter or early childhood education, such programmes are the education rarely sought to ‘undermine or usurp’ age group – known as pre-school education, more formal component of ECCE. Upon completion of the primacy of parental or family care, new kindergarten or early childhood education – these programmes, children programmes to accommodate working women came to be labelled as pre-primary education continue their education at the primary level (see were multiplying. Pre-schools were expensive corresponding to ISCED level 0 (UNESCO, 1997).9 glossary). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 and theUnitedStates. Slovenia, Spain,Thailand Nigeria, Poland,Romania, Indonesia, Ireland,Italy, Hong Kong(China), China, Finland,Greece, the projectwereBelgium, countries inthisphaseof Montie (2001).The 11. SeeOlmstedand for manycountries. in 2000,arestillmissing began tobecompiled programmes’, which on ‘otherECCE ECCE provision.Data measures formonitoring to developadditional underscored theneed Dakar forumand decisions followingthe category emergedfrom daysperyear.This 100 hoursperdayand 2 the equivalentofatleast spanning, onaverage, learning activities that includeorganized for childrenfromage3 programmes designed non-formal development programmes’ refersto 10 ‘OtherECCE information onearly childhoodprovision around theworld. in completeness anddetail, isanimportant new source of (www.efareport.unesco.org). This database, whilestill uneven then, 198 ECCE profiles were created for thisReport Education andCare andFamily-friendly Policy reviews. Intotal, (UNESCO-IBE, 2005) and from theOECD’s Early Childhood was compiled from theIBE’s World Data onEducation database Additional ECCE information for twenty-three OECD countries their ECCE profiles. supplement. By June2006, ninety-four countries hadrevised education andto UNICEFfieldoffices to check,revise and readiness. The draft profiles were sent to national ministries of systems for monitoring children’s development andschool UNICEF addedasection onparenting programmes andnational per child,sources) andhours perweek of ECCE programmes. gender), teachers andtheirtraining, financing(average funding age andduration of ISCEDlevel 0, enrolment ratios (GER, NER, by (UIS) onofficial definitionsof pre-primary education, entrance profiles incorporate data from theUNESCO Institute for Statistics those targeting vulnerable anddisadvantaged children. The as well ascurrent policies andspecialprogrammes, especially providers, personnel andtraining, andcurriculumpedagogy, official supervisionandcoordination of programmes, ECCE prepared for thisReport, includeinformation onECCE legislation, non-OECD countries. The profiles, childhood provision in175 collaboration withUNICEF, hasprepared draft profiles of early UNESCO’s International Bureau of Education (IBE), in Box 6.1: Towards aglobaldatabase of nationalECCE profiles towards theECCEgoal: provision. cross-country informationonearlychildhood describesrecentworktocompile goal. Box6.1 formidable challengeinmonitoringtheECCE and fundingECCEprogrammesrepresentsa The diversityofarrangementsfororganizing The data andmonitoring challenge 1 goal towards EFA Country progress PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 124 early childhoodprogrammes,’eventhough Few countriescompileinformationon‘other disaggregated agedata. children ofdifferentagesyetlack and governmentauthorities,theycover involve amultiplicityofnon-governmentactors than thoseoneducation,sincetheytypically early childhoodprovisionarelessstandardized National reportsonthenatureandqualityof (or thelackthereof). quantitative targetsformonitoringprogress The goalcontainsnobenchmarksor It isnoteasytoassessnationalprogress / CHAPTER 6 component of early childhoodprovision. and bypayinggreater attentiontothecare progress inrelationtoeachgroup ofchildren; number andtypeofindicators usedtomonitor disadvantaged children);byexpanding the 3 andprimaryschoolage, vulnerableand groups ofchildren(thoseunder 3,thosebetween goal inthreeways:bylookingseparatelyat expands reportingonthemonitoringofECCE use ofearlychildhoodindicators’. on traditionalpractices,andthesystematic other caregiversinbetterchildcare,building the importanceof‘theeducationparentsand development.’ TheDakarFrameworkalsonoted well ascognitiveandpsycho-social encompassing health,nutritionandhygieneas focusing onallofthechild’sneedsand formal schoolsystems’and‘comprehensive, age andnotmeredownwardextensionsof They shouldbe‘appropriateto[thechildren’s] components ofearlychildhoodprogrammes. (paragraphs 30and31)articulatedseveralcore Chapter 9). improve existingECCEdataareneeded(see institutions. Sustainedeffortstoaugmentand by relyingonmeasuresrelatedtopre-primary monitored progresstowardstheECCEgoal (including Chapter2ofthisReport)has challenges, the Not surprisingly,giventhesereporting development) arealmostcompletelylacking. as wellcognitive,socialandemotional of thegoal(e.g.attentiontohealthandnutrition importantly, indicatorsofthecarecomponent uneven and,attimes,non-comparable.More education componentoftheECCEgoalremain to beconductedmoreextensively. IEA Pre-primaryProject. captured intheresultsofcross-national time ifpossible.Someofthisinformationis and educationalexperiences,assessedover information aboutthequalityofchildren’scare spend theirdays.Theyalsoshouldprovide about whereandwithwhomyoungchildren provision shouldincludedetailedinformation Ideally, nationalreportsonearlychildhood important elementoftheoverallgoal. on parentaleducation,althoughthisisan Reporting frameworksexcludeinformation data on‘pre-primary’education. this categorywasmeanttosupplement To addresstheseissues,thischapter The 2000DakarFrameworkforAction At present,internationalfiguresonthe EFA GlobalMonitoringReport 11 Similar studiesneed 10 WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 125

The organization of care and in consumer subsidies (Kamerman, 2003; education for children under 3 Rostgaard, 2004). By the late 1990s, however, In developed and transition countries the most countries had recovered, although not demand for structured early childhood provision always to previous levels, and the historical largely rose in line with the growth of women’s model of government-funded and government- employment. In developing countries, by provided early childhood services was Not all developing contrast, mothers were assumed to be working reaffirmed. and transition at home or, if not, in agriculture or the informal Not all developing and transition countries countries have sector, for instance selling or trading in the have maternity leave policies and, where they maternity leave market. In rural areas children were expected exist, they are unevenly implemented or limited policies to carry out household chores from an early age. to workers in certain labour market segments. With these ‘realities’ in mind, few governments The lack of effective enforcement mechanisms prioritized publicly funded care or educational is widespread. Among the 126 countries for programmes for young children. To meet which current information is available, existing demand, primarily from middle class approximately 80% report having established and urban families, private initiatives were some sort of maternity leave. Such provisions encouraged. are most prevalent in Latin America and the Increasingly, working mothers are a fact Caribbean, Central and Eastern Europe, and of life in much of the world, and parents seek South and West Asia (Table 6.3). They are least out decent and affordable care and education available among Arab States, in East Asia and programmes for their children. In addition, more the Pacific, and in Central Asia. Three-fifths of families are migrating to urban areas (or other the countries in sub-Saharan Africa have some countries) provision, though only a small proportion of in search of paid employment, often losing women are employed in the formal labour access to kin support networks for childrearing market and hence able to benefit. While the and child care. Thus, increased migration and duration of the maternity leave varies from one female labour force participation have expanded week to one year, the median period is twelve the demand for maternal (and parental) leave weeks in most regions, with slightly higher leave benefits and early childhood provision. provisions in Central and Eastern Europe 12. This section draws upon Kamerman (2005). Additional (eighteen weeks), Central Asia (seventeen information can also be Maternal and parental leave weeks) and sub-Saharan Africa (fourteen found in US Social Security Administration (1999) and Worldwide evidence concerning maternal or weeks). In most regions cash benefits are Moss and Deven (1999). parental leave is available through comparative surveys and international compilations.12 In almost all OECD countries, paid and job- Table 6.3: Maternity leave policies in developing and transition countries, protected parental leave allows one or the other by region, 1999–20021 parent (or, in rare cases, both parents) to take Duration of maternity % of countries Mean wage off from work for a limited period, from a couple leave2 (weeks) with statutory replacement of months to a few years, to care for their Regionleave Median Minimum Maximum rate2 (%) babies. Policies increasingly include – and, Sub-Saharan Africa 76 14 4 26 74 in some countries, require – prenatal leave. Arab States 50 12 4 14 92 Although the parameters of statutory leave Central Asia 67 17 16 20 100 (duration, extent of wage replacement and East Asia and the Pacific3 50 12 8 20 83 coverage for adopted children) vary in developed South and West Asia 86 12 8 16 93 Latin America and the Caribbean 94 12 8 24 76 countries, most new parents receive some Central and Eastern Europe 94 18 1 52 90 public support for caring for their children during this critical period in their development. 1. Data are for the most recent year available during the period specified. Among Central and Eastern European 2. Calculations for leave duration and wage replacement included only countries with statutory leave. In countries where various payment regimes apply, the period of maximum wage replacement was selected. countries, which have historically provided In all countries, this corresponds to the first leave period taken before and after birth, usually called maternity leave. Several countries have other statutory leave periods (additional maternity, parental or child care leave) where wage an extensive package of child and family cash replacement is lower or zero. These are: in Central Asia, Georgia (up to three years of unpaid leave); and in Central benefits, services and leaves, the transition and Eastern Europe, Croatia (paid leave until age 1), Czech Republic (paid leave until age 4), Hungary (paid leave until age 3), Lithuania (up to a year of paid leave), Poland (up to age 3), Romania (paid leave until age 2) and Slovakia to a market economy brought unemployment, (paid leave until age 4). significant reductions in social benefits and 3. Excludes Australia, Japan and New Zealand. Source: Kamerman (2005). services, higher fees for services and cuts Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 have established workshop inAfrica(2005). UIS capacity-building officials participating in a gathered fromeducation ECCE profilesanddata section isdrawnfromthe 13. Informationinthis programmes for supervise ECCE coordinate and Few countries frameworks infants and to finance, toddlers national infants andtoddlers canattenddaycarefor as Kazakhstan, Mozambique andtheNetherlands, For example,inBurkinaFaso, theGambia, others accommodatechildren onflexiblehours. targeting under-3s.Someare fulltimeand (in hoursperday/week)ofprogrammes America andtheCaribbean. Western Europe,CentralAsia,andLatin are mostprominentinNorthAmericaand exists. Thefindingsshowthatsuchprogrammes in eachregionwhichatleastoneprogramme reportsthepercentageofcountries 6.4 Table of formalprogrammestargetingunder-3s, programmes. nurseries andearlychildhooddevelopment day careservices,crèches,centrosinfantiles, common namesgiventotheprogrammesare services andeducationalactivities.Themost custodial careand,insomecases,health programmes typicallyprovideorganized children (frombirthorage1).These pre-primary education,acceptingveryyoung is atleastoneformalECCEprogrammebefore than half(53%)oftheworld’scountriesthere The nationalprofilesindicatethatinjustmore and education of under-3s Programmes targeting thecare existing programmesandservices. direction), limitedinformationisreportedabout countries, suchasBotswana,aremovinginthat under-3 agegroup(e.g.Brazil;someother assigned administrativeresponsibilityforthe where ministriesofeducationhavebeen or non-governmentagencies.Evenincases the responsibilityofparents,privateassociations tend toviewtheeducationofchildrenunder3as early childhoodprovision.Ministriesofeducation the broadercareandeducationaldimensionsof welfare needsspecifictoyoungchildren,butnot associated withchildwelfaretargethealthand toddlers. Ministriesofhealthorministries supervise ECCEprogrammesforinfantsand national frameworkstofinance,coordinateand In general,fewcountrieshaveestablished National policy: few integrated frameworks and Yee,2006). entitled totimeoffforbreastfeeding(Linnecar (e.g. LatinAmerica)workingmothersare the mother’swage.Moreover,insomeregions meant toreplacebetween75%and90%of PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 126 Information islimitedregarding theduration To provideabasicmeasureoftheprevalence / CHAPTER 6 13 and learningpotential. children’s healthneeds,physicaldevelopment custodial care,butalsoparenteducationand national policyframeworksthatcovernotonly education foryoungchildrenisthecreationof the developmentofcomprehensivecareand well-being inanintegratedway.Acriticalstep for childrenunder3addressesachild’soverall are countriesinwhichearlychildhoodprovision Of particularinterestformonitoringpurposes care, health andeducation providing Comprehensive ECCE programmes: available forfourhoursorlessperday. programmes forchildrenbelowage3are Arab Republic,UruguayandVanuatu, Eritrea, Lebanon,Malaysia,Panama,theSyrian schedules ofworkingparents.InCambodia, to providedaycarethatmeetsthecomplex part time,municipalitieshavealegalobligation Finland andSweden,wheremanymotherswork accommodate part-timeworkschedules.In many others,haveprogrammesdesignedto week. programmes offerservicessixtotenhoursa Namibia, home-basedcareandfamilyvisiting between fourandeight-plushoursaweek.In care centresaccommodatechildrenunderage6 Slovenia andVietNam,flexiblehoursinchild much astentotwelvehoursperweekday.In Source: children aged2to6). a populationthatincludeschildrenlessthan3years old(e.g.aprogrammefor 1. Proportionofcountrieswithinaregionthatidentify aprogrammetargeting years oldby region, c.2005 less than3 Table 6.4: Prevalence of ECCE programmes for children Central andEasternEurope N. America/W. Europe Latin America/Caribbean South andWest Asia East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa World Belarus, KazakhstanandSingapore,among UNESCO-IBE (2006). less thanage3 in regionwith programmes for children Countries (%) 520 24 41 9 30 9 35 92 20 61 41 44 43 194 89 35 42 53 1 countries with information Number of relevant WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 127

India’s 1974 National Policy on Education are more likely to have deficient diets and served as a foundation for a variety of stunted growth, and are less likely to survive programmes focusing on the child and the childhood and enter school (UNICEF, 2006). mother, notably Integrated Child Development In most countries, ministries of health have Services (ICDS), a programme taking a life-cycle sole responsibility for the health of children approach that was first adopted in 1975 and now from birth to age 3. The discussion here reaches 23 million children.14 highlights selected indicators of children’s Since 1999, an African consortium, the health and nutritional status, which are crucial Association for the Development of Education contributors to children’s well-being and their in Africa, has provided technical support to effective functioning in school. member countries for the development of The health and nutrition indicators in national, cross-sectoral early childhood policy Table 6.5 are useful for assessing regional levels frameworks that address issues related to of children’s well-being. While immunization health, nutrition, water, sanitation, child campaigns have expanded worldwide, coverage Chronic hunger protection and early childhood provision. Ten is still unsatisfactory, particularly in the poorest and stunting African countries are in various implementation regions. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa directly affect stages: among them, Mauritius has drafted one-quarter of all 1-year-olds are not an integrated policy, Ghana and Namibia have immunized against tuberculosis, one-third have a child’s ability ratified national ECCE policies and Eritrea is never received the vaccine against diphtheria, to learn piloting a programme (Ashby, 2002; Boakye pertussis (whooping cough) and tetanus, and et al., 2001; Moti, 2002; Torkington, 2001). two-thirds have not received the hepatitis B For the most part, integrated ECCE vaccine. In the Arab States, and East Asia and frameworks involve national governments, the Pacific, immunization rates against hepatitis with varying levels of decentralization, coupled are also quite low. with local operators, community leaders, Poor diet and malnutrition are the main teacher organizations and other stakeholders. reasons more than one-quarter of all children International organizations and, in a few cases, under 5 in sub-Saharan Africa are moderately public-private partnerships provide financial or severely underweight. In addition, one-third support (e.g. the Bernard van Leer Foundation of African children in the age group suffer from in Jamaica and Colombia’s Instituto Colombiano moderate or severe stunting. Both problems de Bienestar Familiar). The many different weaken children and make them more models of integrated care range from parental vulnerable to illness and disease. Chronic assistance programmes (Colombia and hunger and stunting directly affect a child’s Jamaica) to community and family-focused ability to learn, but because coverage of early modules (PROMESA in Colombia), teacher childhood provision in sub-Saharan Africa is training (India and Mauritius), group care limited, timely detection and treatment of health activities (Educa a tu Hijo in Cuba) and holistic problems due to undernutrition are reduced. initial education (Eritrea and Haiti). Information By contrast, in many developing countries, permitting assessment of the coverage and particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean, outcomes of integrated provision is limited early childhood programmes have reduced the and often mixed. In Dominica, Grenada, prevalence of malnutrition and stunting, and Jamaica, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the contributed to children’s well-being and school Grenadines, the Roving Caregivers programme readiness (see Chapter 5). is considered an efficient means of offering The under-5 mortality rate – the number of critical health and care information to parents children per 1,000 (‰) live births who die before in isolated areas (Caribbean Support Initiative, reaching age 5 – is generally considered the 2006). most robust indicator of childhood survival. More than the infant mortality rate (see Child health, nutrition and survival glossary), the under-5 mortality rate captures Many children in the world grow up in poor the accumulated impact of the quality of the environmental conditions, have limited or birthing experience, neonatal care, disabilities, no access to health services and live in breastfeeding and vaccination, as well as the impoverished households. These children are effects of gender discrimination, mal- or especially susceptible to waterborne disease, undernutrition and inadequate health care. 14. See Box 8.7. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 for childsurvival Culture, etc. Education, Sportsand Youth, Ministryof Ministry ofEducationand Ministry ofEducation, 16. Variouslynamed between 1990and2015. under-5 mortalityrate reduce bytwo-thirdsthe 2005) callsoncountriesto Goal 4(UnitedNations, Millennium Development underlying factor. strongest onan mortality rateloads vaccination, theunder-5 breastfeeding and vitamin deficiency, as stunting,underweight, that amongvariablessuch Factor analysesindicate see WorldBank(2004). the under-5mortalityrate 15. Forfurtherdetailson overall situation countries, the has worsened In some achieved. mortality remainsthefurthestfrombeing Millennium DevelopmentGoals,reducingchild 1990. AccordingtoUNICEF(2005 the under-5mortalityratehasincreasedsince Rwanda, Swaziland,TurkmenistanandZimbabwe, Cameroon, Côted’Ivoire,Iraq,Kazakhstan,Kenya, has worsened.Forexample,inCambodia, however, theoverallsituationforchildsurvival Republic andTurkey.Insomeothercountries, Jamahiriya, Nicaragua,Peru,theSyrianArab Guatemala, Indonesia,theLibyanArab Bangladesh, Bhutan,Bolivia,Brazil,Egypt, almost, ormorethan,half.Amongthemare 1990, reducingtheunder-5mortalityrateby Some countrieshavemadegreatstridessince in EuropeandNorthAmerica(fewerthan30). and WestAsia(101childrenper1,000)lowest Saharan Africa(176childrenper1,000)andSouth regional differences:ratesarehighestinsub- not reachage5.Thereare,however,significant every 1,000childrenborninrecentyearswill global mortalityamongchildrenunderage18. Statistically, thisindicatorcaptures90%ofthe Source: Note: 1. Dataareforthemostrecentyearavailableduringperiodspecified. PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 128 provision andsupervision ofprogrammesfor Governments play amoreactiveroleinthe Government involvement andolder 3 for children Early childhoodprovision Table 6.5:Selected indicators of children’s healthandnutritionby region, 1996-2004 Central andEasternEurope North AmericaandWestern Europe Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean South andWest Asia East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa Countries intransition Developed countries Developing countries World As Table6.5shows,worldwideabout86of DPT3: threedosesofdiphtheria,pertussis(whoopingcough)andtetanusvaccine.HepB:hepatitisB / CHAPTER 6 Annex, StatisticalTable 3A. 15 Tuberculosis 2004 a … … … … … ……… … ……… … … ……… … ……… … Immunization of1-year-olds (%) 69 371 35 44 65 16 176 46 19 95 21 7 86 38 14 15 31 14 83 31 28 5 71 91 27 77 33 86 26 90 96 88 65 46 92 93 49 88 76 76 93 78 84 84 ), ofallthe DPT3 2004 663 96 HepB 041996-2004 2004 of education childhood programmes,theministry incharge one ministrysupervisingand/orcoordinatingearly Bulgaria. and regionalgovernmentsinAustria d’IvoireandCuba; organizations inComoros,Côte organization inVietNam;community-based the LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic;apolitical d’Ivoireand Arab Republic;NGOsinBurundi,Côte Republic oftheCongo,DominicaandSyrian include privateorganizationsintheDemocratic programmes. Examplesfromthethirdcategory the solesupervisorsofearlychildhood government entitiesorsocio-politicalbodiesare governmental organizations,subnational official body;andintheremaining10%non- functions aresharedbyaministryandanother children ofage3andolder;inabout30%these supervisors/ coordinatorsofprogrammesfor ECCE profiles,nationalministriesarethesole countrieswithrelevantinformationintheir 172 official authority.Inabout60%ofthe cases, however,thisinvolvesmorethanone role inprogrammesforthoseunder3.Inmany children age3orolder,incontrasttotheirlimited or socialwelfare; and(c)health.Inarelatively children and/or youthaffairs;(b)socialaffairs those dealingwith(a)women, family,gender, ministries withoversightresponsibilities are remaining countriesthemost prominent In about85%ofthe154countrieswithatleast moderately or underweight severely 16 …… % under-5 whoare: is themainoneinvolved.In 1 1 severe stunting suffering from moderate or 1996-2004 1 mortality rate 2000-2005 Under-5 101 (‰) 19 79 7 8 WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 129

few cases, ministries of labour, development, programmes are intended for 3- to 5-year-olds planning or local government oversee early (eighty-six countries), but the target age group 17. Other names include children centres (Eritrea childhood programmes. is 4 to 5 in thirty-one countries, 3 to 6 in thirty and Greece), transition cycle 19 (Costa Rica), preparatory countries and 3 to 4 in twenty-four countries. education (Algeria, Macao Entry age and duration (China) and Papua New Guinea) and initial education of pre-primary education Compulsory attendance and universal (Argentina, Bolivia, coverage in pre-primary education Dominican Republic, All countries have one or more programmes Panama, Peru and at pre-primary level. They are most commonly Increasingly, countries are passing legislation Venezuela). called pre-school education (ninety-three making school attendance compulsory for 18. Ecuador, Eritrea, Indonesia, the Islamic countries), kindergarten (sixty-six countries), pre- children of pre-primary age (Table 6.8). While Republic of Iran, Malaysia, primary education (fifty countries), early childhood the rationales vary – for example, to underscore Nauru, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon education (thirty-four countries), nursery government commitment to early childhood Islands, South Africa, Switzerland and the United education (twenty-eight countries) and various provision; to expand and upgrade the quality Republic of Tanzania. 17 combinations of the above (UNESCO-IBE, 2006). of pre-school education; and to improve the 19. Other target groups National authorities typically establish an readiness for and transition of children to primary include 4 to 6 (twelve countries) and 5 to 6 (four official age at which children can enter pre- education – the structures are quite similar. countries). In addition, some countries have one-year primary education. In about 85% of countries, Typically, children must attend a year of pre- programmes aimed at: age 3 participation in pre-primary education is not school, which begins at age 4 or 5 (in a few cases (one country), age 4 (five countries), age 5 (seven obligatory and children may enter the at age 6). Of the thirty countries with such laws, countries) and age 6 (two countries). programmes at any age between the official twenty-six are in Latin America and the Caribbean 20. In addition, a Canadian entrance age and the onset of compulsory (ten), Central and Eastern Europe (nine), Western province, Prince Edward primary school attendance. Age 3 is the Europe (four) or East Asia and the Pacific Island, has made a year of pre-primary attendance theoretical entrance age for pre-primary (three).20 compulsory for 5-year-olds. education in 70% of the world’s 203 education systems (Table 6.6). In about one-quarter of countries, particularly in the Arab States, Table 6.6: Official starting age for pre-primary education by region, 2004 sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America and the Intended entry age for Caribbean, children are eligible to enrol at age 4. pre-primary education, 2004 In a dozen countries, pre-primary education 3456 Total begins at age 5 or 6.18 World 142 48 11 2 203 Since 1998, the intended entrance age for pre- Percentage of total 70 24 5 1 100 primary education has been stable. Only sixteen of the world’s education systems altered their age Sub-Saharan Africa 29 13 2 1 45 Arab States 91100 20 eligibility policy: seven countries raised the official Central Asia 90009 pre-primary entrance age and nine lowered it. East Asia and the Pacific 19 7 6 1 33 These changes reinforced the global norm of age South and West Asia 62109 3 as the start of pre-primary education. Latin America and the Caribbean 28 12 1 0 41 The intended duration of pre-primary North America and Western Europe 22 3 1 0 26 education is three years in almost half of the Central and Eastern Europe 20 0 0 0 20 world’s countries. Pre-primary education of Source: Annex, Statistical Table 3B. shorter duration – one or two years – occurs in much of Latin America and the Caribbean, the Arab States, and East Asia and the Pacific. In a small group of countries, mainly in Central and Table 6.7: Duration of pre-primary education systems Eastern Europe, and Central Asia, the duration by official entry age, 2004 is four years. As might be expected, there is an Duration (number of countries) inverse relationship between the official entrance Entry age for pre-primary 4 years age and duration of pre-primary education: where education 1 year 2 years 3 years or more Total the entrance age is higher, the duration is shorter 3 1 24 86 31 142 (Table 6.7). 4 53112048 From a global perspective, the age groups that 5 or older 940013 countries target for pre-primary education are Total 15 59 98 31 203 less standardized than for primary or secondary Source: Annex, Statistical Table 3B. education. Most typically, pre-primary Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Romania: McLean(2006). Sources: and theentranceageforcompulsoryprimaryschool hasbeenloweredbyoneyeartoage6. 8. Pre-primaryclasses,whichwereobligatoryone yearbeforeenteringschool,havebeendiscontinued 7. DataareforSerbiaonly. programmes fromage3. 6. TheECCEprofilestatesthatthelawrequires childrentoattendformalornon-formalinitialeducation 5 (2004/05),4(2005/06)and3(2008/09). 5. Compulsorypre-primaryeducationwastobe phased inforthefollowingages(asof1September): year ofpre-schoolismandatory, asofage5. 4. TheECCEprofilestatesthatallpre-schoolismandatory. Furtherresearchshowsthatonlythelast entrance age. at age3(insteadof5)andlastforthreeyears.Thereisnomentionchangingthecompulsory 3. TheECCEprofilestatesthatby2006thecountryplannedtohavefreepre-schooleducationbegin 2. Thelawallowspre-schooleducationtobeprovidedbythefamily, pre-schoolorganizationsorschools. 1. Themeasureisrarelyenforced. pre-primary educationcompulsory Table 6.8:The thirty countries withlaws making Slovenia Serbia andMontenegro Romania Republic ofMoldova Poland TFYR Macedonia Latvia Hungary Bulgaria Central andEasternEurope Luxembourg Israel Denmark Cyprus North AmericanandWestern Europe Venezuela Uruguay Peru Panama Mexico El Salvador Dominican Republic Costa Rica Colombia Argentina Latin AmericaandCaribbean Sri Lanka Iran, IslamicRepublicof South andWest Asia Macao, China DPR Korea Brunei Darussalam East AsiaandthePacific Kazakhstan Central Asia Sudan Arab States Regional average 6 1 UNESCO-IBE (2006);UISdatabase;ElSalvadorand Panama:ElvirandAscensio(2006); 5 8 4 2 3 PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 130 7 / CHAPTER 6 was enacted 0220 1 6 2002/2003 Year law 0160 1 6 1 5 2 1 2001 6 2003 6 2 4 5 2004 2005 2002 4 1993 2 3 3 4 1 1963 1 1949 4 1 2004 3 4 1 1999 1or2 5 1 4to6 2004 5 1995 4or5 1 2002 5 1990 5 1996 1 1997 5 1994 1 5 1993 1 5 1997 2004 5 1995 5 1979 4 1999 1992 … … … … … Age atwhich compulsory education begins 2 61 51 61 51 51 1 / / 2 3 Number ofyears of compulsory pre-primary education … … … 1 1 was twentytotwenty-five hoursperweek. In amajorityofthecountries forwhichdatawereavailable,the duration in Cuba,Morocco,Saint KittsandNevistheSyrianArabRepublic. more thanthirty-twohours ranged fromasfewsevenhoursinIraq, MaldivesandTajikistanto alone (UNESCO,2003 reviewed nationalestimatesofhoursperweek forpre-primaryeducation programmes targetingchildrenaged3and older.The2003/4Report 22. Thissectionexaminesbothpre-primary educationandotherECCE countries withoutcompulsorypre-primary inthisregionto60%. 21. IncorporatingthedataforTurkeywould bringthemeanNERfor 67% (n=7). Central andEasternEuropeare62%(n=8) higher (58%,n=21).Thecorrespondingresultsfor legislation, themeanpre-primaryNERisactually However, forcountriesinthisregionwithoutsuch and theCaribbeanwithsuchlawsisabout47%. education forthetencountriesinLatinAmerica mean netenrolmentratio(NER)inpre-primary higher pre-primaryenrolment.Forexample,the The legislationdoesnotnecessarilyresultin strictness ofenforcement(Benavotetal.,2005). which dependonavailabilityofresourcesand policy intentionsratherthaneducationalrealities, 1 early childhoodprogrammes. 118 profiles, ontheduration(weeklyhours)of information, incorporatedintheirnationalECCE More than85countrieshaveprovidedup-to-date last? programmes How many hours aweek doECCE institutions. participation inearlychildhoodprogrammesand equally importantinassuringchildren’sactual needs ofyoungchildren,otherconditionsare and stakeholdercommitmenttoaddressthe while suchlawsmayhelpcrystallizepoliticalwill compulsory attendancelaws(Table6.9).Thus, education (NERgreaterthan90%)without achieved nearuniversalcoverageofpre-primary OREALC, 2004).Finally,quiteafewcountrieshave development needs(Umayahara,2005;UNESCO- children andaddressingtheirholistic detriment ofprogrammesaimedatyounger the lastyearofpre-primaryeducation,to and resourcesarefocusedalmostexclusivelyon laws (e.g.ArgentinaandUruguay),policyattention American countrieswithcompulsoryattendance primary schoolentrance.InseveralLatin and spanningtheperiodbetweenbirth an integratedECCEpolicytargetingallchildren not necessarilycontributetothedevelopmentof children topre-primaryinstitutions. the willingness(orability)ofparentstosendtheir enforcement ofcompulsoryattendancelawsand Compulsory attendancelawstendtoreflect In addition,compulsoryattendancelawsmay 21 These figuresraisedoubtsabout a : p.36).Amongdevelopingcountriestheduration 22 The rangeis WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 131

from five to sixty hours a week and the average Table 6.9: Countries having pre-primary about twenty-seven.23 Figure 6.1 shows the net enrolment ratios of at least 90% without distribution of early childhood programme compulsory pre-primary attendance laws duration in weekly hours, by region.24 Most Year of fluctuate between fifteen and forty hours. In NER of 4-year-olds1 enrolment Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia and the estimate Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, and France 102 2002 sub-Saharan Africa, some run ten hours or fewer Italy 102 2002 Pre-primary and per week. Programmes of more than forty hours Spain 101 2002 ECCE programmes Belgium 100 2002 are more common in Central and Eastern are open most Europe, and North America and Western Europe. United Kingdom 100 2002 Netherlands 99 2002 Given the importance of early childhood of the workweek Iceland 93 2002 programmes for working women, an alternative and about half Malta 93 2002 are full time way to monitor programme availability is by Denmark 92 2002 noting the extent to which programmes operate Year of full time (defined in this context as more than enrolment four hours per day) or part time during the week. NER2 estimate The findings indicate that pre-primary and ECCE Cuba 100 2004 programmes are open most of the workweek and Belarus 92 2004 about half are full time. Nearly 88% of the Guyana 92 2004 programmes for which data are available operate Jamaica 91 2004 five days a week. The operation of ECCE New Zealand 91 2004 Suriname 91 2004 programmes can depend on who offers the Aruba 90 2004 programme, even within the same country and Seychelles 90 2004 for the same age group. In Cambodia, for example, government pre-schools targeting 3- to 1. In Ireland, 4-year-olds are meant to be enrolled in primary schools (ISCED level 1). The age-specific NER for 4-year-olds in Ireland is 50%. The NERs of 5-year-olds operate for five hours more per week France, Italy and Spain are reported as exceeding 100% because they were than community pre-schools and are open calculated on the basis of separate data sets (population and education) derived from surveys carried out on two different dates. thirty-eight weeks a year – between two and 2. Age groups vary by country, reflecting national definitions. fourteen weeks longer than the community Sources: European Commission (2005); annex, Statistical Table 3B (non-European countries). schools.

Figure 6.1: Average hours per week of pre-primary and other ECCE programmes by region, c. 2005

Sub-Saharan Africa

Arab States

Central Asia

East Asia/Pacific

South/West Asia

Latin America/Caribbean 23. Programmes of longer N. America/W. Europe duration are not necessarily of better quality. Much of Centr./East. Europe their impact depends on support provided by the home and on the quality of 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 the programme activities. Average hours per week 24. In some countries, including Belarus, the Czech Regional median World median ECCE programme Republic, Finland, Latvia and Sweden, programmes can be boarding or available twenty- Note: Each point represents a programme type in a country in the specified region. Average hours are identified as programme hours during which a young child can participate. four hours, depending on the Round-the-clock programmes are not included, as children do not usually attend for the full twenty-four hours. parents’ needs. These Source: UNESCO-IBE (2006). outliers were removed from the figure. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Among developed primary enrolment. proportion ofprivate pre- exception, havingalarge 26. TheNetherlandsisan financial resources. whatever theoriginofits provincial orlocal), (national/federal, state, authority oragency by apubliceducation controlled andmanaged public institutionisone business enterprise’.A group, foundationor body, specialinterest organization, religious a non-governmental by aprivatebodysuchas whether forprofitornot, controlled andmanaged, public authoritybut those ‘notoperatedbya institutions aredefinedas 25. Privatepre-primary private-sector and transition towards more involvement the trend is countries the lowormedium categories. of privatepre-primaryenrolment areeitherin Central andEasternEurope), countryshares (North AmericaandWestern Europe,and pronounced. Indevelopedand transitionregions is relativelyequal.Regionalvariations are In theremaining20%ofcountriesshare share ofprivateenrolmentismorethan66%. third ofthetotal.In30%countries private pre-primaryeducationislessthanone- countrieswithdata,theprevalenceof 154 sub-Saharan Africa, theArabStates, in privateinstitutions. to theshareoftotalpre-primaryenrolment categories (low,mediumandhigh)according classifiescountriesintothree Table 6.10 in pre-primary education The mixof publicandprivate provision Source: Note: Table 6.10: Countries classified according to theshare of private pre-primary enrolment, 2004 PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 132 Region Total countries:155 Europe Central andEastern Western Europe North Americaand Caribbean Latin Americaandthe South andWestAsia the Pacific East Asiaand Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa In eachbox,countriesarelistedinincreasingorderofprivateenrolment. / CHAPTER 6 Annex, StatisticalTable 3B. Hungary, Albania,Poland,Croatia Russian Fed.,Latvia,Turkey, Slovenia, Estonia,CzechRep., Slovakia, Rep.Moldova,Romania, Lithuania, Ukraine,Bulgaria, Belarus, TFYRMacedonia, France, Sweden Finland, Iceland,UnitedKingdom, Luxembourg, Switzerland,Canada, Andorra, Greece,Israel, Bolivia, Paraguay,Argentina,Brazil Guatemala, Peru,Honduras, Venezuela, Uruguay,ElSalvador, Nicaragua, Barbados,Panama, Guyana, Mexico,CostaRica, Bermuda, Montserrat,Cuba, Iran, Isl.Rep. Thailand, LaoPDR,Cambodia Marshall Is,CookIslands, Tokelau, Tonga,Nauru, Armenia, Kazakhstan Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan,Mongolia, Georgia, Tajikistan,Uzbekistan, Algeria, Iraq,LibyanA.J. Africa, Benin,Niger,Kenya R.Tanzania,Seychelles,South U. Cape Verde,S.Tome/Principe, 25 In about50%ofthe (0% to32%) 26 Low In muchof 76 % oftotalenrolmentinprivateschools Belgium, Germany Cyprus, Norway,Portugal, Spain, Malta,UnitedStates, Turks/Caicos Is Grenada, StKitts/Nevis, Suriname, Chile,Ecuador, Colombia, DominicanRep., Maldives, Bangladesh Philippines, VietNam,Japan Malaysia, NewZealand, Saudi Arabia Kuwait, Egypt,Yemen, Comoros, Cameroon d'Ivoire, Togo,Burundi, Ghana, Equat.Guinea,Côte provision ofpre-primary educationhasbeen an decreases inEastAsiaandthe Pacific. pre-primary educationinthe ArabStates, countries) andregion-specific increasesinpublic thirty-three countriesanddecreases inthirty-five countries theevidencewasmixed (increasesin percentage pointsinonlyeight.Amongdeveloping countries anddeclinedbymorethantwo than twopercentagepointsintwenty-two private shareofenrolmentincreasedbymore towards moreprivate-sectorinvolvement:the developed andtransitioncountriesthetrendwas changed between1999and2004.Among which theshareofprivatepre-primaryenrolment is considerablymoreprominent. Caribbean andEastAsia,theprivatesector (33% -66%) Medium Overall, theevidence suggeststhatpublic Additional analysesexaminedtheextentto 34 Netherlands Vincent/Grenad.,Trinidad/Tobago St Br. VirginIs,Dominica,SaintLucia, Jamaica, CaymanIs,Anguilla,Belize, Neth. Antilles,Aruba,Bahamas, Nepal Macao (China),Indonesia,Fiji Australia, BruneiDaruss.,Rep.ofKorea, Morocco, Oman Qatar, Jordan,Bahrain,PalestinianA.T., Lebanon, Djibouti,Mauritania,Tunisia, U. A.Emirates,SyrianR.,Sudan, Ethiopia, Lesotho,Namibia,Rwanda Mauritius, Madagascar,Guinea,Uganda, Gabon, Senegal,Eritrea,Congo, (more than66%) 45 High WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 133

integral part of recent ECCE development in most level. Between 1975 and 2004 the global gross of Europe, while in much of the developing world enrolment ratio (GER) in pre-primary education the private sector has played a more prominent more than doubled from about 17% to 37%. In role. In some cases, as in sub-Saharan Africa and developed and transition countries about 40% the Arab States, private bodies established pre- of the relevant child population was enrolled in Pre-primary primary schools that expanded modestly over pre-primary education in 1970 and the GER had enrolment time. Elsewhere, such as most Caribbean reached 73% by 2004. In developing countries increased in countries and the Republic of Korea, the private the coverage of pre-primary education has been sector initiated more dynamic pre-primary considerably less: in 1975, on average, fewer all developing education. than one out of ten children were enrolled in regions pre-primary institutions; by 2004 the ratio had The expansion of pre-primary education increased to about 32% or one in three. The global and regional picture Differences among developing country regions Worldwide the number of children enrolled in are especially marked (Figure 6.2). GERs have pre-primary education has almost tripled during been highest in Latin America and the Caribbean the past three decades, from about 44 million and lowest in sub-Saharan Africa. Pre-primary in the mid-1970s to about 124 million in 2004 education expanded noticeably in East Asia and (Table 6.11).27 Regional trends are especially the Pacific in the 1980s and 1990s, and in South informative. In developed and transition countries and West Asia in the 1990s and 2000s. In the Arab (including the former USSR), pre-primary States, by contrast, the coverage of pre-primary enrolment peaked in the early 1990s and then education, while increasing since the 1970s, has decreased because of low birth rates as well as been essentially stagnant. economic hardships in transition countries. Differences within regions By contrast, enrolment increases occurred in 27. World and regional all developing regions, especially East Asia and The coverage of pre-primary education varies estimates of pre-primary enrolment should be treated the Pacific and South and West Asia, from the considerable among countries within regions.30 with caution. After the Dakar 28 Forum and the increased mid-1970s to the late 1990s. Much of this In sub-Saharan Africa, half the countries have emphasis on pre-primary education, some countries growth reflected expansion of pre-primary GERs below 10%, but in Mauritius and Seychelles began reporting pre-primary education in China, where enrolment increased the ratios are close to 100%. Similarly, in East enrolment more systematically than in the from 6.2 million in 1975/76 (UNESCO, 1999) to Asia and the Pacific, Cambodia and the Lao past. In addition, the adoption of ISCED97, which includes 24 million in 1998/99, before dropping to the People’s Democratic Republic report GERs below a more comprehensive present level of 20 million.29 10% while China, the Philippines and Viet Nam definition of education, may have increased reporting Standardizing pre-primary enrolment by have ratios between 36% and 47%, and Australia, of informal pre-primary programmes, so some the relevant school-age population measures Malaysia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea enrolment increase may not reflect programme the coverage of pre-primary education, and can and Thailand register near full enrolment. Three- expansion. Moreover, be calculated at the national, regional and global quarters of the countries in Latin America and the changes in enrolment ratios can reflect both changing reporting patterns and population assessments. Table 6.11: Total enrolment in pre-primary education by region, 1970/71–2003/04 (millions) 28. For South and West Asia, some of the expansion involves the inclusion of 1970/71 1975/76 1980/81 1985/86 1990/91 1998/99 2003/04 enrolment in previously … unreported ECCE World 43.7 58.4 72.5 85.4 111.8 123.7 programmes in India during the late 1990s. Developed and transition countries 23.9 30.0 33.2 35.6 37.4 31.7 32.6 Developing countries … 13.7 25.2 37.0 48.0 80.1 91.1 29. According to the UN Population Division, China’s of which: population aged 0 to 5 also Sub-Saharan Africa 0.2 0.5 1.5 1.8 2.4 5.1 7.4 declined, from 140 million in 1990 to 103 million in 2005. Arab States 0.3 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.6 Thus, the gross enrolment East Asia and the Pacific … 8.1 15.2 19.7 25.9 33.3 29.9 ratio increased from 6% of the 3 to 6 age group in 1975 South and West Asia 0.8 1.4 2.3 4.1 5.4 22.2 31.2 to 36% of the 4 to 6 age Latin America and the Caribbean 1.8 2.8 4.7 9.4 11.9 16.4 19.1 group in 2003/04. 30. Factors that can affect the comparability of national Note: During the 1970s some countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, did not report data on pre-primary enrolments. Thus, the regional totals enrolment ratios include probably underestimate enrolment for this period. Data for East Asia and the Pacific are for developing countries only; Australia, Japan and New Zealand programme duration, are included under developed countries. The total for developing countries is higher than the sum of the five regions because it includes data for targeted age group, Bermuda, Cyprus, Israel, Mongolia and Turkey. compulsory attendance Sources: 1970/71–1990/91: UNESCO (1999); 1998/99–2003/04: UIS database. legislation, eligibility restrictions and birth rates. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 coverage isclose Republic, Estonia and Slovakia, to universal In Belarus, Source: Note: Figure Changes inpre-primary 6.3: GERs between 1990/91 and2003/04 ineighty-one countries: coverage increased infour-fifths Changes in pre-primary GER between 1990/91 the Czech

Includes onlythosecountriesinwhichtheofficially targetedagegroupwasunchanged.ForEthiopia,RepublicofKoreaandTha and 2003/04 (percentage points) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 Annex, StatisticalTable 12. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0

Trinidad/Tobago Thailand Estonia Kuwait ratio is100%.InallCentralandEasternEuropean countries haveGERsabove60%andinhalfthe North AmericaandWesternEurope,virtuallyall 1990s, nocountryhasaGERofabove50%.In indications ofrecoveryafterthedecline in pre-primaryeducation.InCentralAsia,despite enrol betweenone-thirdandone-halfofchildren ratio is28%.InSouthandWestAsiacountries Caribbean haveGERsabove75%whilethelowest Sources: Note: in LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean Figure 6.2:Regional trends inpre-primary gross enrolment ratios, showing astrong increase PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 134 Japan under developedcountries.Thebrokenlinesignifiesabreakinthedataseriesduetonewclassification. GER (%)

Latvia 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Data forEastAsiaandthePacificaredevelopingcountriesonly;Australia,JapanNewZealandincluded 0 Rep. of Korea / CHAPTER 6 1970/71, 1975/76,1980/81:UNESCO(1991);1985/86:(1998);1990/91:(2000);1998/99,2003/04:UISdatabase. Guyana 2003/04 1998/99 1990/91 1980/81 1975/76 1970/71 Australia El Salvador Peru Finland Iran, Isl. Rep. Colombia Portugal Mexico Belarus Nicaragua Sweden Brazil Uruguay 1985/86 Austria S Viet Nam chool years Kenya Croatia Palestinian A. T. Bahrain Czech Rep. Bolivia Namibia Venezuela Tunisia Argentina

Jamaica four-fifths oftheeighty-onecountriesand Overall, between1991and2004(Figure6.3), Country advances between and2004 1991 close touniversal(Seeannex,StatisticalTable3B). Czech Republic,EstoniaandSlovakia,coverageis than halfthechildrenareenrolled;inBelarus, Yugoslav RepublicofMacedoniaandTurkey,more countries exceptAlbania,Croatia,theFormer South Africa Belgium Cyprus iland, theGERsarefor2004/05. Russian Fed. Greece Jordan Italy Sub-Saharan Africa Arab States South andWest Asia East AsiaandthePacific Latin America/Caribbean Developed andtransitioncountries U. A. Emirates Egypt Cameroon United Kingdom Lithuania Slovakia Cambodia Sudan Poland Brunei Daruss. Belize Syrian A. R. Indonesia Turkey Senegal Congo Oman Côte d’Ivoire Fiji Lao PDR WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 135

territories with comparable data increased Figure 6.4: The inverse relationship between the pupil/teacher ratio in 1999 their coverage of pre-primary education. Among and the net enrolment ratio in 2004 these sixty-eight countries whose GERs rose, the increase was more than twenty percentage 100 points in nineteen countries, six to twenty percentage points in twenty-eight countries 90 and one to five percentage points in sixteen countries.31 On the other hand, in Albania, 80 Armenia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (see below), as well as in Iraq, Morocco and Togo, the GERs declined. Several countries or 70 y = -1.1056x + 68.995 territories, including Fiji, Kuwait, the Palestinian R2 = 0.08 Autonomous Territories and the United Kingdom, 60 saw pre-primary coverage expand between 1991 and 1999, then contract.32 50 Cross-national analyses suggest that teacher 2004 NER (%) availability is related to the expansion of pre- 40 primary education. Specifically, the supply of pre- primary teachers in relation to the number of 30 pupils prior to 1999 is associated with the net enrolment ratio (NER) in pre-primary education in 20 2004.33 Countries with lower pupil/teacher ratios (PTRs) tended to have higher NERs (Figure 6.4).34 10 Countries in transition: recovering lost ground While pre-primary education was expanding in 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 much of the world, many countries in transition 1999 PTR experienced significant declines and/or fluctuations following the break-up of the Soviet Source: Annex, Statistical Table 10A. Union (see UNESCO, 2003a: pp. 37-8). Figure 6.5

reports annual pre-primary net enrolment ratios

(NERs) for children aged 3 to 6 between 1989 31. In Australia, El Salvador, 80 Estonia, Guyana, Japan, and 2003. In Central and Eastern Europe and Kuwait, Latvia, Peru, 70 the Baltic States, pre-primary enrolment levels Republic of Korea, Thailand 60 and Trinidad and Tobago, initially dropped – sometimes precipitously – but the GER for pre-primary 50 education increased by thirty had recovered by the end of the 1990s. In Albania, percentage points or more. 40 Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro 30 32. Figure 6.3 does not and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, reflect the data used for this 20 which had relatively low enrolment rates in the intra-period analysis. 10 early 1990s, governments introduced various 33. Multivariate analyses 0 confirm the negative impact measures to increase access to kindergarten of the PTR in 1999 on growth -10 in the pre-primary NER over and other ECCE programmes (Albania Ministry 1999–2004. -20 and 2003/04 (percentage points) of Finance, 2004; Zafeirakou, 2005). -30 34. Worldwide, the median Changes in pre-primary GER between 1990/91 Among countries belonging to the pre-primary PTR was about -40 18:1 in 2004, slightly lower than the median for primary -50 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), particularly in Central Asia, enrolment ratios education of 21:1 (in North

Iraq America and Western Europe Togo tates Niger Malta S

Yemen the pre-primary median was lovenia Albania Ukraine Djibouti Georgia Norway Ethiopia

Armenia in pre-primary education declined rapidly in the S Morocco

Tajikistan slightly higher than the Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Netherlands early 1990s and have yet to recover. The decrease primary one; see annex, United Rep. Moldova Statistical Table 10A). Cross- took place despite government initiatives and national variation is limited: among the 157 countries policies that sought to increase the role of private with data, the pre-primary providers and institutions. Kazakhstan, for PTR was below 25:1 in 78% of countries and above instance, introduced new forms of ECCE, 35:1 in 9%. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 the ECCEgoal. of thecarecomponent of more accuratedepiction this questionprovidea findings emergingfrom education. Therefore, definition ofpre-primary be excludedintheformal ECCE provisionthatmay This questionincludes community childcare?’ kindergarten or facility, including private orgovernment programme, suchasa early childhoodeducation organized learningor of child]attendany year-olds: ‘Does[name caretaker of3-and4- asked themotheror 36. MICSsurvey-takers be uniformnationwide. eligibility rulesmaynot decentralized systems, countries and In addition,infederal these requirements. countries rigidlyenforce institutions. Notall primary or age canenrolinpre- which childrenofwhat the datesusedtodecide example, maydetermine requirements, for 35 Officialeligibility Source: Notes: Figure 6.5:Pre-primary netenrolment ratios for children aged3to 6intransition countries, 1989 to 2003 preparatory classes. TFYR Macedonia:includespre-school Tajikistan: 1989-2001dataareGERs. Kosovo. in Kosovo;1999-2001dataexclude for 1991-98excludeethnicAlbanians Serbia andMontenegro:pupildata exclude Transdniestr. Republic ofMoldova:1992-2003data Lithuania: 1989-93dataareGERs. 1997-2000 areGERs. Kazakhstan: datafor1989-1995, ages 3to5. Czech Republic,Hungary, Slovakia: Bosnia andHerzegovina:ages3to7. ages 3to5. Belarus: 1999-2003dataarefor Slovenia, Ukraine:GERs. Albania, Armenia,RussianFederation, UNICEF (2005b). care, guardianshiporadoption.UNICEF(2005 their birthfamiliesininstitutionsorthroughfoster numbers ofyoungchildrenwholiveapartfrom are furthercompoundedbytheextremelylarge (Tabuslatova, 2006). kindergartens toincreaseenrolment Uzbekistan openedmanycommunity-based government. ThegovernmentsofKyrgyzstanand institutions fundedprivatelyorbylocal as wellkindergartensandotherpre-school including complexesof‘kindergartenschools’ PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 136 majority ofcountries define3to5or6as the contribute tothe undercounting.Second,while a programmes meetinternational standardsalso programme anduncertainty whether particular consensus astowhatconstitutes anECCE groups orlocalcommunities. Thelackof programmes fundedbyother ministries,private children’s participationinearlychildhood reported byeducationministriesmayundercount two problems.First,pre-primaryenrolmentdata by examininggrossornetenrolmentratiosraises Monitoring nationalprogressinECCEcoverage inECCE programmes levels Age-specific enrolment andparticipation programmes. have limited,ifany,accesstoearlychildhood for them–areespeciallyvulnerableandoften parents arelivingbutunableorunwillingtocare contexts. These‘socialorphans’–childrenwhose transition countriesliveinsuchout-of-homecare estimates thatabout1.5millionchildrenin The challengesfacingcountriesintransition / CHAPTER 6

NER (%) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 991991 1989 1993 CI S (EasternEurope) 9519 1999 1997 1995 2001 b 2003 ) Ukraine Rep. Moldova Russian Fed. Belarus preferences andhouseholddecisions. administrative authoritiesandpartlybyparental and primaryeducationispartlydeterminedby pattern ofsame-agedchildreninpre-primary programmes orinprimaryschools.This‘mixed’ may beenrolledeitherinpre-primary instances inwhichchildrenfromoneagebracket for childrenaged3andabove.Theyalsoreveal differences inthecoverageofECCEprogrammes accurate andvalidportrayalofnational Together thesenewsourcesprovideamore enrolment datafromaspecialUIScompilation. andage-specific household surveys(Box6.2) reports age-specificparticipationdatafromthree education. age-specific enrolmentpatternsinpre-primary conventional statisticsdonotrevealimportant significantly withintheseagespans.Thus, institutions, inpracticeenrolmentpatternsvary normative agesforenrolmentinpre-primary participation levels wererelativelyhigh(more Venezuela and VietNam).For4-year-olds, the RepublicofMoldova,Trinidad andTobago, Republic, EquatorialGuinea, Jamaica, Nicaragua, (e.g. Albania,Bahrain,Colombia, theDominican Republic ofTanzania)tomore than20%inothers Egypt, Guatemala,Iraq,Rwanda andtheUnited Chad, theDemocraticRepublicofCongo, some countries(e.g.theCentralAfricanRepublic, participation levelsvariedfromlessthan3%in care andlearningcentres. rates of3-and4-year-oldchildreninorganized To addresstheselimitations,thissubsection iue66reportsage-specificparticipation Figure 6.6

NER (%) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 991991 1989 1993 CI S (CentralAsia) 9519 1999 1997 1995 36 For 3-year-olds, 2001 35 2003 Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Azerbaijan Turkmenistan Georgia Armenia WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 137

90 90 Czech 90 Republic Estonia 80 80 80 Latvia Hungary Bulgaria 70 70 70 Slovakia Albania 60 60 Romania 60 Lithuania Poland Croatia 50 50 50 Slovenia NER (%) NER (%) 40 40 NER (%) 40 Serbia and Montenegro 30 30 30 TFYR Macedonia 20 20 20

10 10 10 Bosnia- Herzegovina 0 0 0 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Baltic States Eastern Europe Central Europe

Box 6.2: Background information on the three household surveys 1.5 million children in transition Much of the rest of the chapter is based on Depending on the child’s age, each household countries live ECCE information from the second wave of the survey used different questions to gather in out-of-home Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS2), the information about participation in ECCE Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) and the programmes. For example, MICS2 asked parents care contexts Living Standard Measurement Surveys (LSMS). of 3- and 4-year-olds whether their child ‘attends Data for MICS21 and DHS2 were collected between any organized learning or early childhood 1999 and 2003, and those for the LSMS3 between education programme, such as a private or 1995 and 2003. All three surveys were based on government facility, including kindergarten or nationally representative samples of households community child care’, while parents of children in developing countries. Researchers questioned aged 5 or older were asked whether their child parents or guardians of children aged 3 to 6 about attended a pre-school programme. DHS and LSMS their children’s participation in ECCE programmes. also included age-differentiated questions about Sixty-five countries took part in MICS2 surveys, participation in ECCE programmes.5 Strictly and ECCE data are available for forty-five of speaking, then, the questions asked of parents of them.4 In eight DHS countries and all ten LSMS children in the two age groups (3 to 4 and 5 to 6) countries, the surveys obtained relevant data are not comparable and are therefore reported on ECCE. separately.

Except for a few countries in the LSMS (e.g. Ecuador, Guatemala and Nicaragua), most countries in all three household surveys did not differentiate between types of pre-schools — that is, day care, kindergarten or preparatory. Despite limited variations in survey questions, the overall level of data quality is high, with relatively few non-respondents. 1. The aim of MICS2 was to assess progress towards the goals of the World Summit for Children. The methodology was developed and the surveys carried out by UNICEF in cooperation with WHO, UNESCO, the ILO, UNAIDS and the UN Statistical Division. The surveys were designed to collect data on diverse issues, such as nutrition, health, education, birth registration, family environment, child labour, and knowledge and attitudes about HIV/AIDS. 2. The DHS were designed to measure the health and nutritional status of women and children in the developing world. They provide data on standard demographic and health indicators, as well as special topics (including ECCE in the surveys of Colombia, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Haiti, Nicaragua, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe, to date). Survey-takers interviewed parents and guardians of children aged 2 to 6, enquiring about the children’s participation in early childhood education, among other topics. Ten of these surveys had included ECCE questions as of 2004. 3. The LSMS were carried out in Albania, Bosnia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Ecuador, Guatemala, India (the states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh), Nicaragua, Panama and Papua New Guinea. In Albania, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Panama, the relevant age group was 3 to 5 instead of 3 to 6. 4. In the other twenty countries, either the ECCE module was not included or, in a few cases, data were unavailable. 5. As with the MICS2, participants in some LSMS countries (e.g. Albania and Brazil) were asked about current pre-school attendance while for others (e.g. Papua New Guinea) the question concerned attendance in the year prior to the survey. Sources: Nonoyama et al. (2006); Education Policy and Data Center (2006); Carr Hill (2006). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 (2005: pp.128-30). Commission available inEuropean on EUcountriesis 38. Additionalinformation these ages. household surveysfor within andacross comparing countryrates should beexercisedwhen (2006) pointout,caution 37. AsNonoyamaetal. year-olds varies Burundi to 55% between 2%in Participation of 5-and6- in Viet Nam participation forparticipation 4-year-olds, c.2000 organized care andlearningprogrammes, showing higher Figure 6.6:Netattendance rates for ages 3and4in PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 138 Sources: Sources: Note: Equatorial Guinea Panama andUganda. S Trinidad/Tobago Dominican Rep. . Tome/Principe Bosnia/Herzeg. Guinea-Bissau U. R.Tanzania S Rep. Moldova S Côte d’Ivoire Madagascar udan (North) D. R.Congo Data forage3areunavailableBulgaria,Ecuador, Haiti, ierra Leone Guatemala Philippines Azerbaijan Zimbabwe Nicaragua Nicaragua S V Cameroon Botswana / CHAPTER 6 Tajikistan Myanmar S Mongolia V Colombia enezuela waziland Comoros Jamaica Lao PDR Bulgaria Three householdsurveys (Box6.2). uriname Rwanda S iet Nam Panama Ecuador Lesotho Bahrain Albania Albania Uganda Burundi Guyana C. A.R. Zambia Angola Guinea Bolivia enegal Kenya Egypt Chad India Haiti Iraq 0 MI L DH S M CS S S 040 20 Net attendancerates(%) 60 80 age 4 age 3 100 profiles highlightsthefollowingpatterns: overlap forthesameagebracket. enrolment ratiosinpre-primaryandprimary and lightbars–inotherwords,where transition occuratthoseageswithbothdark primary (lightbars).Instancesofa‘mixed’ separately forpre-primary(darkbars)and onre Fgr 6.8). countries (Figure of ages3to7canbeconstructedforsixty age-specific enrolmentratiosforchildren To furtherclarifythesenationaldifferences, participation levelsinpre-primaryeducation. which thetransitiontoprimaryeducationaffects or remainsrelativelystable,andtheextentto programmes increasessignificantlywithage extent towhichchildren’sparticipationinECCE and Tobago,VietNamZimbabwe. Nicaragua, thePhilippines,Suriname,Trinidad Democratic RepublicoftheCongo,Guyana, countries, includingBolivia,Cameroon,the entrance intoprimaryschoolsinmany onset ofcompulsoryschoolingandchildren’s declining coveragereflects,inlargepart,the or lowerinmanyothers.Thispatternof levels arehigherinsomecases,butsimilar Viet Nam.Among6-year-olds,participation Nicaragua, Panama,Suriname,Venezuelaand than 55%inColombia,Ecuador,Guyana,Haiti, Republic, Chad,MyanmarandRwandatomore less than2%inBurundi,theCentralAfrican in participationratesisconsiderable:from Among theformer,cross-nationalvariation primary institutionsfor5-and6-year-olds. shows. Figure6.6 Suriname andVenezuela,as so inBolivia,Guyana,Nicaragua,thePhilippines, 4-year-olds thanfor3-year-olds,significantly Moldova, participationlevelswerehigherfor and theCaribbean.ExceptinRepublicof sub-Saharan AfricaandhigherinLatinAmerica Regionally, participationrateswerelowerin countries inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean. Moldova, VietNamandthree-quartersofthe Guinea, Lesotho,Mongolia,theRepublicof than 25%)inAlbania,Bahrain,Equatorial primary education risequitesteeplywithage In somecountries enrolmentratiosinpre- children areenrolled(e.g.France andItaly). and Yemen)tocountriesinwhich almostall education ineachagecategory (e.g.Senegal few childrenareenrolledinpre-primary Countries rangebetweenthose inwhichvery A comparisonofage-specificenrolment In sum,countriesdifferintwoways:the reportsattendanceratesinpre- Figure 6.7 38 The ratiosarereported 37 WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 139

(e.g. Brazil, Cyprus and Guatemala) while Figure 6.7: Net attendance rates for ages 5 in others there is little change with age and 6 in ECCE programmes, showing significant (e.g. Azerbaijan and Mongolia). In the Russian cross-national variation, c. 2000 Federation, enrolment levels actually decline with age. DHS age 5 U. R. Tanzania In quite a few, mainly developed, countries Zimbabwe age 6 Egypt the transition to primary occurs neatly at the Uganda official or theoretical primary entrance age, Nicaragua Haiti with no mixed age categories (e.g. Japan and Colombia Norway). LSMS In other countries many children enter primary Bosnia/Herzeg. education earlier than the theoretical entrance India Guatemala age (e.g. Benin, Madagascar and Turkey). Bulgaria Albania Another pattern involves countries in which Ecuador children of the official primary entrance age Nicaragua Panama are still enrolled in pre-primary education (e.g. Mauritius and Pakistan). MICS Burundi Finally, in some countries the last two patterns C. A. R. Rwanda coexist: children of official pre-primary age Chad are already in primary education while others, Myanmar Millions of children Azerbaijan of the official primary education age, are still Kenya who belong to in pre-primary education (e.g. Colombia and Côte d’Ivoire Lao PDR disadvantaged Lithuania). Madagascar Sierra Leone groups and live in Overall, careful comparisons of attendance Guinea-Bissau and enrolment figures of young children in ECCE Comoros vulnerable settings D. R. Congo programmes are needed in order to improve Mongolia are denied access assessments of programme coverage as well Angola to ECCE Cameroon as progress towards the ECCE goal. Rep. Moldova Guinea Senegal Disadvantaged and vulnerable Sudan (North) children: limited access Lesotho S. Tome/Principe Worldwide, millions of children who belong Trinidad/Tobago Swaziland to disadvantaged groups and live in vulnerable Bahrain Bolivia settings are denied access to ECCE Jamaica programmes, despite many studies highlighting Philippines Equatorial Guinea considerable benefits accruing from their Viet Nam participation (see Chapter 5). This section Venezuela Suriname examines which socio-demographic groups Guyana Bosnia/Herzeg. are particularly disadvantaged and which Iraq circumstances of vulnerability most impede access to ECCE programmes. It evaluates the 02040 60 80 100 relative importance of such socio-demographic Net attendance rates (%) factors as gender, place of residence, household Note: Data are unavailable in some countries for children age 5 (Bosnia and wealth and parental education on the likelihood Herzegovina, Iraq) or age 6 (Albania, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama). Sources: Three household surveys (Box 6.2). that a child will participate in an ECCE programme. It also considers the influence of several proxies of poverty, such as stunting and lack of a vaccination record or birth certificate. lower participation rates in ECCE programmes While these factors cover only selected types than their counterparts who are male, live in of disadvantage and vulnerability, they help urban areas or belong to richer households? account for major disparities in access to ECCE Figure 6.9 shows the gender gaps and 39 39. Children with disabilities programmes. Figure 6.10 the urban-rural gaps in participation and children living in Do girls, children residing in rural areas or rates for care and learning programmes among emergency situations are discussed in Chapters 3 those in poorer households have significantly 3- and 4-year-olds in countries with available and 7. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 and 4-year-olds. to thosereportedfor 3- are largelysimilar year-olds. Thefindings rates among5-and6- differences inattendance rural andwealth examine gender,urban- and Carr-Hill(2006)also and DataCenter(2006) (2006), EducationPolicy 40. Nonoyamaetal. Source: Note: Figure 6.8:Age-specific enrolment ratios for ages 3to 7inpre-primary education,2004 andprimary that citedastheofficialentranceagetoprimaryschool:Colombia,DominicanRepublic,ElSalvador, Guinea,Israel,Nicaragua Age-specific enrolment ratios (%) 100 100 100 100 100 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 Official primaryschoolentranceageisindicatedinboldforeachcountry, exceptforMongolia whereitisage8.Inthefollo 0 0 0 0 0 UIS database. 345 36 3 3 345 P r e-p Yemen (2003) Madagascar 45 45 45 Nicaragua Lebanon r Kuwait ima g g g g g Age Age Age Age Age Age r y 4-year-olds. disparities inparticipationrates, alsofor3-and reportshouseholdwealth 6.11 data. Figure PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 140 Colombia, Equatorial GuineaandSuriname the gap isrelatively small(lessthan10%).InBahrain, rates indicatesthatinmostcountries thegender 6 6 6 6 A comparisonofboys’andgirls’ participation 7 7 7 7 7 / CHAPTER 6 P r ima r 345 3456 345 3456 345 y 40 Croatia (2003) Netherlands Greece Jordan Eritrea 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 345 3456 3456 345 345 Guatemala Portugal Poland Benin Peru 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 Palestinian A.T. (2003) 345 345 3456 345 34 United Pakistan Bulgaria Togo children inearly childhoodprogrammesis often children (Figure 6.10).Theproportionofrural and, exceptinJamaica,always favoururban differences inparticipationrates aremuchlarger girls (Figure6.9).Bycontrast, urban-rural Philippines, andTrinidad Tobago,itfavours gender gapfavoursboys,while inBolivia,the 5 S tates , RepublicofMoldovaandRussianFederation. 6 6 6 67 wing countries,compulsoryeducationbeginsatanagelowerthan 7 7 7 7 3456 345 34 3456 345 Dominican Republic Kyrgyzstan Mauritius Algeria Finland 5 6 67 6 7 7 7 7 345 3456 3456 3456 3456 Brazil (2003) S Azerbaijan witzerland S S lovenia enegal 6 7 7 7 7 7 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 141

Guinea Lao PDR Nigeria Egypt Turkey Philippines (2003) 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 34567 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7

Ghana Mongolia Morocco Colombia Bolivia United Arab Emirates 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 3456 7 34567 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7

Costa Rica El Salvador Republic of Korea Honduras Mexico TFYR Macedonia 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 3456 7 34567 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7 34567 Age-specific enrolment ratios (%)

Australia Cyprus Republic of Moldova Lithuania United Kingdom Russian Federation 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 345 67 3456 7 34567 34567 345 67 34567

Israel Japan New Zealand Norway France Italie 100 100 80 80 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 3456 7 3456 7 345 67 3456 7 3456 7 3456 7 Age Age Age Age Age Age

Pre-primary Primary

between ten and thirty percentage points lower households participate in ECCE programmes than that of urban children. Place of residence at considerably lower levels than do children is a more important factor than gender in from richer households. Poverty, like place accounting for participation rate disparities. of residence, is an important factor in access Figure 6.11 compares participation rates for to early childhood programmes. Nevertheless, the richest 40% of households with those for the it should be noted that in Albania, Bolivia and poorest 40%. In general, children from poorer Suriname, participation rates in poorer Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 countries. 6-year-olds inforty-one attendance by5-and examined pre-primary Data Center(2006)also and EducationPolicy 41.Nonoyama etal.(2006) Sources: Note: care andlearningprogrammes, 1999-2003 Figure 6.9: Genderdisparities inattendance rates for ages 3and4in S Trinidad/Tobago Dominican Rep. * . Tome/Principe Bosnia/Herzeg. Guinea-Bissau U. R.Tanzania * Equat. Guinea S Rep. Moldova Côte d’Ivoire S Madagascar udan (North) * D. R.Congo ierra Leone DHS surveycountries. Uzbekistan Philippines Azerbaijan Zimbabwe * S Nicaragua * V Cameroon Botswana Tajikistan Myanmar S Mongolia V Colombia Three householdsurveys(seeBox6.2). enezuela waziland Comoros Jamaica Lao PDR Rwanda uriname S iet Nam Lesotho Gambia Albania Burundi Uganda * Bahrain Guyana C. A.R. Zambia Guinea Angola Bolivia enegal Kenya Niger Egypt * Chad Togo India Haiti * Iraq -10 gender, placeof residenceandhouseholdwealth identify socio-demographic factorsotherthan disadvantaged children. groups ofcountrieshavesuccessfully reached suggests thatpolicymeasures inthesetwo the overallattendancerates. Theevidence Tobago) thewealthgapisrelativelysmallgiven (e.g. Angola,EquatorialGuinea,andTrinidad households, andthatinsomecountries households areactuallyhigherthaninricher PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 142 Male-female attendancedisparity(percentagepoints) girls favouring Disparity Multivariate analyseswereconducted to / CHAPTER 6 -5 0 favouring Disparity 510 boys 16.5 Sources: Note: in care andlearningprogrammes, 1999-2003 Figure 6.10: Urban-rural attendance disparities for ages 3and4 S Dominican Rep. * . Tome/Principe Bosnia/Herzeg. Guinea-Bissau U. R.Tanzania * Equat. Guinea S Rep. Moldova S Côte d’Ivoire Madagascar udan (North) D. R.Congo * ierra Leone Uzbekistan Philippines Azerbaijan Zimbabwe * Nicaragua * S DHS surveycountries. Cameroon Botswana Tajikistan Myanmar S Mongolia V Colombia waziland Comoros Jamaica Lao PDR Three householdsurveys(seeBox6.2). Rwanda uriname S iet Nam Lesotho Gambia Burundi Uganda * Albania Guyana C. A.R. Zambia Guinea Angola Bolivia enegal Kenya CEpriiain al .2showsthepositive, ECCE participation. Table6.12 residence and household wealth–onchildren’s education inadditiontogender, placeof of fivevariables–includingage andmother’s programmes. 4-year-olds inorganizedcare andlearning once againontheparticipation of3-and counties withhouseholdsurveydata,focused analyses, carriedoutseparatelyinsixty-two participating inanECCEprogramme.The that significantlyaffecttheprobabilityofachild’s Niger Egypt * Chad India Togo Haiti * Iraq -20 areas rural favouring Disparity Urban-rural attendancedisparity(percentagepoints) -10 41 They assessedtheneteffect 0 10 03 40 30 20 favouring Disparity urban areas WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 143

Figure 6.11: Household wealth disparities in attendance rates Table 6.12: Results of multivariate analyses of ECCE participation for ages 3 and 4 in care and learning programmes, 1999-2003 by 3- and 4-year-olds1

Logit regression results Trinidad/Tobago (number of countries)2 Colombia Significant at p=0.05 4 Rep. Moldova Not Data not Dominican Rep. * Variable3 positive negative significant available Viet Nam Venezuela Gender India Female 10 3 48 1 Guyana Age Equatorial Guinea Lesotho 4 50 183 Haiti * Place of residence Mongolia Urban area (not standardized) 25 3 30 4 Nicaragua * Mother’s education Swaziland Botswana Primary 19 1 31 11 Kenya Secondary or higher 40 0139 Cameroon Household wealth S. Tome/Principe 2nd quintile 83 43 8 Gambia 3rd quintile 18 3 33 8 Suriname Philippines 4th quintile 29 1 25 7 Guinea 5th quintile 37 2167 Sierra Leone Other variables5 Sudan (North) Household size 05 5 0 Togo Madagascar Both parents home 01 7 2 Comoros Region of country 40 4 2 Azerbaijan ECCE centre in village 10 0 9 Myanmar Côte d’Ivoire 1. This summary table gives the number of countries in which each independent variable has a significant Bolivia or non-significant effect on the likelihood of participation in organized care and learning programmes. Each Egypt * variable’s net effect is analysed with the other variables held constant. Figures in bold indicate the main Senegal tendencies. Guinea-Bissau 2. The upper part of the table deals with sixty-two of the countries involved in the household surveys discussed in Box 6.2: all forty-five of the countries in MICS2 (2000–03) with ECCE data; seven DHS Albania countries (1999–2002); and the ten LSMS countries (1995-2003; for India, two states are used in the Rwanda sample). Uganda * 3. Logit regression analyses are employed when the dependent variable is dichotomous – in this case, Tajikistan whether a child of pre-school age has, or has not, participated in an organized early learning or pre-primary Lao PDR programme. The reference categories for the independent variables are (in brackets): gender (male), age Angola (3), residence (rural), mother’s education (none) and household wealth (bottom quintile). Zimbabwe * 4. Using a slightly lower significance level (i.e. p<.10), the same patterns are obtained, but with slightly more cases falling into the categories of the dominant trend. U. R. Tanzania * 5. The analyses reported in this section are based on the LSMS and include children aged 3 to 6. D. R. Congo Only ten countries had variables appropriate for the multivariate analyses. C. A. R. Sources: Nonoyama et al. (2006); Education Policy and Data Center (2006). Burundi Poorer households Niger Richer households Chad

0 10 20 30 4050 60 70 80 Attendance rates for 3- and 4-year-olds (%)

Note: Richer households = top 40% by wealth; poorer households = bottom 40%. Sources: Three household surveys (see Box 6.2)

negative or non-significant relationships between in more than half the cases this effect disappears each independent variable and the likelihood of and becomes non-significant. Both the mother’s ECCE programme participation. having secondary-level education and the By and large, the multivariate analyses expand household’s relative wealth – especially in and further validate the findings reported above. households belonging to the fourth and fifth They demonstrate that while age is a significant quintiles – substantially increase the likelihood factor in most countries (4-year-olds have higher of children attending ECCE programmes in participation rates than 3-year-olds), gender is a majority of countries. not. The net effect of place of residence is mixed: Findings on additional variables, based on in fewer than half the countries children in rural a smaller sample of countries (the bottom part communities have lower participation rates, while of Table 6.12), indicated the following: Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 findings. (2006) foradditional 43. AlsoseeCarr-Hill this finding. evidence substantiating other studiesprovide in theIndiancontext, levels wasexaminedonly centre onparticipation availability ofanECCE 42. Whiletheeffectof S of certificate, abirth 1999-2003 in organized care andlearning Figure 6.12: Disparities inattendance rates for ages 3and4 Sources: Note: stating tohavethechild’s birthcertificate,butwhichwas notpresentedtothesurveytaker). Dominican Rep. . Tome/Principe Bosnia/Herzeg. Guinea-Bissau S Rep. Moldova S Côte d’Ivoire S udan ( Madagascar udan (North) ierra Leone Uzbekistan The surveyincludedathirdcategoryforwhichno birthcertificatewasinevidence(respondents Azerbaijan S V Cameroon Tajikistan Myanmar S V enezuela waziland Comoros Lao PDR Rwanda uriname S iet Nam Gambia Albania Burundi Guyana Three householdsurveys (Box6.2). C. A.R. Zambia Angola enegal S Congo Boliva Kenya Niger Chad outh) Togo 0 PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 144 of ECCEattendance,evenaftercontrollingfor show largeregionaldisparitiesinprobability Subnational regions: negative andsignificant. The exceptionisEcuador,wheretheeffect controlling forothersocio-economicvariables. participation inECCEprogrammes,after at homedoesnotappeartoaffecttheoddsof Two-parent households: necessary toenrolchildreninchildcare. while otherswork,soparentsdonotdeemit household membersmaytakecareofchildren them toECCEprogrammes.Insomecases household, thelesslikelyfamilyistosend households. Themorechildreninaparticular attend ECCEprogrammesthanthoseinsmall more children)weresignificantlylesslikelyto in largehouseholds(i.e.familieswiththreeor Household size: % ofchildrenattendingorganisedearlylearning programmes / CHAPTER 6 02 30 20 10 programmes basedonpossession In fivecountrieschildrenliving Brazil andGuatemala Having bothparents Bi No bi 40 r th r c th e r c tifi e r c tifi ate seen 50 c ate 60 analysed. Thefollowingpatternswereobserved: programmes, MICS2householdsurveyswere variables onparticipationinearlylearning children gainaccesstoprimaryeducation. impact ofthesefactorsisfurtheraccentuatedas for themostvulnerablechildreninsociety.The significantly inhibitsaccesstoECCEprogrammes of lifeandthattheaccumulateddisadvantage disease tendtoaccumulateduringthefirstyears marginality, reducednutritionandsusceptibilityto disadvantages associatedwithpoverty,social programmes suggeststhatthesocio-economic also relatedtoparticipationinearlychildhood 5).Examiningwhetherthesefactorsare Chapter development, andschoolreadiness(see term deficitsinchildren’scognitiveandmotor and iodinedeficiencyareassociatedwithlong- weight, reducedbreastfeeding,stunting,andiron Substantial evidenceindicatesthatlowbirth The accumulation of disadvantage lesser extent,a vaccinationrecordareassociated as thepossession ofabirthcertificateand, to a In sum,theevidencesuggests thatvariablessuch increases thelikelihoodofattendance. in whichthehouseholdislocatedsignificantly Having anearlylearningcentreinthevillage ECCE centrespositivelyaffectsparticipation. Availability ofacentre: and accessibility. could reflectdifferencesinculture,geography are underservedintermsofECCEcentres,orit may meanthatcertainpartsofthesecountries household wealthandurbanresidence.This among girls. effect ismoreapparentamong boysthan participation ratesthanother children.The suffering fromstuntinghave lower ECCE Stunting: likely toattendECCEprogrammes. those whohavebeenvaccinated,aremore such records.Healthierchildren,inthiscase participation ratesthanthosewhopossess vaccination recordshavelowerECCE a birthcertificate.Childrenwholack been vaccinatedissimilartothatofpossessing Vaccination: none (Figure6.12). learning programmesthanchildrenwhohad more likelytoattendorganizedcareand was seenbysurveytakerswereconsiderably countries, childrenforwhomabirthcertificate Birth certificate: To examinetheinfluenceofparticular In allthesurveyedcountries,children The influenceofachildhaving In almostallthesurveyed In India,thesupplyof 42 43 WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 145

with children’s attendance in early care and Table 6.13: Parental involvement in ECCE programmes learning programmes. Stunting, related to Type of collaboration Countries1 poverty, is influential in some settings and for some children but it is a less consistent predictor Management/ Benin, Bolivia, Fiji, Côte d'Ivoire, Lao administration of PDR, Mauritius, Rwanda, San Marino, of ECCE participation. In other words, absolute schools and centres Sweden, Thailand, Yugoslavia poverty and social exclusion are important factors Parent committees Cameroon, Malawi, Nicaragua, Peru, inhibiting ECCE participation. and councils Senegal, Syrian A. R., Ukrainian S. S. R., United Arab Emirates, USSR

Assistance in building Congo, Dominica, Ghana, Grenada, Who are the child carers or putting up centres Lao PDR, Mauritius, Trinidad/Tobago, and pre-primary educators? Zambia Making of toys, Albania, Belize, Benin, Fiji, Thailand, equipment and other Trinidad/Tobago Early childhood teachers, pedagogues, nursery materials or workers, child minders, day care staff, auxiliary furnishing of centres nurses, volunteer helpers – these are just some Collaboration in Cameroon, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, of the titles used to describe the diverse starting, assisting Thailand, Yugoslavia or developing ECCE workforce found in ECCE programmes and programmes institutions. This section characterizes the type, Fundraising Belize, Dominica, Fiji, Mauritius, characteristics and professional status of the Papua New Guinea heterogeneous staff working in ECCE Collaboration with Belize, Benin, Congo, Czechoslovakia, programmes worldwide. A global and teachers and other Ghana, comprehensive survey remains elusive since ECCE personnel (including providing comparable data about paid and unpaid ECCE transport and programme staff working with infants and supervision during toddlers (under 3) are limited, especially for field trips) developing countries. As a result, this section 1. As the survey was taken in 1988, the country names in use mainly highlights teachers working in pre-primary at the time are given. Source: Fisher (1991). In Malawi, parents institutions catering to older children (3 and up), are trained in about whom much more information is available. basic child care UNESCO’s 1988 survey identified three main categories of personnel working in ECCE centres: Youngsters) programme provides parents with and pre-school teachers (about 67% of all staff), day care workers support and information to help them accomplish activities within (8%) and others (25%) (Fisher, 1991). The third their role as first educator effectively (Westheimer, community-based category included administrators, helpers, play 2003). In more supportive environments, pre- child care groups attendants and service staff, such as cooks, schools are incorporating parental education cleaners and guards. within their learning environments. Open pre- Parents (typically mothers) may also be schools in Sweden provide educational and included in the ECCE workforce. In addition developmental guidance to parents while their to being the first educators of their children, children are attending the centre (as of age 1). some parents actively assist in development, In Malawi, parents are trained in basic child care organization, management and fundraising and pre-school activities within community-based for local ECCE programmes (Table 6.13). In child care groups. developing countries and in rural areas, many ECCE programmes, especially those for What qualifications and training disadvantaged children, would probably not be for pre-primary teachers? established without the collaboration of parents Qualifications for pre-primary teachers vary and community members (Fisher, 1991). greatly by country, as Table 6.14 shows for In many countries where parents have twenty-three developing countries for which limited access to formal ECCE programmes, relevant data are available. In four countries, pre- governments and NGOs develop parenting primary teachers need only a lower-secondary programmes to improve the quality of care and qualification (roughly equivalent to between nine education that young children receive (Evans, and eleven years of formal schooling).44 In 2006). For example, the international HIPPY eight countries, completion of regular upper- (Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool secondary studies is required. In the remaining Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Namibia. Malawi, Mauritaniaand Burkina Faso,Lesotho, primary teachersin requirements forpre- be evenlowerthan support ECCEstaffmay qualifications forleadand 2005 indicatesthat Saharan AfricainAugust building workshopinsub- attending aUIScapacity- from educationofficials 44. Informationgathered Source: * Thenumber ofasterisks( 1. countries andcomparison teachers, withprimary 2000–2005 Table 6.14: Academic qualificationsrequired of pre-primary teachers inselected one levelhigherthanthepre-primaryteachers; in Ecuador, itistertiary, twolevelshigher. = onelevelhigher; Tertiary Post-secondary non-tertiary Upper secondary/technical Upper secondary Lower secondary/technical Year Country Lower secondary for pre-primaryteachers Required qualification UIS database. ** = twolevelshigher. ForexampleinChad,theprimaryteacherqualificationis uppersecondary, * ) indicateshowmanyadditionalISCEDlevelsare requiredtoteachprimaryschool: care centresarenotrequiredtoholdan among OECDcountries.Mostteachersinchild teachers (UNESCO,2002 it equivalenttotherequirementforprimary from threetothree-and-a-halfyears,making school teachersand‘leisuretimepedagogues’ increased theuniversitytrainingcourseforpre- Spain (OECD/UNESCO,2005).Swedenrecently degree isrequiredofpre-primaryteachersin years ofpost-secondaryeducation.Amaster’s primary teachersmustcompleteatleastthree Greece, Ireland,LuxembourgandPortugal,pre- 2004 a three-yearpost-secondarydiploma(OECD, national examinationopenonlytoholdersof France, pre-primaryteachersmustpassa specialized trainingareusuallyrequired.In qualification isrequired. eleven countries,apost-secondaryortertiary PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 146 Mali Bangladesh Oman Cambodia Syrian A.R. Niger Ecuador Lao PDR Guinea Chad Burkina Faso Zimbabwe South Africa Samoa Cuba El Salvador Senegal Lesotho Kenya Bolivia Lebanon Kazakhstan Uganda The UnitedStatesrepresentsaspecialcase In OECDcountries,tertiaryeducationand / CHAPTER 6 c ). InBelgium,Denmark,Finland,Germany, 2004 2003 2005 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2003 2003 2004 2003 2003 2003 2000 2002 2003 2003 2002 requirement % meeting c 100 ). … … … … … … … … … … … 76 84 52 36 81 93 87 85 84 59 98 Required qualification for primaryteachers same same same same same same same same same same higher same same higher higher same higher higher higher same higher higher same * * ** * * ** ** * 1 Oberhuemer andUlich,1997): countries (Moss,2000,2004;Oberhuemer,2000; ECCE professionalscommontomanydeveloped Researchers haveidentifiedcertaincategoriesof kindergartens orpre-schools(Moss,2000). particular typesofinstitutions,suchascrèches, others specializeingivenagebracketsor childhood frominfancytopre-primaryeducation; or aretrainedfor,thewholespectrumofearly them parttime.SomeECCEpersonnelworkin, alongside untrainedchildcareworkers,manyof trained educatorsorqualifiedpedagogueswork and a‘dividedworkforce’(Moss,2004).Highly differentiated, leadingtoseparatestaffingpolicies components ofearlychildhoodprovisionare industrialized countries,thecareandeducation of thetasksperformed(Box6.3).Inmost to thetypeofECCEprofessionalandnature (59%) andLebanon(52%). (36%), theLaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic percentage isconsiderablylowerinKazakhstan 100% ofteachersmeetformalrequirements;the For example,inCuba,whereenforcementishigh, qualifications foundamongpre-primaryteachers. not enforced,effectivelybroadeningtherangeof training inmoststates(Ackerman,2004). in privatecentreshavetoundergoanypre-service childhood (Barnettetal.,2004).Nordoteachers bachelor’s degreeandspecializedtraininginearly state-funded pre-schoolstohavebotha 2006): onlyfourteenstatesrequireteachersin undergraduate (bachelor’s)degree(Ackerman, independent providers orself-employed. their statusdepends onwhethertheyare to workoutsidecentre-based programmes; formal qualificationsortraining andtend Family daycareworkers, time. semi-professionals whotypically workpart Qualified ortrainedauxiliaries early childhoodservicesinthewelfaresystem. child carecentresandmayalsobeemployedin receive basicparamedicaltrainingtoworkin Child careornurseryworkers, institutional settings. of pre-primaryschoolage,primarilyin receive teachertrainingandworkwithchildren Early childhoodorpre-primaryteachers, compulsory schoolage. children inmultiplecontextsfrombirthto theory andpracticeofpedagogyworkwith Pedagogues, Qualification requirementsalsovaryaccording In manycontexts,formalrequirementsare who receivebroadtraininginthe who havefew,ifany, such asnurses– who usually who WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 147

Figure 6.13: Percentage of trained pre-primary and primary school teachers by region, 2004

Sub-Saharan Africa East Asia and the Pacific Cape Verde Lao PDR Ghana Cambodia U. R. Tanzania Macao, China Congo Marshall Islands Equatorial Guinea S. Tome/Principe South and West Asia Maldives Cameroon Bangladesh Eritrea Iran, Isl. Rep. Burundi Togo Latin America and the Caribbean Kenya Br. Virgin Is Ethiopia Nicaragua Seychelles Trinidad/Tobago Uganda Grenada Niger Guyana Mauritius St Kitts/Nevis Benin Panama Almost all Côte d'Ivoire Saint Lucia pre-primary Senegal St Vincent/Grenad. Bahamas Turks/Caicos Is school teachers Arab States Honduras Lebanon Anguilla are women Sudan Belize Syrian A. R. Ecuador U. A. Emirates Dominican Rep. Saudi Arabia Dominica Djibouti Bolivia Iraq Barbados Kuwait Costa Rica Mauritania Cayman Is Oman Aruba Palestinian A. T. Bermuda Cuba Montserrat Central Asia Neth. Antilles Kyrgyzstan Armenia Central and Eastern Europe Azerbaijan Belarus Tajikistan Croatia Georgia Rep. Moldova Uzbekistan Russian Fed.

02040 60 80 100 02040 60 80 100 Trained teachers (%) Trained teachers (%) Pre-Primary Primary

Source: Annex, Statistical Table 10A.

Many ECCE programmes are further staffed Lesotho College of Education and a nursery by non-qualified auxiliaries or volunteers such teacher certificate to be registered by Uganda’s as mothers of attending children. Ministry of Education (Wallet, 2006). In general, pre-primary teachers have little pre- The age and gender composition of the ECCE service training and almost always less than their workforce is related to the traditional caring roles primary school counterparts, as Figure 6.13 of mothers and women. In many societies, the indicates. In 60% of the countries with data for care and education of young children were 2004, more than 20% of teachers lacked any assumed to be intuitive, maternal activities that training, a percentage slightly higher than in required few formally acquired skills and little primary education. In some countries (e.g. training. Thus, the prevalence of women workers Bangladesh, Chad, Guinea, Oman and Syrian Arab in ECCE programmes represents, for many, an Republic) there is no specific training programme extension of women’s traditional child care and for pre-primary teachers; only a few countries mothering roles (Moss, 2000). Almost all pre- (e.g. Senegal) explicitly require teacher training. primary school teachers are women: the global Lesotho and Uganda have recently developed median of women’s share of the profession training courses for pre-primary teachers: an is 99% in contrast to 74% among primary school early childhood certificate course taught at the teachers. Among 151 countries for which data are Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 this section. source ofinformation for profiles arethemain 46. ThenationalECCE (2004). Niger, seeL’Écuyer 45. Fordetailsonthe Source: groups nottreated inthischapter or, inthelatter two cases, inthisReport. * This EU-fundedstudy also examined carers for youth, disabledadults andtheelderly, more thantheaverage for allpart-time workers. the total workforce onaverage, those onapart-time schedule earn Although personal carers working fulltimeearn less annuallythan Self-employment isvery low compared to non-care occupations. occupations, dueto partly thehighproportions of women workers. The study found part-time employment to bepervasive inthecare education credentials. pedagogues andsocial care workers were required to have higher out-of-school orleisure activities for children. Finally, teachers, domestic helpers, instructors inchildplay centres, orthose leading (‘kangaroos’, nannies orotherpaid carers inthechild’s home), certificate. InSpain, amediumtraining level was required for trained athigherlevels andto have, for example, avocational training most workers ingroup day andresidential settings were required to be and childminders hadalmost notraining requirements. By contrast, the United Kingdom,for example, foster carers, house parents, nannies In most domestic settings carers hadlittle ornoformal training. In settings. typical occupations of those providing care to children inresidential teachers. Social care workers, pedagogues andteachers were the by nursery nurses, nursing assistants andauxiliaries, andsometimes (c) foster carers. Care provided ingroup day settings was carried out care services), (b) nannies orotherpaid carers inthechild’s homeor in domestic settings involved (a) carers intheirown homes (family day group day orresidential, andsometimes onthecountry aswell. Care the care workforce dependedonwhether thesetting was domestic, The study found thattheoccupations andtraining requirements of carers anddomestic workers were excluded from thestudy.* and out-of-school care aswell asresidential andfoster care. Informal described thecharacteristics of formal paid workers inchildcare Hungary, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden andtheUnited Kingdom A recent comparative study of thechildcare workforce inDenmark, Box The childcare 6.3: workforce insix EUcountries van Ewijk et al.(2002). primary teachers areage50orolder,except in In mostOECD countries, morethan20%of pre- comparable tothatofprimary schoolteachers. distribution ofpre-primaryteachers is education hasexistedfordecades, theage (see Chapter7). influences thedesignofECCEprogrammes women amongpre-primaryteachersalso Statistical Table10A).Thepreponderanceof mostly insub-SaharanAfrica(seeannex, constitute majoritiesinthirty-eightcountries, Guinea, whereasinprimaryeducationthey majority onlyinNepal,PakistanandPapuaNew available, malepre-primaryteachersarea PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 148 In OECDcountries,wherepre-primary / CHAPTER 6 canguros Niger, Exceptional casesincludeIndonesiaandthe below age30andinParaguaytheshareis52%. in Jordansome80%ofpre-primaryteachersare teachers thanattheprimarylevel.Forinstance, translates intoahigherproportionofyounger more recentexpansionofpre-primaryeducation to theprofession(OECD,2003). encounter difficultiesinattractingnewrecruits other sectorsorthanGDPpercapita,countries public sectorgrowmoreslowlythanwagesin salaries. Furthermore,whensalarylevelsinthe advanced intheircareercommandhigher implications, sinceteacherswhoaremore composition ofpre-primaryteachershasfinancial 50 orolder)andJapan(fewerthan6%).Theage the RepublicofKorea(wherefewerthan1%are completion rates. primary schoolstoincreaseaccessand of youngteachers(andparaprofessionals)for good-quality ECCEprogrammes. these haveimplicationsforthedevelopmentof expansion andupgradingoftheECCEworkforce; Several trendsareemergingregardingthe the ECCE workforce The importance of upgrading programmes are beingusurpedbythe not implythat ECCE teachingmethodsor that upgradingECCEteacher qualificationsdoes specializations (seeChapter 8). Itshouldbenoted base qualificationlevels,albeit withdifferent so thatteachersatbothlevels attainthesame reconcile primaryandpre-primary qualifications Denmark, Finland,ItalyandNorway)aretryingto programmes forpre-schoolteachers. Islands, haverecentlydevelopedtheirfirst countries, includingAlbaniaandtheMarshall specialized kindergartenteachers.Other and in-servicetrainingprogrammesfornon- education degreeshavedevelopedpre-service the samein2001.InEgypt,universitiesproviding early childhoodeducation,andSingaporedid including three-yeartrainingprogrammesfor of pre-serviceteachereducationproviders, New Zealandincreasedthediversityandnumber and vocationalinstitutions.Forexample,in1997 programme opportunitiesatgeneraluniversities countries areexpandingtheavailabilityofECCE primary teachersbecomequalified.Some the trainingprogrammesthroughwhichpre- countries aredeveloping,revisingorimproving In low-andmiddle-incomecountries,the Second, manyEuropeancountries(e.g. 45 which haverecruitedlargenumbers 46 First, many WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 149

developmentally inappropriate education of existing ECCE staff. In 2003, Estonia launched components of primary school. competence-based teacher training and in- Third, in several developing countries, service training requirements for pre-school teacher training is being enhanced with research- teachers. Each Moroccan province has a pre- Europe and North based evidence concerning child growth and school resource centre providing continuing America expanded development. Following a reform in 1995, for education and pedagogical support to teachers. early childhood instance, at least 30% of the training of Libyan The SERVOL Training Centre in Trinidad and kindergarten teachers must be devoted to Tobago organizes in-service training for other provision earlier educational, psychological and vocational Caribbean islands. and more rapidly sciences. In Mexico, the Quality Scale for Pre- In sum, the presence of knowledgeable than other regions school Centres, which evaluates national ECCE and experienced early childhood staff – who are programmes, consists of seven research-based in short supply in most countries – helps ensure dimensions, including community involvement in that ECCE programmes are of high quality the educational process (Myers, 2006). Singapore (see Chapter 7). has adopted a national self-appraisal tool called PEAK (Pursuing Excellence at Kindergartens) to highlight problem areas in kindergartens. The ECCE goal: Fourth, several countries are considering slow but uneven progress ways to include more men as ECCE professionals in order to strengthen the role of fathers in Historically, Europe and North America expanded children’s care and upbringing. In Norway, early childhood provision earlier and more rapidly a ministerial decree aimed to increase the than other regions. Smaller households, changing presence of men among kindergarten staff gender roles, more working women and to 20%, but low salaries and general working increased migration swelled the demand for conditions are considered major obstacles centre-based child care programmes and pre- to reaching this goal (Box 6.4). Some other primary education. In developing countries, the countries are considering similar policies. traditional roles of women in agriculture and the Finally, many countries are strengthening informal sector meant greater reliance on kin and in-service training or continued education as a informal community arrangements for children’s means of improving the quality and qualifications care and upbringing.

Box 6.4: Salaries and teaching hours of pre-primary teachers

Improving working conditions is an important factor average GDP per capita. In Mexico (not included in in increasing the overall supply of ECCE programme the figure), to supplement their salaries some staff. Because of data limitations, however, it is teachers work double shifts and others take second possible here to focus only on pre-primary teachers’ jobs outside education (OECD, 2004a). Additional salaries and official hours worked for a limited data for the eleven countries in the figure show number of countries. no evidence of major salary differences between pre-primary and primary teachers with minimum Some data are available for eleven countries. In qualifications, except in Brazil (Wallet, 2006). Argentina, Brazil, Jordan, Thailand and Uruguay, pre-primary teachers at the beginning of their The number of official hours worked by pre-primary careers receive lower salaries than the per capita GDP and primary school teachers in fourteen countries (Figure 6.14). In Argentina, Jordan and Uruguay, with available data shows no discernible relationship average salaries remain at or below the per capita with salaries on a cross national basis (Figure 6.15). GDP level at the end of the teacher’s career, even In countries where pre-primary teachers are paid after salary increments for experience or seniority the same salaries as primary teachers but work have been accrued. In the rest of the countries, significantly fewer hours (e.g. India and the pre-primary teachers with the minimum required Philippines), unit costs are likely to be higher qualifications generally do better — their starting at the pre-primary level, since teacher salaries salaries are above the per capita GDP, and in some represent a very large share of total costs. (e.g. India and Thailand) pay increases for seniority result in salaries that are more than double the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Russian Fed. Source: Note: 2002-2003 for pre-primary teachers andprimary inselected countries, Figure 6.15: Total annualnumber of teaching hours Source: Note: as afactor of GDPpercapita inselected countries, 2002-2003 Figure 6.14: Average starting andendingsalaries for pre-primary teachers withminimumqualifications PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 150 and endingsalariessincethesecategoriesprovidedthemostcompletedata(seeglossary). Jordan Argentina Uruguay Thailand Brazil Malaysia Peru Paraguay Philippines Jamaica India Philippines

Argentina Salary as factor of GDP per capita S Malaysia Paraguay Jamaica Uruguay ri Lanka Tunisia Jordan 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Salary dataforThailandare2003-2004.Minimumqualificationswereselectedstarting Countries arelistedinascendingorderbypre-primary teachinghours. Egypt Chile India / CHAPTER 6 Peru Wallet (2006). Wallet (2006). 200 0 P r e-p r ima r y tea 0 600 400 c he Annual teachinghours r s 800 P r ima r y tea 0 1200 1 000 c he r s 1 400 1 600 vulnerable anddisabledchildren, thelackofsuch in thefirstthreeyearsoflife. Fordisadvantaged, education, psychosocialdevelopment)ofchildren address thediverseneeds(health,nutrition,care, finance programmesthatcomprehensively established nationalframeworkstocoordinateor and disabled.Yetextremelyfewcountrieshave difference forthedisadvantaged,vulnerable frameworks havethepotentialtomakea in society. participation forthemostvulnerablechildren the firstyearsoflifeandfurtherinhibitECCE to obtainabirthcertificate)accumulateduring with povertyandsocialexclusion(e.g.inability the socio-economicdisadvantagesassociated those fromricherandurbanones.Inaddition, less accesstoearlychildhoodprogrammesthan poorer andruralhouseholdshavesignificantly despite theincreasedcoverage,childrenfrom ground. transition countrieshaveregainedmostlost education afterthebreak-upofSovietUnion, very low.Afteraseriousdeclineinpre-primary sub-Saharan AfricaandtheArabStatesremains increasing inallregions,thoughcoverage worldwide. GERsinpre-primaryeducationare care andpre-primaryeducationhasexpanded This meansgovernmentECCEpolicy In muchofthedevelopingworld,however, This isnowchanging.Indeed,accesstoearly Ending sala S ta GDP percapita S than GDPpercapita S r alaries lowerthan alaries higher ting sala r y r y WORLDWIDE PROGRESS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION / 151

national frameworks represents a truly missed opportunity. With respect to children aged 3 and older, many more official bodies – typically, but not exclusively, ministries of education – are involved in national policies and provision. For disadvantaged, Carers and educators working in ECCE children, the lack programmes and institutions, while almost of national uniformly female, are exceptionally diverse in frameworks terms of qualifications, training and experience. In most industrialized countries, trained staff represents work alongside untrained child care workers a truly missed and part-time volunteers. In developing countries, opportunity the ECCE workforce, typically possesses minimal education and pre-service training. Many countries have implemented policies to expand and upgrade their ECCE workforce, but progress is uneven and slow. Ways to improve the scope, coverage and staff of ECCE programmes so as to address the needs of all children from birth to primary school entry are examined in Chapters 7 and 8. 7

0 A proud father with his son in Baghdad, Iraq. 0 2 Education for All Global Monitoring Report © UNICEF

152 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART III. Early childhood care and education

Chapter 7 The making of effective programmes

Early childhood programmes ensure children’s holistic development by supporting and complementing efforts of parents and other carers during the early years and easing the transition to primary school. Such programmes are extremely diverse and no global model exists. However, all successful ones ensure continuity of support as the child moves from the family to a programme outside the home and eventually into primary school. One way to smooth the transition is by engaging with parents. Centre-based programmes, including pre-schools, for children from age 3 to school entry age require pedagogies and curricula that take into account the specificity of children’s development and the social context within which they live. Given the relatively low participation and poor quality of many programmes in developing countries, it may be helpful to learn from and adapt others’ experiences in meeting the challenge of expanding and improving early childhood care and education. This chapter offers examples from around the world.

153 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 can befollowed model of early provision that There isno childhood universal globally warmth andresponsiveness, harshnessand on threeaspects ofparent-childinteractions: community thataffectschildren. Itfocuses involvement withextendedfamily and provided forchildrenathome, aswell quality andquantityofsupport andstimulation observation andinterviews,it assessesthe developed anddevelopingcountries.Using environment, basedonhomevisitsinboth most widelyusedtoolstomeasurethefamily of theEnvironment(HOME)Inventory,one seen intheHomeObservationforMeasurement greatly withinandacrosscountries,ascanbe The meaningandpracticeofchildcarevary of early childhood The many meanings and ontoprimaryschool. parental caretoanearlychildhoodprogramme for continuityandasmoothtransitionfrom This chapterexaminesthepracticesthatmake the setting: share somecharacteristicsnomatterwhat childhood programmes,strongprogrammes implementing good-quality,holisticearly example, regardlessofhowtheyarefinanced. findings relevanttocurricularcontinuity,for role inprovision.Yettheycanofferimportant countries wheretheprivatesectorplayskey immediately appropriateforsub-SaharanAfrican supported bythepublicsector,maynotbe universal earlychildhoodsystems,whichare Western Europe’swell-establishedandnearly adapting lessonslearnedbyothers.Forexample, a nation’sownexperienceswhiledrawingonand of othercountries.Good-qualityECCEbuildson yet muchcanbelearnedfromtheexperience nation hastodetermineitsownwayforward, provision thatcanbefollowedglobally.Each There isnouniversalmodelofearlychildhood experiences Learning from country PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 154 transition intoprimaryschool. during thepre-schoolyearsandeasing providing relevanteducationalexperiences social services; services, notablyhealthcare,nutritionand integrating educationalactivitieswithother during children’searliestyears; focusing onandofferingsupporttoparents Despite thecomplexitiesofdesigningand / CHAPTER 7 evolving, andeducated parentstendtofavour rearing. Inallregions modelsofparentingare and educationhaveamajorimpact onchild- and beyondculturaldifferences, parentalincome status andscoresontheHOME Inventory.Above relationship betweenhousehold socio-economic In allsocieties,however,there isastrong include thefollowing: discipline, andstimulationteaching.Findings training. and muchemphasisisputonresponsibility observing ratherthanthroughdirectteaching, societies, childrenareexpectedtolearnby as developingmoreslowly.InsomeAfrican achievement earlyinlife,astheyseechildren contrast, tendnottoemphasizeacademic Taiwan (China).ParentsinLatinAmerica,by including Japan,theRepublicofKoreaand North America,EuropeandpartsofAsia, school achievementisparticularlyvaluedin particularly inindustrializedsocieties.Early escalated inthelatetwentiethcentury, Emphasis onstimulationforyoungchildren children. associated withnegativeoutcomesforsmall harsh physicalpunishmentisgenerally than verbally.Whatevertheculturalcontext, to theiremotionalneedsmorenon-verbally contribute toadultconversationsandrespond deferential donotencouragethemto in societiesthatbelievechildrenshouldbe to punishtheirtoddlers.Ingeneral,parents is limited,andparentsarethereforelesslikely understand theconsequencesoftheiractions acceptance thatyoungchildren’scapacityto families inLatinAmerica,thereismore In otherculturalmodels,suchasMayan valued, forinstanceinsomeAfricansocieties. for eldersandparentalauthorityarehighly culturally acceptedinsocietieswhererespect Generally, physicalpunishmentseemsmore to controlchildren’sbehaviourvarywidely. Attitudes ontheuseofphysicalpunishment responsiveness ismorelimited. most oftheirtimewithsiblings,parental In societieswherepre-schoolchildrenspend face engagementasaformofresponsiveness. societies, whichhasimplicationsforface-to- ‘evil eye’,forinstance,isstronginsome enacted indifferentcountries.Beliefthe conditions influencehowresponsivenessis differences incultureandsocio-economic form ofresponsivenesstoveryyoungchildren, Although bodycontactisanear-universal THE MAKING OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES / 155

more stimulating and less punitive parenting. styles of dress and behaviour, patterns of (Bradley and Corwyn, 2005). consumption of commercial toys, and television Qualitative anthropological fieldwork and other media (Kehily and Swann, 2003). underscores the fact that significant differences Childhood contexts and practices are socially in parenting practices exist across and within constructed. Most children today experience countries. For example, young Kenyan children the world through built environments: are often present as non-participants in situations classrooms, playgrounds, cars, buses and dominated by adult interaction; they are not other forms of transport, supermarkets, etc. necessarily the focus of attention of the adults, These are human creations that regulate but they are rarely if ever left alone. In contrast, children’s lives. (Maybin and Woodhead, 2003; young children in North America and Western Qvortrup, 1994). Europe experience a sharp disjuncture between Childhood has been differently understood, long periods when they are left alone and institutionalized and regulated in different moments when they interact with their parents societies and periods of history. Early childhood Childhood has and receive much attention and stimulation. While has been reinvented and differentiated been differently young children in Kenya have few toys or other according to children’s social and geographical understood in possessions that are considered their own, location, their gender, ethnicity, wealth or children in North America receive an increasing poverty, among other factors (Cunningham, different societies number and variety of gifts as they grow older, 1991; Hendrick, 1997). and periods and are encouraged to develop individual tastes; Early childhood is also a political issue, marked of history as a result, young children in Kenya do not by gross inequalities – in resources, access and develop the same sense of individuality as those opportunities – that are shaped by global as in North America (LeVine, 2003). well as local factors (Montgomery et al., 2003; In small rural communities in Côte d’Ivoire, Stephens, 1995). the care of young children is not individualized: as These perspectives draw attention to the ways soon as they are able to walk (between the ages early childhood is constructed and reconstructed, of 18 and 30 months), they are left free to wander and how pedagogies and practices are shaped by around and it is assumed that any adult will take circumstances, opportunities and constraints, and care of all children within sight (Gottlieb, 2004). informed by multiple discourses about children’s Early learning thus takes place through needs and nature. experience and within groups of children who Early childhood programmes should take interact with most adults of the community, these findings into account. Yet current whether they are a given child’s parents or not. programmes in most developing countries and Generally, young children in many sub-Saharan models advocated by multilateral organizations African societies are expected to be ‘more and international NGOs are heavily influenced by obedient, less demanding, more helpful and more developments since the nineteenth century in alert to and keen to meet the expectations of Europe (Chapter 6). Programmes are only rarely others; less linguistically precocious, although designed with an understanding of early childhood more likely to be bilingual; but also more realities in a given country; more commonly they independent and self-sufficient, and better able are driven by external ideas. The parenting to entertain themselves’ than young children practices of Western (and Westernized) middle- in North America and Western Europe (Penn, class families tend to be the benchmark of what 2006: p. 4).1 is appropriate to young children’s development The emerging field of childhood studies places everywhere, an assumption that can undermine such observations of parenting practices in a the practices of other social classes and other broader perspective and emphasizes the following parts of the world. When benchmarks originating points:2 in developed country institutions are used to Young children’s development is a social measure what constitutes good early childhood process. Children learn to think, feel, programmes in developing countries, both the communicate and act by interacting with others constraints and the opportunities within 1. See also Penn (2005). 3 in specific contexts. (Richards and Light, 1986; developing countries may be ignored. 2. The following discussion Schaffer, 1996; Woodhead et al., 1998). Some efforts to promote more culturally is based on Woodhead (2006). Cultures of early childhood are also profoundly relevant programmes are highlighted in the 3. For a broader discussion of these issues, see social, expressed through peer group play, discussion of good practice that follows. Nsamenang (2006). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 economic status. regardless ofsocio- useful formostfamilies, elements thatcanbe 5. Suchprogrammeshave biological relationship. child, regardlessof responsible forayoung ‘parent’ isamaincarer different forms,anda families maytakemany 4. AsChapter1pointsout, Mothers Programme inDublin Box 7.1: new Supporting parents: theCommunity Source experiences. with theirchildren andsupported theirlearning andschool programme. This effect was evidenced by theway they interacted and enthusiasmfor motherhoodthanthose notinvolved inthe mothers intheintervention group demonstrated higheresteem mother’s parenting skillsandfeelings of self-esteem. Overall, the the diet of motherandchild,thechild’s development andthe groups were located andasked for details onthechild’s health, third of themothers intheoriginalintervention andcontrol benefits hadbeensustained (Johnson et al.,2000). Aboutone- In 1997-98 afollow-up study was carried outto findoutifthe mothers and1-year-olds intheprogramme (Johnson et al.,1993). controlled trialshowed significant beneficialeffects for both improvement andoverall development. In1990arandomized, development programme focusing onhealth care, nutritional Mothers visitparents monthlyanduse aspeciallydesigned child trained andsupported by family development nurses. Community as Community Mothers —para-professional volunteers whoare parenting advice are delivered by experienced mothers, known refugees andpeoplelivingindisadvantaged areas. and Support teenagers, members of thetravellers community, asylum seekers, parents of children aged0to 2.Itistargeted atsingleparents, programmeDublin hasasupport for first- andsome second-time : Molloy (2002). the qualityofhomeenvironment(Iltus,2006). regarding playanddevelopment,alsoof indicator ofparentalconcernandsensitivity toys (especiallyhome-made)isconsideredagood reading materials,drawingandartsupplies, development. Forinstance,theavailabilityof environment hasamajorimpactonchild Research findingsconfirmthatthehome parentsSupporting adults (Evans,2000).Parents of all,interactionwithandattachmenttocaring stimulation, languagedevelopmentand,most of protection,goodhealth,appropriatenutrition, important forchildrentohavesupportinterms for laterwell-being.Duringthisperioditis during theearlyyearsanditsetsfoundation The mostrapidperiodofachild’sgrowthoccurs and communities Working withfamilies PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 156 families intheirparentingtasks. resources inthelocalcommunitythatassist care. Carersandfamiliescanalsobenefitfrom youngest groupthehomeismainarenaof carers arechildren’sfirsteducators,andforthe / CHAPTER 7 4 or othercustodial 3 haveproliferatedinthepasttenyears. programmes aimingtoreachchildrenunderage parents ofveryyoungchildren.Parenting support thehomeenvironmentistoworkwith affect learninganddevelopment.Thebestwayto However, asnotedabove,manyenvironments and nottheconcernofoutsiders(Evans,2000). the concernoffamily,immediateorextended, Country Office,2005). families’ socio-economicstatus(UNICEFMoldova among childrenaged1to3,regardlessof predictor ofhighcognitivedevelopmentscores and playmaterialsinthehomewasagood of Moldova,theavailabilitytoys,anddrawing and HumanDevelopment,2005).IntheRepublic environments (NationalInstituteofChildHealth did similarinteractionsininstitutionalchildcare resulted instrongerattentionandmemorythan found thatstimulationandcareinthefamily In theUnitedStates,astudyof700first-graders are: parents. they tooareexploringhowbesttoworkwith responsibility foreducationfrombirthonwards, as ministriesofeducationincreasinglyassume most oftenofferedthroughthehealthsector,but care, andpsycho-social stimulation.(Evans, 2000). continue toreceive appropriatehealth,nutrition, two yearsoflifearelostifthe childdoesnot achieved inprogrammesoffered duringthefirst continued forgainstobesustained. Gains not beenshowntobeeffective. Attentionmustbe Visits shouldbeweekly;less frequent visitinghas thus besttargetedatfamiliesrisk(Box7.1). because oftheintensityinputs,andare collaborative one(Evans,2006). shift fromadidacticmodeltomore parents. Inrecentyearsthetrendhasbeento which provideone-on-onesupportforindividual visits, asin‘parentsteachers’programmes, many differentvariations.Theymayincludehome Parent supportprogrammes,inturn,come Parent education realize theirpotential. on howtogivechildrenthecaretheyrequire parents (orothermaincarers)withinformation Parent support others. involve livelihoodskills,practicalskillsand may impartactualparentingskillsbutcanalso training orlearningactivitiesforparents.They In mostsocieties,childcareisseentobe The twomaintypesofparentingprogramme Home visitingprogrammesareexpensive, programmes, whichprovide programmes, whichprovide 5 They are THE MAKING OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES / 157

Parent groups are another common form of Box 7.2: Hogares Comunitarios: mothers open their homes in Colombia parent support. Parents with children of the same age, or with common interests and concerns, In the mid-1980s the Colombian Government set up a targeted programme are brought together to acquire information and designed to improve nutrition in poor households. Today the Hogares to share their experiences. While such groups Comunitarios programme is one of the country’s largest welfare programmes, are generally formed by professionals, it is not serving more than a million children in urban and rural areas. This community uncommon for parents to continue them on their nursery programme, catering for children from birth to age 6, now covers own once official support has ended. both nutrition and child care, allowing mothers to enter the labour market. The variety of parenting programmes makes Households eligible for the programme form parent associations that elect a ‘community mother’, who must meet minimal requirements set by the cross-national monitoring difficult. However, authorities. The community mother opens her home (hogar) to as many as a review of evaluation literature on parenting fifteen children. She gives them three meals a day, constituting 70% of the support compiled in 20046 shows that early recommended daily calorie intake. While earlier evaluations were inconclusive, interventions produce better and more durable a recent study looked at participation, anthropometric and welfare measures outcomes for children, and that targeted of children, and other outcomes such as female employment rates and hours interventions (aimed at specific populations or of work. It found that the programme was reaching the poorest children and individuals at risk for parenting difficulties) seem seemed well targeted. Stunting was offset: 6-year-olds who had attended Hogares since infancy were between 3.78 and 3.83 centimetres taller than those to work best when tackling the more complex not in the programme. Children aged 13 to 17 who had attended the programme types of parenting difficulties (Moran et al., 2004). were more likely to be currently in school and less likely to have repeated The many types of group-based care and a grade in the past year than those who had not. support programmes for young children include home-based models (Box 7.2), community-based Source: Attanasio and Vera-Hernandez (2004). approaches (Box 7.3) as well as the more formal centre-based programmes discussed below.

Box 7.3: ECCE in traditional societies: the Loipi programme Centre-based early for pastoralists in Kenya childhood programmes Kenya’s national policy of universal free primary education has put the Centre-based care and education is the most pastoralist communities of the Samburu district in northern Kenya under common form of early childhood provision and pressure to become more settled and peri-urban. Parents need child care government support for such programmes is so they can perform daily tasks such as tending animals, finding firewood increasing (Chapter 6). Centre-based and working their gardens. Loipi (the Samburu word for ‘shade’) are programmes typically accommodate children enclosed places where young children are protected from danger and from age 3 to the primary school entry age, the sun. Grandmothers used to look after the children, passing on oral traditions and skills. offering a range of activities and learning opportunities to help young children develop the Since 1997 the Samburu, Turkana and Pokot people have pooled resources language skills, social skills and enthusiasm that to provide care for children aged 2 to 5 through an integrated early are vital for their present and future well-being. childhood development programme. The Loipi programme is rooted in traditional approaches to child-rearing and offers access to health Fostering language services, income generation and information on harmful practices such and cognitive development as female genital mutilation. The District Centre for Early Childhood Education and the Kenya Institute of Education provide professional Centre-based early childhood programmes guidance, while the Christian Children’s Fund and the Bernard van Leer provide young children with a very different Foundation give financial and technical support. experience compared with home- and community-based arrangements. They tend In 2004 over 5,200 children (slightly under 50% girls) were enrolled to be more organized and structured, and have at about seventy specially prepared enclosed sites selected by the a stronger education component. Research in communities. Members of the communities provided construction and play developing and developed countries has begun materials and built the sites. Some loipi also offer adult education, mother and child health services, nutritional supplements and health information. to identify key features of good-quality learning The system has improved nutrition and access to immunization and in centre-based programmes that have a positive growth monitoring; also, pre-school teachers have commented on the positive influence the loipi have on the transition to primary school.

6. The review, by the Policy Research Bureau in the United Kingdom, is based on an analysis of over 2,000 journals, books and reports, and Source: Pennels (2005). on evaluation of experiences with both universal and targeted parenting programmes. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Arnold etal.(2006). 8. Thissectiondraws on the project. Phase 2and3of which participatedinboth marked withanasterisk, refer tothetencountries findings summarizedhere United States.*The Spain,* Thailand*andthe Romania, Slovenia, Poland,* Portugal, Ireland,* Italy,*Nigeria, (China),* Indonesia,* Greece,* HongKong (former FederalRepublic), Finland,* Germany speaking), China, 7. Belgium(French- programmes can compensate for disadvantage Good early childhood With respecttocognitivedevelopment: development included: instruments. Findingswithrespecttolanguage project, usingjointlydevelopedcommon and levelofdevelopmentparticipatedinthe or regionsvaryinginsize,politicalconstitution at age7(Weikart,2005).Seventeencountries 4 affectedlanguageandcognitivedevelopment understand whetherandhowexperienceatage studies ofECCEprogrammes,soughtto one ofthemostsignificantcross-national (Love etal.,1996).TheIEAPre-primaryProject, as classsize,staff-childratiosandstafftraining well-being thanwerestructuralfeaturessuch were morecloselyassociatedwithenhanced quality. Inparticular,adult-childinteractions being correlatedstronglywithprogramme indicated thatchildren’sdevelopmentandwell- 2004). AreviewofUnitedStatesresearch intellectual andsocialdevelopment(Sylvaetal., a trainedteacher)andimprovementin relationships withchildrenandismanagedby programme (onethatprovideswarminteractive correlation betweenahigh-qualitypre-school Project intheUnitedKingdomfoundastrong the EffectiveProvisionofPre-schoolEducation 2006; ShonkoffandPhillips,2000).Forexample, cognitive development(BartlettandArnold, impact onyoungchildren’slanguageand PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 158 lower cognitive performancescoresatage 7. activities atage 4weremorelikelytohave Children whoengagedinmore whole-group adult participation. scores atage7thanincountries withless age 4weremorestronglyrelated tothe in children’sactivities,languagescoresat In countrieswhereadultsoftenparticipated quantity andvarietyofmaterialswerenot. performance, whilegroupsize,andthe related tochildren’sage7language Teachers’ levelofeducationwaspositively countries wheredirectionwasfrequent. approaches andnegativelyrelatedin relatively infrequentuseofdirective performance atage7incountrieswith age 4waspositivelyrelatedtolanguage The amountofinteractionwithadultsat numeracy predominated. academic activitiessuchasliteracyand than thosefromsettingsinwhichpre- significantly higherlanguagescoresatage7 predominated achievedsignificantlyornearly been insettingswherefree-choiceactivities In allcountries,childrenwhoatage4had / CHAPTER 7 7 of multilingualeducation The overlooked advantages emergencies orprecariouscircumstances. opportunities forthedisabledandchildrenin multilingual education,genderequality,and They canalsoincreaseequitybypromoting can compensatefordisadvantageandhardship. young children,goodearlychildhoodprogrammes Besides theirpotentialtoenrichthelivesofall of promoting equity ECCE: apowerful means (Cohen, 2005). learning andadapting totheirsurroundings later life, childrenarelikelytoface moredifficulties and communicationarenotaddressed earlyin years. Ifdifficultieswithlanguage development to language-richenvironments intheirearly those fromlowersocio-economic backgrounds– the importanceofexposingchildren–particularly Risely, 2003).Thesefindingsclearlydemonstrate does littletoattenuatethesedisparities(Hartand welfare recipient’schild.Schoolattendancelater encouragements, comparedto60,000forthe the professional’schildhasreceived700,000 differs bysocio-economicbackground.Byage3, welfare child.Thenatureofverbalinteractionalso has alargervocabularythantheparentof just 12million.Atage3,theprofessional’schild child 30million,andawelfarerecipient’s heard 50millionwords,aworking-classfamily’s 4 intheUnitedStates,aprofessional’schildhas pre-school years(Wells,1985). of theirdirectexperiencewithprintduring learning toreadinprimaryschoolwastheextent most importantinfluenceonchildren’ssuccessin of childrenintheUnitedKingdomfoundthat Lonigan, 1998).Alarge-scalelongitudinalstudy outcomes andschoolsuccess(Whitehurst determine languagedevelopment,reading and thenumberofbooksinhomehelp The frequencywithwhichcarersreadtochildren size werenot. at age7,whileteachers’educationandgroup related tomorepositivecognitiveperformance Greater availabilityofmaterialsatage4was choice activities. was negativeincountrieswithfewerfree- performance atage7,whiletherelationship adults waspositivelyrelatedtotheircognitive the amountofinteraction4-year-oldshadwith In countrieswithmorefree-choiceactivities, Poverty affectslanguagedevelopment.Byage 8 THE MAKING OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES / 159

Children acquire languages quickly in the colonial languages to the detriment of local early years, and early childhood programmes ones.11 The most common reasons are the views offer them the opportunity to develop their self- that in multilingual societies, bilingual education esteem by using their mother tongue while is generally too challenging to implement; it is too acquiring a second (and sometimes a third) expensive; it would prevent children from learning language (UNESCO Bangkok, 2005). Although other languages; and it would foster social and The use of local UNESCO has encouraged mother tongue political division (Robinson, 2005). As regards the languages can instruction9 in early childhood and primary last point, however, multilingual education can, enrich the content education since 1953, monolingualism in the in fact, promote greater social tolerance among official or dominant language is still the norm linguistic groups. Moreover, by facilitating the of education for around the world (Arnold et al., 2006; Wolff and integration of different cultures and traditions into all children Ekkehard, 2000). A challenge facing most ECCE the curriculum, the use of local languages can programmes is to respond to the needs of enrich the content of education for all children linguistically and culturally diverse children (Benson, 2002). and their families. The relationship between language and power Linguistic specialists argue that children who is not easy to address, but early childhood is an learn in their mother tongue for the first six to important place to start. Indeed, the bilingual eight years (an approach known as the additive early childhood programmes in Cambodia, bilingual model)10 perform better in terms of test Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Thailand scores and self-esteem than those who receive and Viet Nam have shown promising results and instruction exclusively in the official language have influenced language policies and practices (subtractive model) or those who make the for the first years of primary education (Kosonen, transition too soon (before age 6 to 8) from the 2005). Box 7.4 gives one example. home language to the official language (transition model) (Thomas and Collier, 2002). It is easier to become a competent reader and communicator Box 7.4: Supporting grassroots efforts: in the mother tongue. Once a child can read and language nests in Papua New Guinea write one language, the skills are transferable to other languages. Bilingual learning environments Grassroots efforts can lead to widespread change tend to be more comfortable for children than in language practices. In Papua New Guinea — the monolingual settings. Evidence from Bolivia, world’s most linguistically diverse nation — a village- Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and the Niger shows level, non-formal vernacular language pre-school that parents are more likely to communicate with movement led the central government to launch an teachers and participate in their children’s ambitious effort to protect indigenous languages learning when local languages are used (Benson, throughout the education system. None of the 823 living languages in Papua New Guinea is 2002). numerically or politically dominant. English had Mother tongue instruction is also important been the language of instruction since the 1950s for promoting gender equality and social even though it is the first language of only 1% of inclusion. Girls in some societies are much less the country’s 5.2 million people. In the 1970s, a likely than boys to be exposed to the official group of parents worked with local government and language, as they spend more time at home and NGOs to establish two-year vernacular language with family members. Girls who are taught in pre-schools, known as ‘language nests’. The concept soon spread throughout the country. As part of its their mother tongue tend to stay in school longer, 1995 education reform, the government encouraged perform better on achievement tests and repeat the formal school system to use vernacular 9. The mother tongue is also referred to as the home grades less than girls who do not (UNESCO language education in the first three years of language or local language. Bangkok, 2005). Multilingual education also primary school, followed by a gradual transition 10. In this model, either the benefits other disadvantaged groups, including to English instruction. Today, the education system mother tongue is the supports more than 350 languages. The Papua New medium of instruction and children from rural communities (Hovens, 2002). the second language is Why, despite the research consensus, is Guinea experience shows that children who learn taught as a subject by a first in their mother tongues can transfer their specialist teacher, or the multilingual education in the early years still mother tongue is taught until cognitive, developmental and academic skills to about grade 5 and then the unusual? There are many reasons. Some argue English-language school environments. second language is gradually introduced, but is used for no that opposition to multilingual education is a more than half the day. result of colonialism, where local political elites Source: Wroge (2002). 11. See, for instance, and international agencies have promoted Alidou et al. (2005). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 system. (Sirota,1998). expectations oftheschool conform tothe middle-class childrenwho more activepupilsandto attention to‘better’or tend todevotemore background. Teachers socio-economic children’s educationand also variesaccordingto 14. Teacherbehaviour Tanzania. and theUnitedRepublicof Niger, SouthAfrica,Togo Mali, Mozambique,the Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Burkina Faso,Ethiopia, 13. InBenin,Botswana, activities. members insuch colleagues andfamily engage bilingual Monolingual teacherscan alternate pagebypage. in theother;orcan end inonelanguage,then a storyfrombeginningto teacher orcarercanread 12. Forexample,the gender equality; the practice is Curricula may emphasize frequently different PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 160 examples are: linguistic andculturalminorities.Twokey bilingualism andcounterprejudicetowards practices thatvaluelocallanguages,foster reading, especially bilingualstorytellingand resources. Developing multilingualpracticesand younger siblings(BlochandEdwards, 1999). children, forinstance,canread totheir and literacydevelopmentinthe home.Older ECCE settingsandhelpsupport language are richresources.Theycan volunteer in diversity. Familyandcommunitymembers train monolingualteachersinlinguistic education andtrainingprogrammes,to candidates moreactivelyforECCEstaff there isacriticalneedtorecruitmultilingual official language(OECD,2001).Inaddition, mother tongueandbuildfamiliaritywiththe and theirparentstohelpstrengthenthe in pre-schoolswithnewimmigrantpupils United Kingdom),‘bilingualassistants’work Denmark, theNetherlands,Swedenand bilingual teachersinWesternEurope(e.g. Johnson, 2002).Toaddressshortagesof support inbilingualinstruction(Johnstonand not trainedasteachersandmayneed 2005). Thebestlanguagespeakersareoften undermine students’learning(Alidouetal., teacher-centred teachingmethods,which forced teacherstouseineffectiveand found thattheuseofunfamiliarlanguages observations acrossAfrica, of instruction.Inprimaryclassroom when botharefamiliarwiththelanguages teachers andstudentscommunicatebetter needed (Benson,2002).Notsurprisingly, programmes, trained,multilingualstaffare successfully implementbilingualECCE Recruit linguisticallydiversestaff. by childrenandtheirfamilies. to raisethestatusoflanguagesspoken linguistic andculturalminoritiesaswell promote bilingualismandtoleranceof (even home-madeones)areimportantto other languagesordual-languagebooks another. Booksandlearningmaterialsin can betransferredfromonelanguageto opportunity todevelopliteracyskills,which linguistic environmentstogivechildrenthe Early childhoodprogrammescanadopt / CHAPTER 7 12 can beusedinavarietyof Speaking andlisteningactivities, 13 researchers To inculcated ingirls andboys. ways stereotypicalattitudesand behavioursare aggression byboysbutnot girls.Inallthese for differentkindsofmisconduct, accepting Moreover, teachersdiscipline boysandgirls (Schau andTittle,1985;Vogel etal.,1991). instructions exactlyandraisingtheirhands they praisegirlsforbeingneat,following social interactionmorewithboys.Bycontrast, questions correctly,inadditiontoengaging corrective feedbackandopportunitiestoanswer acknowledgement, praise,encouragement, them moreindividualinstruction, discussions, askboysmorequestionsandgive to boys,usemoreofboys’ideasinclassroom Teachers aremorelikelytolistenandrespond on malevolunteersand,indeed,non-volunteers. Sadker, 1994).Teachersalsotendtocallmore Geneix, 2006;Lockheed,1982;Sadkerand spend moretimediscipliningboys(Chartierand teachers thandogirls,inpartbecause primary schoolreceivemoreattentionfromtheir which cancreateinequalities.Boysinpre- frequently donottreatboysandgirlsthesame, space (Evans,1998).Moreimportantly,teachers the largerandmoreactivetoysplayground and withgirlsingeneralhavinglessaccessto blocks andgirlsinthe‘housekeepingcorner’, conform tostereotype,withboysplaying frightened andneedy.Gameplayingcanoften active andfemalesonesassweet,weak, portraying malecharactersaspowerfuland to promotegender-specificroles,forinstance is frequentlydifferent.Teachingmaterialstend may emphasizegenderequality;thepractice 2006; GolombokandFivush,1994).Curricula in homesandcommunities(ChartierGeneix, specific expectations,aprocessthatalsooccurs childhood programmesoftenpromotegender- enrol theminprimaryschool(Chapter5). childhood programmesaremoreinclinedto parents whosedaughtershaveattendedearly gender gapineducationgeneral.Inparticular, disparities wouldcontributetoclosingthe exceptions (Chapters2and6).Reducingsuch low grossenrolmentratios,althoughthereare of girlsarefoundmostlyincountrieswithvery Pre-primary genderdisparitiesattheexpense at otherlevels,especiallyprimaryeducation. common inearlychildhoodprogrammesthan Gender disparitiesinaccessaremuchless Addressing genderstereotypes early Even whereequalaccessexists,early 14 THE MAKING OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES / 161

Well-designed early childhood programmes Box 7.5: In Sweden, government drives the can challenge gender stereotypes (Box 7.5). Such effort for gender equality in early childhood programmes are characterized by gender-neutral curricula. For instance, in France and Sweden, In 2003 the minister for pre-school education formed a delegation pre-primary schools have relatively gender- to investigate the question of gender equality in Swedish neutral toys and games (creative games and pre-schools and to (a) promote lifelong learning that incorporates construction blocks). Toys that are common in a gender perspective, (b) end stereotyped gender roles and homes are rare: war toys (weapons, guns, military patterns, (c) encourage debate on the promotion of gender vehicles, tanks and miniature soldiers) are not equality in pre-schools and (d) encourage practical solutions. found in 90% of Swedish pre-primary schools and The delegation educates teacher trainees and politicians on these issues and distributes funds to pre-schools whose staff 70% of French ones, and the corresponding wish to develop methods for working with gender equality. figures for fashion dolls such as Barbie are 96% and 89% (Rayna and Brougère, 2000). Source: Wetterberg (2004). Changes to the curriculum are effective only if accompanied by changes in teacher attitudes and behaviour. These in turn require changes to the teacher-training curriculum, including training in increase the male presence among early childhood Changes to the gender sensitivity and awareness, and approaches staff, but also to improve the gender balance in curriculum are that help teachers become more reflective about management (Cameron, 2001; Sumision, 2005). effective only if their practices and the environments in which they work (Evans, 1998). They also require Meeting the early education needs accompanied by changes in staffing policies and practices in early of vulnerable groups changes in teacher childhood programmes. Women are predominant Chapter 3 provided a detailed review of policies attitudes and in the early childhood professions (Chapter 6). and programmes to overcome exclusion in behaviour Taking care of young children has long been formal school settings. As EFA goal 1 makes identified with motherhood and thus considered clear, overcoming exclusion is also important a female activity, associated with low pay and even before young children enter formal schooling low status. It is often assumed that no specific and, indeed, can help offset disadvantage and training is needed to work with children. vulnerability. The most common form of Conversely, men working with young children disadvantage is poverty and many of the school- often evoke suspicion or prejudice, or concern level measures described in Chapter 3 can also that they will threaten women’s sphere of power work in early childhood. This section focuses within early childhood institutions and even within on programmes to provide early childhood the family (Murcier, 2005). education for two vulnerable groups that are Encouraging more men to work in early often ignored: disabled children and those in childhood programmes could challenge prevailing emergency contexts. assumptions about gender responsibilities in Inclusive early childhood education for the society more generally (Cameron and Moss, disabled. Disabilities are common among young 1998).15 Male child care workers can provide children in developing countries. Research in a role model of carers for boys and girls alike which more than 22,000 children underwent the (Cameron, 2001). There are implications for same type of screening showed high disability families, too, as early childhood staff often focus prevalence rates in Bangladesh (8.2%), Jamaica on the mother as the main carer (Bloch and (15.6%) and the city of Karachi, Pakistan (14.7%) Buisson, 1998; Blöss and Odena, 2005). If more for impairments such as seizures, cognitive, men worked in this field, closer relationships with motor, vision or hearing disabilities. (Durkin et al., fathers might develop. The impact on gender 1994). A study in Nigeria reported a prevalence disparities would of course depend on whether rate for sensory-neural hearing loss of 13% 15. Nordic countries have men were committed to gender equality and among children entering school (Olusanya, 2001). actively recruited men to properly trained so as to avoid perpetuating Screening of 2,000 South African children under the early childhood field. Denmark has been most gender-unequal practices. age 2 revealed a disability prevalence rate of successful: almost 20% of its pedagogues are male. They Despite their overall dominance among staff, 60/1000, including mild learning or perceptual work with young children in kindergartens and older women are underrepresented in administrative disability, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, moderate children in after-school and leadership positions in early childhood to severe perceptual disability and epilepsy programmes (OECD, 2001). Other countries have been institutions. It is important, therefore, not just to (Couper, 2002). less proactive. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 (De Bonadona,2005). into mainstreamschools programmes integrated 29,473 attended special schoolsand Of these,100,521attended and secondaryeducation. with disabilitiesinprimary identified 129,994pupils published in2005, Study onDisability, 16. Chile’sFirstNational Umayahara (2006). Sources: or marginalization. to encourage practices to includechildren atrisk of exclusion childhood institutions inChileprovide agoodexample of how remain low, theefforts madeby JUNJIandotherearly were offered projects for sponsorship. Though coverage levels physical disabilities. Private organizations working with JUNJI needs andadaptstructures to accommodate children with principles were established to identify children withspecial prostheses andhearing aids. Technical guidelines and Education financed equipmentsuchaswheelchairs, the Ministry of Education. The NationalFund for Special courses supported by theSpecialEducation of Department needs hasinvolved sensitizing andtraining teachers through settings. Adapting ECCE programmes to children withspecial mental, visualandhearing impairments) inmainstream 3 monthsto 5years withspecialneeds(including physical, children withspecialneeds. JUNJIcentres serve children aged nursery andpre-school programmes targeting thepoorest children. Since 1995ithasbeenmainstreaming 120,500 in 1970, administers ECCE provision for more than (JUNJI), orNationalBoard of Kindergartens, established special needs. The Junta NacionaldeJardines Infantiles adaptations necessary to enableaccess for peoplewith institutions to develop theinnovations andcurricular sectors, requires publicandprivate mainstream education integration of peoplewithspecialneeds, covering allsocial psychological, mental orsensory disabilities. A1994 law on In Chile, 5.8% of children under16have physical, children withspecialneeds Box 7.6: Chile’s first steps towards mainstreaming Chile FONADIS (2005); Larraguibel Quiroz (1997); PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 162 Access applicable (Kamel,2005): suggests thefollowingprinciplesaregenerally conflict. Areviewofexperienceandliterature some thenegativeconsequencesofcrisisand is akeypartofsuchefforts,asitcanhelpoffset living inemergencycontexts(Chapter3).ECCE support ofthemanyyoungchildreninworld of relevant,flexibleeducationiscriticaltothe inclusive approachtoECCEprogrammes. describes howChilehaspavedthewayforan aid transitionintomainstreamschools.Box7.6 impairments andforcertaindisabledchildrencan enables earlyidentificationandremediationof important forchildrenwithdisabilities,asit must beassuredevenincrisissituations. education, recreationandrelatedactivities The rightofaccesstoearlychildhood Sustaining childreninemergencies. Good-quality earlychildhoodeducationis / CHAPTER 7 Provision 16 school readiness encompassesdevelopment school. Theconsensus fromresearchisthat children shoulddisplayifthey arereadyfor it seekstoidentifythecharacteristics that development andassuringtheir schoolreadiness; importance ofECCEinpromoting children’s and Dunlop,2006).Theformer stressesthe as ‘schoolreadiness’and‘readyschools’(Fabian transition toprimaryschoolmaybesummedup young children. how primaryschoolsthemselvescanadaptto can makechildrenreadyforprimaryschooland This sectionexamineshowECCEprogrammes important foundationforsubsequenteducation. as theEFAgoalsrecognizes,itisalsoan ECCE ofgoodqualityisnotonlyanendinitself; to schooling primary ECCE canease thetransition Liberia, arebasedontheseprinciples(Box7.7). Faso, theDemocraticRepublicofCongoand established incountriesincludingAngola,Burkina Child FriendlySpaces,whichUNICEFhas Activities/curriculum Resources and harmprevention. ECCE shouldserveasatoolforchildprotection steady improvementinqualityandcoverage. related activitiesmustbeassured,followedby Rapid accesstoeducation,recreationand emergencies. context ofpoliticaldisastersandcomplex human rightsandcitizenshipwithinthe They shouldbeenrichedtopromotetolerance, nutrition, waterandsanitation. incorporating suchdimensionsashealthand ECCE programmesshouldbeholistic, development andencouragelastingsolutions. Curriculum policyshouldsupportlong-term and psychosocialobjectives. that adequatelymeettheireducational develop anddocumenttargetsforfunding Crisis andrecoveryprogrammesshould teacher turnover. component andprovideincentivestoavoid They shouldincludeamajorteacher-training on capacity-building. based participatoryapproach,withemphasis ECCE programmesshoulduseacommunity- The twomainapproachesregardingthe THE MAKING OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES / 163

Box 7.7: Child Friendly Spaces: havens for mothers and children in emergencies

In emergency contexts, UNICEF, often working with hygiene and sanitation, and protection of young local groups, sets up ‘Child Friendly Spaces’ in refugee children. Similar spaces were set up in the Democratic camps, schools and other sheltered situations. They Republic of the Congo at community-based early fulfil several important functions, ensuring that childhood development centres. When Angola’s long- children have access to ECCE services and running civil war ended, national and international incorporating several dimensions of care, not least NGOs supported the creation of Child Friendly Spaces that of creating a sense of security for mothers and that served over 30,000 children in seventeen war- children. In Liberia, UNICEF established spaces that affected provinces; with UNICEF support, two provided comfortable places for mothers to international NGOs trained trainers for the spaces breastfeed; early childhood development classes with who also worked with parents on child development. components on hygiene, nutrition, the importance of These trainers in turn trained over 450 volunteers play and so on; and services related to health, from among the displaced populations to conduct nutrition, early stimulation and learning, water, child development activities. The key to

Source: Kamel (2005). effective services for young children is continuity of in five distinct but interconnected domains programmes (Fabian and Dunlop, 2002; Kagan certain elements (Arnold et al., 2006; Copple, 1997; Offord Center and Neuman, 1998). Strategies include the that characterize for Child Studies, 2005):17 integration of ECCE with primary education, all good early physical well-being and motor development continuity of curriculum, continuity between home childhood (measured in terms of health, growth and and school, and, for disadvantaged children who programmes disabilities), have not benefited from ECCE programmes, social and emotional development (e.g. ability special activities aimed specifically at easing to control one’s own behaviour, or to play and the entry into primary school. work with other children), approach to learning (e.g. enthusiasm, Continuity through integration curiosity, persistence and temperament), of ECCE with primary education language development (e.g. vocabulary, grammar The strategy of integrating ECCE with formal 17. School readiness is and ability to learn and communicate) and primary education aims to develop a more influenced by the same cognitive development and general knowledge coherent system of policy, governance, factors as children’s overall development. In addition to (e.g. cognitive and problem-solving skills, such administration and monitoring for ECCE and being positively associated with participation in pre- as learning to observe and to note similarities primary schools. The trend of integration into primary programmes and exposure to transition and differences). education systems is most evident in Europe activities, it is affected by Children vary greatly in all these areas. (including in Belgium, the Czech Republic, family income, home language, parents’ education The concept of ‘ready schools’, on the other Denmark, France, Norway, Portugal, Spain, and family size. Differences between public and private hand, focuses on characteristics of the school Sweden and the United Kingdom) but is observed pre-schools, and urban and environment that facilitate or hinder learning.18 in a few other countries, such as Brazil, rural residence have also been found, as have Researchers have identified several factors Kazahkstan, South Africa and Viet Nam. variations linked to geographical location and that can undermine readiness, among them Implementing this strategy entails creating neighbourhood (Kohen et al., 1998; Magnuson, Meyers et overcrowded classes, the ‘language gap’ (when administrative structures that unite previously al., 2004; Magnuson, Ruhm the language of instruction differs from the child’s separate ECCE and primary education structures. et al., 2004; Margetts, 1999; National Center for Human mother tongue), an absence of qualified and To do so, countries have unified pre-primary and Resources Development, 2005; Ngaruiya, 2006). experienced first grade teachers and inadequate primary education under the governance of the Some also found adverse learning materials (Arnold et al., 2006). These public school system, fully integrating childhood effects of pre-kindergarten programmes (Magnuson, factors have been particularly challenging to services from birth through compulsory Ruhm et al., 2004). address in developing countries. education, and sometimes even holding pre- 18. This analysis is based The relative importance of school readiness school classes in primary school buildings. In on Arnold et al. (2006). and ready schools is much debated, and transition some cases, countries have lowered the entry age 19. Few programmes and schools focus on the 19 strategies are difficult to evaluate, yet it is for compulsory schooling to include pre-primary transition stage and, at those that do, transition activities increasingly clear that the key to effective services children (as in Argentina, Costa Rica, the are usually part of more for young children is continuity of certain elements Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, comprehensive efforts, making it difficult to assess that characterize all good early childhood Norway, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela). their impact. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 mediators to link neighbourhoods schools with France uses low-income community peer support(Docket andPerry,2005). just starting,recognize theimportanceofearly Australia, whichpairolderstudents withthose as ‘looping’);‘buddyprogrammes’ inSydney, group ofteachers(apractice commonlyreferred ‘followed’ overtheyearsby sameteacheror experiences. Portugalallows childrentobe to pedagogicalcontinuityandintegratedlearning Less integratedstrategieshavealsocontributed of strategiesinclude: of curriculumisnotstraightforward.Examples so theimportantaimofachievingcontinuity reasons, withdifferentaimsandphilosophies, primary educationsystemdevelopedfordifferent In mostcountries,ECCEprogrammesandthe Curriculum continuity PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 164 age (Shaeffer,2006;Shore,1998). on childrenforacademicachievementatanearly to anextreme,thiscanleadunduepressure of pre-primaryandotherECCEservices.Carried components, resultinginaschool-centredview ECCE overshadowingthewelfare,healthandcare it entailsariskoftheeducationcomponent does theStepbycurriculumcitedabove). respond todifferingabilitiesandinterests(as curriculum, methodsandlessonplansthat multigrade classroomsusinganactive India andEscuelaNuevainColombiainvolve level ofdevelopment.BodhShikshaSamitiin Grouping learnersnotbyagebutrather Europe andCentralAsia. school inthirtycountriesofCentralandEastern by Stepprogrammeoftransitiontoprimary the sameprimaryclassroom,aswithStep school classroomaretransferredtogetherto Ensuring thatclassmatesfromagivenpre- instructional materialsatbothlevels. programme inPakistanprovidessimilar levels. TheReleasingConfidenceandCreativity materials betweenthepre-primaryandprimary overlapping –teachingandlearningstyles Making anintentionalconnectionbetween–or curricula thatareconceptuallylinked. used inFrance.Swedenhasdevelopedtwo in Guyanaandtheintegratedcurriculumcycle from NurserySchooltoPrimaryproject Transitions projectinJamaica,theTransition is takeninthePre-PrimarytoPrimary development cyclesofthechild.Thisapproach learning cyclesorganizedaroundthe for pre-primaryandprimaryschool,with Developing andusinganintegratedcurriculum While structuralintegrationmayyieldbenefits, / CHAPTER 7 programmes such asthoseproducedthrough the home orcommunity centres,televisionand radio adapted totransitionprimary school. immigrant families–similar activities canbe the firstcontactwithschool systemformany from hometothe Peer, 2002).Thoughthefocusisontransition a roleintheirchildren’seducation(Neumanand their children,meetingotherparentsandtaking backgrounds, getstaffsupportinseparatingfrom free play.Parents,oftenfrompoor,immigrant to pre-schoolthroughstructuredactivitiesand socialization withpeersandtransitionfromhome activities outsidethehome,aredesignedtofoster children withnoexperienceofearlychildhood France's adjustment toprimaryschooling(Choi,2006). emotional well-being,whichisvitaltotheir skills; itisimportanttofocusaswellonchildren's such classesfocustoonarrowlyonacademic in schoolreadiness.Thereissomeconcernthat formal schoolingthrougha32-weekcrashcourse attended pre-school(especiallyinruralareas)for prepare 5-or6-year-oldswhohavenever and Peer,2002). down communicationbarriers(Neuman with low-incomeneighbourhoodssoastobreak France usescommunitymediatorstolinkschools The demonstrating skillssuchasconstruction. teaching localsongsandstories rural communitiesbecomeresourcepeople, the child’sreadiness.InPakistan,parentsinpoor primary schoolcurriculumtogetheranddiscuss parents andpre-schoolteachersreviewthe Step byprogrammeintransitioncountries, that mayhelppreparechildrenforschool.Inthe in classactivitiesandsuggestinghome between schoolsandparents,involvingparents good communicationandparticipationnetworks and primaryschoolprogrammes,establishing Margetts, 1999). and otherformsofdiversity(Docketetal.,2000; respecting ethnic,cultural,linguistic,religious into accounttheirpreferencesandvalues, sharing informationandinvolvingparents,taking be overcome,andchildren’stransitioneased,by teachers andparentsarechallenging.Theycan Language andcommunicationbarriersbetween and parental involvement Home-to-school continuity Where televisioniswidelyavailable, eitherat In Kazakhstan,pre-primaryeducationclasses Approaches includeprovidingbilingualECCE adulte-relais lieux passerelles or ‘resourceadult’initiativein école maternelle , ‘crossingplaces’for (pre-school) – THE MAKING OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMMES / 165

Sesame Workshop (Box 7.8) have proved helpful Box 7.8: Using television to promote school readiness around the world in getting children ready for school and easing the transition. The Sesame Workshop illustrates the potential of the broadcast media for Improving transition opportunities promoting school readiness in young children, including those without access to formal early childhood programmes. Founded in 1968, the Sesame Workshop for the disadvantaged created the legendary Sesame Street children’s television series in the United So far this section has been about children with States. Now in 120 countries, the Sesame Workshop partners with local writers, access to some form of pre-school education and artists, researchers and educators to create culture-specific television and radio care. The reality for most children in the world, programmes with characters, sets and content designed to address local children’s educational needs. Storybooks and other materials are distributed particularly the most disadvantaged, is that the to children of pre-school age, and teachers and parents are trained to use first school experience is the start of primary the materials to support the children’s learning. Examples of television and school, usually around the age of 6 (see annex, radio programmes from selected countries: Statistical Table 4). In contexts where pre-primary In Egypt, Alam Simsim includes special emphasis on girls’ education. Khokha, school is not compulsory or has low coverage, a female Muppet, encourages young girls to have a limitless sense of possibility. various measures can help prepare children for primary school even without formal ECCE In South Africa, on Takalani Sesame, Kami, a vibrant and affectionate HIV-positive Muppet, helps children and their carers overcome the stigma programmes. They include visits to primary of the disease. schools to familiarize children with the school environment (as in Nepal), visits by first-grade In Bangladesh, Sisimpur features the Muppet Halum, a Bangla-speaking vegetarian Bengal tiger. Once a week, flatbed cycle rickshaws carry televisions, teachers to home- or centre-based ECCE DVD players and generators to villages with limited or no electricity so settings; low pupil/teacher ratios in the early children can see the programme. primary grades; and readiness programmes or tutorials before primary school entry or during In Israel and the Palestinian Autonomous Territories, the Rechov Sumsum/Shara’a Simsim promotes cross-cultural respect and understanding the first few months (as in Cambodia). among Arab and Jewish pre-schoolers, countering negative stereotypes by In Guatemala the Centros de Aprendizaje introducing children to the everyday lives of people from different cultures. Comunitario en Educación Preescolar (CENACEP), or Centres for Community Learning in Pre-school Children around the world appreciate the Sesame characters, develop academic Education, is an accelerated thirty-five-day course skills that promote their school readiness and learn from the programmes’ of preparation for children from various ethnic health and social messages. Evaluations in Mexico, Portugal, the Russian backgrounds who have not had access to pre- Federation and Turkey have found significant differences in cognitive skills, especially literacy and mathematics, between viewers and non-viewers. school. Sponsored by the Ministry of Education Consistent though weaker findings have been found for social attitudes and UNICEF, and involving community volunteers, and behaviour. the programme is provided to groups of thirty-five to forty children under age 6 in the three months Sources: Cole et al. (2003); Cole, Richman and McCann Brown (2001); de los Angeles-Bautista (2006); Fisch (2005). before the beginning of the school year. Participants are better prepared socially and academically for primary school, and repetition and dropout rates have fallen in places where they were formerly a problem (Elvir and cultural contexts. Third, good relations between Asensio, 2006). pupils and ECCE teachers and staff are crucial to programme quality, and much more important than material inputs. Fourth, inclusive ECCE Conclusion programmes can help offset disadvantage, whether poverty, emergency situations or special While successful ECCE programmes are needs. They can also promote gender equality and extremely diverse, both within countries and other forms of inclusion through appropriate role around the world, certain general lessons models and linguistic diversity. Fifth, maintaining emerge. First, early childhood programmes need continuity is key in easing the transition from to be rooted in the young children’s cultural pre-primary to primary school and effective environment and care must be taken not simply approaches are available even for those who have to import models from abroad without appropriate not been able to attend ECCE institutions such as adaptation. Second, parenting programmes can pre-schools. Chapter 8 now examines policy support positive child-rearing practices, which issues raised by the expansion and improvement again need to be understood in their social and of ECCE as envisaged in EFA goal 1. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 care andeducation Early childhood PART III.

166 © EPA/NIC BOTHMA/SIPA below thepovertyline. most inhabitantslive a fishingvillagewhere in ToubabDialao,Senegal, holds children’sattention A kindergartenteacher Chapter 8 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

Fostering strong ECCE policies

Although countries still face many difficulties in expanding and improving their ECCE programmes, a more favourable policy environment is emerging. Governments can help shape this enviroment by ensuring that there are adequate resources, including public funding. They also play an important role by designing strong national policies, fostering coordination among sectors and stakeholders, regulating and monitoring quality, and making a concerted effort to reach disadvantaged children and others with limited access to ECCE. This chapter draws on examples from national experience to highlight promising policy practices in the areas of governance, quality and financing. Because of competing demands on public resources, it is especially important to set clear targets and priorities.

167 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 issue ontheagenda. sectors soastokeep the within alltherelevant to assessinggender The focushasnowshifted as agovernmentpriority. end upbeingmarginalized to them.Genderwould and ministryweredevoted since aseparatepolicy would dropgenderissues effective. Othersectors enough fundingtobe Affairs, butwithout Gender orWomen’s created aMinistryof Some countriesatfirst early workongender. focus hasaparallelin approach vsseparate 3. Theissueofintegrated UNESCO-IBE, 2006). 2006; Pressoir, documents (Diawara, are developingsuch Chad andtheNiger Cameroon, CapeVerde, Thailand andVietNam. Syrian ArabRepublic, Philippines, Senegal, Papua NewGuinea,the Mauritania, Mongolia, Jordan, Malawi, Indonesia, Jamaica, Gambia, Ghana,Guinea, Chile, Djibouti,the Burkina Faso,Cambodia, documents include childhood policy 2. Countrieswithearly review. the methodologyof 1. Chapter3describes do nottake Most plans approach a holistic to ECCE to the workof education,healthandsocial needs ofyoung children.Thisvisionshould clarify of goalscanhelpcountriesaddress therightsand childhood. Drawingupanational visionstatement other sectorswithresponsibility relatedtoearly accompanied byabroaderstrategy engaging policy maybeineffective,therefore, unless or attentiontoimplementation.AnexplicitECCE education; anditcanresultininsufficientfunding ECCE fromrelatedsectors,includinghealthand childhood policyisnotwithoutrisks:itcanisolate children. Thedevelopmentofanexplicitearly needed toimplementprogrammesforyoung governments withtheauthorityandguidance Comprehensive earlychildhoodpoliciesprovide (UNESCO-IIEP, 2006) gender parity.Areviewofmajorpolicydocuments goals: universalaccesstoprimaryeducationand policy attentiontoECCErelativetwootherEFA national governmentshaveaccordedlimited commitment toyoungchildren.Todate,however, A nationalECCEpolicyembodiesacountry’s Existing policy andlegislative action ECCE policies? Why theneedfor national PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 168 and legalprotectionforyoungchildren. nutrition, education,water,hygiene,sanitation national earlychildhoodpoliciesthatcoverhealth, UNICEF, havebegunrecentlytoelaborate several governments,ofteninpartnershipwith policy areasaffectingthelivesofyoungchildren, is gainingground.Tocreatelinksamongdifferent of anintegratedwhole(Aidoo,2005). the child’swell-beinganddevelopmentaspart they areoftenfragmentedandtendnotaddress immunization, maternalhealthandpre-school, Reduction StrategyPapers(PRSPs)maycover health andeducationsectorplansPoverty ECCE ortheneedsofchildrenunder3.While less attentiontothenon-educationaspectsof 3 untilthestartofprimaryschool,andpaymuch focus mainlyonpre-primaryeducation,fromage under 8.Inpractice,however,mostcountries education, healthandnutritionforallchildren policies thataddresseveryaspectofcare, encouraged countriestodevelopholisticECCE and variousearlychildhoodnetworkshave the DevelopmentofEducationinAfrica(ADEA) Action. UNESCO,UNICEF,theAssociationfor to ECCEpromotedbytheDakarFrameworkfor childhood, mostdonottaketheholisticapproach education plansgivesomeattentiontoearly Yet, therearesignsthattheholisticapproach / CHAPTER 8 1 reveals that,althoughall 2 within theircurrentbudget. agencies tomaketheneededfundingallocations sectors, andrequiretherelevantministriesor movement inthisdirection: developments overthepasttenyearsindicate conditions needtobesupportive.Several young children,thepolitical,socialandeconomic For governmentstodevelopstrongpoliciesfor Building policy asupportive environment education (UNESCO-OREALC,2004 concentrate ontheyearortwopriortoprimary years ofECCE,though,enrolmenttendsto where legislationconfersentitlementtoseveral be completedby2008(UNESCO-IBE,2006).Even pre-school aconstitutionalright,withprovisionto example, Mexicomadethreeyearsofcompulsory was enactedsince1990(Table6.8).In2002,for education; intwo-thirdsofthesethelegislation at leastoneyearofcompulsorypre-primary policy (UNESCO-IBE,2006).Thirtycountrieshave rhetorically, itsplacewithinbroadereducation the educationsystem,thusrecognizing,atleast countries refertoECCEasthefirststageof covering someaspectofECCE.Manythese policies. Atleasteightycountrieshavelegislation must bedonetoenacttheearlychildhood children, however,andtheseareexploredbelow. hinder successfulpolicydevelopmentforyoung public funding.Certainconditionscanfacilitateor not matchedbydetailedstrategiesandadequate made throughdeclarationsandpolicies,areoften 2005). Similarly,formalnationalcommitments, backed bystrongenforcement(Vargas-Barón, of internationallawonchildrenistooseldom realities: nationallegislationenshriningprovisions legislation aremoredeclarationsofintentthan youngerchildrenremainslow. Enrolment of during thecommunistera(Agranovitch,2005). rebuilding theextensivesystemsthatexisted pre-primary education,usuallyasameansof transition countrieshavelegislatedayearoffree ilt support ECCE. will to decisions andcan helpbuildthepolitical evidence hasinformedpolicy-makers’ America isincreasing(seeChapter 5).This number ofstudiesfromAsia, AfricaandLatin research comesfromOECD countries, the the disadvantaged.Although the bulkof benefits ofgood-qualityECCE,especiallyfor growingbodyofresearchunderlines the A Research showingthebenefitsofECCE. Also usefulislegislationthatdefineswhat Many ofthesepoliciesandsupporting 3 b ). Nine FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 169

Labour market trends. The rising participation Box 8.1: Consultative Group on Early Childhood of mothers with young children in the labour Care and Development force, coupled with the decline of traditional family child care (see Chapter 6), has made Founded in 1984, the Consultative Group on Early some governments more receptive to policies Childhood Care and Development (CGECCD) is a global to expand and improve ECCE. network of international agencies, foundations, Emerging attention to ECCE in national researchers and service providers interested in early development reforms. Though the evidence is childhood issues in more than 100 countries. The group limited, attention to ECCE within instruments regularly produces the Coordinators’ Notebook, which such as EFA plans, education and health sector includes a lead article analysing key early childhood issues (e.g. quality, children and HIV/AIDS, transitions plans, PRSPs and legislation appears to be on and links, children in emergencies and 0-3s) and case the rise. studies of initiatives in developing countries. The International support. Aid agencies, United publication reaches about 3,000 individuals, networks Nations organizations, foundations and and organizations. The CGECCD has also produced international NGOs have supported capacity a programming manual, Early Childhood Counts building and funded ECCE projects that could (Evans, Myers and Ilfeld, 2000) for use by development be taken to scale. UNESCO, for instance, has professionals, programme planners, trainers, policy- makers and child advocates. At annual meetings, supported national ECCE policy development members exchange information and discuss issues through country reviews, policy briefs on related to early childhood development and children’s current issues and regional, field-based rights. The group’s secretariat maintains an active capacity-building seminars. electronic mailing list and a website. The CGECCD acts Strong ECCE networks. At grassroots level, as an advocate globally and locally for more attention representatives of international agencies, to EFA goal 1 and serves as a resource to UNESCO and NGOs, researchers and providers of services other international agencies committed to EFA.

for children and families have formed networks Source: Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care to share information and experiences within and Development, www.ecdgroup.com. and across borders (Box 8.1).4 These partners can use their expertise in programme development, capacity-building, training, research and evaluation to support national education funding to compulsory schooling In low-income policy and planning efforts. and most bilateral donors focus heavily on countries, policy Despite these positive factors, a review of country tertiary education (see Chapter 4). A lack of choices have experiences suggests that the following barriers trained early childhood staff, linked to low pay need to be addressed to foster a policy and status, also impedes the expansion of immediate environment to expand and improve ECCE: good-quality ECCE. Even when national ECCE consequences Ambivalence about the role of government in policies exist, successful implementation for child survival the lives of families. The boundaries between depends greatly on the capacity of local officials the public and private spheres are often and partners. unclear. Public policy tends to be limited for Competing policy priorities. In low-income children under 3 except as regards extreme countries, policy choices have immediate abuse and neglect, even though public consequences for child survival. Much investment has strong potential to promote attention, understandably, is directed to long-term benefits (and cost savings). HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Within Insufficient public awareness of the benefits education, governments face tough choices of ECCE. Increased public recognition of the whether, for example, to expand education potential contribution of ECCE to EFA and the systems from primary down to ECCE or up Millennium Development Goals could foster towards lower-secondary education. 4. Among the many examples are the ADEA greater national commitment to young Working Group on Early children. Research findings need to be Supporting the policy Childhood Development, the International Step by Step disseminated to key stakeholders – especially development process Association (and the related Open Society Network) and parents, who are potential advocates for ECCE is well established in the developed networks involving groups such as UNICEF, UNESCO, increasing public policy attention to ECCE. countries and a more favourable policy climate Plan International, the Aga Limited financial and human resources. is emerging in the developing world despite the Khan Foundation and the Bernard van Leer Most governments allocate the bulk of their many barriers. To help countries build on this Foundation. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 frame. indicators, costsand time verification forthe indicators, sourcesof implementing partners, and cooperating activity islinkedtomain meeting them.Each activities aimedat objectives, alongwith 6. Eachcomponenthas 2006). policies (ChilePresidency, reforming Chile’sECCE develop aproposalfor seven ministries,to committee representing an interministerial various fields,alongwith fourteen expertsfrom council madeupof up atechnicaladvisory 5. PresidentBacheletset priority since Senegal, has childhood a made early the 1980s Project, which focused onqualityissuesand Foundation led toKenya’sPreschoolEducation support (1972-1982)fromthe BernardvanLeer planning. Adecadeofinvestment andtechnical also providetechnicalassistance fornational projects thatcanthenbetaken toscale,and or aidagencies possible. of policydevelopmentwasasparticipatory lengthy consultationsensuredthattheprocess and passanationalearlychildhoodpolicy.The example, ittookmorethantenyearstodevelop the policydevelopmentprocess:inGhana,for programmes. Suchconsultationscandrawout particularly effectivewaytopromotesustainable 2006). Engagingparentsasadvocatesisa issues totheforeofpublicdebates(Addison, successful implementationandbringchildren’s stakeholders increasethepotentialfor promote publicsupport.Effortstoinclude women’s employment(Umayahara,2006). coverage ofchildcarecentrestosupport enrolment inkindergartento60%andexpand the poorest40%ofhouseholds,toincrease programme forchildrenfrombirthtoage3 strengthen ECCE:tostartapre-schoolvoucher Bachelet hasmadeaseriesofcommitmentsto her electioninearly2006,PresidentMichelle from politicalsupportatthehighestlevel.Since tradition ofECCEthathasalsobenefitedrecently Chile, totakeanotherexample,hasalong pre-schools (Kamerman,2005,Rayna,2002). expensive andlessculturallyappropriateFrench and nutrition–asanalternativetothemore 0- to6-year-oldsthatintegratehealth,education petits As presidentheintroduced educated population(HydeandKabiru,2006). as wellfordevelopingahighlyskilledand environment andconditionsinwhichchildrenlive in 2000,viewingitasaleverforimprovingthe a prioritysincethe1980s,longbeforehiselection president ofSenegal,hasmadeearlychildhood ECCE ontheagenda.AbdoulayeWade,now seem toshare: contexts, thereareseveralkeyelementsthey relevant cultural,politicalandeconomic strategies mustnecessarilybetailoredtothe develop nationalECCEpolicies.Althoughpolicy have managedtogeneratethepoliticalwilland momentum, itisusefultolearnfromthosethat PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 170 Partnerships withinternationalorganizations High-level politicalendorsement Broad stakeholderinvolvement / CHAPTER 8 – flexible,community-basedcentresfor can generateseedmoneyfor les casesdestous helps can put 5 and evaluation(UNESCO-IBE,2006). expanding theroleofmedia;andmonitoring protecting childrenindifficultcircumstances; and strengtheningcapabilitiesofchildren; components: securingahealthylife;developing of ActionforChildren(2004–13)focusesonfive childhood policyinMalawi.Jordan’sNationalPlan assuring implementationofthenationalearly implementation. Anactionplanwaskeyto of resourcesandthetime-framefor the divisionofresponsibilities,allocation implementation ofECCEpoliciesbyidentifying for example(Aidoo,2005). integrating earlychildhoodintorevisedPRSPs, programmes. Ghana,UgandaandZambiaare reduction strategiesandonsector-wide development fundingisfocusedonbroadpoverty approach. Increasingly,inthepoorestcountries, and promotingamoreholisticintersectoral means ofleveragingresourcesforearlychildhood and sectoraldevelopmentpolicies many countriesaroundtheworld. Eritrea. UNICEFhasformedpartnershipswith development andimplementationinEgypt olds. TheWorldBankhassupportedpolicy community-based programmesfor3-to5-year- Governance questions. Theselargelyfall into threecategories: specific, butallcountriesface similarsetsof National policiesforECCEneed tobecountry- Components of anationalECCE policy programmes andprojects. also raiseparentalawarenessofexistingECCE workshops (UNICEF,2004).Mediacampaignscan where thecampaignwasfollowedbyparent role offathers),andtheincreasewassubstantial breastfeeding andofreadingtochildren,the capabilities ofthenewborn,importance knowledge ofchilddevelopmentissues(e.g.the of thecampaignfoundanincreaseinpublic improve thequalityofchild-rearing.Anevaluation to raiseawarenessaboutchildcarepracticesand a fifty-two-weekradioandtelevisioncampaign to carers.UNICEFintheMaldivesdeveloped attention toECCEandprovidesinformation challenges andopportunitiesarise. benefit frombeingmonitoredandupdatedasnew schooling? What isthestarting ageforcompulsory Detailed actionplans Aligning ECCEpolicieswithothernational Strategic useofpubliccampaigns facilitate the is astrategic 6 Action plans draws FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 171

What ages does ECCE cover? Which children are deemed vulnerable What organization is responsible for policy- and disadvantaged? making, coordination and oversight of ECCE? To what extent are children with special needs Do separate organizations deal with mainstreamed into regular ECCE? 0- to 2-year-olds and 3- to 6-year-olds? How are targeted programmes administered? What are the powers and responsibilities of Is international aid to be sought for ECCE each level of government regarding ECCE? programmes and, if so, within what What groups are authorized to provide ECCE framework? programmes (e.g. government, public schools, These questions, at a minimum, need to be private schools, parents, registered or resolved to develop strong national policies on accredited NGOs, religious groups)? ECCE. Table 8.1 illustrates how six developing What do activities in the programmes address countries with well-developed ECCE policies (e.g. care, education, nutrition and health)? approached many of the questions. The following To what extent do the activities differ by age? sections discuss ECCE governance, quality and financing (including targeting the disadvantaged Quality and the role of aid). To some extent these are Which programmes are subject to quality the public policy dimensions of the programme regulations and control? characteristics discussed in Chapter 7. What are the standards regarding child/staff ratios and group sizes; physical space per child; services such as water and sanitation; Institutionalizing feeding programmes; staff qualifications and good governance training; and programme length? Are these standards set at national or local Governance – the allocation of responsibility By definition, level? within and across levels of government and ECCE involves What early learning and development outcomes between public and non-public actors – can multiple sectors, are expected of children? determine whether ECCE services meet quality Is there a national curriculum framework? standards, are affordable, meet local demand, programmes What themes and content does it address? promote cost-effectiveness and achieve equity and actors Which pedagogical approaches are goals (Hodgkin and Newell, 1996; Kagan and encouraged? Cohen, 1997). Countries tend to vary on three Is quality assurance based on inspections dimensions of governance (Kamerman, 2000a; or accreditation? Neuman, 2005): What are the strategies to link ECCE and administrative organization – the agencies primary school? responsible for ECCE at national level, and the extent to which care and education are Financing integrated; What are the short- and longer-term targets decentralization – the extent to which the for expanding coverage of ECCE overall, for authority for ECCE is vested in subnational children under 3 and for older children? levels of government; Which services are compulsory (e.g. role of private actors – the extent to which vaccinations) and which are voluntary early childhood policy-making and service (e.g. pre-school)? delivery are shared with non-public actors. What are the appropriate shares of public This section discusses these dimensions, with and private (household) funding? special attention to the challenges of How will parent fees be determined? intersectoral and intergovernmental coordination. What is the target for the share of ECCE within total public expenditure on education? Administrative organization: How is public funding allocated among who should take the lead? government levels (block grants, categorical By definition, ECCE involves multiple sectors, funding), providers (contracts, subsidies) programmes and actors. At national level, in and/or parents (vouchers, tax breaks)? most countries, ECCE policies and programmes Who is eligible for public services that are are divided between two or more administrative not yet universal? departments or ministries. Most countries – but Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: 1. AlsoseeChapter6forareviewofparentalleave policiesindevelopingcountries. Table 8.1: ECCE policyexemplars insixdeveloping countries Viet Nam Thailand Jordan Jamaica Ghana Chile Country de losAngeles-Bautista (2004);CharlesandWilliams(2006);Umayahara (2006);UNESCO-IBEUNESCO-OREALC (2004 this earlierdecision. National ProjectonECCE(2006-13)builds on disseminate childcareinformationto families. give prioritytothedisadvantagedand investment, expandcrèchesandkindergartens, Prime Ministerdecidedin2002toincrease urban andruralareas. Access andqualityvarydramaticallybetween rural areas,amongthepoorandforunder-3s. Targeted at3-to5-year-oldsbutinadequatein importance oftheearlyyears. Public informationcampaignneededonthe resources toestablishqualityprogrammes. communities andruralareashavelimited Inadequate supplyofECCEprogrammes.Local national enterprises. parents, carers,communities,andlocal Childhood Development2006-2008includes National PolicyandStrategyforEarly development, foryoungchildrenandfamilies. provide basicservices,includingcareand 1997 Constitutionstatesthatgovernmentmust participation andexpandedaccesstoECCE. Strong traditionofparenteducation,high above strategy. includes earlychildhoodandbuildsonthe The NationalPlanofActionforChildren, sector. of thechildandexpandingkindergarten The Strategycallsfortheholisticdevelopment early elementaryschool. Childhood Development,frompregnancyto developed theNationalStrategyforEarly National teamofpublic/privatestakeholders for 0-to6-year-olds. approach andimprovedstaffquality Recent policyeffortsfocusonintegrated van LeerFoundationproject. adopted andexpandedasuccessfulBernard ECCE datestothe1970s,whenJamaica and othervulnerablechildrenexistsince2005. National policyguidelinesonHIV/AIDSorphans disseminated viadistrictmultisectoralteams. access andquality.Thedocumentisnowbeing through extensiveconsultation,addresses ECCE policydocument(2004),developed Relatively fewchildrenbenefitfromECCE. school services,qualityisinadequate. Despite rapidexpansioninECCEandpre- in 2006toguideearlychildhoodpolicies. President createdTechnicalAdvisoryCouncil 3) strengthenedmanagementsystem. children, families,communitiesandeducators; 2) improvedqualityanduseofworkwith from thepooresthouseholds; 1) expandedcoverage,particularlyforchildren Policies since2001include: reform andprofessionaldevelopment. improvement, innovationthroughcurricular 1996 educationreform:pedagogical coverage forunder-4s. High coveragefor4-to6-year-olds,low ECCE datesfromearly1970s. PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 172 Background / CHAPTER 8 kindergartens for3-to6-year-olds. children aged3monthstoyearsand Decentralized deliverywithnurseries for education aspartofnational system. 2005 EducationLawdefinesearlychildhood Population, FamilyandChildrenarepartners. olds. MinistryofHealthandCommittee responsible forprogrammes0-to6-year- Since 1999,MinistryofEducationandTraining private sectorstakeholders. coordination committeeofgovernmentand Draft nationalpolicyandstrategyproposea Security arealsopartners. and MinistryofSocialDevelopmentHuman Department ofHealth,MinistryPublicHealth ECCE inruralandurbansettings. subdistricts inextendingaccesstoquality Department ofLocalAdministrationsupports organizations andlocalcommunities. pre-school tosubdistrictadministrative In 1999,MoEtransferredresponsibilityfor provides kindergartens. The MoEsupervisesallpre-schoolsand partner. programmes. TheMinistryofHealthisa supervises centre-basedchildcare for parentingeducationprogrammesand Ministry ofSocialDevelopmentisresponsible and monitorECCEservices. Commission wassetupin2002tocoordinate After astrategicreview,theEarlyChildhood 1998. in additiontoitsownEarlyChildhoodUnit Care Unit(formerlypartofMinistryHealth) (MoEYC) assumedresponsibilityfortheDay The MinistryofEducation,Youth&Culture is nowinchargeofcoordinatingECCE. the MinistryofWomen’sandChildren’sAffairs, The NationalCommissiononChildren,under have occurred. Difficulties incoordinatingthesetwoagencies for 3-to5-year-olds MoE policiesforcurriculumdevelopment Ghana EducationServiceimplements other centresforchildrenaged0to2. for registrationandstandardsincrèches Department ofSocialWelfareisresponsible among institutionsservingchildrenunder6. Childhood wassetuptoimprovecoordination In 1990,aNationalCommissionforEarly also servespoorchildren(mostlyunderage4). INTEGRA, anon-profitprivatefoundation, fee-charging privatecentres. kindergartens forpoorchildren,supervises an autonomouspublicbodyresponsiblefor National BoardofKindergartens(JUNJI), and subsidizedprivatecentres. Municipalities financeandadministerpublic evaluation. Focuseson4-to6-yearolds. policy, planning,supervision,coordinationand Ministry ofEducation(MoE)isresponsiblefor Governance b ). private investment. under 3s,andstimulatebothpublic 70% and80%,developfamilydaycare for coverage rateinkindergartentobetween Current policies:increasesupplyand kindergartens inpoorandminorityareas. prioritizes theconstructionof National ProjectonECCE(2006-15) participate inECCE. 4-year-olds, and16%ofunder-3s About 92%of5-year-olds,63%3-and more than1.4millionchildreneachyear. classes in29,410ruralprimaryschoolsfor areas, establishing67,200pre-school has expandedaccessforchildreninrural Education Commission(ONPEC)ofMoE In recentyears,OfficeofNationalPrimary nationwide. school classestotwo-yearkindergartens Current trendistoexpandone-yearpre- kindergartens andchildcarecentres. participate inECCE:pre-schools, of 4-year-oldsand22%3-year-olds Almost 100%of5-year-olds,about90% warm clothesfordisadvantagedchildren. classes annually,andadailymeal areas. Planscallforfiftynewkindergarten kindergartens inremoteanddisadvantaged MoE policyfocusesonopening to 52%by2008and70%2013. 2013; andof5-year-oldsfrom47% from 28%to35%by2008and50% Goals: toincreaseenrolmentof4-year-olds in themostruralareas. from thepoorestfamiliesandthoseliving Better accessneededforunder4s,those ECCE. 95% of4-and5-year-oldsparticipatein About 60%of3-year-oldsandmorethan in themostdepriveddistricts. in basiceducation,includingkindergarten is toachieve100%GERandgenderequity The government'sgoalbytheendof2010 universal, freecompulsorybasiceducation. that kindergartenshouldbecomepartof A Recentwhitepaperoneducationstated 4-year-olds participateinECCE. About 40%of5-year-oldsand35% 20,000 children. olds, and800newdaycarecentresfor kindergartens for20,0004-and5-year- poorest 40%ofhouseholds,expansion for children0to3yearsoldfromthe immediate action:pre-schoolvouchers Presidential commitmentsin2006for stricken areas. JUNJI hassetupkindergartensinpoverty- 2-year-olds participateinECCE. olds, 26%of3-year-oldsand18% About 93%of5-year-olds;51%4-year- Access FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 173

Quality Financing Focus on under-3s1

Curriculum: Government funding for ECCE is To diversify provision and reach Basic curriculum framework for 0- to 6-year-olds (2001) defines expected long-standing priority. children in poor and rural areas, multidimensional learning outcomes and provides pedagogical orientation Total pre-primary, expenditure per student MoE, JUNJI and INTEGRA support to indigenous children or those with special education needs. is higher than in other countries in Latin non-formal programmes. ‘Know Your Teacher training: America, although much of this is private Child’ trains mothers and other Undergraduate and graduate courses for early childhood educators created expenditure. community members as educators. in mid-1990s. Requires five-year university degree in education. Parent-and-Child Programme ECCE staff are gradually being trained to use the curriculum with children. increases understanding of child development, the purpose of stimulation at each age and the importance of family.

Standards: Government committed to supporting Birth registration has increased to With UNICEF, government has created early development and learning the expansion of kindergartens by district 65% due to advertising and training of standards. assemblies, NGOs, faith-based 1,000 health nurses from ten regions. Curriculum: organizations and communities. Covers psychosocial skills, language and literacy, mathematics, environmental studies, creative activities, health, nutrition and safety. Emphasizes learning through play, encourages use of local languages. Teacher training: National Association of Teachers offers workshops to promote the professional status of ECCE educators and improve awareness among policy-makers.

Curriculum: Over 80% of pre-schoolers attend Roving Caregivers provide Eclectic approach focusing on affective, psychomotor and cognitive community-operated basic schools; about neighbourhood and home visits domains. 20% are in public infant departments and to mothers with children under 4, Teacher training: private centres receiving government particularly in rural areas without day MoEYC places one trained teacher in each basic school with enrolment of subsidies for teacher salaries, class care centres. Goal is to equip parents 100+. The Child Focus project and the National Council on Technical and materials and school meals. Parents pay with skills to support their children’s Vocational Education and Training developed ECCE certification standards. fees for teachers’ salaries and school early development and learning, Assessment: maintenance. as well as develop a group of carers Readiness Inventory of the National Assessment Programme to inform that can expand the programme. teachers about the skills of children entering grade 1.

Standards: Government has pledged to allocate Recent survey revealed gaps in Participates in the UNICEF standards project. sufficient human and financial resource parents’ child-rearing knowledge. Assessment: to achieve its objectives and seek extra Jordan developed and adopted an Has applied the Early Years Evaluation instrument to measure children’s funds needed. ECCE/parenting programme that school readiness. Education Reform for the Knowledge provides parents and carers with Economy Project (2003-2008) helps MoE skills and information to support the expand and improve early childhood development of children aged 0 to 8. services, in partnership with international More than 200 centres reach and local funding organizations, NGOs 70,000 families. and the private sector.

Curriculum: ONPEC pre-primary classes are financed Department of Health runs the ONPEC has prepared the core early childhood curriculum and with US$9.41 million annual budget. Parenting Education Project, the Safe disseminated it to all Educational Service Area Offices to give to parents Government-supported public school Delivery Ward Project, the Nutrition and teachers so they can work together to improve quality. kindergartens are more affordable and and Mental Development Corner, and Demonstration kindergartens in every province are ‘learning laboratories accessible than private ones for most the Healthy Child Development for ECCE’. families. Corner. Continuing support is given to test and promote innovative practices. Parents of each newborn receive Teacher training: a gift box containing a guide to MoE has organized workshops to train ECCE technical leaders. breastfeeding, toys, books and a colourful blanket.

Curriculum: Since 2002, government requires 10% Government has tried to create Revised national curriculum being piloted to help children develop of education budgets to be allocated for demand through parent education physically, emotionally, intellectually and artistically, and prepare them for ECCE; only 18 out of 64 provinces and programmes and media campaigns. grade 1. cities have done so, however; 17 provinces Teacher training provide 5% to 7% and many do not finance Teacher income and living standards improved. More than 70% of ECCE at all. non-formal teachers now have social welfare and health insurance. Programmes are overwhelmingly public Proportion of teachers and managers with at least minimum training or publicly subsidized; only 1% are private. doubled since 2000. Reduced fees for poor children are still too Shortage of teachers in remote areas remains a challenge. high. New effort made to increase private sector involvement. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 (Hyde andKabiru,2006). Senegal andSouthAfrica Kenya, Mali,Namibia, mechanisms existin 8. InAfrica,such tension persists. role, butinteragency given thecoordinating Children’s Affairs,was Ministry ofWomen’sand on Children,underthe National Commission As acompromise,the responsibility forECCE. national coordination Employment soughtthe Development, Youthand and thatofManpower Education andSports both theMinistryof 7. InGhana,forexample, responsibility disparities in Fragmented may leadto access and access quality throughout ECCE (OECD,2001). training requirements tendtobeuniform standards suchaschild/staff ratiosandteacher have consolidatedresponsibility, quality In theNordiccountriesandseveral othersthat is theresponsibilityofMinistry ofEducation). and Health.(Inbothcountries, apre-primaryyear 6, andinFinlanditistheMinistryofSocialAffairs Affairs takestheleadonECCEforchildrenunder Denmark, forexample,theMinistryofSocial response torisingmaternalemployment.In the 1970swhentheirsystemswereexpandingin countries pioneeredthis‘educare’approachin ministry toincreasepolicycoherence.TheNordic responsibility forallformsofECCEunderone growing numberofcountrieshaveconsolidated care systembasicallycollapsed(McLean,2006). market economyinthe1990s,publicchild overseeing nurseriesduringthetransitiontoa relinquished responsibilityforfundingand example, whentheRomanianMinistryofHealth cases thegovernmentmayneglectECCE.For body hastheprincipalresponsibilityandinsuch 2000). Insomecountries,nooneadministrative are common(USGeneralAccountingOffice, duplication andinefficientallocationofresources have responsibilityatnationallevel,overlap, the UnitedStates,whereninefederalagencies responsibilities needtobeclearlydelineated.In often chargefees. and disadvantaged),arelesswidespread requirements (e.g.workingparents,vulnerable health sectortendtohavestrictereligibility day, whereasECCEserviceswithinthesocialor accessible, areoftenfreeandopenpartofthe education systemstendtobemoreuniversally in accessandquality.Generally,serviceswithin fragmented responsibilitymayleadtodisparities ministries ordepartments. problematic, asitcanleadtoconflictbetween ways, however,thisformoforganizationis education) andhelppoolresources.Inother with differingareasofexpertise(health,nutrition, is positiveinthatitcanbringtogetheragencies children andwomen’saffairs(Kamerman,2005). auspices ofministrieshealth,socialwelfareor (especially forchildrenunderage3)fallthe transition toprimaryschool.OtherformsofECCE education systemtohelppreparechildrenforthe one ortwoyearsofpre-primarywithinthe especially inEuropeandLatinAmerica–offer PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 174 Recognizing thesechallenges,asmallbut If multipleministriesareinvolved, This multisectoraldistributionofresponsibility / CHAPTER 8 7 On theground, Kabiru, 2006). primary Grade Rfor5-and6-year-olds(Hyde and committee wasinstrumental increatingthepre- training institutions;universities; andNGOs.The other governmentdepartments; resourceand education, welfareandpopulation development; representatives fromtheministries ofhealth, Coordinating Committeecomposedof Ministry ofEducationhousesaNational Bx8.2). (Box national coordinationofpoliciesandactions that aninterministerialbodycanhelppromote issues. Experiencesinseveralcountriessuggest sectors involvedinearlychildhoodandfamily coordination isneededacrossallinstitutionsand 2003). (OECD, 2001;LenzTaguchiandMunkammar, education tobecomemoreformalandschool-like that ECCEwillbeunderpressurefromprimary experiences inBelgium,FranceandSweden,is bureaucracy. Anotherconcern,basedonrecent attention andresourceswithintheeducation usually compulsory,ECCEoftenstrugglesfor childhood yearscarriesrisks,however.Asitisnot involvement oftheeducationsectorinearly increased resourcesandgreateraccess.Greater seen asapublicgood–whichcanleadto part oftheschoolsystem,itismorelikelytobe case ofSweden,onceearlyeducationbecomes as tothetransitionprimaryschool.Asin to increaseattentionchildren’slearningaswell and Munkammar,2003). pre-school toall4-and5-year-olds(LenzTaguchi secondary school,andexpandedfreepart-time builds onthecoreprinciplesguidingprimaryand introduced anearlychildhoodcurriculumthat from ages1to18.Thegovernmentlater of Educationin1996topromotelifelonglearning from theMinistryofSocialAffairsto 2005). SwedenshiftedresponsibilityforECCE coordinating initiativesindifferentsectors(Choi, progress, whilereducingthetimespenton to developandimplementpoliciesmonitor that havingasingleleadministrymakesiteasier for earlychildhoodsince1986,officialshavefound of EducationandTraininghasbeenresponsible recently, Norway.InVietNam,wheretheMinistry Zealand, SouthAfrica,Spain,Swedenand,most this approachincludeBrazil,Jamaica,Kenya,New ministry forchildrenfrombirth.Countriestaking towards designatingeducationasthelead Regardless ofwhichagencytakesthelead, Selecting educationastheleadministrytends Since thelate1980strendhasbeen 8 In SouthAfrica,forexample,the FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 175

In general, coordinating bodies (often called Box 8.2: Streamlining ECCE policy in Jamaica councils, committees or commissions) provide a forum in which stakeholders can contribute their Jamaica’s approach to creating a long-term vision for knowledge and perspectives to achieve a common comprehensive, integrated delivery of early childhood vision – that of providing resources and programmes and services is instructive. First, in 1998 the developing standards, regulations, training and Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture assumed staffing for an integrated early childhood system. responsibility for the Day Care Unit from the Ministry of In sub-Saharan Africa, such bodies have achieved Health in addition to its own Early Childhood Unit. An some success in coordinating pilot projects, interagency group representing health, education, community development, planning, NGOs, service clubs formulating policy or conducting situational and the University of the West Indies was formed to guide analyses. Yet, existing African structures face the integration process. In 2002, legislation established several challenges: they often have limited or the Early Childhood Commission, which brings together all undertrained staff, are more advisory than policies, standards and regulations pertaining to day care decision-making bodies and often fail to engage and early childhood development under one institutional all stakeholders (Hyde and Kabiru, 2006). umbrella. Comprehensive regulations now cover health, In Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba and safety and nutritional requirements, and there are guidelines for fostering both children’s social development Mexico, intersectoral coordinating bodies have and a positive learning climate. Overall, Jamaica’s improved public awareness of ECCE, increased integrated approach maximizes limited resources by coverage of comprehensive ECCE and developed reducing duplication and fragmentation. both a shared vision of comprehensive ECCE and a collective process of policy formulation. What Source: Jamaica Ministry of Education and Youth (2003). were the elements that made these mechanisms successful? Among them were: recognition of children’s rights, needs and potential; broader inequalities in access and quality if During the 1990s, a shared vision of comprehensive ECCE; implementation of national policies is uneven or decentralization sustained political will and technical central governments relinquish their former in transition leadership; responsibilities. Justifications for decentralization conscious and joint national decision-making; in transition countries, for example, often countries led to full civil society participation and involvement of concealed cutbacks in central government rapid deterioration families and communities (UNESCO-OREALC, spending on ECCE in general, and the financial of kindergartens 2004b). and administrative abandonment of state and nurseries The effectiveness of intersectoral collaboration is responsibility for pre-schools in particular also determined by which ministry takes the lead (McLean, 2006). and whether the coordinating body has decision- Indeed, during the 1990s, decentralization making power. The lead ministry needs to be in transition countries led to rapid deterioration perceived by the others involved as having the in the quality, access, supply and coverage of authority to convene and to act. Other ministries kindergartens and nurseries. The number of and departments tend to respond when, for facilities decreased as some merged, others shut example, the finance ministry or prime minister’s down and still others began operating seasonally office takes the lead. The efforts of advisory-only or for shorter hours as funding and enrolment commissions are unlikely to move the agenda for dropped (see Chapter 6). Absence of monitoring young children forward, while those with authority by regional authorities, loss of pedagogical to make decisions about expenditure, for assistance and shortages of teaching materials 9. Decentralization of example, tend to have much more active and exacerbated these problems and contributed to responsibilities such as effective participation. rising numbers of children deemed unprepared administration, regulation, quality assurance and for school in Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine and provision in ECCE, from Decentralization — an approach higher to lower levels of other countries (McLean, 2006). government, falls on a to be used with caution If central funds do not accompany the transfer continuum from deconcentration (low) to Decentralization of ECCE is often adopted as a of power to lower levels of government, poorer delegation (medium) to devolution (high). strategy to increase local transparency and adapt municipalities often cannot maintain the supply Privatization – shifting responsibility from the public services and resources to community needs and of good-quality ECCE. The loss of good teachers, to the private sector – can circumstances.9 Yet with ECCE as with other inadequate in-service teacher training and lack also be considered a form of decentralization; it is public services, decentralization can lead to of maintenance capacity can exacerbate the discussed in the next section. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 quality guidelines To offset adverse szw.nl/index.cfm. http://internationalezaken. information, see 10. Formore deregulation, introduced effects of Sweden promote quality andsustainabilityofreligious- when Koranic schools arenotincluded.To pre-school GERis87%overall, butonly9% Zanzibar (UnitedRepublicof Tanzania), the dramatically totheavailability ofECCE.In countries, religiousproviders contribute Islamic faith,valuesandpractices. Insome curriculum withinacontextthatsupports ensure thatchildrenlearnthenational have createdpre-schoolsinrecentyearsto Uganda andtheUnitedRepublicofTanzania Gambia, Indonesia,Kenya,Morocco,Tunisia, and EastAsia.Muslimcommunitiesinthe Saharan Africa,theArabStates,Caribbean private sectorisparticularlyprominentinsub- to usetheirbuildingsforthispurpose.The continue toprovideECCEandoftenallowothers America andLatinAmerica,religiousinstitutions in manycountries.InpartsofEurope,North showed, theprivatesectorplaysalargerole coordinate ECCEprovision.AsChapter6 government effortstoexpand,improveand whole rangeofnon-publicactors–cansupport religious groupsandfor-profitentities–the Community-based organizations,NGOs, Private actors aspotential partners of government. ministries, butalsovertically,amonglevels is oftenneedednotonlyhorizontally,among These examplessuggestbettercoordination establish qualityguidelines(Skolverket,2004). pre-schools andacurriculumframeworkto government introducedamaximumfeeforall disparities infeesandqualitystandards,the deregulation inthe1990sledtowidespread (UNESCO-IBE, 2006).InSweden,after regional anddistrictauthoritiestookover were responsibleforECCEin1990–96,then 2006). InSlovakia,localeducationauthorities central governmentattentiontoECCE(McLean, decentralized structureshaveledtogreater (World Bank,2004). economic inequalitiesinaccessandquality services andthustogeographicsocio- uneven resourcesledtoinefficienttargetingof et al.,2006).InIndia,limitedlocalcapacityand (McLean, 2006;Corteretal.,Taratukhina as wellbetweensocio-economicclasses wealthier urbanandpoorerruralcommunities, tralization aggravatedinequalitiesbetween Russian FederationandUkraine,decen- problem. InArmenia,China,Romania,the PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 176 Difficulties inachievingequitywithin / CHAPTER 8 market-provided services. government grantsfamiliessubsidiestopurchase Instead ofdirectlysubsidizingproviders,the supply-driven systemtoademand-sideapproach. law, forinstance,transformedthepreviously parental choice.TheNetherlands’2005childcare competition, increaseefficiencyandpromote that market-basedapproachesencourage of education,proponentsfor-profitECCEargue is somewhatcontroversial.Aswithotherlevels children (McLean,2006). excluded manyvulnerableanddisadvantaged providers inthetransitioncountrieshave especially, highfeesimposedbymanynon-public same time,theentrancerequirementsand, diverse learningstyles(seeChapter7).Atthe approach thatcanbeadaptedtochildren’s and CentralAsiabyencouragingachild-centred reform throughoutCentralandEasternEurope Institute, forexample,hasinfluencedcurricular programme establishedbytheOpenSociety ECCE programmesoffer.TheStepby traditional public-sectorpedagogythatnon-public Families oftenwelcomethealternativesto encourage parentandcommunityinvolvement. non-professionals, someprivateproviders government systemhadmostlybeenclosedto increased inequalitiesinaccess.Whereasthe has bothencouragedinnovativepracticesand decentralization. Thediversificationofproviders support, financialconstraintsand flourished inasituationofdecreasedgovernment providers (bothnon-profitandfor-profit)have (Hyde andKabiru,2006;Issa,2006). established MadrasaResourceCentres(Box8.3) based provision,theAgaKhanFoundationhas (OECD, 2001). less profitable and morechallengingforproviders occur inruralandlow-income areas,whichare approaches predominate,service gapstendto is thedistributionofservices: whendemand-side 2004).Anotherconcern expensive services(Choi, fewer resourcesareexcluded frommore innovations (e.g.thecurriculum).Familieswith focuses onregulations,trainingandpedagogical without regulatingfees.Thegovernmentnow and leftitinthehandsofprivatesector, 5-year-olds fromthenationaleducationsystem In 2002,Moroccoseparatedpre-schoolfor4-and choices canbelimitedtolessadequateprovision. cost ofgood-qualityECCE,low-incomeparents’ however, ifthesevouchersdonotcoverthefull The roleofthefor-profitsector,inparticular, In manycountriesintransition,private 10 In suchcases, FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 177

In sum, countries vary with regard to the Box 8.3: Resource centres enrich Madrasa extent to which the state regulates private pre-schools in East Africa providers, a fact with important implications for access and quality. Private providers operating With support from the Aga Khan Foundation, Madrasa Resource outside the public system often are free to Centres work with disadvantaged urban, peri-urban and rural determine eligibility requirements, quality Muslim communities to establish community-owned and standards and fees. There is a risk of a two-track — managed pre-schools that are culturally appropriate, system developing, with children from more affordable and sustainable. The programme supports advantaged families attending more expensive 203 pre-schools in East Africa (66 in Kenya, 53 in Uganda and higher quality private programmes and less and 84 in Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania) and has served approximately 30,000 children and trained over fortunate families resorting to low-cost, lower- 4,000 community-based teachers since 1986. To date, quality public alternatives. To promote equity, 153 communities have pre-schools up and running; 50 more are governments should ensure that regulations receiving intensive support as they complete the programme. exist and are applied equally to public and private settings, and, where possible, that the system Madrasa pre-schools perform significantly better than other does not segregate children by socio-economic pre-schools on adult-child interaction and on three-quarters of background (McLean, 2006; Corter et al., 2006; the environmental dimensions assessed by the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale. The mean performance scores of Taratukhina et al., 2006). Madrasa pre-school children were 42% higher than those of children who did not attend pre-schools. The programme has increased empowerment and self-reliance among teachers and Improving quality: regulation, community members. Women’s participation in community life accountability and staffing and decision-making outside the home has improved, even in the most traditional communities. The direct costs of the The issue of quality is not explicitly noted in EFA programme are modest — about US$15 per child per year — of which the Madrasa Resource Centres programme pays goal 1, but the Dakar Framework for Action two-thirds and the community the remainder. (Expanded Commentary, para. 30) underlines the ‘positive impact’ that ‘good quality early Sources: Issa (2006); Mwaura (2005, 2006). childhood care and education, both in families and in more structured programmes, have …. on the survival, growth, development and learning potential of children’. A consistent normative definitions of quality has encouraged Some scholars research finding is that the quality of children’s researchers and some policy-makers to favour a reject a normative early experiences is related to virtually every more participatory approach to quality assurance approach to facet of their development (OECD-CERI, 1999; within early childhood settings, whereby Shonkoff and Phillips, 2000). Young children who administrators, staff, parents and sometimes defining and receive good care, attention and stimulation in children jointly determine what their goals are monitoring quality their first three years are likely to demonstrate and how to achieve them. Indeed, Myers (2006) better cognitive and language abilities, and urges early childhood stakeholders to experience more positive social interaction than accommodate multiple perspectives. children who have experienced lower-quality arrangements (National Institute of Child Health Regulating programme quality and Human Development, 2001). The benefits of Most governments regulate ECCE programmes well-designed, intensive forms of ECCE are less in order to monitor the quality of the environment likely to ‘fade out’ than those of more custodial and the practices that promote children’s programmes (Barnett, 1995). development and learning. Regulations usually Some scholars reject a normative approach focus on easy-to-measure indicators of structural to defining and monitoring quality, arguing that quality, such as class size, child/staff ratios, quality is socially constructed and cannot be availability of materials and staff training. Equally measured by ‘objective’ criteria such as important, if not more so, are indicators of standardized scales or child/staff ratios process quality, which include warm, interactive (Dahlberg et al., 1999). Although quality is relative relationships between carers and children, to one’s perspective, this does not mean that inclusion of families, and responsiveness to quality is arbitrary or that ‘anything goes’ cultural diversity and children with special needs. (Woodhead, 1996). Rather, the critique of Indeed, some research indicates that interaction Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Given thediverse 2006). readiness (UNESCO-IBE, for monitoringschool and developingstandards validating earlylearning kindergarten. VietNamis children starting skills andknowledgein a testthatmeasures project inColombiauses United States.Apilot Jamaica, Kosovoandthe basis, inAustralia,Chile, students and,onapilot with morethan290,000 has beenusedinCanada in elementaryschool.It predicts howtheywilldo strengths anddeficits, assesses children’s different communities, populations ofchildrenin which reportson Development Instrument, has developedtheEarly Studies (2005)inCanada Offord CenterforChild Development, 2005).The Human Resources (National Centerfor Jordan andTurkey countries includingIndia, grade readinesstestingin promoted theuseoffirst 12. TheWorldBankhas (2002). Mehaffie andMcCall in theUnitedStates,see assessment instruments summary ofreadiness et al.,1996).Fora (Neuman, 2001;Shepard episodic development address youngchildren’s assessment, whichbetter types ofcontinuous observation andother now tousedirect Europe, butthetrendis North Americaand previously commonin school readinesswas to measurechildren’s 11. Standardizedtesting nature of ECCE is particularly comparability programmes, international difficult but notothers. monitoring the qualityofsomeformsECCE however, itishardertojustify selectively as thefamily.Fromanequity perspective, government interventioninprivate spheressuch The rationalefortheseexemptions istolimit from regulationexceptwhen publiclysubsidized. has beennoted,privateprovisionisoftenexempt care byfamily,friendsandneighboursisnot.As programme qualitystandards,whereasinformal publicly fundedservicesarerequiredtofollow to regulation.Inmostcountries,forinstance, which variousformsofprovisionaretobesubject quality withinaparticularcountryovertime. instruments areusefulforassessingprogramme is particularlydifficult.Nevertheless,the of ECCEprogrammes,internationalcomparability parental participation.Giventhediversenature of adult-childinteractionsandtheextent and/or learningactivitiesareprovided,thequality the qualityofenvironmentinwhichchildcare Their aimsdiffer,butbothofteninvolveevaluating assess processqualityinECCEprogrammes. and nationalinstrumentshavebeendevelopedto Association). Eastern Europe(InternationalStepby Latin America(ChristianChildren’sFund)and Foundation), Ecuador(WorldBank),andpartsof Khan Foundation),Pakistan(USAIDandAga and VietNam(PlanInternational),Kenya(Aga This wasthecase,forinstance,inBangladesh evaluating externallyfundedECCEprogrammes. NGOs andfoundations,oftentoprovideabasisfor the assistanceofmultilateralorganizations, national instrumentshavebeendevelopedwith and VietNam(Myers,2006).Manyofthese conducted inIndia,Kenya,Pakistan,Singapore quality assessmentprojectshavealsobeen quality usingastandardizedinstrument.Various Caribbean countrieshaveassessedprogramme standards forECCEprogrammes,andseven and Mexico)havedevelopednationalquality America (Chile,Colombia,CostaRica,Ecuador (Arnold etal.,2006). make manystructuralfeatureshardtoaddress working insituationswhereresourceconstraints dynamics isanencouragingfindingforthose (Love etal.,1996).Theimportanceofadult-child than arestructuralfeatures(seeChapter7) strongly withenhancedwell-beingofchildren between adultsandchildrenisassociatedmore PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 178 An importantpolicydecisionistheextentto 8.2) In recentyearsvariousinternational(Table Among developingcountries,fiveinLatin / CHAPTER 8 focus onchildoutcomes Moving towards astronger direct observationofchildren. broadly defined.Thesestandardsarebasedon domains, usuallyrelatedtoschoolreadiness, to identifyearlylearningstandardsinvarious stakeholders atnationalandsubnationallevel childhood programme.Theprocessencourages rather thanonthefeaturesofearly focuses onchildren’slearninganddevelopment behaviour (Box8.4).Anoutcomesapproach expectations ofchildren’sperformanceand on childoutcomes–agreedstandardsor been assessingprogrammequalitybyfocusing organizations, governmentsincreasinglyhave In atrendencouragedbysomeinternational policy-makers (KaganandBritto,2005). strategy ofholdingprovidersaccountableto focused assessments,aspartofabroader standards withthecurriculumandchild- have beenmadetoalignearlylearning and toinformteachertraining.Recentlyefforts understand andsupportchildren’sdevelopment, pedagogy andinstruction,tohelpfamilies given time,andtheyareoftenusedtoguide used toreportonchildren’scompetenceata and approaches tolearning.Inaddition, standards that reflectchildren’sdifferingrates and curricula.Further,itisdifficult todevelop relation tothevaluessetforth innationaltexts need tobeviewedincontext, especiallyin forms ofdiversityintoaccount. ECCEoutcomes and donottakecultural,linguistic andother impose aWesternviewontherestofworld risks. Oneconcernisthat‘global’standards Hayes, 2000). is contingentontheirparticipation(Pressand improvement. Publicfundingofprogrammes accreditation, self-evaluationandprogramme established aqualityevaluationsystemfor National ChildcareAccreditationCouncilhas validated byanexternalexpert.InAustraliathe any limitationsbeforehavingtheirwork to reflectontheirpracticeandaddress Accreditation encouragesprogrammestaff the UnitedKingdom,andStates. is usedinsomecountries,includingAustralia, An alternativeapproach,accreditation, to assuresufficientinspectionandmonitoring. Yet, manycountriesdonothavetheresources develop, regulationsthatpromotequality. The standards-basedapproachisnotwithout Governments needtoenforce,notjust 11 They canbe 12 FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 179

Table 8.2: International instruments for assessing ECCE quality

Name of assessment tool Major categories (number of indicators) Purpose Countries/regions participating

International Step by Step Programme standards: Planning and 29 countries: Albania, Armenia, Association, programme Teacher-child interactions (4) Improvement tool. Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and teacher standards Family participation (9) Accreditation for and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Planning a child-centred programme (5) Step by Step Croatia, Czech Republic, Strategies for meaningful learning (4) programme Estonia, Georgia, Haiti, Learning environment (3) Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Health and safety (4) Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, TFYR Macedonia, Mongolia, Teacher standards: Montenegro, Rep. Moldova, Individualization (4) Romania, Russian Federation, Learning environment (3) Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Family participation (6) Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan Teaching strategies for meaningful learning (5) Planning and assessment (7) Professional development (4)

Association for Childhood Environment and physical space (17) Self-assessment 26 countries helped construct Education International Curriculum content and pedagogy (39) by centres this tool, including Self-Assessment Tool Educators and caregivers (13) Botswana, Chile, China, Young children with special needs (24) Ecuador, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Partnership with families and communities (5) Nigeria, United States

IEA Pre-Primary Project Observation system focuses on process using three dimensions: Research 17 countries/territories: Management of time (e.g. time in three categories of Belgium (French-speaking), proposed activities, group structure, pacing of activities) China, Finland, Germany Child activities (e.g. children’s verbalization, child-child (former Federal Republic), interaction, adult-child interaction, children’s non-active Greece, Hong Kong (China), engagement, time on task) Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Nigeria, Adult behaviour (e.g. behaviour in major categories, directive Poland, Portugal, Romania, teaching, degree of involvement, listening behaviour, child Slovenia, Spain, Thailand, management) United States

Assessment scale proposed Professional practice (clear aims, protection policy, Planning and 7 countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, by Save the Children, good practice, referral, care plan, periodic review, improvement tool Democratic Republic of the United Kingdom continuum of care) (7) (staff development, Congo, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan Personal care (health and nutrition, recreation, privacy, assessment, (northen part), United Republic informed choices, respect, + relationships, sense monitoring) of Tanzania of identity, control and sanctions, voice opinions, education according to needs) (12) Advocacy and Caregivers (4) policy development Resources (accessible/adequate; promotes health/development) (2) Administration (records, confidentiality, accountability) (3)

Early Childhood Environment Space and furnishings (8) Research and 7 Caribbean countries: Rating Scale, Revised Edition, Personal care routines (6) programme Bahamas, Dominica, Grenada, developed in United States. Language-reasoning (4) improvement. Jamaica, Montserrat, Activities (10) Now used as Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent Similar instruments exist for Interaction (5) qualification and Grenadines infant/toddler programmes Programme structure (4) criteria for some and family day care. Parents and staff (6) programmes.

Note: In addition to these instruments, based on international projects and studies, some countries have developed national assessments of quality, discussed in Appendix 1 of the source document. Source: Myers (2006), Appendix 1.

standards have the potential for misuse. While Promoting quality through staffing policy the intent is to support learning and identify any Given the importance of positive staff-child difficulties, standards might be used to stigmatize interaction for early childhood experiences, children, labelling them as ‘failures’. Standards several recent staffing trends and issues are are sometimes inappropriately used to screen notable. The first involves the move, already children to determine whether they can start discussed, towards an integrated system of ECCE school. Furthermore, ‘quality’ has little meaning provision and regulation from birth to school if used to characterize an ECCE programme entry. This trend, so far mostly in developed that achieves the desired outcomes through countries, has encouraged countries to undesirable methods (e.g. fear or punishment) restructure staff qualification requirements and (Myers, 2006). training. It has also led them to bridge the divide Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 language andliteracy development Table Asamplestandard 8.3 from theGoingGlobalproject: Source: national monitoring. standards to revise pre-school curricula,teacher-training modelsand and theCaribbean, East AsiaandCentral Europe. Countries have used the South Africa, GoingGlobal isexpanding to othercountries inLatinAmerica After pilotprojects inBrazil, Ghana,Jordan, Paraguay, thePhilippines and and socio-economic differences, aswell aschildren withspecialneeds. knowledge onearly learning, taking into consideration cultural, linguistic and beableto do. The standards are based onresearch andscientific cultural andsocial concepts of whatchildren of agiven ageshouldknow parents andchildren inshapingearly learning standards thatreflect local countries’ early childhooddevelopment experts, policy-makers, planners, gives anexample. GoingGlobal aparticipatory supports process involving development, logicandreasoning, andapproaches to learning. Table 8.3 literacy development, social andemotionaldevelopment, motor learning anddevelopment standards indomainsincludinglanguageand Columbia andYale universities, hashelpedcountries prepare nationalearly Since 2003, theGoingGlobal project, apartnership of UNICEFand Box 8.4: Astandards-based approach to monitoring earlylearning by listening. information a gainin Child demonstrates a conversation. of themessagein an understanding Child demonstrates sequence ofactions. or three-step involve atwo- directions that Child canfollow niao Preparatorylearningactivities Indicator Kagan andBritto(2005). by you. able toextendanideaexpressed conversation. Seeifthechildis Engage thechildina activities. rhyme byacting/doingthe Ask thechildtorespondyour like pointingtobodyparts. child thatentailsdoingactivities, Sing anurseryrhymetothe (if outdoors,toatree). like theentrancetoroom proceed toacertainlocation, clothing; putiton/wearit;and Ask thechildtogetanarticleof Grenada, Jamaica, andSaintVincentthe (Oberhuemer and Ulich,1997).Forexample, in more flexiblesoastoattract morecandidates routes intohighereducation and teachertraining employment. introduced anationalminimum wageforECCE early educationpersonnel,thegovernment where childcarestaffusedtobepaidlessthan trained staff(Choo,2004).IntheUnitedKingdom, and accreditation,whichhasincreasedthepoolof school personnelnowundergothesametraining Singapore, forexample,allchildcareandpre- between theeducationandcarecomponents.In PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 180 How tomeasure/benchmark Second, somecountriesaremaking theentry / CHAPTER 8 of thestory. development oftheidea child throughthe reading abook,guidethe While tellingastoryor child. discuss thecontentwith While listeningtotheradio, conversations withothers. specific informationin Guide thechildtolistenfor other. simple directionstoeach Make thechildrengive a gamelike‘carersays’. Give oraldirectionsandplay and ofchildren inemergencyandcrisissituations. children (particularly thoseaffectedbyHIV/AIDS) meeting theneedsoforphans andvulnerable linguistically andculturallydiverse children;and other specialeducationneeds; workingwith practices forchildrenwithdisabilities and development andlearning;adopting inclusive and othercarersmoreactivelyinchildren’s development. Theyincludeengagingparents to bothinitialtrainingandongoingprofessional several areasrequirefurtherattentioninrelation Despite thesepositivetrends,aroundtheworld continuity. Forexample: have implementedstrategiesforprofessional ECCE toprimaryschooling,severalcountries (Teachers ResourceCentreOnline,2006 and byofferingin-servicetrainingworkshops support programmeforpre-primaryteachers, the country’sfirstteacher-trainingandclassroom Childhood EducationCertificateProgramme, the trainedworkforcebycreatingEarly partnered withtheMinistryofEducationtoexpand Pakistan, theTeachersResourceCentrehas through bothonlineandin-persontraining.In ECCE leadershipdevelopmentandbuildscapacity Development VirtualUniversity(Box8.5)promotes (Faour, 2006;NIPCCD,2006).TheEarlyChild childhood trainingcoursesovertheInternet the SyrianArabRepublic,studentscantakeearly skills (CharlesandWilliams,2006).InIndia Grenadines, creditisgivenforcompetency-based qualifications andprofessionalstatus. teachers butreceivethesameleveloftraining, trained separatelyfromprimaryschool In Portugal,earlychildhoodspecialistsare normally distinctlevels. coherence inteachingstylesbetweentwo Such strategiesencourageconnectionsand visits andotherafter-schoolprogrammes. school teachersworktogetherinschool,home pre-schools. InGuyana,ECCEandprimary communicate withteachersfromtheirfeeder early gradeprimaryschoolteachers In themadrasaearlychildhoodprogramme, the firstgradesofprimaryschool(Box8.6). particular attentiontothoseworkingin learning approachestoallteachers,with China providesgeneralchild-friendly,active with childrenagedfrom2to12. to workinpre-primaryandprimaryschools primary teachers,withgraduatesqualified Kingdom havejointtrainingofECCEand France, Ireland,JamaicaandtheUnited Third, toeasechildren’stransitionfrom a , 2006 b ). FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 181

Costing and financing Box 8.5: The Early Childhood Development ECCE programmes Virtual University: work and study

Previous chapters have described how ECCE The Early Childhood Development Virtual University (ECDVU) is a training programmes vary within and across countries, and capacity-building initiative designed to help meet the need for early are offered by a broad mix of public and private childhood leadership and development in Africa and the Middle East. It uses providers, and are financed to varying degrees both face-to-face seminars and distance learning, allowing students to by households, governments and others. The continue working in their own countries while they are studying, so that they complexity of the situation makes it difficult to can apply what they are learning in their daily work. Each ECDVU participant calculate total national expenditure on ECCE, also organizes a national intersectoral network of early childhood advocates and practitioners. Students are taught by faculty from around the world and or even the costs of specific programmes, and work with a mentor in each country or region. In 2004, twenty-seven out of harder still to make cross-national comparisons. the initial thirty students from ten countries in sub-Saharan Africa graduated As a result, not only is there no quantitative target with master of arts degrees from Victoria University in Canada. Five countries for EFA goal 1, but it is not possible even to in the Middle East and North Africa participated in a one-year graduate estimate the global cost of ‘expanding and programme in 2003. The ECDVU is supported by the World Bank, UNICEF improving comprehensive ECCE’. This section, and UNESCO, and by NGOs and development agencies. therefore, presents cross-country data on total Source: Early Childhood Development Virtual University (2005). public expenditure on pre-primary education, the only component of ECCE for which some comparisons are possible, and provides some country examples of programmes’ unit costs. It Box 8.6: Teacher education reform to strengthen also discusses various sources of and approaches progressive kindergarten practices in China to financing for ECCE, including the issue of targeting and the role of external donors. In 1989 the government of China developed a policy to build the public and Public expenditure on pre-primary political profile of ECCE and boost levels of participation. The policy promoted progressive principles for kindergartens, notably a focus on child development, education active learning, attention to individual differences and group functioning, In general, countries accord relatively low priority respectful relationships between staff and children, and holistic evaluation to pre-primary education in their public spending. of children. These challenged traditional teaching practices, making Less than 10% of total public education implementation difficult. The government responded by proposing new qualification requirements especially for early childhood teachers, principals expenditure was allocated to it in sixty-five of and other staff, which were adopted in 1996. In 2001, the government issued the seventy-nine countries with data available guidelines on gradually putting progressive ideas into practice, emphasizing (Figure 8.1). Over half allocated less than 5%. holistic evaluation of children through interviews and direct observations, Most of the fourteen countries allocating more and further improvement of teacher education and training. than 10% are in Europe. As a share of GNP, public expenditure on pre-primary education was The country established an integrated professional training system with greatest in Central and Eastern Europe, at 0.5%, multiple forms and levels (e.g. pre- and in-service training, degree and non- degree, short- and long-term). Kindergarten teachers must now graduate from compared with 0.4% in North America and secondary schools and pass an examination that leads to a required early Western Europe and 0.2% in Latin America (see childhood teaching certificate. Pre-service training for graduates of upper- annex, Statistical Table 11). Data on these shares secondary schools is also offered at colleges and universities. Kindergarten over time are available for only a few countries. principals must have, in addition, extensive work experience and in-service No strong trends are observable. There is some training in kindergarten administration. indication that the share has fallen (from relatively high levels) in Central and Eastern Challenges remain despite these advances. Recent surveys in major cities such as Beijing and Shanghai show that many upper secondary graduates lack Europe since 1999. the professional knowledge and skills to observe and evaluate children as the Not surprisingly, the same regional patterns progressive kindergarten guidelines stipulate. Faculty supervisors have limited hold when comparing public spending on pre- kindergarten experience, there is insufficient access to training in rural areas primary education with that on primary education. and in-service training is often not aligned with the new curricular guidelines. In Central and Eastern Europe, for the equivalent To further enhance teacher education, the government is designing curriculum of every US$100 spent on primary education, frameworks for pre-service training, preparing textbooks and encouraging local US$67 was spent on pre-primary programmes, education departments to regulate teacher education institutions. and some countries, including the Republic of Sources: Corter et al. (2006); China Ministry of Education (2003); Wong and Pang (2002). Moldova, spent the same on each of the two levels. For North America and Western Europe, Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 pre-primary child and Schwartz(2006). based inpartonLevin 13. Thissubsectionis expenditure per at primarylevel is 85% of that U. A.Emirates Source: Source: Figure 8.1: Share of pre-primary educationintotal current publicspendingoneducation,2004 The average Rep. ofKorea New Zealand S outh Africa Philippines Kyrgyzstan S Azerbaijan S Mauritius Tajikistan Indonesia Mongolia eychelles Malaysia Australia waziland Lao PDR S Burundi Kuwait enegal UIS database. Congo Kenya public Fiji Current educationalexpenditureonpre-primary as %oftotalcurrenteducationalexpenditure 0 East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Arab States Sub-Saharan Africa These countriesallocatemorethan10%oftotalpublicspendingoneducationtopre-primaryeducation. 51015 costs ofpre-primary education,astendsto bethe Table 11).Indeed, whenthestatemeets full 85% ofthatatprimarylevel(see annex,Statistical expenditure perchildforallcountries withdatais spending perchild.Theaverage public reflects lowenrolmentratios ratherthanlow spending allocatedtopre-primary education The smallshareoftotalpubliceducation The costs of ECCE programmes that forprimary(seeannex,StatisticalTable11). primary educationisverylowasapercentageof Asia, andtheArabStates,spendingonpre- with datainsub-SaharanAfrica,SouthandWest in Boliviato37%Guyana.Inthefewcountries the variationbycountryiswide,rangingfrom1% pre-primary equals14%ofthatonprimary,but and theCaribbean,averageexpenditureon as 60%inFranceandGermany.InLatinAmerica on primaryeducation,thoughtheshareisashigh programmes isequivalenttoabout26%ofthat by contrast,expenditureonpre-primary PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 182 / CHAPTER 8 20 S t Vincent/Grenad. S Antigua/Barbuda aint Kitts/Nevis Dominican Rep. Turks/Caicos Is British Virgin Is Iran, Isl.Rep. El S Costa Rica Argentina aint Lucia Barbados Colombia Paraguay S Grenada Jamaica Anguilla Guyana Mexico alvador Bolivia Aruba Belize Nepal Chile Cuba Peru Current educationalexpenditureonpre-primary as %oftotalcurrenteducationalexpenditure 0 Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean South andWest Asia 13 51015 government schools. by thenumberofchildrenatthatlevelin dividing totalpublicexpenditureonpre-primary education referredtoaboveisarrivedatby annex, StatisticalTable11). about 90%inFrance,GermanyandGreece(see in primaryeducation,thoughthesharereaches primary educationaveragescloserto70%ofthat Caribbean, publicexpenditureperchildinpre- Western Europe,andinLatinAmericathe ratios (seeChapter6).InNorthAmericaand education, mainlybecauseofthelowerpupil/staff 25% higherinpre-primarythanprimary Central andEasternEurope,unitcostsarealmost case stillintheformersocialistcountriesof government, households, employersandothers and thecontributions tothecostsfrom listed andcosted,totalunit costsestimated, programmes areidentified,the inputsforeach themselves. Inprinciple,this isstraightforward: to costingisfocusontheprogrammes Per-pupil expenditureinpre-primary 20 Rep. Moldova Netherlands S Czech Rep. witzerland Denmark Germany Romania S S Hungary Bulgaria Portugal Monaco Andorra Norway Belarus Canada Estonia Austria Croatia lovenia Iceland Finland Greece lovakia Ireland Cyprus Poland France Malta S Israel Italy pain 14 Current educationalexpenditureonpre-primary as %oftotalcurrenteducationalexpenditure 0 Another approach Central andEasternEurope North AmericaandWestern Europe 51015 20 FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 183

separated out. In practice, however, there are Key issues in financing several data-related problems, such as the great ECCE programmes15 variety of ECCE programme types and the difficulty of obtaining information about spending Four key issues need to be considered when on private programmes. financing ECCE programmes: the sources While it is difficult to generalize about the available, the channels to be used to raise and costs of ECCE programmes, it is possible to allocate funds, the extent of targeting, and indicate their most important determinants and ways to partner with international aid agencies In Indonesia, ECCE to clarify the areas where choices affecting costs and NGOs. is mainly regarded can be made. Determining factors for per-pupil as a family cost include: Public and private funding the nature and range of the service being The relative shares of public and private funding responsibility provided (e.g. pre-school; pre-school and of ECCE vary considerably by country.16 Among and public funding basic health care; pre-school, basic health OECD countries, for instance, the parents’ share represents no care and feeding programmes); runs as high as 60% of the total in the United more than 5% facilities (e.g. purpose-built structure, States but closer to 20% in France and Sweden.17 of the total community building, provider’s home); Among developing countries the variation is even length of sessions (e.g. full day, half day, greater. In Indonesia, ECCE is mainly regarded as number of days per year); a family responsibility and public funding child/staff ratios; represents no more than 5% of the total, usually staff qualifications and salary levels. as subsidies to privately operated urban child care The total cost depends on the number of children centres. In Cuba, by contrast, the provision and participating, which in turn is influenced by the funding of ECCE services are entirely up to the demographic composition of the population, by government. Private funding often supplements parental demand, and by the public and private public funding to expand the level of services; availability of programmes. for instance, families may pay for more hours or While it is not possible to provide a realistic longer days than are publicly funded. Other estimate of the global cost of meeting the ECCE private sources may also be available to fund goal, a few country-specific exercises have been ECCE programmes, including religious carried out, using a range of assumptions about institutions, charities, NGOs and companies. coverage and content. For instance, the budgetary Public funds are often provided by more than requirements for five scenarios have been one level of government, either directly or though estimated for Burkina Faso (Mingat, 2006), subventions from one level to another. In France, a country characterized by very low coverage the national government finances teacher salaries of children from birth to age 6 (1.2% in 2005). while local governments provide the facilities, Existing facilities are mainly private and administration and other services for the écoles concentrated in two urban centres, with parents maternelles for children from ages 3 to 5 14. This method and communities bearing most of the costs. The (Neuman and Peer, 2002). For child care centres underestimates unit costs five alternatives differ in terms of quality and (crèches), public funding is shared among the because households typically also pay fees and other coverage. The most ambitious scenario covers national government (36%), départements (47%) charges, and because some of the public funds may 40% of children aged 0 to 6 by 2015 through and local governments (17%). In Sweden, public subsidize privately provided programmes whose parenting and centre-based programmes, and funding for ECCE is primarily the responsibility of participants are not included includes provision of nutritional support and the municipality (60%) and is funded through local in the total numbers of children. educational materials. Three-quarters of the 4- income taxes. Local authorities receive block and 15. This section is based to 6-year-olds are assumed to attend community- equalization grants from the national government largely on Belfield (2006). based facilities and the rest more formal pre- to cover the remainder (Gunnarsson et al., 1999). 16. ECCE is also supported schools. It is estimated that the resources needed In the United States, the federal government financially in several countries by international to realize this scenario exceed those expected to provides around 60% of the public funding for aid agencies and NGOs, be available by 2015 by almost 60%. This type of ECCE programmes, and state and local as discussed below. exercise is useful for clarifying the financial governments contribute the rest (Belfield, 2006). 17. These estimates are for fee-charging child care implications of specific choices and for exploring programmes, primarily for Financing mechanisms infants and toddlers. Part- trade-offs between, for instance, increasing day pre-schools for 3- to coverage, reducing quality and increasing or Higher-level governments (national, regional, 5-year-olds in France and 4- to 6-year-olds in Sweden decreasing household payments. state) may either finance and provide ECCE do not charge fees. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 private andpublic infants (seeChapter6). themselves fortheir parents toprovidecare sector. Paidleaveallows in theformalorpublic may coveronlyemployees developing countriesthis childbirth, althoughin paid parentalleaveafter mandate theprovisionof 18. Mostcountries payroll isused In Colombia 3% of total of 3% for ECCE mechanisms for ECCE Figure 8.2:Examples of fundingsources andfinancing Source: Private: Public: Churches/employers Community groups Families S National International udn ore Financingmechanisms Funding sources tate/local Belfield (2006). through compulsorypaymentsintothe businesses arerequiredtofinancethesystem and home-basedformsofchildcare.Inaddition, reductions tooffsetthecostsofcentre-based benefit fromarangeofdirectsubsidiesandtax In France,forinstance,employedparents compensated afterpurchasingprivatecare. home-based care(Waiser,1999),orbe Families mayalsoreceivesubsidiestoprovide care toeligiblefamiliesintheformofvouchers. option ofdistributingfederalsubsidiesforchild (Ho, 2006).IntheUnitedStates,stateshave used topaythefeesatanyeligiblepre-school vouchers aredistributedtofamiliesandcanbe In Taiwan(China),forinstance,childcare to purchaseservicesfromavarietyofproviders. to provideresourcesparentsenablethem ECCE programmesdirectlyisforgovernments groups orsocialclubs. local communitythroughdonationsbyinterest governments mayraisefundsdirectlyfromthe condition forreceivingthissupport.Inturn,local The contributionofmatchinggrantsmaybea to localauthoritiesfortheseprogrammes. programmes directlyortheymayallocategrants PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 184 Allowance Fund)(Belfield,2006). nationale desallocationsfamiliales An alternativetofundingtheprovisionof / CHAPTER 8 • • • Indirect: • Direct: • • • • Indirect: • • • • • Direct:

Time Donations tochurch Lower wages Payments toproviders Parental leavepolicies Tax credits Top-up feeeligibility S development; orqualityassurancesystems Direct subsidyofcapitalfacilities;curriculum Vouchers toprovidersorfamilies Matching fundsfrompublic/privateagencies Earmarked onspecificrevenuestream Block grant liding scalesubsidiestoparents (Family Caisse teacher training forchildrenwithspecialneeds disadvantaged, remoteandmountainousareas, 2002, VietNamhastargeted spending on areas andremoteruralregions (Box8.7).Since Services concentratesonurban slums,tribal targeting. ItsIntegratedChild Development 7). (Chapter and encouragementofmultilingualeducation non-financial instrumentssuchastheprovision situations, ortheymaypromoteinclusionbyusing as thedisabledandthoseinemergency governments alsotargetparticulargroupssuch common: geographicalandbyincome.Some most inneed?Twotypesoftargetingare are limited,howshouldtheybeallocatedtothose disadvantaged youngchildren.Whenresources The ECCEgoalfocusesonvulnerableand Targeting thedisadvantaged sources andfinancingmechanismsforECCE. summarizesthemain health centres.Figure8.2 care withservicessuchasprimaryschoolingor care (Blumberg,2006)andthebundlingofday loans tochildcarersestablishhome-basedday level offormalECCEincludemicroenterprise public fundsareinsufficienttooffertherequired population (Vargas-Barón,Forthcoming). access tochildren’sservices21%ofthe protection. Thisfinancingstrategyhasgiven nutritional supplements,schoolmealsandchild community childcare,parenteducation, and otherstoprovideservices,including provide directservicesandtocontractwithNGOs semi-autonomous InstituteforFamilyWelfareto payroll intoanearmarkedaccountthatallowsthe had todeposittheequivalentof3%theirtotal thirty yearsallprivateandpublicemployershave incentives. InColombia,forinstance,over employers tocontributeinthiswaybyofferingtax for childcare.Governmentscanencourage benefits packageandallowingparentspaidleave by includingchildcareinemployees’wageand by financingacompanyECCEcentre,orindirectly contribute totheprovisionofECCE,eitherdirectly parental leavepolicies(Waldfogel,2001). programmes andthroughthestructuringof through theleveloffeesandchargesforpublic eligibility rulesforpubliclyprovidedECCE, affect households’expenditureonECCEthrough for fundingECCEactivities,governmentpolicies India offersanexampleofgeographical Other optionsthatmaybeappropriatewhere Corporations andotheremployersmay In additiontothevarietyofdirectmechanisms 18 FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 185

and school meal programmes, arguing that Box 8.7: Packaging of services to aid India’s state investment is necessary for the equity issue vulnerable children to be efficiently addressed (Choi, 2005). Income targeting is more common and can include In 1975, the Government of India launched Integrated Child restricting eligibility, subsidizing the enrolment Development Services (ICDS) to provide a package of supplementary of the poor and providing vouchers. nutrition, immunization, health check-up and referral services, early With ECCE, as with other public services, childhood education and community participation services to targeting carries some risks. Targeted vulnerable children under 6 and to pregnant and nursing mothers approaches may not attract enough political in city slums, tribal areas and remote rural regions. Women from the support, particularly among middle-class voters, local community deliver the services through anganwadi, the term for informal childcare centres in the courtyards of village houses. to ensure that all eligible children are served in ICDS now covers 23 million children (nearly 15% of all children of good-quality programmes. Targeting can pre-school age) at an average annual cost of US$10-$22 per child, segregate children, leading to a concentration and 4.8 million expectant and nursing mothers. of disadvantage in certain programmes, which may have a negative effect on children’s learning. The federal government has recently renewed its commitment to Finally, precise targeting is difficult. universalize ICDS and expand equality of opportunity to all children, European countries tend to combine universal in light of its positive, if uneven, impact on children’s survival, growth and development. ICDS has contributed to reducing infant mortality coverage with additional, more intensive support and severe malnutrition, improving immunization rates, increasing to vulnerable and disadvantaged children. school enrolment and reducing school drop out. In rural Tamil Nadu, Belgium, France and the Netherlands, for Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, for instance, ICDS has led to example, fund pre-school programmes serving improved psychosocial development in both boys and girls. Indeed, all children, but also provide extra resources to even undernourished ICDS children attained higher developmental communities with the highest concentration of scores than well-nourished non-ICDS children. disadvantage (OECD, 2001). This approach is less Despite this success, the incidence of premature birth, low birth applicable in many developing countries, where weight, neonatal and infant mortality, and maternal and child most children are excluded from ECCE anyway. undernutrition remain of concern in the ICDS areas. Several reforms A phase-in approach may be most feasible, could enhance ICDS’s impact: more emphasis on children under 3; whereby countries develop a national ECCE policy better targeting (e.g., girls and children from poorer households and that is applicable to all children and settings, but lower castes); more promotion of behaviour change in child care begin by focusing public resources on the most nutrition practices; and more funding for the poorest states and disadvantaged. those with the highest levels of undernutrition.

Sources: Chandrasekhar and Ghosh (2005); Gragnolati et al.(2005); Kamerman International partnerships (2005): National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development ( 2006) Limits to the resources available to many developing country governments for ECCE programmes have led to partnerships with international NGOs and development agencies, component of their overall aid strategy (four which may provide both funding and technical of the respondents had done so), though seven advice (Hyde and Kabiru, 2006).19 This support can include ECCE as a component of their education play an important role in establishing ECCE pilot strategy and eight identify it within their health 21 projects that can later be taken to scale, and in strategy. As part of these broader strategies, 19. Between 1990 and 2005, the World Bank lending technical assistance and capacity-building. international support for ECCE tends to be portfolio for early childhood A survey for this Report of sixty-eight bilateral targeted for particular groups of marginalized development totalled $1.6 billion worldwide donors and multilateral agencies, to which only and vulnerable children, including those with (Young, 2006). 20 seventeen responded, as well as analysis of special educational needs, those most affected 20. More detailed discussion aid data reported by donors to the OECD by hunger and poverty, those disadvantaged by of the survey methodology and findings can be found at Development Assistance Committee (DAC), gender or social status and those most affected www.efareport.unesco.org. show, however, that ECCE is not high on the by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. 21. Health strategies cover international education development agenda. Bilateral donors tend to give priority to HIV/AIDS, reproductive health, primary health care, centre-based ECCE programmes covering women’s empowerment in health-related activities, Agencies prioritize aid children from age 3 to primary school age. orphans and other vulnerable to centre-based preschools children, young child survival They provide less support to home-based and development, nutrition, The results of the donor survey suggest that ECCE arrangements and generally limit this micronutrient support, deworming and malaria few agencies have identified ECCE as a specific to programmes serving children from age 3. prevention. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 aid for ECCE than middle-income to receive less countries tend Low-income countries Source: Source: (2003 constant US$millions) Figure Aidto 8.3: earlychildhoodeducation,1999-2004 annualaverage, by country income groups European Commission tend totargetlow-income countries. such asAustralia, theNetherlandsandUNICEF, on middle-incomecountries, whileothers, 8.3).Some,likeGreece,focus support (Figure of educationaidtoearlychildhood education have verydifferentprioritiesin theirallocations underestimate thetotalaidfor ECCE.Donors dimension ofECCEandhenceseriously in thissectionarelimitedtotheeducation security andruralaffairs.Thedatapresented reported inothersectors,suchashealth,social education. ComponentsofECCEmayalsobe childhood educationseparatelyfrombasic System (CRS).Notalldonorsreportearly database, theOECD-DAC’sCreditorReporting estimate fromthemaininternationalaid The amountofaidtoECCEisdifficult levels of education Much less aidfor ECCE thanfor other informal programmes. to focusonchildrenunder3andsupport UNESCO, aremorelikelythanbilateraldonors World FoodProgramme,WHO,UNICEFand under 3.UnitedNationsagencies,suchasthe more youngchildrenofallages,includingthose arrangements thancentrescanoftenhelpreach country needs;lessformalandcostly Such fundingprioritiesdonotnecessarilymatch PART III.Early childhoodcare andeducation 186 United Kingdom CRS onlinedatabase(OECD-DAC,2006 New Zealand Netherlands Luxembourg / CHAPTER 8 Australia Denmark Germany Portugal Belgium Norway UNICEF Canada Austria Finland Greece Ireland France Japan S Italy pain 0 0.5 c ), Table 1. 1.5 1 . . . 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 2003 contantU responses tothe donorsurvey,thekeywould be more resources toECCE?According What wouldpersuadeaidagencies toallocate and aidcoordination for ECCE What next? Increasing funding allocate lessthan0.5%. As ashareoftotalaidtoeducation,themajority primary level–amajorityallocatelessthan2%. than 10%ofwhattheymakeavailableforthe have allocatedtopre-primaryeducationless Nineteen ofthetwenty-twodonorswithdata given toearlychildhoodeducation(ECE). 6). (see Chapter reasonably developedlevelofprimaryschooling education ismainlyincountriesthathavea with thefactthatdemandforearlychildhood developing countries’demand,thisisconsistent childhood educationisdeterminedpartlyby income. Sincethevolumeofaidforearly were low-incomeandseventeenmiddle- countries thatreceivedmorethanthis,fifteen thirty-seven werelow-income.Ofthethirty-two childhood educationbetween1999and2004, received lessthanUS$100,000annuallyforearly For example,ofthesixty-threecountriesthat funding forECCEthanmiddle-incomecountries. al . highlightstherelativelylowpriority Table 8.4 Low-income countriestendtoreceiveless S $ millions Low-income countries Middle-income countries FOSTERING STRONG ECCE POLICIES / 187

evidence of increased commitment to ECCE by Table 8.4: Aid to early childhood education is less than aid to primary education developing country governments: demonstrating Aid to early childhood Aid to primary financial support, making ECCE an integral part education education Aid to ECE as % of aid of national sector plans, developing strategies 1999-2004 average 1999-2004 average to primary for ECCE involving all key players in the country constant 2003 US$ millions constant 2003 US$ millions education (including the private sector and civil society) Japan 0.02 88.15 0.0% and coordinating efforts for young children European Commission 0.12 155.79 0.1% across sectors. International political support United Kingdom 0.37 228.80 0.2% from the OECD-DAC, the EFA High-Level Group Germany 0.16 50.00 0.3% France 0.17 34.66 0.5% and similar forums, along with more research Netherlands 1.09 160.88 0.7% showing the benefits of ECCE, would help Denmark 0.20 23.66 0.9% increase awareness of and commitment to ECCE UNDP 0.00 0.24 1.2% issues among multilateral and bilateral agencies. Italy 0.05 3.59 1.4% Aid to ECCE needs to be considered within the Canada 0.88 61.34 1.4% broader aid coordination mechanisms for Ireland 0.19 10.16 1.8% education and health. To focus attention on Belgium 0.06 3.14 1.9% Luxembourg 0.08 3.82 2.0% support for young children, it may be helpful to Portugal 0.11 3.98 2.8% establish country-level, thematic working groups Norway 2.01 60.38 3.3% of donors involved in ECCE. New Zealand 0.16 2.80 5.6% UNICEF 3.17 43.35 7.3% Australia 3.22 38.85 8.3% Planning, participation, Finland 0.58 6.69 8.6% Spain 1.39 13.15 10.6% targeting and leadership Austria 0.24 1.47 16.2% Greece 4.74 6.19 76.5% To ensure access to and participation in early childhood programmes of good quality, a Source: CRS online database (OECD-DAC, 2006c), Table 1. favourable policy environment needs to be created. An early childhood policy or an early childhood policy framework helps to ensure that young children’s rights are guaranteed and that To promote children’s healthy development, Favourable policy their needs are met by the various sectors whose it is important to establish regulations for quality environment needs work has an impact on young children. A lead and monitoring that cover the full range of public to be created ministry helps create policy coherence, but it is and private settings. Governments can pursue important for ECCE not to become too narrowly multiple revenue sources and financing affiliated with one sector. Legislation and a strategies, but each involves a trade-off among detailed action plan are other important supports access, quality and equity. Equity, in particular, for implementation, as is capacity-building for implies the need for more initial targeting of those charged with putting policies into practice. public ECCE resources at vulnerable and Involvement of a broad group of stakeholders is disadvantaged children, within more universal critical to ensuring that policy development policy frameworks. Finally, international aid meets diverse needs and to facilitating its agencies need to accord higher priority to ECCE. implementation. Early childhood issues that are Countries that align ECCE policies with education endorsed by high-level politicians or other leaders and health sector plans and poverty-reduction can raise the visibility of ECCE and ease policy strategies stand a better chance of attracting development. additional support from donors. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

PART IV. Setting priorities

Chapter 9 EFA: action now

Chapter 1 stressed the importance of taking a comprehensive approach to EFA, of emphasizing equity and inclusion, and of taking urgent action — now. This concluding chapter summarizes progress towards the Education for All goals, only nine years before the 2015 target date and only three years before all children must be enrolled in primary school if they are to complete it by 2015. The chapter then reviews the key elements required of a national and international action agenda if the goals, including that for ECCE (this Report’s special theme), are to be met on time.

189 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 universal primary being madein furthest from the countries The fastest progress is education 2. 1. agenda shouldfocusonnineareas: goals ontime,includingthatforECCE,the To consolidateprogressandtomeetalltheEFA A nine-pointagenda very encouragingwhileothersareworrying. and internationalfinancing.Sometrendsare the individualgoalsandforrelateddomestic progress sinceDakarforEFAasawhole, summarizes enter primaryschool.Table9.1 expanding programmesforchildrenbeforethey with regardtoimprovingadultliteracyand rest oftheEFAagendaislagging,inparticular and primarygendergoalstobemetontime.The education, butitremainsinadequatefortheUPE countries furthestfromuniversalprimary The fastestprogressisbeingmadeinthe access toprimaryeducation,includingforgirls. significant progresssinceDakar,especiallyon The overallEFApictureismixed.Therehasbeen Where does theworld stand? PART IV. Setting priorities 190 Nations Literacy Decadehasyettotakeoff. overdue (seethe 2006Report);theUnited a majoreffortforadultliteracy isseriously as theyhavethemosttogain. Moreover, disadvantaged andvulnerable childreninECCE, that theylearn.Itisalsovery importanttoenrol take stepstoensurethatthey staythereand must actnowtogetallchildrenintoschooland missed in2005,maynotbemetby2015.We countries, thegenderparitygoal,already achieving UPEby2015isuncertain.Insome Acting withurgency. the universalprimaryeducationgoal. complete primaryschoolandhenceachieve of lowersecondaryplacesasanincentiveto clear thatitisnecessarytoexpandthesupply theme ofthisReport.Itisalsoincreasingly basic literacyskills)andECCE,thespecial a staggeringoneinfiveadultsremainwithout elements, particularlyadultliteracy(globally, responsibility forsomeofitsmostimportant Not allgovernmentshavetakenfullpublic comprehensive approachtobasiceducation. Initiative. EducationforAll,however,isa attention, includingthatoftheFastTrack has capturedbothdomesticandinternational school enrolment,includingforgirls,which commitment andprioritization–i.e.primary of Dakar. Returning tothecomprehensiveapproach / CHAPTER 9 There isprogresswherethere Time isrunningout.Even 5. 4. 3. be averyhighpriority. conflict andpost-conflictsituationsshould education opportunitiesforchildrenlivingin situation isunlikelytobeimproving.Creating analysis,buttheirEFA included inthisReport’s conflict havenodataandsotendnottobe education. Countriescurrentlyorrecentlyin and towardsuppersecondaryhigher with economicgrowth,suchasinfrastructure, towards sectorsmorecommonlyassociated for fundsasgovernmentsandaidagenciesturn Basic educationincreasinglyfacescompetition it whereismost needed. Augmenting international aidandallocating for spendingonotherlevelsof education. is essentialtooffsettheincreasing pressures and sustained–focusonbasic education expanding adultliteracyand ECCE. Aclear– implementing policiesofinclusion and providing incentivestoteachinruralareas, EFA, suchasincreasingthesupplyofteachers, resources onkeyrequirementsforachieving and ECCE.Thereisaneedtofocusfinancial education, andcertainlynotenoughonliteracy enough publicfundsongood-qualitybasic better. Increasing publicspendingandfocusingit close towherepeoplelive. and tohaveschoolsadultprogrammes to theagriculturalcalendarasappropriate, with disabilities,toadjusttheschoolyear treated equally,toaccommodatechildrenliving that childrenfromdiversebackgroundsare interactions andlearningmaterials,toensure to establishgenderequalityinstaff-pupil tongue astheinitiallanguageofinstruction, there isaneedalsotopromotethemother which muststartwhenchildrenareyoung, continued participation.Foreffectiveinclusion, obstacle topoorchildren’searlyaccessand at ECCEandprimarylevel,remainamajor household income,andthepaymentoffees the needtohavechildrenworksupplement direct andindirecthouseholdcosts,including groups withincountries.Intoomanycountries, focusing onparticularregionsandpopulation in life.Adisaggregatedapproachisneeded, institute preventivemeasuresandsupportearly for disadvantageaschildrengetolderthanto is morechallengingandcostlytocompensate school agechildrenarestilloutofschool.It benefit fromECCEandfartoomanyprimary progress, mostdisadvantagedchildrendonot Emphasizing equityandinclusion. Many governmentsarenotspending Both actualand Despite EFA: ACTION NOW / 191

Table 9.1: EFA progress since Dakar

Commitments Encouraging Worrying

EFA as a whole The EFA Development Index (EDI) increased The EDI fell in forty countries. from 2003 to 2004 in seventy-five countries. The lack of data for a significant number of countries, particularly those recently or currently in conflict, makes it difficult to paint the full global picture (it is unlikely that the EFA situation is improving in most conflict or post-conflict countries).

Early childhood Pre-primary enrolment increased sharply, Despite progress, millions of children still do not have access care and education particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, the to the basic immunization, clean water, adequate food and Caribbean, and South and West Asia. early stimulation they need for survival, growth and Slightly more than half the world’s countries development. have at least one formal ECCE programme for Coverage for both under-3s and pre-primary remains children under 3. considerably lower for developing countries than for About 80% of developing countries have some developed ones. form of legally established maternity leave, Regional differences on pre-primary are striking, e.g. although enforcement varies. relatively high coverage in Latin America and the Caribbean, very low in sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab States. Nearly half of all countries have no formal ECCE programmes for under-3s. Variation within countries reveals large disparities in access to ECCE between rich and poor and between urban and rural. Those least likely to be enrolled are the poor, rural and/or disadvantaged – those who would benefit the most from ECCE. ECCE data collection is generally inadequate to monitor progress fully in developing countries.

Universal primary Enrolment ratios increased considerably, Despite progress, too many children are still out of school. education especially in the regions farthest from the goals The most marginalized are difficult to enrol and retain. (sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia). Attendance remains below enrolment. Grade 1 enrolment rose sharply, particularly in School retention and completion is still too low in many sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia. countries. The number of children out of school declined.

Gender About two-thirds of countries have achieved The 2005 target date for primary and secondary parity was parity in primary education. missed. 94 girls per 100 boys are now enrolled in Disparities at the expense of girls remain significant at primary education, compared with 92 in 1999. primary level in many countries, often those with the lowest enrolment ratios. Only one-third of countries have achieved parity in secondary education. Gender equality is still an issue.

Quality Pupil/teacher ratios improved slightly in every Pupil/teacher ratios in primary education remain above 40:1 region except South and West Asia. in twenty-eight countries. Developing countries’ commitment to There are too few teachers to meet UPE goal and improve monitoring quality is rising, as evidenced by pupil/teacher ratios, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. the expanding number of national learning High proportions of teachers are untrained and unqualified. assessments and increased participation in Teacher absenteeism remains a serious problem. international and regional assessments. New analyses of international learning assessments confirm that students from poor households perform worse than others.

Literacy Adult and youth literacy rates have improved in Adult literacy rates remain below 70% in South and West all regions since 1990, but very little in the past Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, the Arab States and the Caribbean. few years. 781 million adults, two-thirds of them women, are not literate. The absolute number of youth illiterates At the current pace of improvement, the number of adults declined except in sub-Saharan Africa. without minimal literacy skills will decrease by only 100 million by 2015. The literate environment receives relatively little attention. Too few countries are initiating direct assessments of literacy.

Education finance Public spending on education increased as a The share of public spending on education in GNP declined in share of GNP in about two-thirds of the forty-one countries, particularly in Latin America and in South countries with data. and West Asia. Increasing numbers of countries have reduced Too many countries still charge fees. primary school fees and other household costs.

International aid to Aid rose by 85% in real terms from 2000 to 2004 Aid to basic education in low-income countries falls far short education (constant (but following a decline before 2000). of the estimated US$11 billion per year needed now to 2003 prices) Aid to basic education in low-income countries achieve EFA (even if 2010 pledges are realized). more than doubled in real terms, to Most aid is still not sufficiently long term or predictable. US$3.4 billion, in the same period. Donor pledges will likely increase this to US$5.4 billion by 2010. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 childhood policies technical support in countries, and and programmes political support political support internationally ECCE requires high-level for early PART IV. Setting priorities 192 7. 6. vulnerable and disadvantagedchildren. scarcities, totarget publicresourcesto be appropriateinitially,given resource should encompassallyoung children, itmay targeting it. Increasing publicfinancefor ECCE and inequities inaccessandquality. partnerships withit,tosafeguardagainst both regulateitanddevelopeffective countries; thepublicsectormusttherefore important roleinthedeliveryofECCEmany and disabilities.Theprivatesectorplaysan children withspecialeducationalneeds and culturaldiversity,mainstream care practices,respectchildren’slinguistic programmes needtobuildontraditionalchild those confinedtooneaspect.Inclusive welfare andtheirfuturedevelopmentthan effective inimprovingyoungchildren’scurrent nutrition, health,careandeducationaremore provision, programmesthatcombine Although thereisnoonemodelofECCE to parents,aswellforpre-schoolers. for childrenunder3,includingsupport encompass policiesandprogrammes works withallrelatedsectors.ECCEmust a leadministryoragencyforECCEthat birth toage8;and(b)clearlydesignate the fullrangeofprovisionforchildrenfrom of qualityandfundingcommitmentsthatspan framework withgoals,regulations,monitoring it isimportantto(a)developanationalpolicy with strongfoundationsforlifeandlearning, its uniqueroleinprovidingtheindividualchild internationally. GivenECCE’scomplexity,and in countries,andtechnicalsupport for earlychildhoodpoliciesandprogrammes ECCE requireshigh-levelpoliticalsupport agendas, stressingaholisticapproach. Moving ECCEupdomesticandinternational to includeallsixEFAgoals. to broadenitsfocusbeyondprimaryeducation predictable aidflowsoveralongerperiodand much morefunding,todeliver for thisendeavour,italsoneedstoreceive Fast TrackInitiativeistobecomeakeyvehicle towards thosecountriesmostinneed.Ifthe a longerterm;anditmustbereallocated and ECCE;itmustbemorepredictableover least education inlow-incomecountriesmustat the urgencyofachievingEFA.Aidtobasic increasing, buttheyremaininsufficient,given pledged levelsofaidforbasiceducationare / CHAPTER 9 double Although anationalECCEpolicy ; itmustincludeaidforliteracy 8. the agendatoo. Thetimeforactionisnow. inequalities tomorrow.Thechallenges areclear, it alsosowstheseedsofdeeper povertyand generation todaynotonlyviolates theirrights, means stayingthecourse.Failing theyoungest foundations aremosteasilylaid. Finally,it can betakenatlowestcostandwhenstrong when effectivestepstooffsetdisadvantage paying particularattentiontotheearlyyears, just thoserelatedtoprimaryschool.Itmeans education forsome.Itmeansallsixgoals,not flag. EFAmeanseducationforall,notjust efforts. Wemustnotletinterestandmomentum comprehensive approachandmoresustained concerted action.YetEFArequiresamore and theinternationalcommunityjoinforcesfor much canbeaccomplishedwhencountries since Dakarprovidesameasureofjusthow The considerableprogressmadetowardsEFA 9. lead andprioritizeearlychildhoodissues. Papers. OtherdonorsneedtofollowUNICEF’s sector plansandPovertyReductionStrategy for attractingaid,suchasnationalbudgets, documents forpublicresourceallocationand of ECCE,itisessentialtoincludeinkey resources, andtoraisetheoverallprofile To securebothdomesticandinternational working conditions. as regardsqualifications,trainingand Upgrading theECCEworkforce,especially of materials. child/staff ratios,groupsizesandtheadequacy conditions asregardsfactorssuch to beeffectivestaffneedreasonableworking different typesofECCEpersonnel.Inaddition, Quality standardsareneededforallthe of payandinprovidingappropriatetraining. tendency toundervalueECCEstaffinterms staff. Itisessentialtoovercomethecommon sufficient numbersoftrainedandmotivated more importantthanattractingandretaining in determiningthequalityofECCE,nothingis interaction isthesinglemostcriticalelement demonstrates thatthequalityofchild-staff the internationalcommunity. UNESCO InstituteforStatistics(UIS)and a possibleagendaforgovernments,the improving datacollectionandprovides suggestsoptionsfor availability. Box9.1 as itrelatestounder-3s,givencurrentdata progress towardstheECCEgoal,especially shows,itisnoteasytomonitor Report Improving themonitoringofECCE. Since alltheevidence As this EFA: ACTION NOW / 193

Box 9.1: Augmenting and improving data on ECCE

Major efforts are needed by national and international Such data could be collected jointly by the UIS and the agencies to expand and improve systematic information International Bureau of Education (IBE), as has been done related to the following dimensions of ECCE: in the past.

Basic health and nutrition data Staff Statistics on food intake, nutrition levels, stunting and In addition to existing data on pre-primary teachers, survival rates for young children are regularly collected by more information is needed on the type, characteristics, the WHO, the UN Population Division, UNAIDS and UNICEF. employment, professional status and deployment of all The quality and geographic coverage of such indicators are, categories of staff who work with young children. These data on the whole, quite good. Donors could provide technical and are necessary to develop policies to recruit and deploy the financial assistance to strengthen capacity in countries human resources necessary for expanding and improving needing additional support to collect such information. opportunities for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged Reporting basic health and survival data by subnational children. administrative level and by household characteristics would improve their policy relevance. Quality The need for, and usefulness of, standardized comparative ECCE programmes for infants and toddlers data on ECCE programme quality is controversial. Yet In many countries, data are unavailable on ECCE cross-national indicators of structural quality could very programmes (day care, crèches, nurseries, as well as usefully be compiled (e.g. teacher/pupil ratios, teachers’ nutrition and health oriented programmes). For children qualifications, expenditure and programme standards). under 3, little is known about the organized care provided While caution clearly is needed in interpreting and drawing by public and private agencies and organizations. Statistics conclusions from information from such a variety of on participation in such programmes have been collected, contexts, it is important to recognize that a profile of quality on an ad hoc basis, in an increasing number of developing is much more reliable than individual indicators. Once countries through household surveys such as UNICEF’s national quality assessments have been made, evidence of Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and the USAID-funded improvement over time should be reported to international Demographic and Health Surveys. Understanding differences monitoring bodies, using nationally defined baseline in access to ECCE programmes among young children, measures. especially those from disadvantaged and vulnerable backgrounds, is critical. Such surveys can complement Expenditure administrative data, the collection of which needs to Data on expenditure on pre-primary education are more be improved. scant than at other levels of education and are often limited The UIS, in cooperation with other agencies, could expand to public expenditure. Cross-national data on expenditure the scope of its comparatively recent programme of data on ECCE programmes other than pre-primary education are gathering on children under 3, which was initiated for the almost nonexistent, as are data on household spending for pre-Dakar EFA 2000 assessment exercise. Doing so will ECCE and on international aid for ECCE; steps need to be require continued and sustained exchanges with the national taken to collect all these types of data. Efforts to assess authorities concerned, with a view to improving the coverage the costs of ECCE programmes are under way in various and comparability of data, including more emphasis on countries, mostly on an experimental basis. International all ECCE programmes, not just pre-primary education. organizations could build on these national case studies to guide countries in producing comparable cost information. Pre-primary education Pre-primary education data compiled by the UIS, the OECD Qualitative data and Eurostat for the relevant regional groupings form Qualitative data can supplement the picture of ECCE the most complete set of worldwide information on the provision obtained from quantitative indicators. They should education component of ECCE. Given the considerable ideally include information about public policies on early cross-national variations in pre-primary education, it would childhood, the types and availability of ECCE programmes, be useful to publish enrolment data for specific age brackets needs assessments by parents and ECCE staff, and on a regular basis. Some categories of administrative data on programme outcomes. Such data, while difficult to gather, the education component that may be too difficult or costly process and summarize, can be collected through sample to collect annually could be made available less frequently, surveys jointly undertaken by national, regional and/or for instance every three or five years. Children’s background international institutions. The development of relatively characteristics, detailed by residence, administrative standard categories and common methodologies is subdivision, duration and content of pre-primary important to improve the availability and quality of programmes, could also usefully be provided periodically. such data. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7

Annex

The Education for All Development Index Introduction ...... 196 Tables 1: The EFA Development Index and its components, 2004 ...... 200 2: Countries ranked according to value of EDI and components, 2004 ...... 202 3: Change in EDI and its components between 2003 and 2004 ...... 203 National learning assessments by region and country Introduction ...... 205 Tables 1: Sub-Saharan Africa ...... 206 2: Arab States ...... 207 3: Asia ...... 208 4: Latin America and the Caribbean ...... 209 Statistical tables Introduction ...... 211 Tables 1: Background statistics ...... 222 2: Adult and youth literacy ...... 230 3A: Early childhood care and education (ECCE): care ...... 238 3B: Early childhood care and education (ECCE): education ...... 246 4: Access to primary education ...... 254 5: Participation in primary education ...... 262 6: Internal efficiency: repetition in primary education ...... 270 7: Internal efficiency: primary education dropout and completion rates ...... 278 8: Participation in secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education ...... 286 9: Participation in tertiary education ...... 294 10A: Teaching staff in pre-primary and primary education ...... 302 10B: Teaching staff in secondary and tertiary education, school year ending in 2004 ...... 310 11: Education finance ...... 314 12: Trends in basic or proxy indicators to measure EFA goals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 ...... 322 13: Trends in basic or proxy indicators to measure EFA goal 6 ...... 330 Aid tables Introduction ...... 338 Tables ...... 340 1: Bilateral ODA from DAC countries: total ODA, aid to education, aid to basic education, level unspecified (commitments), 1999-2004 ...... 340 2: Bilateral aid from DAC countries: total ODA, aid to education and basic education as percentage of gross national income (commitments), 1999-2004 ...... 340 3: ODA from multilateral donors: total ODA, total aid to education and aid to basic education (commitments), 2003-04 average ...... 342 4: ODA from multilateral donors by level of education (commitments), 1999-2004 ...... 342 5: ODA to education and basic education by recipient country, total amounts and per capita/per primary school-age child (commitments) ...... 344

Glossary ...... 347 References ...... 354 Abbreviations ...... 374 Index ...... 377 195 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 data. and accuracyofliteracy which affectsthequality (overestimation ofliteracy), both aresubjecttobias is basedonanytest,and proxies. Neithermethod education attainment they arebasedon surveys. Inothercases censuses orhousehold members) usedin of otherhousehold head respondingonbehalf reporting (e.g.ahousehold declaration orthird-party methods ofself- data arederivedfrom countries, currentliteracy particularly developing 3. Inmostcountries, illiteracy rate. a reductionintheadult interpret itintermsof Monitoring Report of the2006 level, itwasdecidedas their currentadultliteracy countries, whatever be monitoredforall towards thistargetto To enableprogress especially forwomen’. of adultliteracyby2015, improvement inlevels 2. ‘Achievinga50percent a compositeindex. component isitself 1. TheEDI’sgender EFA Global to W Development Index The Education for All each ofthefourEDIcomponents, one indicatorisusedasaproxymeasurefor considering eachgoaltobeequallyimportant, measurement (seeChapter2). sufficiently definedforquantitative needs ofyouthandadults)hasnotyetbeen countries (seeChapter6).Goal3(learning comparable dataarenotavailableformost are insufficientlystandardizedandreliable, incorporated intheEDIbecausenationaldata currently availableonthisgoalcannoteasilybe the careandeducationaspects.Theindicators education) ismultidimensionalandcoversboth for 2015.Goal1(earlychildhoodcareand goals 1and3.Neitherhasaquantitativetarget education. adult literacy,genderparityandthequalityof EFA goals:universalprimaryeducation(UPE), so, atleastforthefourmosteasilyquantifiable relevant indicators,providesonewayofdoing Development Index(EDI),acompositeof 196 the countryistoEFAgoal asawhole. of itsoverallEFAachievement andthenearer is tothemaximum,greaterextent from 0to1.Thecloseracountry’sEDIvalue 0 to100%or,whenexpressedasaratio, percentages, theEDIvaluecanvaryfrom the componentsareallexpressedas observed valuesforeachcomponent.Since country isthusthearithmeticmeanof overall index.TheEDIvalueforaparticular component isassignedequalweightinthe In accordancewiththeprincipleof The twogoalsnotyetincludedintheEDIare / ANNEX EFA asawhole.The of indicatingprogresstowards also usefultohaveameans is individuallyimportant,it hile eachofthesixEFAgoals 1 and each particularly among countriesatsimilarlevels of widely usedas aproxyforthequalityofeducation, Measures ofstudents’learning outcomesare Quality of education available internationally. literacy ratesnowusedarethe bestcurrently of countrieswilltakemanyyears,however.The new dataseriesofgoodqualityforevenamajority to improvethequalityofliteracydata.Providinga are beingdevelopedandappliedinsomecountries on thedefinitionofliteracyasacontinuumskills, measure progresstowardsthefirstpartofgoal4. The adultliteracyrateisusedasaproxyto Adult literacy not allofthemwillnecessarycompleteit. enrolled inschoolagivenyear,although A NERof100%meansalleligiblechildrenare secondary school.Itsvaluevariesfrom0to100%. children whoareenrolledineitherprimaryor reflects thepercentageofprimaryschoolage totalprimarynetenrolmentratio(NER),which the measure UPEachievement(goal2)intheEDIis completion. Therefore,theindicatorselectedto of consensusonthedefinitionprimaryschool level arerelativelyeasytomeasure,thereisalack However, whilebothaccessandparticipationatthis universalcompletionofprimaryeducation. and The UPEgoalimpliesbothuniversalaccessto Universal primaryeducation be balancedwithdataavailability. In selectingindicators,relevancehasto measures of EDIcomponents Choice of indicators asproxy individuals. that usuallyoverestimatethelevelofliteracyamong are basedon‘conventional’non-testedmethods literacy arenotentirelysatisfactory.Mostofthem year-by-year progress.Second,theexistingdataon be arguedthatitisnotagood‘leadingindicator’of human capital,isslowtochange,andthusitcould indicator, beingastatementaboutthestockof This hasitslimitations.First,theadultliteracy 3 New methodologies,basedontestsand 2 THE EDUCATION FOR ALL DEVELOPMENT INDEX / 197

Introduction

development. They are incomplete, as they do not The survival rate to grade 5 is associated even include values, capacities and other non-cognitive more strongly with learning outcomes in lower skills that are also important aims of education, secondary school. Figure 2 shows that the variation beyond cognitive skills (UNESCO, 2004a: pp. 43-4). in one variable explains 42% of the variation in the They also tell nothing about the cognitive value other one in the results of the third Trends in added by schooling (as opposed to home International Mathematics and Science Study background), or the distribution of ability among (TIMSS) and up to 77% in the Programme for children enrolled in school.4 Despite these International Student Assessment (PISA) study. drawbacks, learning outcomes would likely be the most appropriate single proxy for the average Another possible proxy indicator for quality is quality of education, but as comparable data are the pupil/teacher ratio (PTR). Among SACMEQ II not yet available for a large number of countries, countries, the proportion of variation in learning it is not yet possible to use them in the EDI. outcomes explained by the PTR is 36%, which is slightly higher than that explained by survival rates Among the feasible proxy indicators available to grade 5 (33%). Many other studies, however, for a large number of countries, the survival rate produce much more ambiguous evidence of the to grade 5 was selected as being the best available relationship between the PTR and learning for the quality of education component of the EDI.5 outcomes (UNESCO, 2004). In a multivariate Figure 1 shows that there is a clear positive link context, PTRs are associated with higher learning between such survival rates and educational outcomes in some studies, but not in many others. achievement in sub–Saharan African countries In addition, the relationship seems to vary by the participating in the Southern and Eastern African level of mean test scores. For low levels of test Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality scores, a decrease in pupils per teacher has a (SACMEQ II) assessment. The coefficient of positive impact on learning outcomes, but for higher determination is around 33%. Education systems levels of test scores, additional teachers have only capable of retaining a larger proportion of their limited impact. For these reasons, the survival rate pupils to grade 5 perform better, on average, was chosen as a safer proxy for learning outcomes on international tests. and hence for education quality.6

Figure 1: Survival rate to grade 5 and learning outcomes at primary level

Countries participating in SACMEQ II, 2000 100 Zambia Mauritius Seychelles

90 Botswana Namibia South Africa 4. Strictly speaking, it would be necessary to 80 compare average levels of Swaziland cognitive achievement for Kenya U. R. Tanzania pupils completing a given school grade across 70 countries with similar levels and distributions of income and with similar Lesotho Uganda levels of NER, so as to account for home 60 Survival rate to grade 5 (%) background and ability y = 0.8486x + 64.387 cohort effects. 2 R = 0.3287 5. See EFA Global 50 Monitoring Report 2003/4, Mozambique Appendix 2, for background. Malawi 6. Another reason is that 40 survival rates, like the 0105 15202530354045other EDI components, but unlike PTRs, range from Sixth-grade students reaching desirable mastery levels of reading literacy (%) 0% to 100%. Therefore, the use of the survival rate to Sources: UNESCO Institute for Statistics calculation, based on SACMEQ II database; annex, Statistical Table 7. grade 5 in the EDI avoids a need to rescale the data. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: Figure 2(continued) Sources: Figure 2:Survival rate to grade 5andlearningoutcomes atlower secondary level Survival rate to grade 5 (%) Survival rate to Grade 5 (%) 100 100 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80 0 0 OECD (2004);annex,Statistical Table 7. Mullis etal.(2004);annex,StatisticalTable 7. 204060801000 010 Eighth-grade studentsperformingbelowlevel1inmathematicsliteracy(%) 152025305 % of15-years-oldstudentsperformingbelow level 1inreadingliteracy 198 Countries participatinginTIMSS,2003 / ANNEX Countries participatinginPISA,2003 y =-0.1975x+100.9 y =-0.452x+101.47 R 2 =0.4207 R 2 =0.7662 with eachbeing weightedequally. calculating asimple averageofthethreeGPIs, where needed,thecomposite GEIisobtainedby converted into‘transformedGPIs’ (from0to1) three GPIvalueshavebeencalculated and disparities thatdisadvantage males. Onceall GPIs’ arearrivedattohighlight gender showshow‘transformed disparity. Figure3 maintaining theGEI’sabilitytoshowgender theoreticallimitof1,or100%)while a GEI intheEDI(whereallcomponentshave mathematically theproblemofincluding where theGPIishigherthan1.Thissolves the F/MformulaisinvertedtoM/Fincases boys/men. Forthepurposesofindex, girls/women areenrolledorliteratethan literacy rate,canexceedunitywhenmore females tomalesinenrolmentratiosorthe the equalityaspectofEFAgendergoal. rate. ThismeanstheGEIdoesnotfullyreflect secondary educationandfortheadultliteracy for theGERinprimaryeducation, calculated asasimpleaverageofthreeGPIs: parity foradultliteracy.Thus,theGEIis that direction,however,theGEIincludesgender internationally comparablebasis.Asastepin levels. Nosuchmeasuresareavailableonan by sex,areneededforarangeofeducational Essentially, outcomemeasures,disaggregated demonstrated(UNESCO,2003 Report of equalityineducationisdifficult,asthe2003/4 Measuring andmonitoringthebroaderaspects ratios (GERs)atprimaryandsecondarylevels. parity indexes(GPIs)forthegrossenrolment equality existsbetweenboysandgirls). gender equality(ensuringthateducational boys inprimaryandsecondaryeducation) parity (achievingequalparticipationofgirlsand quality’. Therearethustwosubgoals:gender to andachievementinbasiceducationofgood focus onensuringgirls’fullandequalaccess gender equalityineducationby2015,witha secondary educationby2005,andachieving ‘eliminating genderdisparitiesinprimaryand gender-related EFAgoal,whichcallsfor (GEI). Ideally,theGEIshouldreflectwhole composite index,thegender-specificEFAindex The fourthEDIcomponentismeasuredbya Gender The GPI,whenexpressedastheratioof The firstsubgoalismeasuredbythegender a ). THE EDUCATION FOR ALL DEVELOPMENT INDEX / 199

Introduction

Figure 4 illustrates the calculation for the Figure 3: Calculating the ‘transformed’ secondary education GPI Philippines, using data for the school year ending GPI (F/M) Transformed GPI (M/F) in 2004. The GPIs in primary education, secondary education and adult literacy were 0.985, 1.108 1.20 1.11 and 1.00, respectively, resulting in a GEI of 0.963: GEI = 1/3 (primary GPI) 1.00 + 1/3 (transformed secondary GPI) 0.90 + 1/3 (adult literacy GPI) 0.800 GEI = 1/3 (0.985) + 1/3 (0.903) + 1/3 (1.00) = 0.963 0.600

Calculating the EDI 0.400

The EDI is the arithmetic mean of its four components 0.200 – total primary NER, adult literacy rate, GEI and survival rate to grade 5. As a simple average, the EDI 0.00 Example used: Philippines may mask important variations among its components: for example, results for goals on which a country has made less progress can offset its advances on others. Figure 4: Calculating the GEI Since all the EFA goals are equally important, GPIs a synthetic indicator such as the EDI is thus very useful (F/M))(F/M)) (F/M)) to inform the policy debate on the prominence of all Primary Secondary Adult the EFA goals and to highlight the synergy among education education literacy GEI them. 1.00 1.00 0.985 0.963 Figure 5 illustrates the calculation of the EDI, 0.903 again using the Philippines as an example. The total 0.800 primary NER, adult literacy rate, value of the GEI and survival rate to grade 5 in 2004 were 0.944, 0.926, 0.963 0.600 and 0.753, respectively, resulting in an EDI of 0.897:

EDI = 1/4 (total primary NER) 0.400 + 1/4 (adult literacy rate)

+ 1/4 (GEI) 0.200 + 1/4 (survival rate to Grade5)

EDI = 1/4 (0.944) + 1/4 (0.926) + 1/4 (0.963) + 1/4 (0.753) 0.00 = 0.897 Example used: Philippines

Data sources and country coverage Figure 5: Calculating the EDI Components

All data used to calculate the EDI for the school year Total Adult Survival rate ending in 2004 are from the statistical tables in this primary NER literacy rate GEI to grade 5 EDI annex and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) 1.00 0.963 0.944 0.926 database, with one exception. Adult literacy data for 0.897 some OECD countries that did not answer the UIS 0.800 literacy survey are based on the results of the 2004 0.753

European Labour Force Survey. 0.600 Only the 125 countries with a complete set of the indicators required to calculate the EDI are included in 0.400 this analysis. Many countries are thus not included in the EDI. This fact, coupled with the exclusion of goal 1 0.200 and 3, means the EDI does not yet provide a fully comprehensive global overview of overall progress 0.00 towards the EFA goals. Example used: Philippines Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 1:The EFA Development Index anditscomponents, 2004 Medium EDI High EDI to levelofEDI Ranking a 200 / ANNEX 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 cc 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 o r ding Mongolia Malaysia Lebanon Macao, China Mauritius Indonesia Saint Lucia T. Palestinian A. Portugal Malta Uruguay Azerbaijan Kuwait Argentina Jordan Mexico Netherlands Antilles Ukraine Bahrain Luxembourg China Albania Costa Rica TFYR Macedonia Seychelles Romania Bulgaria Fiji Chile Belarus Tajikistan Croatia Kyrgyzstan Lithuania Armenia Denmark Cuba Cyprus Trinidad and Tobago Spain Ireland Greece Hungary Slovakia Israel Italy Barbados Estonia Austria Poland Czech Republic Switzerland Latvia Republic ofKorea Sweden Norway Germany Belgium France Kazakhstan Finland Slovenia United Kingdom C 3 ount 2 3 2 2 2 2 2, 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 4 2, 3 2 2 2, 3 4 r ies/Te 3 2 2 2 2, 3 2 rr ito 4 r ies 0.983 0.984 0.984 0.984 0.984 0.986 0.986 0.986 0.986 0.987 0.988 0.991 0.991 0.992 0.992 0.992 0.992 0.994 0.994 0.994 0.933 0.934 0.934 0.934 0.936 0.938 0.942 0.942 0.942 0.945 0.946 0.946 0.946 0.946 0.948 0.949 0.951 0.952 0.953 0.953 0.954 0.956 0.956 0.961 0.962 0.965 0.965 0.966 0.969 0.971 0.972 0.973 0.974 0.975 0.979 0.980 0.981 0.981 0.981 0.982 0.982 0.982 0.982 EDI p r ima 0.970 0.977 0.996 0.973 0.973 0.970 0.975 0.970 0.982 0.980 0.996 0.986 0.989 0.980 0.990 0.996 0.989 0.995 0.997 1.000 0.894 0.932 0.953 0.893 0.945 0.990 0.984 0.904 0.999 0.944 0.990 0.839 0.911 0.995 0.947 0.998 0.985 0.837 0.982 0.918 0.946 0.956 0.970 0.920 0.965 0.950 0.966 0.987 0.950 0.905 0.972 0.931 0.959 0.923 0.982 0.999 0.968 0.988 0.971 0.995 0.964 0.996 0.960 Total r y NER 1 lite r 0.996 0.971 0.984 0.997 0.998 1.000 0.981 0.998 1.000 0.997 0.984 1.000 0.989 1.000 1.000 0.986 0.995 1.000 0.994 0.998 0.978 0.887 0.883 0.913 0.844 0.904 0.901 0.924 0.858 0.879 0.980 0.988 0.933 0.972 0.899 0.910 0.969 0.994 0.865 0.957 0.909 0.987 0.949 0.961 0.918 0.973 0.982 0.929 0.957 0.996 0.995 0.981 0.987 0.996 0.994 0.952 0.998 0.968 0.988 0.973 0.994 0.960 1.000 Adult a c y r ate Gende EFA index(GEI) 0.991 0.989 0.992 0.991 0.983 0.982 0.990 0.990 0.971 0.989 0.993 0.987 0.990 0.994 0.987 0.995 0.987 0.982 0.997 0.990 0.954 0.933 0.924 0.935 0.968 0.966 0.981 0.954 0.921 0.964 0.945 0.979 0.969 0.976 0.957 0.962 0.966 0.991 0.964 0.979 0.969 0.982 0.981 0.979 0.974 0.984 0.976 0.960 0.979 0.984 0.929 0.985 0.991 0.995 0.978 0.980 0.980 0.977 0.966 0.969 0.972 0.982 0.993 r -spe c ifi c S to g u r vival 0.909 0.984 0.976 0.997 0.989 0.891 0.901 0.985 0.990 0.993 0.869 0.978 0.972 0.843 0.988 0.926 0.885 0.986 1.000 0.957 0.990 0.898 0.924 0.982 0.991 0.952 0.937 0.987 0.990 1.000 0.994 0.996 0.958 0.985 0.963 0.990 0.977 0.992 1.000 0.990 0.998 0.990 0.976 0.976 0.999 0.965 0.975 0.984 0.990 0.997 0.984 0.990 0.983 0.981 0.990 0.996 0.993 0.990 0.990 0.997 0.999 0.989 0.990 r ade 5 r ate THE EDUCATION FOR ALL DEVELOPMENT INDEX / 201

Table 1

Table 1 (continued)

Ranking according Total Adult Gender-specific Survival rate to level of EDI Countries/Territories EDI primary NER1 literacy rate EFA index (GEI) to grade 5

Medium EDI 64 Venezuela 0.932 0.939 0.930 0.950 0.910 65 Panama 0.928 0.988 0.919 0.963 0.843 66 Republic of Moldova 0.918 0.811 0.984 0.979 0.900 67 Peru 0.916 0.996 0.877 0.953 0.836 68 Ecuador 0.914 0.994 0.910 0.989 0.763 69 Bolivia 0.911 0.968 0.867 0.944 0.864 70 Viet Nam 0.910 0.931 0.903 0.937 0.868 71 Paraguay2, 3 0.909 0.930 0.916 0.974 0.816 72 Brazil 0.905 0.940 0.886 0.951 0.844 73 Syrian Arab Republic 0.902 0.982 0.796 0.911 0.918 74 Tunisia 0.901 0.985 0.743 0.910 0.965 75 Philippines 0.897 0.944 0.926 0.963 0.753 76 Jamaica 0.890 0.914 0.799 0.949 0.897 77 Turkey 0.889 0.893 0.874 0.841 0.946 78 South Africa 0.888 0.932 0.824 0.955 0.841 79 Egypt 0.887 0.972 0.714 0.876 0.986 80 Botswana 0.885 0.842 0.812 0.973 0.912 81 Algeria 0.880 0.990 0.699 0.872 0.962 82 Oman 0.880 0.798 0.814 0.934 0.976 83 Bahamas4 0.879 0.843 0.958 0.964 0.752 84 Colombia 0.879 0.849 0.928 0.963 0.775 85 Cape Verde 0.877 0.924 0.780 0.893 0.912 86 Iran, Islamic Republic of 0.864 0.887 0.770 0.897 0.902 87 El Salvador 0.861 0.941 0.811 0.965 0.728 88 Myanmar 0.860 0.876 0.899 0.963 0.703 89 Namibia 0.853 0.738 0.850 0.942 0.881 90 United Arab Emirates4 0.852 0.728 0.788 0.947 0.947 91 Zimbabwe4 0.840 0.825 0.900 0.936 0.697 92 Zambia 0.829 0.809 0.680 0.844 0.985 93 Swaziland 0.826 0.770 0.796 0.969 0.768 94 Guatemala 0.825 0.945 0.691 0.886 0.779 95 Dominican Republic 0.816 0.878 0.870 0.923 0.592 96 Nicaragua 0.811 0.942 0.767 0.949 0.588

Low EDI 97 Lesotho 0.797 0.862 0.822 0.869 0.634 Note: Data in blue indicate 98 Kenya 0.797 0.770 0.736 0.928 0.753 that gender disparities are at the expense of boys or men, 99 India 0.789 0.961 0.610 0.795 0.789 particularly at secondary level. 100 Saudi Arabia 0.787 0.540 0.794 0.879 0.936 1. Total primary NER includes 101 Cambodia 0.774 0.976 0.736 0.787 0.597 children of primary school age 102 Morocco 0.746 0.867 0.523 0.781 0.812 who are enrolled in either primary or secondary schools. 103 Lao PDR 0.741 0.844 0.687 0.809 0.626 2. The adult literacy rate is 104 Mauritania 0.730 0.745 0.512 0.848 0.816 a proxy measure based on 105 Bangladesh 0.722 0.975 0.426 0.837 0.651 educational attainment; that is, the proportion of the adult 106 Nigeria4 0.721 0.619 0.708 0.829 0.726 population with at least a 107 Malawi 0.719 0.961 0.641 0.834 0.438 complete primary education. 108 Equatorial Guinea 0.708 0.857 0.870 0.780 0.326 3. The NER in primary education 109 Rwanda 0.686 0.735 0.649 0.904 0.458 is not published in the statistical tables as the 110 Togo 0.684 0.816 0.532 0.631 0.760 reported number of pupils of 111 Ghana 0.682 0.659 0.579 0.855 0.633 official primary school age is 112 Nepal 0.668 0.802 0.486 0.776 0.608 believed to be underestimated. 4 However, in order to calculate 113 Djibouti 0.665 0.332 0.703 0.749 0.877 the EDI, an estimate of the 114 Senegal 0.646 0.662 0.393 0.749 0.782 total primary NER has been 115 Burundi 0.646 0.572 0.593 0.787 0.630 made. For more details, see the introduction to the 116 Eritrea4 0.644 0.483 0.605 0.686 0.803 statistical tables. 4 117 Yemen 0.642 0.758 0.530 0.548 0.732 4. Adult literacy rates are 118 Ethiopia 0.627 0.579 0.452 0.745 0.733 unofficial UIS estimates 119 Benin 0.617 0.835 0.347 0.592 0.694 generated in July 2002, using 4 the previous UIS assessment 120 Mozambique 0.599 0.710 0.504 0.691 0.492 model. 121 Guinea 0.583 0.643 0.295 0.575 0.820 Sources: Annex, Statistical 122 Mali 0.529 0.465 0.190 0.613 0.846 Tables 2, 5, 7 and 8; UNESCO 123 Burkina Faso 0.511 0.409 0.218 0.661 0.758 (2005); UNESCO Institute for Statistics database; 124 Niger 0.499 0.396 0.287 0.578 0.736 European Commission (2004) 125 Chad 0.428 0.571 0.257 0.425 0.458 (for proxy literacy measure for European countries). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: Adultliteracyrates 4. TheNERinprimary 3. Theadultliteracy 2. Total primaryNER 1. for European countries). (for proxyliteracymeasure Commission (2004) database; European Institute forStatistics UNESCO (2005); Tables 2,5,7and8; model. previous UISassessment in July2002,usingthe estimates generated are unofficialUIS the statisticaltables. see theintroductionto made. Formoredetails, primary NERhasbeen estimate ofthetotal calculate theEDI,an However, inorderto to beunderestimated. school ageisbelieved pupils ofofficialprimary the reportednumberof statistical tablesas published inthe education isnot education. least completeprimary population withat proportion oftheadult attainment, thatis,the based oneducational rate isaproxymeasure schools. primary orsecondary are enrolledineither primary schoolagewho includes childrenof Annex, Statistical Table 2:Countries ranked according to value of EDIandcomponents, 2004 Mongolia Malaysia Lebanon Macao, China Mauritius Indonesia Saint Lucia Palestinian A.T. Portugal Malta Uruguay Azerbaijan Kuwait Argentina Jordan Mexico Medium EDI Netherlands Antilles Ukraine Bahrain Luxembourg China Albania Costa Rica TFYR Macedonia Seychelles Romania Bulgaria Fiji Chile Belarus Tajikistan Croatia Kyrgyzstan Lithuania Armenia Denmark Cuba Cyprus Trinidad andTobago Spain Ireland Greece Hungary Slovakia Israel Italy Barbados Estonia Austria Poland Czech Republic Switzerland Latvia Republic ofKorea Sweden Norway Germany Belgium France Kazakhstan Finland Slovenia United Kingdom High EDI Te C 202 ount rr ito 3 2 r 3 r ies/ 2 2 2 ies 2 2, 3 2 / ANNEX 2 2 3 2 2 4 2, 3 2 2 2, 3 4 3 2 2 2 2, 3 2 4 EDI 38 66 69 40 47 69 9 83 29 86 36 75 81 69 71 52 71 83 36 54 59 70 18 31 81 57 63 13 68 63 85 62 88 79 65 62 61 44 58 55 15 60 51 79 76 27 59 84 36 72 82 58 31 49 3 35 57 63 42 24 65 56 66 50 17 55 64 39 96 54 76 67 80 53 34 61 12 52 3 55 60 51 57 4 11 50 17 59 49 41 73 37 48 19 64 51 78 25 42 27 46 97 16 30 62 31 47 58 38 26 78 46 61 43 49 61 45 32 24 43 56 44 28 41 57 46 43 1 65 37 77 42 12 35 32 50 41 11 23 52 58 40 56 84 47 49 39 35 22 15 23 38 9 54 18 59 37 18 3 33 81 36 45 39 27 41 35 33 15 14 73 34 1 32 20 55 33 18 48 40 76 32 6 53 10 28 31 18 48 2 49 42 30 46 25 47 29 26 46 38 22 5 28 5 22 42 27 53 44 10 13 26 50 1 18 51 25 7 39 7 16 24 18 8 40 54 23 7 25 29 45 22 38 28 13 34 21 18 15 11 10 20 12 41 1 43 39 19 47 34 38 18 8 16 44 6 17 1 37 16 12 43 15 30 29 14 33 13 6 12 11 10 412 18 20 18 1 21 24 1 18 9 16 14 82023732 146 4 9 1 5828 1341917 1 311 218 102521 29 1 1 19 4 130 8 p r NER Total ima 1 r y lite Adult r ate r a c y EFA index Gende spe (GEI) c ifi r c - S g r u r ate to ade 5 r vival Algeria Botswana Egypt South Africa Turkey Jamaica Philippines Tunisia Syrian ArabRepublic Brazil Paraguay Viet Nam Bolivia Ecuador Peru Republic ofMoldova Panama Venezuela Medium EDI Chad Niger Burkina Faso Mali Guinea Mozambique Benin Ethiopia Yemen Eritrea Burundi Senegal Djibouti Nepal Ghana Togo Rwanda Equatorial Guinea Malawi Nigeria Bangladesh Mauritania Lao PDR Morocco Cambodia Saudi Arabia India Kenya Lesotho Low EDI Nicaragua Dominican Republic Guatemala Swaziland Zambia Zimbabwe U. A.Emirates Namibia Myanmar El Salvador Iran, Isl.Rep. Cape Verde Colombia Bahamas Oman Te C ount rr ito r r ies/ 4 4 ies 4 4 4 2, 3 4 4 4 2 1 2 2 123 104 125 100 82 122 88 123 118 122 120 121 119 111 124 123 124 125 116 105 125 121 123 121 106 124 122 92 115 115 123 120 115 124 115 122 112 94 117 117 98 121 78 112 109 120 117 108 113 117 119 107 114 109 114 118 121 99 119 112 117 99 118 122 100 116 125 113 116 119 115 91 125 124 110 111 114 103 108 111 113 104 114 112 105 76 112 105 100 89 111 106 103 110 116 91 110 91 99 100 53 109 118 118 106 62 108 110 116 114 108 36 107 103 95 106 113 108 97 93 105 89 104 90 35 103 102 120 101 100 EDI 11 0 755 66 33 97 86 45 96 60 101 74 67 85 102 98 102 18 52 74 82 95 65 61 74 40 81 83 90 87 71 80 90 89 54 84 79 80 71 95 79 78 81 44 88 64 77 98 79 70 26 76 87 77 58 30 75 17 72 64 68 74 70 85 77 74 73 68 60 34 72 72 73 60 48 71 72 14 70 31 9 56 69 51 68 101 21 67 69 66 65 64 95 0 0 93 101 113 107 85 98 107 120 96 119 83 52 73 95 106 87 97 90 99 98 94 94 37 110 97 75 50 59 66 102 101 80 77 87 89 109 75 63 96 104 107 66 78 95 105 70 62 94 91 102 67 56 99 93 80 96 92 68 92 111 93 103 86 91 109 63 48 93 88 90 57 92 67 89 53 82 86 88 45 75 87 92 86 84 94 85 84 104 83 82 p r NER Total ima 1 r y lite Adult r ate r a c y EFA index Gende spe (GEI) c ifi r c - S g r u r ate to ade 5 r vival THE EDUCATION FOR ALL DEVELOPMENT INDEX / 203

Tables 2 and 3

Table 3: Change in EDI and its components between 2003 and 2004

EFA Development Index Change in the EDI components between 2003 and 2004 (% in relative terms) Total primary Adult Gender-specific Survival Countries/ Variation NER1 literacy rate EFA index rate to Territories 2003 2004 2003-2004 % % (GEI) grade 5

High EDI United Kingdom2 0.980 0.994 1.5 0.0 0.1 6.2 0.0 Slovenia2 0.983 0.994 1.1 4.6 -0.3 0.2 0.0 Finland2 0.991 0.994 0.3 -0.5 0.0 1.7 0.0 Kazakhstan 0.989 0.992 0.3 0.8 0.0 -0.9 1.5 France2 0.992 0.992 0.0 -0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0 Belgium2 0.989 0.992 0.3 -1.0 0.0 2.2 0.0 Norway2 0.993 0.991 -0.2 -1.1 0.6 -0.3 0.0 Sweden2 0.982 0.991 0.9 -1.1 0.0 5.0 0.0 Republic of Korea3 0.990 0.988 -0.2 -0.2 0.4 0.2 -1.0 Latvia2 0.961 0.987 2.8 11.7 0.0 -0.1 0.5 Switzerland2 0.992 0.986 -0.6 -1.8 0.0 -0.6 0.0 Czech Republic2, 4 0.956 0.986 3.1 12.1 0.1 0.5 0.7 Poland2 0.983 0.986 0.3 -0.6 0.3 1.1 0.5 Estonia 0.984 0.984 0.1 -0.4 0.0 0.6 0.0 Barbados3 0.994 0.984 -1.0 -2.7 0.0 0.1 -1.3 Italy 0.971 0.984 1.3 -0.4 4.7 1.1 0.0 Israel 0.950 0.984 3.6 -1.6 0.2 0.5 17.3 Slovakia2, 4 0.956 0.983 2.9 13.4 -0.1 -0.1 -0.3 Hungary2 0.987 0.982 -0.4 -2.1 0.7 -0.3 0.0 Greece 0.970 0.982 1.3 -0.4 5.4 0.4 0.0 Ireland2 0.979 0.982 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.6 Spain2 0.982 0.982 0.0 -0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 Trinidad and Tobago 0.904 0.981 8.6 1.7 0.3 0.4 40.5 Cyprus 0.983 0.981 -0.1 0.1 0.0 -0.6 -0.1 Cuba 0.976 0.981 0.5 2.3 0.0 0.1 -0.2 Denmark2 0.979 0.980 0.1 -0.1 0.2 0.4 0.0 Armenia 0.983 0.979 -0.3 -0.9 0.0 -0.5 0.0 Lithuania 0.976 0.975 -0.1 -1.4 0.0 0.4 0.7 Kyrgyzstan 0.965 0.974 0.9 0.7 0.0 0.7 2.5 Croatia 0.978 0.973 -0.5 -2.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Belarus 0.978 0.971 -0.7 -4.6 0.0 0.0 1.5 Chile4 0.952 0.969 1.8 9.8 0.0 -0.6 -1.0 Fiji 0.944 0.966 2.3 -1.1 0.0 -0.5 11.6 Bulgaria 0.956 0.965 1.0 4.7 0.0 -0.4 -0.2 Romania 0.957 0.965 0.8 3.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 Seychelles 0.975 0.962 -1.3 -3.1 0.0 -1.9 -0.2 TFYR Macedonia 0.952 0.961 0.9 1.4 0.0 -0.1 2.4 Costa Rica4 0.938 0.956 2.0 7.2 -1.0 1.0 0.9 Albania 0.957 0.956 -0.1 0.7 0.0 -0.9 -0.1 China 0.954 0.954 0.0 -1.1 0.0 1.0 0.0 Luxembourg2 0.964 0.953 -1.2 0.5 -1.7 0.0 -3.3 Bahrain 0.930 0.953 2.4 8.0 -1.4 2.0 0.9 Ukraine 0.958 0.952 -0.6 -2.4 0.0 -0.4 0.0 Netherlands Antilles 0.927 0.951 2.6 10.8 0.3 -0.3 0.0

Medium EDI Mexico 0.946 0.949 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.5 -0.4 Jordan 0.946 0.948 0.2 -0.8 0.0 -0.3 1.7 Argentina 0.968 0.946 -2.2 -0.3 0.0 -0.5 -8.5 Kuwait 0.914 0.946 3.5 3.0 12.5 0.1 -0.3 Azerbaijan 0.932 0.946 1.5 5.0 0.0 0.6 1.2 Uruguay4 0.941 0.946 0.5 9.1 0.3 -0.7 -6.4 Malta 0.954 0.945 -0.9 -1.8 0.0 -1.9 0.0 Portugal2 0.938 0.942 0.4 -0.1 1.9 -0.1 0.0 Palestinian A. T. 0.950 0.942 -0.8 -4.7 0.6 0.2 0.6 Saint Lucia 0.950 0.942 -0.9 -1.5 0.0 4.9 -6.7 Indonesia 0.923 0.938 1.5 2.3 2.9 1.0 0.0 Mauritius 0.943 0.936 -0.7 -2.1 0.1 -0.5 0.0 Macao, China 0.928 0.934 0.7 2.3 0.0 0.8 0.0 Lebanon3 0.909 0.934 2.7 2.9 1.6 0.1 6.2 Malaysia 0.908 0.934 2.9 0.1 0.0 -1.0 13.0 Mongolia 0.916 0.933 1.9 8.7 0.0 0.9 -1.2 Venezuela 0.911 0.932 2.3 1.4 0.0 0.3 8.1 Panama 0.944 0.928 -1.7 -0.8 0.0 -0.1 -6.2 Republic of Moldova 0.910 0.918 0.9 2.6 2.3 0.2 -1.2 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Sources: TheNERinprimary 4. Adultliteracyratesare 3. Theadultliteracyrate 2. Total primaryNER 1. for Europeancountries). (for proxyliteracymeasure Commission (2004) database; European Institute forStatistics UNESCO (2005); Tables 2,5,7and8; the statisticaltables. see theintroductionto made. Formoredetails, primary NERhasbeen estimate ofthetotal calculate theEDI,an However, inorderto to beunderestimated. school ageisbelieved pupils ofofficialprimary the reportednumberof statistical tablesas published inthe education isnot assessment model. using thepreviousUIS generated inJuly2002, unofficial UISestimates primary education. at leastacomplete adult populationwith the proportionof attainment, thatis, based oneducational is aproxymeasure schools. primary orsecondary are enrolledineither primary schoolagewho includes childrenof Annex, Statistical Table 3(continued) C Nicaragua Dominican Republic Guatemala Swaziland Zambia United ArabEmirates Namibia Myanmar El Salvador Iran, Isl.Rep. Cape Verde Colombia Bahamas Oman Algeria Botswana Egypt South Africa Jamaica Philippines Tunisia Syrian ArabRepublic Brazil Paraguay Viet Nam Bolivia Ecuador Peru Medium EDI Te Chad Niger Burkina Faso Mali Mozambique Ethiopia Yemen Eritrea Burundi Senegal Djibouti Nepal Ghana Rwanda Equatorial Guinea Bangladesh Mauritania Lao PDR Morocco Cambodia Saudi Arabia India Kenya Lesotho Low EDI 204 ount rr ito r r ies/ 3 3 ies 3 / ANNEX 3 2, 4 3 3 EFA DevelopmentIndex 2003 .3 .2 27-. . 093.3 6.4 14.5 13.4 0.0 -0.9 -3.6 24.9 -5.3 -6.9 7.6 4.7 -6.7 4.6 -2.3 9.3 0.5 12.6 5.8 -6.4 99.4 0.0 -3.7 2.1 69.9 0.0 -1.7 10.6 2.8 8.3 6.3 20.8 4.8 -9.4 8.8 8.2 2.7 2.4 34.8 -2.4 4.9 11.8 0.0 4.5 2.4 0.7 1.3 -2.0 0.0 28.4 1.1 -2.7 2.3 5.7 20.2 9.0 0.0 28.6 4.8 11.1 0.9 7.0 15.6 27.6 5.9 7.5 0.428 0.3 -13.1 3.0 -0.5 1.5 0.499 3.3 10.4 -4.2 0.439 0.511 -0.9 17.0 -3.1 3.6 -0.9 0.458 3.1 0.529 -9.3 9.6 0.0 0.443 0.5 0.599 -1.2 3.2 0.1 0.9 0.492 0.627 -14.3 -1.1 19.6 3.1 4.8 0.543 0.642 -15.6 0.0 -1.0 0.8 0.536 5.8 0.644 0.0 11.5 0.2 0.622 28.4 2.5 0.646 0.0 9.8 2.3 0.652 3.0 0.646 0.0 -0.6 -6.9 -0.7 8.8 -1.6 0.653 0.665 -4.0 1.0 -3.4 0.8 5.7 0.653 2.8 0.668 4.4 0.629 8.9 0.682 -4.6 -0.5 -3.5 0.652 0.686 3.7 2.5 14.1 0.0 -1.2 0.662 0.708 -0.5 -0.7 13.9 11.6 1.2 -0.8 0.715 0.722 -0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.689 -0.4 1.7 0.730 0.5 0.663 0.741 -2.3 -0.8 -0.2 4.1 0.2 0.640 6.5 0.746 0.5 3.8 0.745 8.9 2.0 0.774 0.6 -0.6 0.0 -8.9 0.749 0.787 -2.4 0.2 29.9 6.6 -1.6 2.2 0.761 0.789 1.9 1.9 0.0 -0.1 0.789 0.797 -0.9 0.0 1.5 0.4 0.741 15.7 0.797 -0.7 3.0 0.731 3.7 -17.9 -5.7 0.3 -1.4 -5.9 0.3 0.817 5.5 5.7 4.1 0.3 1.9 17.1 0.811 9.3 1.9 -1.4 0.816 -0.1 0.1 10.8 -0.3 2.7 2.1 2.3 0.817 0.825 2.9 -3.8 -6.8 2.5 0.865 0.826 -3.4 2.1 -5.8 28.5 0.0 0.782 3.1 0.829 -0.3 0.0 0.4 0.810 2.3 0.852 -15.5 8.4 -8.8 0.748 0.853 1.0 -1.2 2.2 0.0 0.4 0.886 0.860 0.0 -0.2 3.8 0.5 0.883 0.3 0.861 4.3 -4.0 1.9 0.834 0.864 -4.6 0.2 -0.5 0.842 4.4 0.877 0.0 -4.2 0.874 0.4 0.879 0.2 0.0 0.879 3.0 0.879 0.2 0.1 0.876 7.1 0.880 0.0 -1.5 0.921 5.7 0.880 0.0 -4.4 0.843 0.885 -3.6 3.5 0.877 0.887 -0.2 -1.1 0.859 0.7 0.888 0.3 0.828 0.890 -0.7 -0.2 0.840 0.0 0.897 -0.2 0.923 4.4 0.901 0.898 0.902 -0.1 0.895 0.8 0.905 0.908 0.6 0.909 0.905 0.5 0.910 0.870 0.911 0.910 0.914 0.904 0.916 0.908 0.911 2004 2003-2004 Va r iation Total p C hange intheEDI NER % r ima 1 r y c omponents between2003and2004(%in lite r Adult a % c y r ate Gende EFA index (GEI) r -spe c ifi c r elative te S g r u r ate to ade 5 r r vival ms) NATIONAL LEARNING ASSESSMENTS BY COUNTRY AND REGION / 205

Introduction

National learning assessments by region and country

Introduction

hese tables provide an overview of Abbreviations used in the tables assessment and evaluation activities undertaken by countries in sub-Saharan DFID Department for International Development, Africa, the Arab States, Asia, and Latin United Kingdom America and the Caribbean. Such Tactivities aim to provide education stakeholders EU European Union with systematic information about the status of students’ learning outcomes and the extent to HSRC Human Sciences Research Council which students attain predefined standards or proficiencies. The scientific reliability and validity ICFES Instituto Colombiano para el Fomento of national assessments vary greatly, and thus de la Educación Superior cross-country comparisons are not warranted. Nevertheless, such learning assessments IDB Inter-American Development Bank represent a potentially useful tool to monitor educational quality, address national policy issues IEA International Association for the Evaluation and pinpoint areas for government attention and of Educational Achievement programme intervention. IEQ Improving Educational Quality Information for the tables was compiled from an array of sources (e.g. printed material, IIEP International Institute for Educational Planning websites, experts and contacts through UNESCO regional offices), some of which were partial ILI International Literacy Institute and/or contradictory. Much effort has been made to verify and cross-check the reported INEE Instituto Nacional para la Evaluación information, but some mistakes are likely. de la Educación The EFA Global Monitoring Report Team intends to continue to expand and revise this INEP Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas information in the coming years. For a more Educacionais Anísio Teixeira detailed listing of national learning assessments, see Encinas-Martin (2006). MoE Ministry of Education (or equivalent national body)

NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training

NIER National Institute for Educational Policy Research

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 ... informationnotavailable Table 1:Sub-Saharan Africa Country Zambia South Africa Nigeria Mauritius Malawi Ghana Gambia Ethiopia Eritrea Central Afr.Rep. Primary ReadingProgramme Literacy inPrimarySchools Reading LevelsandBilingual Systemic EvaluationStudy Learner AssessmentResults Monitoring EducationQuality Achievement Assessment ofLearning Programme Universal BasicEducation and Numeracy Early DiagnosticToolforLiteracy Setting Local LanguageinaMultilingual Literacy Developmentthrougha Literacy inPrimarySchools Reading LevelsandBilingual Schools Reading inEnglishPrimary in DevelopingCountries Quality ofLearningandTeaching Achievements Level Primary SchoolsLearner Ghana’s SchoolLanguagePolicy Evaluation ofImplementation National test Learning Achievement Sample BaselineonStudents Learning Achievement Quality ofeducation 206 Name ordescription of assessmentstudy / ANNEX of EducationinAfrica Association fortheDevelopment DFID MoE andHSRC Support ProgrammeandUSAID HSRC, DistrictDevelopment HSRC MoE Commission Universal BasicEducation and MauritiusInstituteofEducation Mauritius ExaminationsSyndicate USAID andIEQ DFID DFID DFID Census Annual BasicEducationStatistics USAID andIEQ MoE Examinations National Organizationfor MoE … epnil o sesetTre ouainCriua ujc()asse Year(s) Curricularsubject(s)assessed Targetpopulation responsible forassessment Organization/institution Grades 1to6 Grades 3,4,5,6 Grade 6 Grade 3 Grade 9 secondary Junior andsenior and 1,3(secondary) Grades 1,6(primary) school All levelsofprimary Grades 2,3,4 Grades 3,4,5,6 Grades 3,4,6 4 yearsofschooling Grades 3,5,7 Grades 1to4 Grades 2,4,6 Grades 4,8 Grades 1,4 Grades 4,5 Reading, writing English, locallanguages sciences Language, mathematics, Reading sciences English, mathematics, studies, integratedsciences English, mathematics,social sciences, socialsciences English, mathematics, Literacy, numeracy Literacy skills English, locallanguages English English, mothertongue mathematics Chicewa, English, Languages mathematics (variable) English, French, chemistry, biology environmental science, English, mathematics, Languages, mathematics French, mathematics 2003 since 1996 Annually 2003 2001 developed Being 1999, 2000 1998 1993 1998 1996, 1997, since 2004 Annually 2001 1999, 2000, 1999, 2000 1997, 1998, 2000, 2004 1999 1997 1999, 2002 1998 2005 NATIONAL LEARNING ASSESSMENTS BY COUNTRY AND REGION / 207

Tables 1 and 2

Table 2: Arab States

Name or description Organization/institution Country of assessment study responsible for assessment Target population Curricular subject(s) assessed Year(s)

Algeria Programme national d’évaluation MoE Grades 3, 6, 9 Arabic, French, … du rendement (primary) and 1 mathematics (secondary)

Djibouti Evaluation du niveau de qualité Centre de Recherche, Primary and lower French, Arabic, 1991, 1992, et du rendement cognitive d’Information et de Production secondary mathematics 1997 – 2000 de l’Education Nationale

Egypt Global Evaluation MoE Grades 1, 2, 3 All school subjects Annually since 2005

Jordan National test MoE and DFID Grade 10 Arabic, English, Annually mathematics, sciences, since 2000 social sciences

Lebanon Mesure des acquis Centre de Recherche et de Grade 4 + Languages, mathematics, 1994, 1995, d'apprentissage Développement Pédagogiques complementary year sciences, transversal 1996 competencies/savoir-être (variable)

Morocco Diagnostic et appui aux MoE Grades 3, 5, 8 Arabic, French, 2000 apprentissages mathematics

Evaluation des pré-recquis MoE and UNICEF Grades 4, 6 Arabic, French, 2001 mathematics, life skills

Evaluation des acquis des élèves MoE and EU Grade 6 Arabic, French, 2006 mathematics, sciences

Qatar Comprehensive Educational Evaluation Institute Grades 3 to 11 Arabic, English, Annually Assessment and School Surveys mathematics, sciences since 2004

Saudi Arabia Diagnostic Test in the Public MoE Grades 1, 2, 3 Arabic, mathematics … Evaluation System

United Arab National Assessment of Student Australian Council for Educational Grades 5, 7 Literacy, numeracy 2005 Emirates Achievement and Progress Research

... information not available Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 3:Asia Country Viet Nam Singapore Republic ofKorea Pakistan Myanmar Mongolia Lao PDR Japan Indonesia India Bangladesh Assessment Study Reading andMathematics Core ResearchProgram Educational Assessment National Assessmentof Achievement) Quality ofEducation(Learning National AchievementTest Learning AchievementStudy (district) level Regional testataigmag National test National LiteracySurvey Performance National AssessmentofStudent Outcomes National AssessmentofLearning Learning Achievement Assessment ofStudents Terminal AssessmentSurvey Mid-Term AssessmentSurvey Baseline AssessmentSurvey School BasedAssessment IDEAL Project National Assessment of PupilsCompletionGrade4 Assessment oftheAchievement 208 Name ordescription of assessmentstudy / ANNEX MoE andWorldBank and Practice Centre forResearchinPedagogy and Evaluation Korean InstituteofCurriculum and Management Academy ofEducationalPlanning Assessment System MoE andNationalEducation MoE andUNICEF Agency State ProfessionalAssessment MoE MoE, UNESCOandUNICEF MoE andNIER NIER Board Educational NationalStandard NCERT NCERT NCERT MoE MoE MoE for PrimaryEducation) MoE andNCTB(NationalAcademy epnil o sesetTre ouainCriua ujc()asse Year(s) Curricularsubject(s)assessed Targetpopulation responsible forassessment Organization/institution Grade 5 secondary Pre-school to Grades 6,9,10 Grade 4 Grades 4,8(variable) Grades 3,5 (variable) Grades 5,9,11 Grades 5,9,11 Age 6andabove Grades 6,9 (variable) Grades 5,9,12 senior (secondary) Grade 3(primary)and Grades 1,3,4 Grades 1,3,4 (variable) Grades 1,3,4,5,7,8 Grade 9 Grades 1to5 Grades 3,5 Grade 4 Reading, mathematics sciences, ICT Languages, mathematics, social studies mathematics, sciences, Korean, English, Sindhi, Urdu,mathematics sciences, socialstudies Languages, mathematics, mathematics, sciences Myanmar language, biology (variable) history, physics,chemistry, Languages, mathematics, Language, mathematics visual literacy Reading, writing,numeracy, Japanese, mathematics history, civics social studies,geography, mathematics, sciences, Japanese, English, mathematics Indonesian, English, Language, mathematics Language, mathematics (variable) environmental studies Language, mathematics, measures activities andquantitative Range ofbehaviours, social sciences mathematics, sciences, Bangla, English, environmental studies sciences, social Bangla, mathematics, social sciences mathematics, sciences, Bangla, English, since 2005 Annually 2001 1997 (variable) 2003, 2004 1994, 2002, decided To be 2004 2001 2000 2001 2003 since 2003 Annually 2000 2005, 2006 2005, 2006 1997 years since Every 5/6 since 1997 Annually 2000 2007 2004 2002, 2003, NATIONAL LEARNING ASSESSMENTS BY COUNTRY AND REGION / 209

Tables 3 and 4

Table 4: Latin America and the Caribbean

Name or description Organization/institution Country of assessment study responsible for assessment Target population Curricular subject(s) assessed Year(s)

Argentina Sistema Nacional de Evaluación Instituto de Calidad Educativa Grades 3, 7 (primary) Language, mathematics, Annually de la Calidad Educativa and 2, 5 (secondary) sciences, social sciences 1993 – 2001 (variable)

Dirección Nacional de MoE Grades 3, 6, 7, 9 Language, mathematics, Annually Información y Evaluación (primary) and 5, 6 sciences, social sciences 1993 – 2005 de la Calidad Educativa (secondary) (variable) (variable)

Bolivia SIMECAL MoE Grades 1, 3, 6, 8 Language, mathematics Annually (primary) and 4 1996 – 2000 (secondary)

Brazil National System of Evaluation MoE and INEP Grades 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, Language, mathematics, 1990 – 2005 of Basic Education 11 (variable) sciences, social sciences (variable) (variable)

Exámen Nacional de Enseñanza INEP Last year of primary Language, problem-solving, Annually Media 1998 – 2005

Chile Prueba de Evaluación del MoE and Universidad Católica Grades 4, 8 Language, mathematics, 1982, 1983, Rendimiento Escolar sciences, social sciences 1984

Sistema de Medición de Calidad MoE Grades 4, 8 (primary) Language, mathematics, Annually de la Educación and 2 (secondary) sciences, social sciences, 1988 to 2005 (variable) behaviour, (variable)

Colombia Medición y Evaluación MoE and ICFES Grades 3, 5, 7, 9 Language, mathematics Annually de Aprendizajes 1991 – 1994

SABER MoE Grades 3, 5, 7, 9 Language, mathematics, Annually (variable) sciences 1997 – 2003

Exámenes de Estado MoE and ICFES Grade 11 Languages, mathematics, Annually sciences, social sciences 1980 to 2005

Costa Rica Pruebas de Conocimientos MoE and Universidad de Costa Rica Grades 3, 6, 9, 11, 12 Language, mathematics, Annually (variable) sciences, social sciences 1986 – 1997

Pruebas Nacionales MoE Secondary school Languages, mathematics, Annually de Bachillerato sciences, social sciences 1988 – 2003

Cuba Pruebas de Aprendizaje MoE, Sistema de Evaluación de la Grades 3, 4, 6, 9, 12 Language, mathematics 1975, 1996, Calidad de la Educación and 1997, 1998, Instituto de Ciencias Pedagógicas 2000, 2002

Dominican Sistema de Pruebas Nacionales MoE, IDB and World Bank Grades 8 (primary) Language, mathematics, Annually Republic and 4 (secondary) sciences, social sciences 1991 – 2003 (variable)

Ecuador APRENDO MoE, World Bank and Univ. Grades 3, 7, 10 Language, mathematics Annually Católica 1996 – 2000

El Salvador Sistema Nacional de Evaluación MoE, USAID and World Bank Pre-school, grades 1 Language, mathematics, Annually de los Aprendizajes to 6, 9 (primary) and 2 sciences, social sciences, 1993 – 2001 (secondary) (variable) health education

Pruebas de Aprendizaje y MoE Grades 2, 3 Language, mathematics, Annually Aptitudes para Egresados de (secondary) and sciences, social sciences 1997 – 2004 Educación Media technical education

Guatemala Sistema Nacional de Medición MoE, World Bank, and Valle de Grades 3, 7 (primary) Language, mathematics, Annually del Logro Académico Guatemala University 2, 5 (secondary) sciences, social sciences 1992 – 1996 (variable) (variable)

Programa Nacional de MoE, World Bank and Valle de Grades 1, 3, 6 Language, mathematics 1998, 1999, Evaluación del Rendimiento Guatemala University (variable) 2000, 2004 Escolar

Dirección General de Educación MoE and IDB Grades 1, 3 Language, mathematics 2003 Bilingüe Intercultural Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 4(continued) Country Venezuela Uruguay Peru Paraguay Panama Nicaragua Mexico y EvaluacióndelAprendizaje Sistema NacionaldeMedición Resultados Educativos Unidad deMedición UMC-CRECER Unidad deMediciónCalidad– Educativo Evaluación delProceso Sistemas Nacionalesde de laCalidadEducación Sistema NacionaldeEvaluación CECE de Diagnóstico Programa dePruebas de laEducaciónBásicayMedia Sistema NacionaldeEvaluación Transformado Evaluación delCurrículo a Secundaria de AlumnosNuevoIngreso Instrumento paraelDiagnóstico Carrera Magistral Aprovechamiento Escolar– Estándares Nacionales Primaria Educativa delaEducación Sistema NacionaldeEvaluación 210 Name ordescription of assessmentstudy / ANNEX Ciencia Mejoramiento delaEnseñanzaen and CentroNacionalparael MoE, WorldBank,Univ.Católica Educación PúblicaandWorldBank Administración Nacionalde MoE MoE andIDB Cultural Centroamericana MoE andCoordinaciónEducativay MoE andvariousagencies MoE andvariousagencies USAID andUNESCO MoE MoE MoE andINEE MoE andINEE MoE epnil o sesetTre ouainCriua ujc()asse Year(s) Curricularsubject(s)assessed Targetpopulation responsible forassessment Organization/institution Grade 6 (primary) (variable) grades 1to4,6 Pre-school and (secondary) (primary) and3to5 Grades 2,4,6 Grades 3,6,9,12 Grades 3,6,9 (secondary) Grades 1to6 (variable) and 6(secondary) Grades 3,6(primary) Grades 3,6 and 3(secondary) Grade 4,5(primary) Grade 6 (secondary) (primary) and1to3 Grades 3to6 Grades 2,4,5,6, Grades 3,4,5,6 Language, mathematics (variable) affective development behaviour, cognitiveand sciences, social Language, mathematics, citizenship (variable) sciences, social Language, mathematics, (variable) sciences, socialsciences Language, mathematics, (variable) sciences, socialsciences Language, mathematics, Language, mathematics Language, mathematics Language, mathematics Language, mathematics numerical reasoning Reading, verbaland foreign languages sciences, social Language, mathematics, Language, mathematics sciences, socialsciences Language, mathematics, 1998 2002 1999, 2001, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2004 1996, 1998, 1996 –2001 Annually 2001 1999, 2000, 1995 1992 1987, 1988, 1985, 1986, 2002 1996, 1997 1995 –2005 Annually 1994 –2005 Annually 1997 –2004 Annually 1996 –2000 Annually STATISTICAL TABLES / 211

Introduction

Statistical tables

Introduction

he most recent data on pupils, students, by single year of age for countries with a total teachers and expenditure presented population of fewer than 80,000. Where no UNPD in these statistical tables are for the estimates exist, national population figures, when school year ending in 2004.1 They are available, or estimates from the UIS were used based on survey results reported to and to calculate enrolment ratios. Tprocessed by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) before the end of May 2006. Data received after this date will be used in the next EFA Global ISCED classification Monitoring Report. A small number of countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Education data reported to the UIS are in the Republic of Korea, Thailand, Uganda and the conformity with the 1997 revision of the United Republic of Tanzania) submitted data for International Standard Classification of Education the school year ending in 2005, presented in bold (ISCED). In some cases, data have been adjusted in the statistical tables. These statistics refer to to comply with the ISCED97 classification. Data for all formal schools, both public and private, by the school year ending in 1991 may conform to the level of education. They are supplemented by previous version of the classification, ISCED76, demographic and economic statistics collected and therefore may not be comparable in some or produced by other international organizations, countries to those for years after 1997. ISCED including the United Nations Development is used to harmonize data and introduce more Programme, the United Nations Population international comparability among national Division (UNPD) and the World Bank. education systems. Countries may have their own definitions of education levels that do not A total of 203 countries and territories correspond to ISCED. Therefore, some differences are listed in the statistical tables. Most of them between nationally and internationally reported report their data to the UIS using standard enrolment ratios may be due to the use of questionnaires issued by the Institute. For some nationally defined education levels rather than countries, however, education data are collected the ISCED standard, in addition to the population via surveys carried out under the auspices of the issue raised above. World Education Indicators (WEI) project funded by the World Bank, or are provided by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Adult participation Development (OECD) and the Statistical Office in basic education of the European Communities (Eurostat). ISCED does not classify education programmes by participants’ age. For example, any programme

Population with a content equivalent to primary education, 1. This means 2003/04 or ISCED 1, may be classed as ISCED 1 even if for countries with a school year that overlaps two The indicators on access and participation in the provided to adults. However, the guidance the UIS calendar years, and 2004 for those with a calendar statistical tables were calculated using the 2004 provides for respondents to its regular annual school year. revision of population estimates produced by the education survey asks countries to exclude ‘data 2. Where obvious UNPD. Because of possible differences between on programmes designed for people beyond inconsistencies exist between enrolment national population estimates and those of the regular school age’. On the other hand, the reported by countries and the United Nations United Nations, these indicators may differ from guidance for the UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) population data, UIS may those published by individual countries or by other and WEI questionnaires states that ‘activities decide to not calculate or publish the enrolment organizations.2 The UNPD does not provide data classified as “continuing”, “adult” or “non-formal” ratios. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 primary education. the officialagegroup for undercounting ofpupils in estimated effectsofthe was made,basedonthe an alternativeestimate ratios werenotcoherent, single-year enrolment cases wherethenational official agegroup.Inafew in thesecondyear group wereequaltothose first yearintheofficialage enrolment ratiosinthe assuming thatthe the countriesreported, ratios derivedfromdata single-year enrolment were basedonthenational NER weremade.They estimates oftotalprimary (EDI) forthesecountries, All DevelopmentIndex calculate theEducationfor Nevertheless, inorderto not published. enrolment ratio(NER)is Uruguay), thenet Paraguay, Slovakiaand Germany, Latvia, the CzechRepublic, (Austria, Chile,CostaRica, reported totheUIS underestimated inthedata believed tobe primary schoolageis number ofpupilsofficial 4. Forcountrieswherethe in thestatisticaltables. declaration’ areincluded methods and‘household the ‘self-declaration’ by countriesbasedon Only datareported attainment proxies. data basedoneducational longer topublishliteracy the UIShasdecidedno consistency reasons, 3. Forreliabilityand education. substantially abovetheofficialageforbasic UIS surveymayalsoincludepupilswhoare instructions, datafromcountriesintheregular programmes forolderstudents.DespitetheUIS concerning secondaryeducation,mayinclude collected viatheUOEquestionnaires,particularly countries andthoseforwhichstatisticsare aresultofthesedistinctions,datafromWEI As qualifications’ asdotheregularprogrammes. programmes leadtosimilarpotential educational programmes’orif‘theunderlying studies withsubjectcontentsimilartoregular education shouldbeincluded’ifthey‘involve 2) 2000–2004 dataarefromtheUISMay2006 1) 1990 datarepresentUISestimatesusedin They referto1990,2000–2004and2015: years andoveraswellyouthof15–24years. 15 with caution. country,dataneedtobeused collection differby As definitionsandmethodologiesusedfordata complete acertainlevelofeducationareliterate. skill. Somecountriesassumethatchildrenwho comprehensive questionortodemonstratethe literate, asopposedtobeingaskedamore method: respondentsareaskedwhetherthey based ondatasourcesthatusea‘self-declaration’ statistics relyonthisdefinitionandarelargely simple statementrelatedtoone’sdailylife. readandwrite,withunderstanding,ashort to UNESCO haslongdefinedliteracyastheability Literacy data 212 this introduction. Figuresdatedbefore2000 will definition foreach countryarepresentedafter 1995 and2004.Thereference yearandliteracy national censusesorsurveys takenbetween tables whenavailable.Theyare obtainedfrom literacy estimatesarepublished inthestatistical data togetherwithUISestimates. National release, whichusesdirectlyreportednational (www.uis.unesco.org). methodology canbereviewedattheUISwebsite population revision.TheUISestimation earlier EFAreports,rebasedtothe2004UN Literacy datainthisreportcoveradultsof In manycases,thecurrentUISliteracy / ANNEX 3 to omitdataitregardsasproblematic. concerned, butreservesthefinaldecision to resolvesuchproblemswiththecountries inconsistent. TheUISmakeseveryattempt submitted byacountryarefoundtobe Gaps inthetablesmayalsoarisewheredata sufficient supplementaryinformationisavailable. happen, theUISmaymakeitsownestimatesif as nationalestimates.Wherethisdoesnot to maketheirownestimates,whicharepresented Wherever possible,theUISencouragescountries questionnaires, estimatesareoftennecessary. are notreportedtotheUISusingstandard throughout thestatisticaltables.Whendata Both actualandestimateddataarepresented Estimates andmissing data common literate/illiteratedichotomy. continuumofliteracyskillsratherthanthe a higherqualityandisbasedontheconceptof of of literacyskills.Itaimstoprovidedata LAMP isbasedonactual,functionalassessment InternationalAdultLiteracySurvey(IALS), the Programme (LAMP).Followingtheexampleof called theLiteracyAssessmentandMonitoring new methodologyanddatacollectioninstrument In responsetothisneed,theUISisdevelopinga literacyskillsofthepopulationisgrowing. the 3) Projections to 2015wereproducedusing footnote. a was notavailable. Suchcasesareindicated by information fortheschoolyear endingin2004 for previousschoolyearswere includedwhen Monitoring Report methodology, seep.261ofthe2006 countries. Foradescriptionoftheprojection literate/illiterate populationsprovidedby empirical informationonnational the 2004UNpopulationrevision. before 1995.Allliteracyfiguresarerebasedto 2005 thatarebasedonnationaldatacollected period, thetablespublishUISestimatesfor year availableduringthe2000–2004reference did notreportliteracydataforthemostrecent recent nationalestimates.Forcountriesthat be replacedassoontheUISgetsmore In manycountries,interestinassessing To fillthegapsinstatistical tables,data . 4 EFA Global STATISTICAL TABLES / 213

Introduction

Data processing timetable Capped figures

The timetable for collection and publication There are cases where an indicator theoretically of data used in this report was as follows. should not exceed 100 (the NER, for example), but data inconsistencies may have resulted June 2004 (or December 2004 for some nonetheless in the indicator exceeding the countries with a calendar school year): the final theoretical limit. In these cases the indicator school year in the data collection period ended. is ‘capped’ at 100 but the gender balance is maintained: the higher value, whether for male November 2004 and May 2005: questionnaires or female, is set equal to 100 and the other two were sent to countries whose data are collected values – the lower of male or female plus the directly either by the UIS or through the WEI figure for both sexes – are then recalculated so and UOE questionnaires, with data submission that the gender parity index for the capped figures deadlines of 31 March 2005, 1 August 2005 and is the same as that for the uncapped figures. 30 September 2005, respectively. Footnotes to the tables, along with the June 2005: after sending reminders by e-mail, glossary following the statistical tables, provide fax and post, the UIS began to process data additional help in interpreting the data and and calculate indicators. information.

December 2005: provisional statistical tables In this Report, two statistical tables that were were produced and draft indicators sent to included last year are not presented: one on member states. literate environments (which has not changed significantly from what was published in the 2006 February 2006: the first draft of statistical tables EFA Global Monitoring Report) and one on the were produced for the EFA Global Monitoring distribution of tertiary-level students by field of Report. study. These tables will be published in future Reports as appropriate. April 2006: the final statistical tables were sent to the EFA Global Monitoring Report team. Symbols used in the statistical tables Regional averages * National estimate Regional figures for literacy rates, gross intake rates, gross and net enrolment ratios, ** UIS estimate and school life expectancy are weighted averages, taking into account the relative size of the … Missing data relevant population of each country in each region. The averages are derived from both — Magnitude nil or negligible published data and broad estimates for countries for which no reliable publishable data are . Category not applicable available. ./. Data included under another category The figures for the countries with larger populations thus have a proportionately greater o Countries whose education data are collected influence on the regional aggregates. Where not through UOE questionnaires enough reliable data are available to produce an overall weighted mean, a median figure is w WEI project countries calculated for countries with available data only. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 World classification Composition of regions 214 Africa; Cyprus,Israel,MongoliaandTurkey. Bermuda); SouthandWestAsia;sub-Saharan Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean(minus (minus Australia,JapanandNewZealand); Arab States;EastAsiaandthePacific Australia, Bermuda,JapanandNewZealand. Federation,TurkeyandUkraine); Russian (minus Belarus,RepublicofMoldova, Cyprus andIsrael);CentralEasternEurope North AmericaandWesternEurope(minus of CentralAsia(minusMongolia). Federation,Ukraine)andthecountries Russian Europe (Belarus,RepublicofMoldova, States, including4inCentralandEastern Countries oftheCommonwealthIndependent Developing countries(148): Developed countries(43): Countries intransition(12): / ANNEX EFA regions Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,China Tuvalu, Vanuatu,VietNam. eulco Moldova, Romania of Republic Algeria, Bahrain,Djibouti,Egypt Slovenia Nauru, NewZealand Micronesia (FederatedStatesof),Myanmar, Australia (33 countries/territories) East AsiaandthePacific Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia,Tajikistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan,Georgia,Kazakhstan, Bulgaria eulco Korea,Fiji,Indonesia Republic of of Korea Thailand Albania ArabEmirates,Yemen. United Philippines Republic, Macao(China),Malaysia Papua NewGuinea,Philippines Thailand Macedonia Hungary Macao (China),Malaysia Kiribati, LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic, Indonesia Democratic People’sRepublicofKorea, Sudan, SyrianArabRepublic,Tunisia Autonomous Territories,Qatar,SaudiArabia, Mauritania, Morocco,Oman,Palestinian Kuwait, Lebanon,LibyanArabJamahiriya, China Federation East Asia(15countries/territories) Arab States(20countries/territories) Central Asia(9countries) Central andEasternEurope(20countries) w , CookIslands,DemocraticPeople’s o , Belarus,BosniaandHerzegovina o o o o w w o h formerYugoslavRepublicof , The , Latvia , Samoa,Singapore,SolomonIslands, , Croatia,CzechRepublic , VietNam. , Timor-Leste,Tokelau,Tonga, w , BruneiDarussalam,Cambodia, , Japan w o w , Turkey , SerbiaandMontenegro,Slovakia, , RepublicofKorea o , Lithuania o , LaoPeople’sDemocratic o , Ukraine. o , Niue,Palau, w , MarshallIslands, o , Poland o , Russian o w w , Singapore, , Republic , Iraq,Jordan w , Japan w o , Estonia , Myanmar, o w , , w , o , o , o , w , STATISTICAL TABLES / 215

Introduction

Pacific (18 countries/territories) North America and Western Europe Australiao, Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, (26 countries/territories) Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated Andorra, Austriao, Belgiumo, Canadao, Cypruso, States of), Nauru, New Zealando, Niue, Palau, Denmarko, Finlando, Franceo, Germanyo, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Greeceo, Icelando, Irelando, Israelo, Italyo, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu. Luxembourgo, Maltao, Monaco, Netherlandso, Norwayo, Portugalo, San Marino, Spaino, Latin America and the Caribbean Swedeno, Switzerlando, United Kingdomo, (41 countries/territories) United Stateso. Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentinaw, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, South and West Asia (9 countries) Bolivia, Brazilw, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indiaw, Islands, Chilew, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Islamic Republic of Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Pakistan, Sri Lankaw. El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaicaw, Mexicoo, Montserrat, Sub-Saharan Africa (45 countries) Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Paraguayw, Peruw, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Caicos Islands, Uruguayw, Venezuela. Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Caribbean (22 countries/territories) Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Mali, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, British Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaicaw, Montserrat, South Africa, Swaziland, Togo, Uganda, United Netherlands Antilles, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Republic of Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwew. Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands.

Latin America (19 countries) Argentinaw, Bolivia, Brazilw, Chilew, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexicoo, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguayw, Peruw, Uruguayw, Venezuela. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Metadata for nationalliteracy statistics onr rtrioyDt oreLtrc eiiinMode Literacydefinition Datasource Country orterritory Burundi Burkina Faso Bulgaria Brunei Darussalam Brazil Botswana Herzegovina Bosnia and Bolivia Benin Belarus Bahrain Azerbaijan Aruba Armenia Argentina Angola Algeria Albania Afghanistan 216 Year 2000 2003 2001 2001 2004 2003 2000 2001 2002 1999 2001 1999 2000 2001 2001 2001 2002 2001 2000 / ANNEX MICS Survey Household LifeConditions Population Census Population Census Household Survey Literacy Survey MICS Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census MICS Health Survey Population Census MICS letteror anewspaper. a Literacy isdefined as theabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty in anylanguage. Literates arepersonswhodeclarethat theycanreadandwrite Literates arepersonswhocanreadand write. or toreadanewspapercolumninonetwolanguages. Literacy istheabilityofapersontoreadandwritesimpleletter Portuguese). simple statementinalanguageheorsheknows(language– A literateisapersonwhocanbothreadandwriteatleast critical thinkingrequiredinreallife. speaking, reading,writing,numeracy,technicalfunctioningand independently engageinpracticesandgenresinvolvinglistening, specialized knowledge,skills,attitudesandtechniquesto lifelong learningprocessdesignedtoequipbeneficiarieswith Literacy isaresponsiveandcontext-specificmulti-dimensional letteroranewspaper. a Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty Spanish andnativelanguagesinregionsofindigenousspeech. and towrite,he/sheisilliterate.Thesurveylanguageswere write, he/sheisliterateandifdoesnotknowhowtoread If thepersonrespondsthathe/sheknowshowtoreadand write ashortsimplestatementonhisorhereverydaylife. A personisliteratewhocan,withunderstanding,bothreadand to thecategoryofilliterates. Persons aged15+whocouldneitherreadnorwritewerereferred Qur’an. persons whocanreadonly,forexampleapersonstudied Illiterates arepersonswhocannotreadorwrite,aswell having writtenform. understanding, thetext.Literacyisacceptableforanylanguage Literates arepersonswhocanreadandwrite,with Person abletoreadasimpletextandwriteletter. and higherwhocanreadunderstandinanylanguage. Literates correspondtothoseindividualsaged7yearsold A literateisapersonwhocanreadandwrite. letteroranewspaper. a Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty The capacitytoreadandwrite. programmes. who acquiredthosecapacitiesfromschoolingorliteracy of educationalprogramme.Alsoconsideredliterateisaperson and writingbyhimselforherselfneverattendedanykind Literate isapersonwhoacquiresthecapacitiesofreading letteroranewspaper. a Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty Self-declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Self-declaration STATISTICAL TABLES / 217

Introduction

(Continued)

Country or territoryYear Data source Literacy definition Mode

Cambodia 2004 Between-census Literacy is the ability to read and write with understanding in any Self-declaration Population Survey language. A person is literate when he/she can read and write a simple message in any language or dialect. A person who both cannot read and write a simple message is considered illiterate. Also to be considered illiterate is that person who is capable of reading only his/her own name or number, as well as persons who can read but not write. Children aged 0-9 were treated as illiterate by definition even if a few of them could read and write.

Cameroon 2001 Deuxième Enquête auprès Literacy is the ability of people aged 15+ to read and write in Self-declaration des Ménages – ECAMII French or in English.

Central African 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration Republic a letter or a newspaper.

Chad 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Chile 2002 Population Census A person is literate who knows how to write and to read Household declaration (Spanish).

China 2000 Population Census In urban areas: literate refers to a person who knows a minimum Household declaration of 2000 characters. In rural areas: literate refers to a person who knows a minimum of 1500 characters.

Colombia 2004 Labour Force Survey Literacy is the capacity to read and to write in one’s mother Self-declaration tongue.

Costa Rica 2000 Population Census In the census it was asked whether the person knows how to Household declaration read or write, from that we concluded literacy and illiteracy if the answer were yes or no, respectively.

Côte d’Ivoire 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Croatia 2001 Population Census A literate person is one who can read and write a simple Household declaration statement on his/her everyday life; i.e. who can read and write a letter no matter what language or characters he/she uses.

Cuba 2002 Population Census The people who were able to read and to write at least a simple Household declaration text of facts relative to their daily life were considered literate. The people who did not fulfil that condition were regarded as illiterate.

Cyprus 2001 Population Census Literates are persons who can read and write simple sentences. Household declaration

Democratic 2001 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration Republic of Congo a letter or a newspaper.

Dominican Republic 2002 Population Census Literates are all people aged 10 or older who know how to read Household declaration and to write.

Ecuador 2001 Population Census Literacy is the capacity to read and write. Household declaration

Egypt 2005 Social Contract Survey Illiterate persons are those persons who have not completed Household declaration primary education and who cannot read or write

Equatorial Guinea 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Estonia 2000 Population Census ‘Illiterate’ was recorded for a person who had not completed Household declaration the level corresponding to primary education and who cannot, with understanding, both read and write a simple text on his/her everyday life at least in one language.

Ghana 2000 Population Census Literacy is the ability to read and write any language with Household declaration understanding. The languages in the question are English and Ghanaian languages. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 (Continued) onr rtrioyDt oreLtrc eiiinMode Literacydefinition Datasource Country orterritory Lithuania Lesotho Latvia Lao PDR Kyrgyzstan Kuwait Kenya Kazakhstan Jordan Jamaica Italy Israel Iraq Republic of Iran, Islamic Indonesia India Honduras Guinea Guatemala Greece 218 2001 2001 2000 2001 1999 2005 2000 1999 2003 1999 2001 2004 2000 2002 2004 2001 2001 2003 2002 2001 Year / ANNEX Population Census Demographic Survey Population Census National LiteracySurvey Population Census Population Census MICS Population Census and Incomesurvey Household Expenditure Survey Jamaica AdultLiteracy Population Census Labour ForceSurvey MICS and UnemploymentSurvey Household Employment Survey National Socio-Economic Population Census Population Census MICS Population Census Population Census sentence ontopics of everydaylife. school butcanread (withunderstanding)and/orwriteasimple A literate(noformalschooling)isaperson whodoesnotattend Literates arepersonswhocanreadand write. but notwrite. and writeashort,simplestatementor apersonwhocanread Illiterate isapersonwhocannot,with understanding, bothread calculations. were askedwhethertheycanread,writeandperformsimple calculations (numeracy).Allhouseholdmembersaged6andabove understand simplesentencesinLao,andperformarithmetic A literatepersonwasdefinedasawhocanread,writeand is abletoreadandwriteoronlyread. Literate populationistheatageof6andolderwhich and readingskillstestingthatincludesbasicaccountingskills. his (her)everydaylifeandunderstanding.Itneedsaseriesofwriting Literacy isaperson’sabilitytoreadsimplestatementrelated letteroranewspaper. a Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty na language. Persons aged15yearsandabovewhocanreadwriteinany letters ofthealphabet.’ of wordsinaphraseorsentence.Suchpersonsmaywritefew (read) afewfrequentlyusedwordsbutcannotunderstandgroup knowledge ofthealphabeticsystem,andsomaybeabletoidentify Illiterate personsarethoseconsideredto‘haveaverylimited Literacy isdefinedastheabilitybothtoreadandwrite. Illiterate areallthosewhodeclaredtohaveneverstudied. letteroranewspaper. a Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty in Farsioranyotherlanguage. A literateisanindividualwhocanreadandwriteasimplesentence sentence inBahasaIndonesia. A literateissomeonewhocanreadandwriteatleastasimple and writewithunderstandinginanylanguage. A literateisapersonaged7andabovewhocanbothread Literates refertothosewhocanreadandwrite. letteroranewspaper. a Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty This capacityincludespersonswhoare7yearsandover. Literate: apersonwhocanreadandwriteinspecificlanguage. on his/hereverydaylifeisilliterate. with understanding,bothreadandwriteashort,simplestatement statement onhiseverydaylifeisliterate.Apersonwhocannot, who can,withunderstanding,bothreadandwriteashort,simple Literacy isdefinedastheabilitybothtoreadandwrite.Aperson, Household declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration Self-declaration na Self-declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration STATISTICAL TABLES / 219

Introduction

(Continued)

Country or territoryYear Data source Literacy definition Mode

Macao, China 2001 Population Census A person is defined as literate if he/she can, with understanding, Household declaration both read and write a short, simple statement on his/her everyday life.

Madagascar 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Malawi 1998 Population Census Literates are persons able to write and read English, chichewa Household declaration or another language.

Malaysia 2000 Population Census Illiterates are persons aged 10 years and over who have never Household declaration been to school in any language.

Maldives 2000 Population Census A literate is a person who can read and write with understanding Household declaration in any language: Maldivian language (Dhivehi), English, Arabic, etc.

Mali 1998 Population Census Illiterate is a person who never attended school even if that Household declaration person can read and write.

Malta 1995 Population Census Literacy is defined as the ability both to read and to write. A Household declaration person, who can, with understanding, both read and write a short, simple statement on his/her everyday life is literate. A person who cannot, with understanding, both read and write a short, simple statement on his/her everyday life is illiterate.

Mauritania 2000 Population Census All persons who are able to read and write in the language Household declaration specified.

Mauritius 2000 Population Census A person was considered as literate if he or she was able with Household declaration understanding to both read and write a simple statement in his/her everyday life.

Mexico 2004 National Survey on Income Literate persons are distinguished according to their ability to Self-declaration and Expenditure of read and write a message. Message is understood as a brief and Households simple exposition of a daily life fact.

Mongolia 2000 Population Census Literacy is the ability to read and write simple statements in Household declaration Mongolian or any other language, with understanding.

Morocco 2004 Population Census na Household declaration

Myanmar 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Namibia 2001 Population Census Literacy is the ability to write with understanding in any language. Household declaration Persons who could read and not write were classified as non- literate. Similarly, persons who were able to write and not read were classified as non-literate.

Nepal 2001 Population Census A person aged 6 years and above, who can read and write a Household declaration simple letter with understanding and have simple knowledge of arithmetic is considered as literate. Language can be any.

Nicaragua 2001 National Survey A literate is a person who can read and write; an illiterate is Self-declaration a person who can only read or who cannot read and write.

Niger 2005 Survey on Basic indicators Literate is a person who knows how to read and write in any Self-declaration of the Wellbeing language.

Oman 2003 Population Census A literate is an individual who is capable of both reading and Household declaration writing but does not (necessarily) hold an academic qualification of any kind.

Pakistan 2005 Social and Living Standards A literate is one who can read a newspaper and write a simple Self-declaration Measurement Survey letter in any language. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 (Continued) Sri Lanka South Africa Singapore Sierra Leone Seychelles Montenegro Serbia and Senegal Saudi Arabia Rwanda Russian Federation Romania Republic ofMoldova Qatar Philippines Peru Papua NewGuinea Panama Palestinian A.T. onr rtrioyDt oreLtrc eiiinMode Literacydefinition Datasource Country orterritory 220 2001 1996 2000 2004 2002 2003 2002 2000 2000 2002 2002 2004 2004 2000 2004 2000 2000 2004 Year / ANNEX Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Population Census Household Survey Survey Household Demographic MICS Population Census Population Census Labour ForceSurvey Population Census Population Census Household NationalSurvey Population Census Population Census Labour ForceSurvey write atleastonelanguage wasregardedasliterate. paragraph inthatlanguage. Apersonwhoisabletoread and both readwithunderstandingandwrite ashortletteror regarded asabletoreadandwritealanguage onlyifhecould read andwriteSinhalese,TamilEnglish. Apersonwas The censusscheduleprovidedforrecording theabilitytospeak, na e.g. anewspaper,inthelanguagespecified. Literacy referstoaperson'sabilityreadwithunderstanding, language. Literacy wasdefinedastheabilitytoreadandwriteinany or Creole. Ability toreadorwriteasimplesentenceinEnglish,French are considersasilliterate. All otherpersons,includingalsothosewhocanonlyread, textdealingwitheverydayliferegardlessofthelanguage. a Literate populationcoversallpersonswhocanreadandwrite Literate: personswhoareabletoreadandwriteinanylanguage. and writethe'Braille'method. language. Ablindpersonisconsideredliterateifhe/shecanread A personisconsideredliterateifhe/shecanreadandwriteinany a letterornewspaper. Literacy isdefinedastheabilitytoreadeasilyorwithdifficulty read andwritewereconsideredasilliterate. as literate.Personswhohaveindicatedthattheyareunableto Persons havingindicatedsomelevelofliteracywereconsidered an illiterateperson. who isnotabletoreadandwrite,orwriteonly considered asaliterateperson.Apersonof10yearsoldandover institution butisattendingone,orabletoreadandwrite institution, orwhodidnotgraduatefromanyeducational A personof10yearsoldandoverwhograduatedaneducational na na through anymeanssuchasBrailleareconsideredliterate. considered literate.Disabledpersonswhocanreadandwrite read and/orwriteduetosomephysicaldefectsorillness,is read andwritebutatthetimeofcensus,he/shecannolonger message inanylanguageordialect.Apersonwhoknowshowto A personisliteratewhenhecanbothreadandwriteasimple Simple literacyistheabilitytoreadandwriteasimplemessage. the datainsurveywasSpanish. in anylanguage.Thelanguageusedforthecollectionof A literateisapersonwhoknowshowtoreadandwrite Literacy istheabilitytoreadandwriteinanylanguage. understanding atleastoneofEnglish,MotuorTokples. A literateisapersonwhocouldreadandwritewith language. Literacy istheperson’saptitudetoreadandwriteinany simple statementonhisorhereverydaylife. A literatepersonisonewhocanbothreadandwriteashort, Household declaration na Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Household declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration na na Household declaration Self-declaration Household declaration Household declaration Self-declaration STATISTICAL TABLES / 221

Introduction

(Continued)

Country or territoryYear Data source Literacy definition Mode

Sudan 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Suriname 2004 Population Census A person is considered literate if he/she can write a simple note Household declaration or phrase.

Swaziland 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Syrian Arab 2004 Population Census A literate is an individual male or female who can read and write Household declaration Republic in Arabic.

Tajikistan 2000 Population Census Literates are persons who can write and read, regardless of the Household declaration language.

Thailand 2000 Population Census Literate persons are defined as persons aged 5 and over who are Household declaration able to read and write simple statements with understanding, in any language. If a person can read but cannot write, then he/she is classified as illiterate.

TFYR Macedonia 2002 Population Census Each person having completed more than three grades of primary Household declaration school shall be considered literate. In addition, literate will be considered as a person without school qualification and with 1-3 grades of primary school if he/she can read and write a composition (text) in relation to everyday life (i.e. read and write a letter regardless of the language and alphabet he can read). However, if a person without education or with completed 1-3 grades of primary school can not read and write a composition (text) about everyday life, i.e. read and write a letter, he/she will be considered illiterate.

Togo 2000 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self-declaration a letter or a newspaper.

Tonga 1996 Population Census For a person to be considered as literate in a language, that Household declaration person must be able to read and write in that language.

Tunisia 2004 Population Census A literate is a person who knows how to read and write at least Household declaration one language.

Turkey 2004 Labour Force Survey People who can write and read are accepted as literate. Self-declaration

Turkmenistan 1995 Population Census Literates are persons aged 7 years or more who are able to write Household declaration and read.

Uganda 2002 Population Census Literacy is the ability to meaningfully write or read with Household declaration understanding in any language.

Ukraine 2001 Population Census A person of 6 year old and older who has any level of education Household declaration or can read is literate.

United Republic 2002 Population Census Literacy is defined as the ability both to read and to write with Household declaration of Tanzania understanding, a short, simple statement on everyday life. The ability to read and write may be in any language.

Vanuatu 1999 Population Census na na

Venezuela 2001 Population Census na Household declaration

Viet Nam 1999 Population Census A literate is a person who knows how to read and write with Household declaration understanding simple sentences in his/her national or ethnic language or a foreign language.

Zambia 1999 MICS Literacy is defined as the ability to read easily or with difficulty Self declaration a letter or a newspaper.

na: not available. 7

0 222 / ANNEX 0 Table 1 Background statistics 2

DEMOGRAPHY1 HIV/AIDS2

Average Average HIV % of women annual growth annual growth Total prevalence among Orphans Total rate (%) rate (%) Life expectancy fertility rate rate (%) people due to AIDS population total 0-4 at birth (children in adults (age 15+) (0-17) (000) population population (years) per woman) (15-49) living with HIV (000) 2004 2000-20052000-2005 2000-2005 2000-20052005 2005 2005 Country or territory TotalMale Female Total

Arab States Algeria 32 358 1.5 1.0 71.0 69.7 72.2 2.5 0.1 21.6 … Bahrain 716 1.6 -0.3 74.2 72.9 75.8 2.5 ……… Djibouti 779 2.1 0.9 52.7 51.4 53.9 5.1 3.1 60.0 6 Egypt 72 642 1.9 1.7 69.6 67.5 71.8 3.3 <0.1 …… Iraq 28 057 2.8 1.5 58.8 57.3 60.4 4.8 ……… Jordan 5 561 2.7 -0.1 71.2 69.8 72.8 3.5 ……… Kuwait 2 606 3.7 2.7 76.8 75.1 79.4 2.4 ……… Lebanon 3 540 1.0 -1.9 71.9 69.7 74.0 2.3 0.1 …… Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 5 740 2.0 2.0 73.4 71.4 76.1 3.0 ……… Mauritania 2 980 3.0 2.8 52.5 50.9 54.1 5.8 0.7 57.3 7 Morocco 31 020 1.5 1.0 69.5 67.4 71.7 2.8 0.1 21.1 … Oman 2 534 1.0 -1.1 74.0 72.7 75.6 3.8 ……… Palestinian A. T. 3 587 3.2 1.9 72.4 70.8 73.9 5.6 ……… Qatar 777 5.9 2.5 72.7 71.1 75.9 3.0 ……… Saudi Arabia 23 950 2.7 0.7 71.6 69.9 73.8 4.1 ……… Sudan 35 523 1.9 0.8 56.3 54.9 57.9 4.4 1.6 56.3 … Syrian Arab Republic 18 582 2.5 1.6 73.2 71.4 74.9 3.5 ……… Tunisia 9 995 1.1 -0.8 73.1 71.1 75.3 2.0 0.1 22.1 … United Arab Emirates 4 284 6.5 4.5 77.9 76.3 80.6 2.5 ……… Yemen 20 329 3.1 2.2 60.3 59.1 61.7 6.2 ………

Central and Eastern Europe Albania 3 112 0.4 -2.2 73.7 70.9 76.7 2.3 ……… Education for All Global Monitoring Report Belarus 9 811 -0.6 0.3 68.1 62.4 74.0 1.2 0.3 25.5 … Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 909 0.3 -3.7 74.1 71.3 76.7 1.3 <0.1 …… Bulgaria 7 780 -0.7 0.5 72.1 68.8 75.6 1.2 <0.1 …… Croatia 4 540 0.2 -2.4 74.9 71.3 78.4 1.3 <0.1 …… Czech Republic 10 229 -0.1 0.2 75.5 72.2 78.7 1.2 0.1 …… Estonia 1 335 -0.6 1.2 71.2 65.4 76.9 1.4 1.3 24.0 … Hungary 10 124 -0.3 -1.1 72.6 68.4 76.7 1.3 0.1 …… Latvia 2 318 -0.6 0.9 71.4 65.6 76.9 1.3 0.8 22.0 … Lithuania 3 443 -0.4 -4.1 72.2 66.5 77.8 1.3 0.2 …… Poland 38 559 -0.1 -2.2 74.3 70.2 78.4 1.3 0.1 30.0 … Republic of Moldova 4 218 -0.3 -3.6 67.5 63.7 71.1 1.2 1.1 57.1 … Romania 21 790 -0.4 -0.9 71.3 67.7 75.0 1.3 <0.1 …… Russian Federation 143 899 -0.5 1.8 65.4 59.1 72.2 1.3 1.1 22.3 … Serbia and Montenegro 10 510 -0.1 -0.8 73.2 70.9 75.6 1.7 0.2 20.0 … Slovakia 5 401 0.0 -2.4 74.0 70.0 77.9 1.2 <0.1 …… Slovenia 1 967 0.0 -0.7 76.3 72.6 79.9 1.2 <0.1 …… TFYR Macedonia 2 030 0.2 -2.0 73.7 71.2 76.2 1.5 <0.1 …… Turkey 72 220 1.4 -0.2 68.6 66.3 70.9 2.5 ……… Ukraine 46 989 -1.1 -1.9 66.1 60.1 72.5 1.1 1.4 48.8 …

Central Asia Armenia 3 026 -0.4 -4.0 71.4 67.9 74.6 1.3 0.1 Azerbaijan 8 355 0.6 -2.7 66.9 63.2 70.5 1.9 0.1 …… Georgia 4 518 -1.1 -2.1 70.5 66.5 74.3 1.5 0.2 …… Kazakhstan 14 839 -0.3 -1.2 63.2 57.8 68.9 2.0 0.1 56.7 … Kyrgyzstan 5 204 1.2 0.1 66.8 62.6 71.1 2.7 0.1 …… Mongolia 2 614 1.2 0.1 63.9 61.9 65.9 2.4 <0.1 …… Tajikistan 6 430 1.1 -0.9 63.5 61.0 66.3 3.8 0.1 …… Turkmenistan 4 766 1.4 0.1 62.4 58.2 66.7 2.8 <0.1 …… Uzbekistan 26 209 1.5 0.2 66.5 63.3 69.7 2.7 0.2 13.2 …

East Asia and the Pacific Australia 19 942 1.1 -0.6 80.2 77.6 82.8 1.7 0.1 …… Brunei Darussalam 366 2.3 1.2 76.3 74.2 78.9 2.5 <0.1 …… Cambodia 13 798 2.0 1.4 56.0 52.1 59.6 4.1 1.6 45.4 … China 1 307 989 0.6 -2.4 71.5 69.8 73.3 1.7 0.1 27.7 … STATISTICAL TABLES / 223

Table 1

GNP AND POVERTY EXTERNAL DEBT3

GNP per capita3 Population Public debt Total living on Total service as % debt less than Total debt debt of government service Current PPP US$2 per day Total debt service as % current as % US$ US$ (%)4 (US$ millions) (US$ millions) of GNP revenue of exports 1998 20041998 2004 1990-20035 2004 2004 2004 20026 2004 Country or territory

Arab States 1 560 2 270 4 830 6 322 15.1 21 987 5 754 7.1 21.3x … Algeria 9 610 14 370 14 120 19 673 … …………… Bahrain 790 950 1 950 2 152 … 429 18 2.5 …… Djibouti 1 270 1 250 3 200 4 200 43.9 30 291 2 317 2.9 … 7.6 Egypt …………… …………… Iraq 1 590 2 190 3 720 4 765 7.4 8 175 700 6.0 26.0x 8.2 Jordan 17 390 22 470 18 960 21 610 … …………… Kuwait 3 670 6 010 4 380 5 547 … 22 177 4 350 21.0 …… Lebanon … 4400 … … …………… Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 420 530 1 560 2 048 63.1 2 297 57 3.5 …… Mauritania 1 260 1 570 3 340 4 253 14.3 17 672 2 996 6.1 … 14.0 Morocco 6 420 9 070 11 570 14 678 … 3 872 992 4.2 14.7x 6.9 Oman …………… …………… Palestinian A. T. …………… …………… Qatar 8 120 10 140 12 280 13 811 … …………… Saudi Arabia 310 530 1 320 1 811 … 19 332 312 1.6 … 6.0 Sudan 930 1 230 3 240 3 496 … 21 521 328 1.4 … 3.5 Syrian Arab Republic 2 050 2 650 5 300 7 427 6.6 18 700 2 034 7.5 … 13.7 Tunisia 17 790 23 770 20 820 24 092 … …………… United Arab Emirates 390 550 710 809 45.2 5 488 223 1.9 … 3.5 Yemen

Central and Eastern Europe 880 2 120 3 110 5 072 … 1 549 74 1.0 …… Albania 1 560 2 140 4 210 6 966 … 3 717 326 1.4 5.4x 2.1 Belarus 1 190 2 040 4 850 7 226 … 3 202 176 2.0 … 3.7 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 270 2 750 5 300 7 936 … 15 661 2 456 10.4 19.1x 17.1 Bulgaria 4 610 6 820 8 180 11 917 … 31 548 5 294 15.8 16.9x 27.2 Croatia 5 490 9 130 12 470 18 423 … 45 561 8 309 8.2 9.7x 10.5 Czech Republic 3 750 7 080 8 730 13 631 … 10 008 1 451 13.8 2.3x 15.7 Estonia 4 380 8 370 10 410 15 801 … 63 159 17 156 18.1 … 25.2 Hungary 2 650 5 580 6 570 11 816 … 12 661 1 375 10.0 4.9x 21.1 Latvia 2 760 5 740 7 980 12 693 … 9 475 1 760 8.2 11.1x 14.3 Lithuania 4 210 6 100 8 770 12 730 … 99 190 34 551 14.5 11.4x 34.6 Poland 400 720 1 320 1 953 … 1 868 248 8.5 29.4 12.1 Republic of Moldova 1 520 2 960 5 490 8 329 … 30 034 4 725 6.6 16.4x 17.2 Romania 2 140 3 400 5 760 9 684 … 197 335 21 181 3.7 12.0x 9.8 Russian Federation … 2680 ……… 15 882 981 4.1 …… Serbia and Montenegro 4 030 6 480 10 480 14 477 … 22 068 5 052 12.4 14.0x … Slovakia 9 740 14 770 14 730 20 828 … …………… Slovenia 1 920 2 420 5 790 6 562 … 2 044 244 4.6 … 10.5 TFYR Macedonia 3 060 3 750 6 150 7 724 10.3 161 595 33 940 11.3 26.0x 35.9 Turkey 850 1 270 3 580 6 330 … 21 652 4 301 6.7 8.2x 10.7 Ukraine

Central Asia 570 1 060 2 150 4 156 … 1 224 107 3.4 … 8.0 Armenia 510 940 2 000 3 811 … 1 986 236 3.0 … 5.2 Azerbaijan 700 1 060 1 780 2 895 … 2 082 218 4.1 18.0 11.2 Georgia 1 350 2 250 3 570 6 933 … 32 310 8 774 23.1 18.6x 38.0 Kazakhstan 350 400 1 320 1 856 … 2 100 161 7.6 … 14.2 Kyrgyzstan 460 600 1 510 2 042 74.9 1 517 41 2.6 11.6x 2.9 Mongolia 170 280 660 1 155 … 896 101 5.1 25.5x 6.8 Tajikistan 550 … 2 490 …… …………… Turkmenistan 620 450 1 360 1 862 … 5 007 848 7.1 …… Uzbekistan

East Asia and the Pacific 21 240 27 070 23 700 29 339 … …………… Australia …………… …………… Brunei Darussalam 270 350 1 440 2 311 77.7 3 377 27 0.6 … 0.8 Cambodia 740 1 500 3 200 5 885 46.7 248 934 23 656 1.2 … 3.5 China Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 1(continued) Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean orterritory Country Cuba Costa Rica Colombia Chile Cayman Islands British Virgin Islands Brazil Bolivia Bermuda Belize Barbados Bahamas Aruba Argentina Antigua andBarbuda Anguilla Viet Nam Vanuatu Tuvalu Tonga Tokelau Timor-Leste Thailand Solomon Islands Singapore Samoa Republic ofKorea Philippines Papua NewGuinea Palau Niue New Zealand Nauru Myanmar Micronesia Marshall Islands Malaysia Macao, China Lao PDR Kiribati Japan Indonesia Fiji DPR Korea Cook Islands Nicaragua Netherlands Antilles Montserrat Mexico Jamaica Honduras Haiti Guyana Guatemala Grenada El Salvador Ecuador Dominican Republic Dominica 224 / ANNEX population 2 2 . 068. 838. . 0158.2 17.1 <0.1 0.1 1.3 2.4 85.3 68.6 78.3 64.6 81.9 66.5 -0.6 0.6 0.2 1.3 923 127 077 220 0 9 . 077. 247. . . 23.3 0.3 2.4 77.4 72.4 74.9 36.1 -0.7 0.5 1.3 699 105 2.3 74.4 66.4 70.3 0.7 1.4 913 183 83210-. 437. 81240627.7 0.6 33.6 2.4 0.5 78.1 39.3 2.3 70.6 74.3 1.4 72.4 56.9 28.3 68.4 -0.7 1.9 <0.1 70.4 <0.1 1.0 73.7 0.4 31.4 1.2 3.2 66.0 372 38 25.4 80.5 1.4 1.3 69.7 72.4 73.2 68.1 0.5 -0.1 123 83 2.5 76.8 70.2 0.9 62.9 2.9 -4.7 0.0 57.4 694 63 75.5 0.4 1.8 60.1 70.8 645 47 73.0 -1.4 2.0 617 81 66.1 0.0 1.1 60.1 1.9 004 50 63.0 894 24 -2.1 0.6 384 22 22524176. 347. . . 27.1 54.5 0.9 55.3 0.3 4.6 28.1 27.1 0.1 70.8 2.8 0.6 63.4 0.3 77.2 1.6 67.1 71.3 2.6 79.1 2.0 1.7 74.2 75.3 75.3 80.8 69.2 -0.2 2.4 77.2 74.8 72.2 -0.8 1.4 295 77.9 12 -0.1 -1.4 0.3 040 13 1.6 1.1 245 11 915 44 124 16 Total (000) 0420-052000-2005 2000-2005 2004 0 . . 396. 60400127.9 0.1 4.0 66.0 61.8 63.9 0.8 27.3 2.0 0.3 59.6 009 9 1.4 1.8 80.5 0.1 4.1 76.7 55.8 2.0 78.6 54.7 81.3 0.1 -4.7 55.1 76.7 1.5 4.8 -0.3 79.0 273 4 55.8 -0.5 2.1 53.3 1.1 772 5 54.5 989 3 1.4 2.3 792 5 7 . . 956. 19330223.6 0.2 27.6 26.2 53.3 3.3 1.5 1.5 3.8 71.9 28.3 2.4 50.0 67.2 3.7 4.0 0.9 72.5 69.5 69.7 27.4 1.1 52.3 68.9 65.6 0.0 2.9 50.6 0.3 70.7 2.7 67.6 73.7 51.5 2.0 -1.9 70.9 67.7 0.3 2.3 0.8 376 5 63.7 70.7 0.5 80.6 2.3 67.1 1.4 0.2 75.8 639 2 048 7 0.6 407 78.1 8 1.8 -0.2 1.5 762 6 1.9 768 8 253 4 6 . . 196. 45322527.8 58.5 2.5 1.5 3.3 3.2 1.5 2.3 74.5 78.3 72.7 69.5 71.1 66.2 71.9 74.9 69.5 0.1 4.2 -0.8 0.0 3.5 70.4 2.1 0.3 7.8 73.4 66.8 1.4 4.3 264 56.3 70.9 68.4 269 4.4 319 62.9 54.1 72.1 0.6 73.5 61.6 55.1 -1.6 67.1 62.2 2.0 12.3 0.4 70.0 1.5 207 4.4 5.4 -1.3 102 2.6 68.2 0.8 887 0.8 0.1 66.9 466 82.0 67.5 184 77.8 2.9 1.1 80.0 70.0 65.7 -6.9 0.6 67.8 0.7 110 -0.8 457 0.9 841 5 . 136. 986. . . 60.0 2.1 2.4 79.1 72.9 2.3 76.1 65.9 -0.1 59.8 0.8 62.8 -1.3 181 0.2 0.3 750 102 40.4 64 1.5 1.3 1.7 98 81 12 0.5 10 0.7 2.2 20 3.5 13 60 2.1 97 -1.0 18 90.3 79 2.5 1.4 44 22 -0.3 1 -2.2 1 2.8 4 annual growth population Average rate (%) total annual growth population 2000-2005 … … … … … ……… … … … … … … ……… … … … … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … … ……… … … … … … … … … ……… … … ……… … … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … … ……… … Average rate (%) 0-4 DEMOGRAPHY oa Total Total Life expectancy 1 at birth (years) aeFemale Male per woman) fertility rate 0020 2005 2000-2005 (children Total ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… prevalence in adults rate (%) (15-49) 052005 2005 HIV …… …… …… …… living withHIV HIV/AIDS % ofwomen ae15+) (age people among … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2 due toAIDS Orphans (0-17) (000) STATISTICAL TABLES / 225

Table 1

GNP AND POVERTY EXTERNAL DEBT3

…………… …………… Cook Islands …………<2.0 …………… DPR Korea 2 370 2 720 4 540 5 747 … 202 15 0.6 …… Fiji 670 1 140 2 650 3 485 52.4 140 649 20 464 8.2 22.4x 22.1 Indonesia 33 660 37 050 24 750 29 814 … …………… Japan 1 150 970 ……… …………… Kiribati 310 390 1 340 1 878 73.2 2 056 53 2.2 …… Lao PDR 15 220 … 18 420 …… …………… Macao, China 3 630 4 520 7 180 9 715 9.3 52 145 9 187 8.2 …… Malaysia … 2320 ……… …………… Marshall Islands 1 900 2 300 ……… …………… Micronesia …………… 7 239 125 …… 3.8 Myanmar …………… …………… Nauru 15 340 19 990 17 000 22 257 … …………… New Zealand …………… …………… Niue … 6870 ……… …………… Palau 850 560 2 190 2 277 … 2 149 474 13.6 …… Papua New Guinea 1 080 1 170 3 830 4 946 46.4 60 550 11 570 12.8 49.4x 20.9 Philippines 9 200 14 000 12 490 20 526 … …………… Republic of Korea 1 390 1 840 4 540 5 605 … 562 21 5.6 …… Samoa 23 500 24 760 20 110 27 372 … …………… Singapore 880 560 2 240 1 798 … 176 17 6.5 …… Solomon Islands 2 110 2 490 5 600 7 933 32.5 51 307 12 376 7.8 24.3x 10.6 Thailand … 550 ……… …………… Timor-Leste …………… …………… Tokelau 1 720 1 860 5 640 7 855 … 81 3 1.4 …… Tonga …………… …………… Tuvalu 1 240 1 390 2 990 2 945 … 118 3 1.1 …… Vanuatu 350 540 1 760 2 702 … 17 825 780 1.8 16.1 … Viet Nam

Latin America and the Caribbean …………… …………… Anguilla 8 090 9 480 8 690 11 098 … …………… Antigua and Barbuda 8 230 3 580 12 230 12 526 14.3 169 247 12 377 8.6 43.6x 28.5 Argentina …………… …………… Aruba 12 940 … 14 580 …… …………… Bahamas 8 220 … 13 720 …… 702 88 3.3 … 5.2 Barbados 2 710 3 940 4 540 6 554 … 959 332 31.3 … 62.5 Belize …………… …………… Bermuda 1 000 960 2 280 2 600 34.3 6 096 513 6.1 17.4x 18.6 Bolivia 4 610 3 000 6 720 7 935 22.4 222 026 53 710 9.2 … 46.8 Brazil …………… …………… British Virgin Islands …………… …………… Cayman Islands 4 880 5 220 8 490 10 608 9.6 44 058 9 566 10.4 8.0x 24.2 Chile 2 410 2 020 6 030 6 945 22.6 37 732 7 688 8.2 … 33.0 Colombia 3 590 4 470 7 480 9 216 9.5 5 700 686 3.8 16.9x 7.3 Costa Rica …………… …………… Cuba 3 280 3 670 4 940 5 291 … 226 19 7.3 …… Dominica 1 850 2 100 5 010 6 863 <2.0 6 965 750 4.4 … 6.4 Dominican Republic 1 800 2 210 3 160 3 768 40.8 16 868 3 731 13.0 … 36.0 Ecuador 1 870 2 320 4 350 4 894 58.0 7 250 617 4.0 … 8.8 El Salvador 3 020 3 750 5 730 7 047 … 433 29 7.6 …… Grenada 1 660 2 190 3 700 4 263 37.4 5 532 546 2.0 … 7.4 Guatemala 860 1 020 3 590 4 244 … 1 331 49 6.5 … 5.8 Guyana 440 … 1 700 …… 1 225 133 3.7 …… Haiti 740 1 040 2 400 2 760 44.0 6 332 333 4.7 … 7.8 Honduras 2 650 3 300 3 370 3 950 13.3 6 399 835 9.9 21.6x 14.8 Jamaica 4 020 6 790 7 800 9 645 26.3 138 689 51 292 7.7 … 22.9 Mexico …………… …………… Montserrat …………… …………… Netherlands Antilles 690 830 2 780 3 481 79.9 5 145 126 2.9 … 5.8 Nicaragua Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 1(continued) Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia North AmericaandWestern Europe orterritory Country Maldives Iran, IslamicRepublicof India Bhutan Bangladesh Afghanistan United States United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Spain San Marino Portugal Norway Netherlands Monaco Malta Luxembourg Italy Israel Ireland Iceland Greece Germany France Finland Denmark Cyprus Canada Belgium Austria Andorra Venezuela Uruguay Turks andCaicosIslands Trinidad andTobago Suriname St Vincent/Grenad. Saint Lucia Saint KittsandNevis Peru Paraguay Panama Chad Central AfricanRepublic Cape Verde Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Botswana Benin Angola Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal 226 / ANNEX 8 2 . 016. 176. . . 28.6 0.9 3.1 64.7 61.7 63.1 -0.1 1.6 124 087 1 population 9 1 . . 737. 00200625.0 0.6 2.0 80.0 74.6 77.3 0.6 1.0 410 295 5 9 . . 296. 31430116.7 0.1 12.7 4.3 <0.1 63.1 62.7 3.2 62.9 63.4 0.6 61.8 62.6 2.0 0.6 794 154 1.9 215 139 94903-. 837. 06170231.3 22.9 0.2 4.1 0.6 34.7 1.7 0.4 80.6 1.3 0.2 33.3 1.5 75.9 83.1 1.7 0.5 78.3 80.5 75.8 21.5 30.6 81.0 34.6 73.8 79.4 -1.0 1.3 0.2 75.6 77.2 0.1 3.0 0.4 0.3 83.0 16.3 78.3 0.2 38.6 1.3 76.8 1.3 1.1 479 59 0.1 1.9 0.3 80.8 80.0 0.5 0.3 81.4 646 42 83.0 28.2 75.6 0.5 0.1 75.6 1.5 441 10 75.8 1.7 78.2 0.7 226 78.6 16 82.4 79.4 0.1 81.9 -0.4 77.3 -2.0 0.4 2.7 75.7 033 58 28.6 0.3 79.9 0.1 78.8 75.8 0.4 -0.7 098 11 0.6 69.9 -0.3 645 82 257 60 72.8 1.0 0.2 2.9 0.6 958 31 72.4 400 10 67.3 1.8 69.8 282 26 -0.6 1.5 562 27 60819104. 514. . . 17240 120 61.7 57.1 160 5.4 60.7 2.0 4.6 3.7 6.7 46.5 21.6 48.1 <0.1 16.7 45.1 6.8 0.5 46.7 45.8 42.2 0.2 2.0 47.4 39.2 1.0 3.7 76.7 2.7 2.1 40.7 <0.1 61.7 71.3 1.9 71.7 2.9 60.9 3.2 73.9 7.5 038 16 68.8 61.4 2.8 -0.2 822 12 46.3 70.2 0.0 45.8 490 0.9 15 0.2 46.0 2.1 570 20 0.9 3.9 591 26 803 68 4.6 574 28 Total (000) 0420-052000-2005 2000-2005 2004 4 . 238. 768. . . 36.9 31.3 0.4 0.2 1.4 1.6 0.1 83.1 82.3 36.0 77.6 1.8 77.8 80.4 81.8 0.2 80.1 76.7 -2.3 1.1 2.9 23.6 1.9 79.3 0.2 0.1 81.6 0.4 0.2 80.3 -1.2 19.2 77.5 240 7 75.1 1.7 008 9 79.6 1.8 0.5 0.3 77.7 81.7 55.8 79.4 1.4 598 4 57.7 2.7 75.0 1.4 74.8 0.5 2.0 78.4 81.7 2.6 1.7 77.1 -1.1 2.3 601 6 75.9 26.9 -0.8 080 4 25.3 1.6 78.9 78.9 0.3 0.4 0.3 73.0 71.6 0.9 -1.2 235 5 66.9 414 5 75.3 3.9 0.23 2.7 69.9 -0.1 73.1 171 8 77.4 0.5 68.6 0.7 72.3 70.9 0.3 74.7 439 3 1.4 301 1 0.7 2.4 1.8 017 6 175 3 4 . . 364. 4867355. 57 140 56.3 120 56.5 3.5 120 62 60.8 10.7 53.8 58.4 6.7 3.3 5.0 24.1 44.8 1.8 40.3 6.8 42.5 38.5 3.2 44.4 5.9 43.6 39.4 37.1 42.5 54.5 3.6 0.6 36.0 43.5 53.0 3.4 36.6 <0.1 2.9 53.8 1.3 -1.3 448 9 2.5 4.4 3.0 986 3 0.1 63.9 3.2 282 7 61.5 769 1 177 8 62.7 1.1 2.2 116 2 0 . 317. 588. . 0.1 0.2 1.5 1.7 0.2 80.7 81.4 75.8 2.0 75.1 78.3 82.5 78.4 78.7 -3.1 0.5 1.6 80.6 0.5 81.0 1.3 27.5 -0.6 76.0 400 459 0.9 78.5 1.9 -1.5 292 2.6 2.3 2.2 1.2 72.5 73.8 73.9 65.8 826 68.2 70.8 69.0 71.0 72.3 -1.4 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.8 446 118 159 9 . . 026. 303.8 73.0 66.8 70.2 2.0 4.3 2.4 65.8 495 66.9 66.3 0.4 2.5 321 80.9 28 1.1 35 0.4 67 6.1 25 1.1 42 annual growth population Average rate (%) total annual growth population 2000-2005 … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … … … … … ……… … Average rate (%) 0-4 DEMOGRAPHY oa Total Total Life expectancy 1 at birth (years) aeFemale Male per woman) fertility rate 0020 2005 2000-2005 (children Total ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… prevalence in adults rate (%) (15-49) 052005 2005 HIV …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… living withHIV HIV/AIDS % ofwomen ae15+) (age people among … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2 due toAIDS Orphans (0-17) (000) STATISTICAL TABLES / 227

Table 1

GNP AND POVERTY EXTERNAL DEBT3

3 650 4 210 5 520 6 726 17.6 9 469 1 401 11.0 … 14.3 Panama 1 810 1 140 4 650 4 817 33.2 3 433 501 6.8 22.7x 13.5 Paraguay 2 210 2 360 4 410 5 395 37.7 31 296 2 732 4.2 20.5x 17.1 Peru 6 020 … 10 030 …… 316 47 13.4 …… Saint Kitts and Nevis 3 690 4 180 5 060 5 595 … 413 26 3.9 …… Saint Lucia 2 610 3 400 4 720 6 026 … 257 21 5.5 …… St Vincent/Grenad. 2 320 2 230 ……… …………… Suriname 4 490 8 730 7 260 11 431 39.0 2 926 401 3.4 …… Trinidad and Tobago …………… ……………Turks and Caicos Islands 6 620 3 900 8 860 9 026 3.9 12 376 1 543 12.2 26.3x 34.9 Uruguay 3 490 4 030 5 760 5 829 32.0 35 570 6 632 6.2 23.1x 16.0 Venezuela

North America and Western Europe …………… …………… Andorra 27 040 32 280 25 160 31 803 … …………… Austria 25 580 31 280 24 410 31 535 … …………… Belgium 20 000 28 310 23 980 30 757 … …………… Canada 12 110 16 510 15 140 22 234 … …………… Cyprus 32 770 40 750 26 450 31 768 … …………… Denmark 24 750 32 880 22 120 29 804 … …………… Finland 24 770 30 370 23 180 29 456 … …………… France 26 630 30 690 23 900 28 168 … …………… Germany 11 780 16 730 15 170 22 229 … …………… Greece 27 460 37 920 25 140 32 370 … …………… Iceland 20 610 34 310 21 010 32 926 … …………… Ireland 16 730 17 360 17 940 23 775 … …………… Israel 20 560 26 280 22 820 28 019 … …………… Italy 44 700 56 380 42 910 61 610 … …………… Luxembourg 8 790 12 050 15 290 18 589 … …………… Malta …………… …………… Monaco 25 170 32 130 24 860 31 362 … …………… Netherlands 35 240 51 810 32 380 38 680 … …………… Norway 10 960 14 220 15 370 19 241 … …………… Portugal …………… …………… San Marino 14 830 21 530 17 830 24 750 … …………… Spain 28 700 35 840 21 570 29 881 … …………… Sweden 41 560 49 600 28 680 35 661 … …………… Switzerland 22 830 33 630 22 570 31 431 … …………… United Kingdom 30 620 41 440 31 600 39 824 … …………… United States

South and West Asia …………… …………… Afghanistan 360 440 1 440 1 969 82.8 20 344 675 1.1 … 5.2 Bangladesh 450 760 ……… 593 12 1.8 6.1 … Bhutan 420 620 2 150 3 116 79.9 122 723 19 094 2.8 13.1x … India 1 710 2 320 5 420 7 533 7.3 13 622 1 938 1.2 ……Iran, Islamic Republic of 1 950 2 410 ……… 345 32 4.5 10.1 4.6 Maldives 220 250 1 210 1 485 82.5 3 354 114 1.7 14.9 5.5 Nepal 470 600 1 760 2 174 65.6 35 687 4 285 4.6 19.6 21.2 Pakistan 850 1 010 3 050 4 208 50.7 10 887 766 4.0 19.5x 8.5 Sri Lanka

Sub-Saharan Africa 520 930 1 510 1 930 … 9 521 2 050 11.9 … 14.8 Angola 390 450 890 1 085 … 1 916 64 1.6 …… Benin 3 290 4 360 6 200 9 581 50.1 524 49 0.6 …… Botswana 250 350 950 1 168 81.0 1 967 59 1.2 …… Burkina Faso 140 90 600 662 89.2 1 385 88 13.7 …… Burundi 600 810 1 620 2 117 50.6 9 496 645 4.6 …… Cameroon 1 300 1 720 4 040 5 662 … 517 26 2.7 …… Cape Verde 290 310 1 070 1 103 84.0 1 078 18 1.4 ……Central African Republic 220 250 860 1 337 … 1 701 46 1.7 …… Chad Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 3. World Bank(2006 2. UNAIDS(2006). 1. UnitedNationsPopulation Divisionstatistics,2004revision,medium variant,UNPopulationDivision(2005). Table 1(continued) Country orterritory Country Arab States Developing countries Developed countries Countries intransition World Zimbabwe Zambia United RepublicofTanzania Uganda Togo Swaziland South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Seychelles Senegal Sao Tome andPrincipe Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Mali Malawi Madagascar Liberia Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Ethiopia Eritrea Equatorial Guinea D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Comoros Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia N. America/W. Europe Latin America/Caribbean East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia c ). 228 / ANNEX 2 0 . . 326. 453.2 64.5 61.9 200 15 1.9 63.2 2.2 47.7 73.3 73.3 0.2 1.0 69.1 3.1 69.1 1.6 1.7 71.1 66.6 71.2 2.7 81.2 -1.5 108 528 63.2 1 -1.4 75.4 69.2 64.9 0.8 78.3 64.9 0.8 0.1 67.0 036 054 2 -0.1 758 086 2 1.4 0.1 0.5 073 094 5 1.2 588 002 1 924 374 6 population 2 0 . . 334. 3558396. 930 61.5 3.9 5.8 43.5 43.1 43.3 1.6 2.2 709 128 9 8 . . 604. 674. 5.5 46.6 1.7 46.7 2.5 81.2 45.3 2.6 75.4 75.4 46.0 74.9 68.9 78.4 68.3 1.9 72.1 1.5 3.6 0.2 71.5 0.1 73.6 2.3 69.0 1.6 0.1 0.7 64.0 65.6 1.4 581 694 69.8 68.6 67.3 1.4 046 731 295 533 62.0 0.1 1.3 723 548 65.8 -0.01 2.2 0.2 186 404 562 305 -0.3 263 278 29606-. 723. 69362. 931100 1 710 100 1 000 1 59.3 57.0 54.6 57.8 20.1 200 1 17.0 6.5 6.7 58.5 25 3.6 5.7 5.0 18.8 58.9 36.9 7.1 46 36.9 46.4 37.5 47.1 37.9 0.9 2.8 510 59.2 45.6 37.2 94 46.5 37.4 51.0 60.0 46.0 550 13 5.0 1.1 46.8 -0.5 60.0 1.2 47.1 1.1 58.8 16.1 56.8 27.7 3.7 100 0.6 1 49.0 7.9 1.7 1.7 54.4 2.0 14.1 61.7 170 5.5 0.5 -0.1 3.4 936 12 44.3 55.6 479 11 6.9 627 37 42.8 60.0 44.2 6.1 6.1 0.8 821 27 1.5 5.4 48.4 41.0 44.3 39.6 680 2.3 208 47 56.7 450 47.1 5.0 41.9 2.4 39.7 3.0 58.4 54.0 47.8 46.2 58.8 1.3 4.4 39.6 386 11 55.3 3.4 47.9 2.5 3.2 57.2 1.2 5.9 7.1 2.0 1.5 47.0 499 13 56.2 3.0 48.6 6.7 2.3 424 19 3.0 5.1 56.7 2.8 46.5 124 13 44.1 608 12 46.8 1.2 47.6 2.2 113 18 42.1 45.2 1.6 43.1 2.1 467 33 46.0 3.3 2.4 664 21 0.9 2.8 600 75 1.6 853 55 872 17 27114017. 197. 4.6 76.5 2.4 71.9 69.6 74.2 0.2 62.0 0.1 65.7 1.1 -0.6 1.4 428 15 0.7 721 32 961 75 Sum Total (000) 0420-052000-2005 2000-2005 2004 8 . . 425. 6254326. 88 63 23 61.0 31 57.1 57.5 3.2 60.5 33.4 210 0.9 5.4 1.6 56.9 85 4.0 56.2 6.4 33.4 6.5 3.1 61.9 52.3 47.3 32.5 42.0 54.2 19.6 45.0 5.7 97 32.9 39.3 0.6 11 2.1 46.2 28 45.3 40.6 -1.5 4.0 60.0 4 58.6 41.9 2.8 2.0 2.7 20 67.9 49.4 4.3 0.2 23.2 43.6 36 57.9 75.6 47.7 3.8 3.2 988 5 58.9 6.8 1.5 4.1 034 1 2.0 68.7 3.6 48.6 58.5 2.4 964 7 43.5 110 7.1 7.9 336 72.1 5 38.1 5.9 -1.7 2.4 41.4 2.4 46.2 61.0 4.7 34.9 -0.3 54.0 4.0 42.5 1.4 882 8 43.1 36.7 56.9 53.2 5.5 5.3 1.0 55.4 1.7 44.6 009 2 54.0 53.6 -0.6 55.4 53.8 233 1 3.2 6.3 55.5 1.4 51.5 1.9 54.6 0.1 53.1 1.9 53.5 3.0 241 3 0.3 2.2 798 1 50.6 4.1 2.8 540 1 51.9 1.7 202 9 4.3 478 1 3.2 362 1 232 4 3.0 883 3 5 . . 296. 384.1 63.8 61.9 62.9 5 1.9 58.8 2.3 3.2 153 5.9 <0.1 44.2 4.9 42.8 65.1 43.5 60.9 2.5 63.0 2.3 1.9 492 2.6 777 00.9 80 annual growth population Average rate (%) total annual growth population 2000-2005 … … … … … ……… … Average rate (%) 0-4 DEMOGRAPHY Weighted average … … … … … ……… oa Total Total Life expectancy 1 at birth (years) aeFemale Male 6. World Bank(2005 5. Dataareforthemost recentyearavailableduringtheperiodspecified. 4. UNDP(2005). per woman) fertility rate 0020 2005 2000-2005 (children Total c ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ). prevalence in adults rate (%) (15-49) 052005 2005 HIV …… …… …… Weighted average living withHIV HIV/AIDS % ofwomen ae15+) (age people among 2 due toAIDS Orphans (0-17) (000) STATISTICAL TABLES / 229

Table 1

GNP AND POVERTY EXTERNAL DEBT3

410 560 1 640 1 932 … 306 3 0.9 …… Comoros 530 760 670 739 … 5 829 350 10.7 9.2x … Congo 780 760 1 510 1 474 38.4 11 739 543 3.7 16.6x 6.9 Côte d’Ivoire 110 110 710 675 … 11 841 121 1.9 …… D. R. Congo 1 060 … 3 570 7 579 … 291 5 ……… Equatorial Guinea 220 190 1 070 962 … 681 19 2.1 …… Eritrea 100 110 600 750 80.7 6 574 97 1.2 … 5.3 Ethiopia 3 870 4 080 5 570 5 699 … 4 150 223 3.6 …… Gabon 320 280 1 500 1 885 82.9 674 34 8.6 …… Gambia 380 380 1 760 2 221 78.5 7 035 240 2.7 … 6.6 Ghana 520 410 1 810 2 158 … 3 538 172 4.5 … 19.9 Guinea 140 160 660 694 … 765 45 16.7 …… Guinea-Bissau 360 480 990 1 130 58.3 6 826 364 2.3 … 8.6 Kenya 690 730 2 640 3 254 56.1 764 53 3.2 … 4.5 Lesotho 110 120 ……… 2 706 1 0.2 …… Liberia 260 290 760 843 85.1 3 462 81 1.9 …… Madagascar 220 160 560 631 76.1 3 418 60 3.3 …… Malawi 250 330 720 953 90.6 3 316 103 2.2 …… Mali 3 760 4 640 8 610 11 955 … 2 294 260 4.3 15.8x 7.4 Mauritius 200 270 760 1 168 78.4 4 651 83 1.4 … 4.5 Mozambique 2 050 2 380 5 890 7 515 55.8 …………… Namibia 200 210 780 776 85.3 1 950 51 1.7 …… Niger 260 430 760 966 90.8 35 890 2 412 4.0 … 8.2 Nigeria 250 210 980 1 241 83.7 1 656 24 1.3 … 11.2 Rwanda 270 390 ……… 362 10 16.2 …… Sao Tome and Principe 510 630 1 330 1 662 67.8 3 938 335 4.4 20.0x … Senegal 7 320 8 190 … 15 883 … 615 52 7.7 … 8.1 Seychelles 150 210 470 547 74.5 1 723 27 2.5 … 10.9 Sierra Leone …………… 2849 ………… Somalia 3 290 3 630 8 820 10 964 34.1 28 500 3 825 1.8 8.1x 6.4 South Africa 1 400 1 660 4 340 5 650 … 470 44 1.8 … 1.7 Swaziland 350 310 1 580 1 508 … 1 812 21 1.0 …… Togo 290 250 1 110 1 448 … 4 822 103 1.5 4.9x 6.9 Uganda 230 320 470 671 59.7 7 799 119 1.1 … 5.3 United Republic of Tanzania 330 400 700 890 87.4 7 279 424 8.3 …… Zambia 560 620 2 640 2 041 83.0 4 797 93 2.0 …… Zimbabwe

Weighted average Weighted average

… 6329 … 8 844 … …………… World

…………… …………… Countries in transition …………… …………… Developed countries …………… …………… Developing countries

…………… …………… Arab States …………… ……………Central and Eastern Europe …………… …………… Central Asia … 1416 … 5 332 … 588 888 78 813 3.0 … 6.8 East Asia and the Pacific …………… …………… East Asia …………… …………… Pacific … 3576 … 7 661 … 778 970 156 724 8.1 … 26.4 Latin America/Caribbean …………… …………… Caribbean …………… …………… Latin America …………… …………… N. America/W. Europe …………… …………… South and West Asia … 601 … 1 842 … 235 056 13 808 2.9 … 7.9 Sub-Saharan Africa

(x) Data are for 2001. 7

0 230 / ANNEX 0 Table 2 Adult and youth literacy 2

ADULT LITERACY RATE (15 and over) (%) ADULT ILLITERATES (15 and over) Projected Projected 1990 2000-20041 2015 1990 2000-20041 2015 Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total % Total % Total % Country or territory (000) Female (000) Female (000) Female

Arab States Algeria 53 64 41 70.*80.*60.* 80 87 72 6 804 62 6 423 66 5 638 69 Bahrain 82 87 75 87.*89.*84.*939690615566494561 Djibouti 53 67 40 ……………… 146 65 …… …… Egypt 47 60 34 71.*83.*59.* 76 85 67 17 411 63 14 210 71 14 526 70 Iraq 36 51 20 74.*84.*64.* 81 88 74 6 607 62 3 707 69 4 371 67 Jordan 82 90 72 90.*95.*85.* 95 98 92 320 72 330 74 228 77 Kuwait 77 79 73 93.*94.*91.* 96 96 95 317 47 139 49 110 43 Lebanon 80 88 73 ……………… 349 72 …… …… Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 68 83 51 ……………… 780 71 …… …… Mauritania 35 46 24 51.*60.*43.* 59 66 52 743 60 732 60 955 59 Morocco 39 53 25 52.*66.*40.* 65 77 54 9 140 62 10 106 65 9 022 68 Oman 55 67 38 81.*87.*74.* 91 93 87 458 56 300 57 208 60 Palestinian Autonomous Territories ………92.*97.*88.*979996 …… 153 78 82 75 Qatar 77 77 76 89.*89.*89.*929293782867295828 Saudi Arabia 66 76 50 79.*87.*69.* 89 94 84 3 288 59 2 681 65 2 253 68 Sudan2 46 60 32 61.*71.*52.* 71 79 63 8 021 63 7 557 63 8 143 64 Syrian Arab Republic 65 82 48 80.*86.*74.* 90 95 84 2 365 75 2 348 65 1 653 77 Tunisia 59 72 47 74.*83.*65.* 82 90 75 2 086 65 1 878 68 1 549 71 United Arab Emirates 71 71 71 ……………… 379 29 …… …… Yemen 33 55 13 53 72 33 ……… 3 852 66 5 288 70 ……

Central and Eastern Europe Albania 77 87 67 99.*99.*98.* 99 99 99 509 71 28 69 17 59 Belarus 99 100 99 100.* 100.*99.* 100 100 100 42 76 33 77 16 54

Education for All Global Monitoring Report Bosnia and Herzegovina ………97.*99.*94.*979996 …… 106 86 90 85 Bulgaria 97 98 96 98.*99.*98.* 98 99 98 195 70 121 66 99 62 Croatia 97 99 95 98.*99.*97.* 99 100 99 113 85 69 83 38 73 Czech Republic ……………………… …… …… …… Estonia 100 100 100 100.* 100.*100.* 100 100 100 3 53 3 57 2 55 Hungary 99 99 99 ……………… 78 63 …… …… Latvia ………100.* 100.*100.* 100 100 100 …… 564455 Lithuania 99 100 99 100.* 100.*100.* 100 100 100 20 67 10 54 8 54 Poland ……………………… …… …… …… Republic of Moldova 97 99 96 98.*99.*98.* 100 100 100 80 83 56 75 15 54 Romania 97 99 96 97.*98.*96.* 98 98 97 519 77 491 71 411 63 Russian Federation 99 100 99 99.* 100.*99.* 100 100 100 858 76 676 75 343 55 Serbia and Montenegro2 ………96.*99.*94.*989998 …… 246 85 139 79 Slovakia ……………………… …… …… …… Slovenia 100 100 100 100 100 100 ……… 758656 …… TFYR Macedonia ………96.*98.*94.*989997 …… 62 77 41 74 Turkey 78 89 66 87.*95.*80.* 92 97 88 8 147 75 6 389 81 4 607 82 Ukraine 99 100 99 99.* 100.*99.* 100 100 100 237 77 229 80 72 84

Central Asia Armenia 97 99 96 99.* 100.*99.* 100 100 100 63 80 14 76 4 71 Azerbaijan ………99.*99.*98.* 100 100 100 …… 67 79 21 88 Georgia ……………………… …… …… …… Kazakhstan 99 99 98 100.* 100.*99.* 100 100 100 133 79 53 77 23 53 Kyrgyzstan ………99.*99.*98.* 100 100 99 …… 41 74 17 77 Mongolia ………98.*98.*98.*989798 … .. 36 56 53 40 Tajikistan 98 99 97 99.* 100.*99.* 100 100 100 55 77 19 71 5 51 Turkmenistan ………99.*99.*98.* 100 100 100 …… 31 73 12 65 Uzbekistan 99 99 98 ……………… 164 80 …… ……

East Asia and the Pacific Australia ……………………… …… …… …… Brunei Darussalam 86 91 79 93.*95.*90.*969794246617651467 Cambodia 62 78 49 74.*85.*64.* 80 87 72 2 061 74 2 262 73 2 295 71 China 78 87 69 91.*95.*87.* 96 98 93 181 331 70 87 019 73 48 790 75 Cook Islands ……………………… …… …… …… Democratic People’s Republic of Korea ……………………… …… …… …… STATISTICAL TABLES / 231

Table 2

YOUTH LITERACY RATE (15-24) (%) YOUTH ILLITERATES (15-24) Projected Projected 1990 2000-20041 2015 1990 2000-20041 2015 Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total % Total % Total % Country or territory (000) Female (000) Female (000) Female

Arab States 77 86 68 90.*94.*86.*9494941174697056938151 Algeria 96 96 95 97.*97.*97.* 100 100 100 3.5 54 3 43 0.14 48 Bahrain 73 82 64 ……………… 30 67 …… …… Djibouti 61 71 51 85.*90.*79.* 88 91 86 3 975 62 2 382 67 1 810 60 Egypt 41 56 25 85.*89.*80.* 84 87 82 2 260 62 765 63 1 159 57 Iraq 97 98 95 99.*99.*99.* 100 100 100 23 66 10 61 6 37 Jordan 88 88 87 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 46 51 1 38 0.07 44 Kuwait 92 95 89 ……………… 43 72 …… …… Lebanon 91 99 83 ……………… 78 94 …… …… Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 46 56 36 61.*68.*55.* 66 70 63 214 59 199 58 258 56 Mauritania 55 68 42 70.*81.*60.* 82 89 74 2 265 64 1 888 67 1 147 69 Morocco 86 95 75 97.*98.*97.* 99 100 99 43 82 14 59 3 66 Oman ………99.*99.*99.* 99 99 100 …… 757729 Palestinian Autonomous Territories 90 88 93 96.*95.*98.* 100 100 99 5.7 29 4 24 1 55 Qatar 85 91 79 96.*98.*94.* 100 100 100 446 68 157 75 12 49 Saudi Arabia 65 76 54 77.*85.*71.* 82 85 78 1 804 65 1 468 64 1 622 59 Sudan 2 80 92 67 92.*94.*90.* 97 98 97 523 81 333 62 121 58 Syrian Arab Republic 84 93 75 94.*96.*92.*98989826377118674053 Tunisia 85 82 89 ……………… 43 28 …… …… United Arab Emirates 50 74 25 72 86 58 ……… 1 148 73 1 242 74 …… Yemen

Central and Eastern Europe 95 97 92 99.*99.*99.*99999934753 463 42 Albania 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 2.7 50 3 40 2 49 Belarus ………100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 …… 1 38 0.46 49 Bosnia and Herzegovina 99 100 99 98.*98.*98.* 97 98 97 7.1 59 20 52 19 53 Bulgaria 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 2.3 52 2 48 2 37 Croatia ……………………… … … … … … … Czech Republic 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 0.5 42 0.5 40 0.27 49 Estonia 100 100 100 ……………… 3.9 56 …… …… Hungary ………100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 …… 143133 Latvia 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 1.2 46 1 43 1 49 Lithuania ……………………… … … … … … … Poland 100 100 100 100.*99.* 100.* 100 99 100 1.3 48 4 47 2 0 Republic of Moldova 99 99 99 98.*98.*98.*979797285477496445 Romania 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 42 47 67 41 44 33 Russian Federation ………99.*99.*99.*999999 …… 752848 Serbia and Montenegro 2 ……………………… … … … … … … Slovakia 100 100 100 100 100 100 ……… 0.7 44 1 49 …… Slovenia ………99.*99.*98.*999999 …… 459456 TFYR Macedonia 93 97 88 96.*98.*93.* 96 98 95 843 79 583 77 519 71 Turkey 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 11 43 14 42 10 49 Ukraine

Central Asia 100 100 99 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 2.6 63 1 37 0.45 48 Armenia ………100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 …… 243249 Azerbaijan ……………………… … … … … … … Georgia 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 5.9 45 4 40 4 49 Kazakhstan ………100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 …… 342449 Kyrgyzstan ………98.*97.*98.*969598 …… 12 34 19 30 Mongolia 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 2.2 55 2 49 2 49 Tajikistan ………100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 …… 2 49 1.8 46 Turkmenistan 100 100 100 ……………… 14 57 …… …… Uzbekistan

East Asia and the Pacific ……………………… … … … … … … Australia 98 98 98 99.*99.*99.* 100 100 100 1.0 43 1 49 0.08 97 Brunei Darussalam 73 81 66 83.*88.*79.* 90 93 88 479 66 543 63 323 62 Cambodia 95 97 93 99.*99.*99.* 100 100 100 11 709 72 2 260 63 980 47 China ……………………… … … … … … … Cook Islands ……………………… … … … … … … Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 2(continued) Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean orterritory Country Ecuador Dominican Republic Dominica Cuba Costa Rica Colombia Chile Cayman Islands British Virgin Islands Brazil Bolivia Bermuda Belize Barbados Bahamas Aruba Argentina Antigua andBarbuda Anguilla Viet Nam Vanuatu Tuvalu Tonga Tokelau Timor-Leste Thailand Solomon Islands Singapore Samoa Republic ofKorea Philippines Papua NewGuinea Palau Niue New Zealand Nauru Myanmar Micronesia (FederatedStatesof) Marshall Islands Malaysia Macao, China Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic Kiribati Japan Indonesia Fiji Saint KittsandNevis Peru Paraguay Panama Nicaragua Netherlands Antilles Montserrat Mexico Jamaica Honduras Haiti Guyana Guatemala Grenada El Salvador 232 / ANNEX Total ………… …… …… …… …… ……………………… ……… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… ……………………… …… …… …… ……… …… …… …… ……………………… ……………………… …… …… ……… …… …… ……… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……… …… …… ……………………… …… ……………………… …… ……… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… ……………………… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… ……………………… 27 98 47 99 7855 5 86759 647 58 857 59 97 92 835 97 88 77 88 97 92 63 87 90 96 90 91 63 90 89 80 96 84 63 80 89 86 96 91 67 79 78 37 87 69 69 84 96 82 43 53 68 81 98 40 91 69 69 97 87 85 61 76 79 90 100 72 95 80 95 88 93 94 79 96 95 88 94 94 95 89 94 89 94 88 87 81 94 70 83 87 82 99 78 95 97 99 94 96 99 94 96 96 99 99 93 99 83 97 93 94 57 99 91 89 48 98 92 64 92 57 90 14 74 47 89 87 30 91 74 81 69 87 87 43 95 81 90 70 91 73 57 85 87 92 80 89 Male 1990 ADULT LITERACYRATE (15andover) eaeTtlMl eaeTtlMl Female Male Total Female Male Total Female ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… …… …… …… ……………… ……………… 88 97 90 74 99 93 ...... *93 *98 *94* *99 *95 *93*77 *92*74*80 *75 *92*87 100 * *95*93*96 *88*93 *97 *97 *93*63 *94 *92*95*77 *94 2000-2004 …… …… …………… (%) ...... *82 *97 *87 *99 *91 *91*77 *90*86*80 *63 *90*87 *100*95*93*96 *89*81 *97 *89 *93*51 *86 *85*88*61 *87 1 ...... *929689 * *949593*99 99100*969795 49 4115 6 41655 46 156 708 54 51 62 163 46 691 975 3 814 53 60 51 171 49 521 787 6 65 773 116 2 94 64 56 85 45 501 6 95 62 643 51 83 528 035 851 2 94 50 57 95 84 46 * 9.5 49 60 741 * 96 134 87 48 51 731 895 1 96 85 52 379 397 60 1 47 * 50 73 18 775 86 138 * 52 52 891 77 * 83 47 217 2 495 51 476 50 93 78 837 9 93 53 395 121 * 95 55 74 50 584 2 92 555 94 683 052 15 100 97 93 49 * 97 100 53 * 96 617 71 97 100 96 369 17 862 96 * 97 52 96 * 94 97 756 * 90 * 93 97 54 94 965 93 * * 98 74 98 151 98 * 77 47 53 232 929 3 718 1 50 75 56 503 265 3 321 1 63 53 812 2 95 57 986 2 64 046 1 98 70 441 1 62 95 201 3 96 60 066 1 * 94 64 68 66 722 1 94 64 922 4 70 63 * 970 66 805 8 * 92 190 2 67 69 95 017 1 100 15 91 93 68 * 95 72 791 23 93 82 * 93 77 *959793* 97 95 2673* 3174 2174 … …… ……… ……… ……… ……… Projected 2015 3555 2305 7 03037 340 40 274 3 60 237 …… …… …… …… 366 13 44 10 63 51 . 57 1.2 . 2453 4 52 6.1 57 1 61 1.9 (000) Total ADULT ILLITERATES (15andover) 1990 Female % 7 317273 762 1 73 271 2 58 419 4 69 909 4 66 341 2 66 354 3 ……… …… …… …… ……… …… …… …… …… …… ……… …… 28 703 47 0.37 47 1 257 (000) Total 2000-2004 ……… Female 1 % …… …… …… …… (000) Total Projected 2015 Female % STATISTICAL TABLES / 233

Table 2

98 98 98 ……………… 2.9 54 …… …… Fiji 95 97 93 99.*99.*99.*9999991872655495632238 Indonesia ……………………… … … … … … … Japan ……………………… … … … … … … Kiribati 70 79 61 78.*83.*75.* 84 87 81 235 66 225 59 238 59 Lao People’s Democratic Republic 97 99 96 100.*99.* 100.* 100 100 100 1.6 88 0.25 26 0 50 Macao, China 95 95 94 97.*97.*97.*99999917955120486645 Malaysia ……………………… … … … … … … Marshall Islands ……………………… … … … … … … Micronesia (Federated States of) 88 90 86 95.*96.*93.* 97 96 97 973 58 524 60 333 41 Myanmar 47 67 27 ……………… … … … … … … Nauru ……………………… … … … … … … New Zealand ……………………… … … … … … … Niue ……………………… … … … … … … Palau 69 74 62 67.*69.*64.* 68 66 69 277 60 342 52 496 46 Papua New Guinea 97 97 97 95.*94.*96.* 95 94 96 342 46 759 43 947 40 Philippines ……………………… … … … … … … Republic of Korea 99 99 99 100 99 100 ……… 0.3 49 0.2 39 …… Samoa 99 99 99 100.*99.* 100.* 100 99 100 5.6 39 2 38 2 16 Singapore ……………………… … … … … … … Solomon Islands ………98.*98.*98.*999999 …… 223 53 143 50 Thailand ……………………… … … … … … … Timor-Leste ……………………… … … … … … … Tokelau ………99.*99.*99.* 100 100 100 …… 0.13 46 0.02 72 Tonga ……………………… … … … … … … Tuvalu ……………………… … … … … … … Vanuatu 94 94 94 94.*94.*94.* 96 95 96 802 54 956 52 734 44 Viet Nam

Latin America and the Caribbean ……………………… … … … … … … Anguilla ……………………… … … … … … … Antigua and Barbuda 98 98 98 99.*99.*99.*999999974471405543 Argentina ………99.*99.*99.* ……… … … 0.11 43 …… Aruba 96 95 98 ……………… 1.9 34 …… …… Bahamas 100 100 100 ……………… 0.1 49 …… …… Barbados ……………………… … … … … … … Belize ……………………… … … … … … … Bermuda 93 96 89 97.*99.*96.*999999987443722249 Bolivia 92 91 93 97.*96.*98.* 99 98 100 2 363 42.0 1 123 33 309 17 Brazil ……………………… … … … … … … British Virgin Islands ……………………… … … … … … … Cayman Islands 98 98 98 99.*99.*99.*999999484426402042 Chile 95 94 96 98.*98.*98.* 99 98 100 369 44 167 39 106 19 Colombia 97 97 98 98.*97.*98.*989898154318401641 Costa Rica 99 99 99 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 17 51 1 51 0 0 Cuba ……………………… … … … … … … Dominica 87 87 88 94.*93.*95.*96949819047102397624 Dominican Republic 95 96 95 96.*96.*96.*979697955688499143 Ecuador 84 85 83 90 91 89 96 95 96 172 55 132 53 64 44 El Salvador ……………………… … … … … … … Grenada 73 80 66 82.*86.*78.* 87 89 85 461 63 421 62 425 60 Guatemala 100 100 100 ……………… 0.3 51 …… …… Guyana 55 56 54 ……………… 578 51 …… …… Haiti 80 78 81 89.*87.*91.* 91 88 94 201 47 152 40 159 32 Honduras 91 87 95 ……………… 42 28 …… …… Jamaica 95 96 94 98.*98.*98.* 99 98 99 897 59 492 49 284 40 Mexico ……………………… … … … … … … Montserrat 97 97 98 98 98 99 ……… 0.7 46 0.4 44 …… Netherlands Antilles 68 68 69 86.*84.*89.* 91 87 95 254 49 154 40 124 28 Nicaragua 95 96 95 96.*97.*96.*969796245421552352 Panama 96 96 95 ……………… 36 53 …… …… Paraguay 94 97 92 97.*98.*96.* 98 98 98 243 71 174 66 124 49 Peru ……………………… … … … … … … Saint Kitts and Nevis Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Table 2(continued) Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia North AmericaandWestern Europe orterritory Country Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal Maldives Iran, IslamicRepublicof India Bhutan Bangladesh Afghanistan United States United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Spain San Marino Portugal Norway Netherlands Monaco Malta Luxembourg Italy Israel Ireland Iceland Greece Germany France Finland Denmark Cyprus Canada Belgium Austria Andorra Venezuela Uruguay Turks andCaicosIslands Trinidad andTobago Suriname Saint Vincent andtheGrenadines Saint Lucia Equatorial Guinea D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Comoros Chad Central AfricanRepublic Cape Verde Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Botswana Benin Angola 2 234 / ANNEX Total ……… ……… …… …… …… ……………………… …… ……… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… ……………………… …… ……………………… ……………………… …… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… …… ……… …… ……………………… ……………………… 38 187 67 61 49 34 86 26 71 61 58 73 26 51 87 46 47 49 77 19 39 78 61 21 67 68 37 54 54 59 47 48 28 76 27 33 81 69 64 35 48 70 58 15 37 66 38 68 91 26 50 85 49 20 96 93 14 33 77 49 95 89 61 47 52 54 35 95 36 30 43 72 95 62 24 63 49 44 34 88 89 97 88 88 88 96 95 92 91 98 95 97 91 98 94 98 98 98 93 98 99 88 97 99 90 96 96 89 97 98 97 Male 1990 ADULT LITERACYRATE (15andover) eaeTtlMl eaeTtlMl Female Male Total Female Male Total Female ……………… ……………… 22 67 28 98 90 ...... *29 *83 *43 *99 *92 *93*81*61 *41*65 *77*67 *80*48 *92*63*63*96*84*73 *86 *98 *98 *99 *93 2000-2004 (%) ...... *15 *54 *13 *98 *87 *80*54*39 *13*33 *60*52 *82*23 *89*36*35*96*70*48 *89 *96 *94 *95 *93 1 ...... *323727*708160 *365219 *999999 *939592 77 81 1 48917 33364 60 353 13 567 5 71 64 59 66 901 8 166 4 733 4 218 1 64 61 57 58 67 519 10 206 3 46 151 4 724 1 107 1 146 58 58 61 62 49 63 375 2 76 718 3 50 373 1 132 1 67 67 206 *929490 60 22 61 58 54 * 44 718 2 45 * 950 1 54 49 262 1 63 68 6.7 69 59 5574 249 38 57 413 923 49 7 66 56 * 014 2 380 47 1 62 3376* 74 65 88 6 818 48 30 67 661 70 66 7 * 86 2863 60 * 342 56 1 871 274 62 87 50 817 40 65 43 * 718 6.0 7 92 426 * 268 50 94 61 52 72 98 066 93 273 76 61 * 97 60 63 * 98 * 80 * 70 * * 77 81 69 74 231.8 136 73 71 74 375 10.7 267 77 79 98 419 18 *939194 99 97 99 80 47 * 99 29 3249 973 98 3645* 52 98 166 1 99 2639 55 99 * 358 1 96 95 96 * ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… Projected 2015 1516 05964 509 10 57 61 530 501 52 11 56 405 40 9 427464 764 2 64 699 2 4 66 59 440 129 …… …… …… …… …… 77 871 68 71 67 42 53 69 13 46 80 70 26 (000) Total ADULT ILLITERATES (15andover) 1990 Female % 5 565453 554 6 69 55 403 3 052 5 74 401 2 61 585 14 59 048 9 8 44764 427 64 785 ……… …… …… …… 26 362 23 62 32 (000) Total 2000-2004 Female 1 % …… …… …… …… …… …… (000) Total Projected 2015 Female % STATISTICAL TABLES / 235

Table 2

……………………… … … … … … … Saint Lucia ……………………… … … … … … … Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ………95.*96.*94.*969795 …… 557358 Suriname 100 100 100 100 100 100 ……… 0.8 51 1 50 …… Trinidad and Tobago ……………………… … … … … … … Turks and Caicos Islands 99 98 99 99 99 100 ……… 634432 …… Uruguay 96 95 97 97.*96.*98.* 98 97 99 155 42 137 34 120 27 Venezuela

North America and Western Europe ……………………… … … … … … … Andorra ……………………… … … … … … … Austria ……………………… … … … … … … Belgium ……………………… … … … … … … Canada 100 100 100 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 0.3 29 0.25 40 0.12 49 Cyprus ……………………… … … … … … … Denmark ……………………… … … … … … … Finland ……………………… … … … … … … France ……………………… … … … … … … Germany 100 99 100 99.*99.*99.* 100 100 100 7 37 16 45 5 57 Greece ……………………… … … … … … … Iceland ……………………… … … … … … … Ireland 99 99 98 100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 10 61 2 100 . . Israel ………100.* 100.* 100.* 100 100 100 …… 12 47 7 57 Italy ……………………… … … … … … … Luxembourg 98 96 99 96.*94.*98.* 97 96 99 1.3 18 2 27 1.3 20 Malta ……………………… … … … … … … Monaco ……………………… … … … … … … Netherlands ……………………… … … … … … … Norway ……………………… … … … … … … Portugal ……………………… … … … … … … San Marino ……………………… … … … … … … Spain ……………………… … … … … … … Sweden ……………………… … … … … … … Switzerland ……………………… … … … … … … United Kingdom ……………………… … … … … … … United States

South and West Asia ………34.*51.*18.*496630 ……2 889 61 4 259 66 Afghanistan 42 51 33 51 59 43 ……… 12 240 56 13 941 57 …… Bangladesh ……………………… … … … … … … Bhutan 64 73 54 76.*84.*68.* 84 88 79 59 032 61 46 290 66 37 689 62 India 86 92 81 ……………… 1 424 68 …… …… Iran, Islamic Republic of 98 98 98 98.*98.*98.*989899 0.7481 461 41 Maldives 47 67 27 70.*81.*60.* 83 88 77 1 921 68 1 437 66 1 193 65 Nepal 47 63 31 65.*76.*55.* 74 80 68 10 787 63 11 612 64 10 039 60 Pakistan 95 96 94 96.*95.*96.*97979817157168439939 Sri Lanka 2

Sub-Saharan Africa ………72.*84.*63.*707764 …… 749 70 1 256 61 Angola 40 57 25 45.*59.*33.*5365405696382861106562 Benin 83 79 87 94.*92.*96.* 97 95 100 50 38 26 36 11 2 Botswana ………31.*38.*25.*404139 ……1 725 54 2 199 50 Burkina Faso 52 58 45 73.*77.*70.* 78 78 78 517 57 348 57 440 49 Burundi 81 86 76 ……………… 414 64 …… …… Cameroon 81 87 76 91 93 88 ……… 13 65 11 62 …… Cape Verde 52 66 39 59.*70.*47.* 62 70 54 262 65 315 65 397 62 Central African Republic 48 58 38 38.*56.*23.*4661315926095564137565 Chad 57 64 50 ……………… 45 58 …… …… Comoros 93 95 90 ……………… 36 66 …… …… Congo 53 65 40 61.*71.*52.* 66 72 59 1 052 62 1 349 62 1 611 59 Côte d’Ivoire 69 80 58 70.*78.*63.* 67 71 62 2 226 68 3 013 63 5 091 57 D. R. Congo 93 97 89 95.*95.*95.*959397 4.7774 497 33 Equatorial Guinea Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 Note: Table 2(continued) observed dataforyears between1990and1994. in July2002,usingthe previousUISassessmentmodel.Theyarebased on For allothers,UISliteracyestimatesareused. Theestimatesweregenerated Country orterritory Country Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Arab States Developing countries Developed countries Countries intransition World Zimbabwe Zambia United RepublicofTanzania Uganda Togo Swaziland South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Seychelles Senegal Sao Tome andPrincipe Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Mali Malawi Madagascar Liberia Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Ethiopia Eritrea Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia North AmericaandWestern Europe Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia For countriesindicatedwith(*),nationalobserved literacydataareused. 236 / ANNEX Total ……… ……… ……… ……… …… …… …… ……………………… …… ……… …… ……… …… ……………………… ……… …… …… …… ……………………… …… …… …… ……………………… 06 06 05 77 112576 4 8 1180759 66 007 63 168 529 344 422 61 2 63 54 885 143 62 016 399 225 26 61 312 6 60 597 132 55 57 71 849 379 64 78 572 38 232 61 765 80 324 11 871 6 58 67 57 73 71 72 111 55 78 838 41 79 100 67 359 125 75 382 65 68 100 66 320 9 318 69 9 53 244 61 94 674 100 812 57 46 79 691 232 599 75 64 70 95 63 99 65 569 63 71 494 255 11 770 94 61 062 9 94 99 160 684 659 76 63 59 63 97 40 89 64 97 99 340 1 64 100 407 857 34 71 657 96 60 780 91 855 14 100 99 97 78 60 79 86 63 88 50 100 90 98 98 757 1 99 47 019 874 88 99 79 95 83 96 98 100 84 100 55 84 92 100 87 99 99 99 70 100 77 91 75 85 97 99 98 100 83 66 87 89 95 99 99 99 77 36 77 82 98 99 100 99 58 64 87 99 96 98 76 50 82 99 99 67 69 100 98 82 99 75 68 75 69 59 67 87 51 53 79 43 81 80 76 29 68 82 69 70 63 60 80 56 74 44 82 72 39 81 19 65 38 44 29 38 28 85 63 5 59 72 53 84 18 18 49 77 75 11 64 49 75 71 85 36 33 50 80 82 69 23 74 66 89 52 55 61 58 29 65 38 39 58 81 13 78 52 47 71 42 20 45 70 27 32 20 58 35 26 37 58 29 46 Male 1990 ADULT LITERACYRATE (15andover) eaeTtlMl eaeTtlMl Female Male Total Female Male Total Female ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… 09 09 594 97 95 96 93 94 94 97 94 90 97 70 93 91 96 70 93 90 88 70 94 95 93 92 35 92 19 Weighted average ...... *47*91 *27 *76*78*77*69*81*84 *51 *71 *43*87 *88 *75*77 *74*78 *43*66 2000-2004 (%) ...... *24*92 *12 *60*62*58*38*78*81 *29 *60 *15*83 *81 *54*65 *90*70 *18*50 For countrieswithUIS estimates, thepopulationusedwasthatof2005. data, thepopulationcorresponding totheyearofcensusorsurvey wasused. Population Division2004estimates(2005).For countrieswithnationalobservedliteracy The populationusedtogeneratethenumber of illiteratesisfromtheUnitedNations 1 ...... *334422* *263418 97 41436 9 324157 59 441 2 63 858 6 49 67 63 318 4 85 63 379 1 797 1 51 65 194 6 67 839 2 57 67 230 4 68 391 1 118 413 1 56 65 61 277 5 65 867 4 987 3 780 59 4 64 57 183 1 71 54 130 73 61 757 1 74 60 48 252 4 80 61 672 3 69 85 61 061 142 6 87 75 59 * 81 91 59 471 1 79 * 86 59 109 57 71 * 058 3 92 62 033 5 62 86 163 * 63 55 92 * 661 1 190 2 37 53 138 * 150 56 4 821 3 56 66 71 197 51 60 62 133 2 46 76 755 5 26 609 150 2 61 * 91 69 57 73 52 58 293 3 60 * 429 2 90 306 7 88 480 4 40 780 2 58 90 * 91 60 69 68 507 3 * 68 894 4 90 508 3 81 59 * 74 64 75 545 2 77 71 * 546 3 * 78 40 51 77 * 63 * 64 52 58 * * … …… ……… ……… ……… Projected 2015 9855 35457 554 23 57 815 19 50161 081 25 1166 1101 65 4850 8 91232 182 29 183 9 64 690 55 397 64 874 …… …… …… …… …… …… Sum (000) Total ADULT ILLITERATES (15andover) 1990 Female %F 2 5 17 0 71 907 78 71 758 123 % 5675 51854 198 25 55 637 35 7 026659 656 2 60 972 1 56 131 7 56 601 4 3 110746 027 1 54 858 51 1 935 2 57 600 1 ……… …… …… …… ……… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… 550 Sum (000) Total 2000-2004 Female %F 1 % …… …… …… Sum (000) Total Projected 2015 Female %F % STATISTICAL TABLES / 237

Table 2

61 73 49 ……………… 234 65 …… …… Eritrea 43 52 34 61 66 56 ……… 5 587 58 6 098 56 …… Ethiopia ……………………… … … … … … … Gabon 42 50 34 ……………… 95 58 …… …… Gambia 82 88 75 71.*76.*65.* 70 73 67 537 67 1 200 58 1 590 54 Ghana 44 62 26 47.*59.*34.* 65 75 55 647 65 908 60 834 63 Guinea ……………………… … … … … … … Guinea-Bissau 90 93 87 80.*80.*81.* 77 74 80 477 65 1 349 49 1 966 43 Kenya 87 77 97 ……………… 38 12 …… …… Lesotho 57 75 39 ……………… 176 71 …… …… Liberia 72 78 67 70.*73.*68.*6969686456092354155551 Madagascar 63 76 51 76.*82.*71.* 84 85 83 655 68 525 62 573 52 Malawi ………24.*32.*17.*323924 ……1 692 54 2 565 54 Mali 91 91 91 95.*94.*95.*979598184912427 29 Mauritius 49 66 32 ……………… 1 358 68 …… …… Mozambique 87 86 89 92.*91.*93.*939195364429423937 Namibia 17 25 9 37.*52.*23.* 48 58 39 1 350 53 1 667 60 1 980 58 Niger 74 81 66 ……………… 4 445 63 …… …… Nigeria 73 78 67 78.*79.*77.* 78 78 79 362 60 382 53 495 50 Rwanda ……………………… … … … … … … Sao Tome and Principe 40 50 30 49.*58.*41.* 53 60 46 912 58 1 142 59 1 421 57 Senegal ………99.*99.*99.* ……… … … 0.13 35 …… Seychelles ………48.*59.*37.*485839 …… 522 61 691 59 Sierra Leone ……………………… … … … … … … Somalia 88 89 88 94.*93.*94.* 97 96 98 865 51 531 47 299 33 South Africa 85 85 85 88.*87.*90.*898791265226453042 Swaziland 63 79 48 74.*84.*64.* 84 87 80 275 72 288 69 265 60 Togo 70 80 60 77.*83.*71.*88898610346612166299855 Uganda 83 89 77 78.*81.*76.* 78 78 78 853 68 1 628 55 2 170 49 United Republic of Tanzania 81 86 76 69.*73.*66.*6768653156466355104252 Zambia 94 97 91 ……………… 130 72 …… …… Zimbabwe

Weighted average Sum %F Sum %F Sum %F

84 88 80 87 90 84 90 92 89 157 212 62 138 973 62 114 256 58 World

99 99 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 332 49 122 45 88 38 Countries in transition 100 100 100 99 99 99 99 100 99 471 51 768 50 770 61 Developed countries 81 86 76 85 89 81 89 91 87 156 410 62 138 083 62 113 399 58 Developing countries

67 77 55 82 88 77 89 92 87 14 426 65 9 426 67 7 508 60 Arab States 98 99 97 99 99 98 98 99 98 1 019 75 823 68 777 64 Central and Eastern Europe 98 98 98 100 100 100 100 100 100 280 50 47 48 59 38 Central Asia 95 97 94 98 98 98 99 99 99 17 420 68 6 767 57 4 756 46 East Asia and the Pacific ………98 98 98 99 99 99 …… 6 375 57 4 234 46 East Asia ………92 93 92 90 90 90 …… 392 52 522 46 Pacific 93 93 93 96 96 96 98 98 98 6 369 50 4 109 45 2 129 38 Latin America and the Caribbean ………77 76 78 98 97 99 …… 745 47 164 25 Caribbean ………97 96 97 98 98 98 …… 3 364 44 1 965 39 Latin America 100 100 100 99 100 99 100 100 100 310 48 493 50 118 46 North America and Western Europe 61 71 51 72 80 63 82 86 76 86 921 61 80 415 63 46 697 64 South and West Asia 67 75 60 73 78 68 72 74 69 30 468 61 36 894 59 52 212 55 Sub-Saharan Africa

1. Data are for the most recent year available during the period specified. See the introduction to the statistical tables for a broader explanation of national literacy definitions, assessment methods, sources and years of data. 2. Literacy data for the most recent year do not include some geographic regions. 7

0 238 / ANNEX 0 Table 3A Early childhood care and education (ECCE): care 2

CHILD SURVIVAL1 CHILD WELL-BEING2 % of children under age 5 suffering from: Infant Under-5 Infants Vitamin A mortality mortality with low supplementation rate rate birth weight Underweight Wasting Stunting coverage rate (%) moderate moderate moderate (‰) (‰) (%) and severe severe and severe and severe (6-59 months) Country or territory 2000-2005 2000-2005 1998-20043 1996-20043 1996-20043 1996-20043 1996-20043 2003

Arab States Algeria 37 41 7 10 3 8 19 … Bahrain 1417892510 … Djibouti 93 140 … 18 6 13 26 75 Egypt 37 43 12 9 1 4 16 … Iraq 94 124 15 16 2 6 22 … Jordan 2327104129 … Kuwait 10 12 7 10 3 11 24 … Lebanon 2226630312 … Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 1921751315 … Mauritania 97 156 … 32 10 13 35 … Morocco 38 46 11 9 2 4 24 … Oman 16 18 8 24 4 13 23 … Palestinian A. T. 212494139 … Qatar 12 14 10 6 … 28 … Saudi Arabia 23 27 11 14 3 11 20 … Sudan2 72 119 31 17 7 …… 34 Syrian Arab Republic 1821671418 … Tunisia 2225741212 … United Arab Emirates 9 10 15 14 3 15 17 … Yemen 69 95 32 46 15 12 53 36

Central and Eastern Europe Education for All Global Monitoring Report Albania 25 34 3 14 1 11 34 … Belarus 15 18 5 ………… … Bosnia and Herzegovina 1416441610 … Bulgaria 13 17 10 ………… … Croatia 78 61… 11 … Czech Republic 66 71022 … Estonia 10 12 4 ………… … Hungary 81192023 … Latvia 10 14 5 ………… … Lithuania 9124………… … Poland 9106………… … Republic of Moldova 26 31 5 3 … 310 … Romania 182296138 … Russian Federation 1722631413 … Serbia and Montenegro 131542045 … Slovakia 8107………… … Slovenia 57 6………… … TFYR Macedonia 161866147 … Turkey 42 49 16 4 1 1 12 … Ukraine 161851003 …

Central Asia Armenia 3035730213 … Azerbaijan 76 91 11 7 1 2 13 … Georgia 4043730212 … Kazakhstan 6177840210 … Kyrgyzstan 55 66 7 11 2 3 25 … Mongolia 58 85 7 13 3 6 25 87 Tajikistan 89 116 15 …… 536 … Turkmenistan 78 99 6 12 2 6 22 … Uzbekistan 587078272193

East Asia and the Pacific Australia 56 7………… … Brunei Darussalam 67 10………… … Cambodia 95140114513154547 China 35 41 4 8 ……14 … STATISTICAL TABLES / 239

Table 3A

CHILD WELL-BEING2 % of children who are 1-year-old children immunized against (%) Haemophilus Breastfed with Tuberculosis Diphtheria Pertussis Tetanus Polio Measles Hepatitis B influenzae type b Exclusively complementary Still breastfed food breastfeeding Corresponding vaccines: (<6 months) (6-9 months) (20-23 month) BCG DPT1† DPT3† Polio3 Measles HepB3 Hib3 1996-20043 1996-20043 1996-20043 2004 2004 2004 2004 20042004 2004 Country or territory

Arab States 13 38 22 98 93 86 86 81 81 … Algeria 34 65 41 70 97 98 98 99 98 98 Bahrain …… … 78 81 64 64 60 …… Djibouti 30 72 31 98 98 97 97 97 97 … Egypt 12 51 27 93 93 81 87 90 70 … Iraq 27 70 12 58 96 95 95 99 95 95 Jordan 12 26 9 … 99 98 98 97 94 98 Kuwait 27 35 11 … 98 92 92 96 88 92 Lebanon …… 23 99 99 97 97 99 99 … Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 20 78 57 86 83 70 68 64 …… Mauritania 31 66 15 95 99 97 97 95 95 10 Morocco … 92 73 99 99 99 99 98 99 99 Oman 29 78 11 98 97 96 96 96 96 … Palestinian A. T. 12 48 21 99 99 96 95 99 97 96 Qatar 31 60 30 95 96 96 96 97 96 96 Saudi Arabia 16 47 40 51 79 55 55 59 …… Sudan 81 50 6 99 99 99 99 98 99 99 Syrian Arab Republic 47 … 22 97 97 97 97 95 96 97 Tunisia 34 52 29 98 96 94 94 94 92 94 United Arab Emirates 12 76 … 63 92 78 78 76 49 … Yemen

Central and Eastern Europe 6 24 6 97 98 97 98 96 99 … Albania …… … 99 99 99 99 99 99 … Belarus 6 ……95 93 84 87 88 81 79 Bosnia and Herzegovina …… … 98 95 95 94 95 94 … Bulgaria 23 ……98 96 96 98 96 … 93 Croatia …… … 99 98 98 96 97 98 98 Czech Republic …… … 99 98 94 95 96 90 27 Estonia …… … 99 99 99 99 99 … 99 Hungary …… … 99 99 98 97 99 99 95 Latvia …… … 99 94 94 90 98 94 35 Lithuania …… … 94 99 99 98 97 98 … Poland …… … 96 99 98 98 96 99 … Republic of Moldova …… … 99 98 97 97 97 99 … Romania …… … 96 98 97 98 98 96 … Russian Federation 11 33 11 97 96 97 96 96 89 … Serbia and Montenegro …… … 98 99 99 99 98 99 99 Slovakia …… … 98 97 92 93 94 … 93 Slovenia 378 109496949596…… TFYR Macedonia 21 38 24 88 86 85 85 81 77 … Turkey 22 ……98 96 99 99 99 98 … Ukraine

Central Asia 30 51 13 96 97 91 93 92 91 … Armenia 73916999896979897… Azerbaijan 18 12 12 91 88 78 66 86 64 … Georgia 36 73 17 65 85 82 99 99 99 … Kazakhstan 24 77 21 98 99 99 98 99 99 … Kyrgyzstan 51 55 57 95 99 99 95 96 95 … Mongolia 50 ……97 87 82 84 89 81 … Tajikistan 13 71 27 99 98 97 98 97 96 … Turkmenistan 19 49 45 99 99 99 99 98 99 … Uzbekistan

East Asia and the Pacific …………97 92 92 93 95 95 Australia …… … 99 99 92 92 99 99 92 Brunei Darussalam 12 72 59 95 92 85 86 80 …… Cambodia 51 32 15 94 97 91 92 84 72 … China 7

0 240 / ANNEX 0

Table 3A (continued) 2

Cook Islands …… 3 ………… … DPR Korea 46 59 7 23 8 7 37 95 Fiji 2227108183 … Indonesia 43 54 9 28 9 …… 62 Japan 34 8………… … Kiribati …… 513… 11 28 45 Lao PDR 88141144013154264 Macao, China 88 …………… … Malaysia 10 13 9 11 1 …… … Marshall Islands …… 12 ………… 23 Micronesia (Federated States of) 38 48 18 ………… 95 Myanmar 75 112 15 32 7 9 32 87 Nauru …… …………… … New Zealand 57 6………… … Niue …… 0 ………… … Palau …… 9 ………… … Papua New Guinea 71 98 11 35 ……… 1 Philippines 28 34 20 28 … 63076 Republic of Korea 45 4………… … Samoa 26 31 4 ………… … Singapore 34 814… 411 … Solomon Islands 34 58 13 21 4 7 27 … Thailand 20 25 9 19 … 616 …

Education for All Global Monitoring Report Timor-Leste 94134124615124995 Tokelau …… …………… … Tonga 21 25 0 ………… … Tuvalu …… 5 ………… … Vanuatu 34 42 6 20 ……19 … Viet Nam 30 39 9 28 4 7 32 99

Latin America and the Caribbean Anguilla …… …………… … Antigua and Barbuda …… 8104107 … Argentina 1517851312 … Aruba …… …………… … Bahamas 14 16 7 ………… … Barbados 1112106157 … Belize 31 41 6 6 1 …… … Bermuda …… …………… … Bolivia 567278112738 Brazil 27 35 10 6 1 2 11 … British Virgin Islands …… …………… … Cayman Islands …… …………… … Chile 8105 1… 02 … Colombia 2633971114 … Costa Rica 101275026 … Cuba 68 64025 … Dominica …… 105026 … Dominican Republic 3551115129 40 Ecuador 25 30 16 12 ……26 … El Salvador 26 35 7 10 1 1 19 … Grenada …… 9 ………… … Guatemala 39 52 12 23 4 2 49 … Guyana 49 68 12 14 3 11 11 … Haiti 62 110 21 17 4 5 23 25 Honduras 32 48 14 17 … 12935 Jamaica 15 21 10 4 … 25 … Mexico 2125881218 … Montserrat …… …………… … Netherlands Antilles 13 15 …………… … STATISTICAL TABLES / 241

Table 3A

19 ……99 99 99 99 99 99 … Cook Islands 65 31 37 95 75 72 99 95 98 … DPR Korea 47 ……93 75 71 76 62 73 71 Fiji 40 75 59 82 88 70 70 72 75 … Indonesia …………99 99 97 99 …… Japan 80 ……94 75 62 61 56 67 … Kiribati 23 10 47 60 66 45 46 36 45 … Lao PDR …… … ………………… Macao, China 29 … 12 99 99 99 95 95 95 99 Malaysia 63 ……91 71 64 68 70 72 46 Marshall Islands 60 ……62 83 78 82 85 80 65 Micronesia (Federated States of) 15 66 67 85 86 82 82 78 54 … Myanmar …… … 95 93 80 59 40 75 … Nauru …………96 90 82 85 90 90 New Zealand …… … 96 99 99 99 99 99 99 Niue 59 ………99 98 98 99 98 98 Palau 59 74 66 54 60 46 36 44 45 … Papua New Guinea 34 58 32 91 90 79 80 80 40 … Philippines …… … 93 95 88 90 99 92 … Republic of Korea …… … 93 90 68 41 25 70 … Samoa …… … 99 95 94 94 94 93 … Singapore 65 ……84 82 80 75 72 72 … Solomon Islands 47127999998989696… Thailand 31 82 35 72 65 57 57 55 …… Timor-Leste …… … ………………… Tokelau 62 ……99 99 99 99 99 99 … Tonga …… … 99 99 98 98 98 98 … Tuvalu 50 ……63 73 49 53 48 56 … Vanuatu 15 … 26 96 92 96 96 97 94 … Viet Nam

Latin America and the Caribbean …… … ………………… Anguilla …………91 97 97 97 97 97 Antigua and Barbuda …… … 99 95 90 95 95 88 90 Argentina …… … ………………… Aruba …………99 93 92 89 93 93 Bahamas …………97 93 93 98 93 93 Barbados 24 54 23 99 99 95 95 95 96 96 Belize …… … ………………… Bermuda 54 74 46 93 94 81 79 64 84 81 Bolivia … 30 17 99 96 96 98 99 90 96 Brazil …… … ………………… British Virgin Islands …… … ………………… Cayman Islands 63 47 … 96 94 94 94 95 … 94 Chile 26 58 25 92 95 89 89 92 89 89 Colombia 35 47 12 90 89 90 90 88 89 90 Costa Rica 41 42 9 99 89 88 98 99 99 99 Cuba …… … 99 99 99 99 99 …… Dominica 10 41 16 97 88 71 57 79 71 71 Dominican Republic 35 70 25 99 99 90 93 99 90 90 Ecuador 24 76 43 94 90 90 90 93 83 83 El Salvador 39 ………87 83 84 74 83 83 Grenada 51 67 47 98 94 84 84 75 …… Guatemala 11 42 31 94 90 91 91 88 91 91 Guyana 24 73 30 71 76 43 43 54 …… Haiti 35 61 34 93 96 89 90 92 89 89 Honduras …… … 85 86 77 71 80 77 77 Jamaica 38 36 21 99 99 98 98 96 98 98 Mexico …… … ………………… Montserrat …… … ………………… Netherlands Antilles 7

0 242 / ANNEX 0

Table 3A (continued) 2

Nicaragua 30 40 12 10 2 2 20 91 Panama 21 27 10 7 … 114 … Paraguay 37 45 9 5 … 114 … Peru 33 52 11 7 1 1 25 … Saint Kitts and Nevis …… 9 ………… … Saint Lucia 15 20 8 14 … 611 … Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 26 31 10 ………… … Suriname 26 31 13 13 2 7 10 … Trinidad and Tobago 1419237045 … Turks and Caicos Islands …… …………… … Uruguay 131585118 … Venezuela 1829941313 …

North America and Western Europe Andorra …… …………… … Austria 56 7………… … Belgium 46 8………… … Canada 56 6………… … Cyprus 67 …………… … Denmark 56 5………… … Finland 45 4………… … France 45 7………… … Germany 46 7………… …

Education for All Global Monitoring Report Greece 68 8………… … Iceland 34 4………… … Ireland 57 6………… … Israel 56 8………… … Italy 56 6………… … Luxembourg 57 8………… … Malta 78 6………… … Monaco …… …………… … Netherlands 56 …………… … Norway 45 5………… … Portugal 67 8………… … San Marino …… …………… … Spain 56 6………… … Sweden 34 4………… … Switzerland 46 6………… … United Kingdom 56 8………… … United States 78 81012 …

South and West Asia Afghanistan 149 252 … 39 12 7 54 86 Bangladesh 59 79 36 48 13 13 43 87 Bhutan 56 84 15 19 3 3 40 … India 68 99 30 47 18 16 46 45 Iran, Islamic Republic of 34 39 7 11 2 5 15 … Maldives 43 55 22 30 7 13 25 … Nepal 64 88 21 48 13 10 51 96 Pakistan 79114193812133795 Sri Lanka 17 20 22 29 … 14 14 …

Sub-Saharan Africa Angola 139 245 12 31 8 6 45 68 Benin 105 161 16 23 5 8 31 98 Botswana 51 106 10 13 2 5 23 … Burkina Faso 121 196 19 38 14 19 39 95 Burundi 106 187 16 45 13 8 57 95 Cameroon 94 163 11 18 4 5 32 86 Cape Verde 30 36 13 14 2 6 16 … STATISTICAL TABLES / 243

Table 3A

31 68 39 88 92 79 80 84 79 79 Nicaragua 25 38 21 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 Panama 22 60 … 82 91 76 75 89 76 76 Paraguay 67 76 49 91 95 87 87 89 87 91 Peru 56 ……89 87 96 96 98 96 95 Saint Kitts and Nevis …… … 99 99 91 91 95 91 91 Saint Lucia …… … 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 92511 … 92 85 84 86 …… Suriname 21910 … 91 94 94 95 94 94 Trinidad and Tobago …… … ………………… Turks and Caicos Islands …… … 99 98 95 95 95 94 94 Uruguay 7503197998683808261 Venezuela

North America and Western Europe …………99 99 99 98 54 95 Andorra …………97 83 83 74 83 83 Austria …………97 95 96 82 65 95 Belgium …………97 91 88 95 … 83 Canada …………99 98 98 86 88 58 Cyprus …………95 95 95 96 … 95 Denmark …… … 98 98 98 96 97 … 96 Finland …… … 85 98 97 97 86 28 86 France …………98 97 94 92 81 90 Germany …… … 88 96 88 87 88 88 88 Greece …………99 99 99 93 … 99 Iceland …… … 90 96 89 89 81 … 89 Ireland …………98 96 92 96 98 96 Israel …………98 96 97 84 95 90 Italy …………98 98 98 91 49 86 Luxembourg …………76 55 55 87 8 55 Malta …… … 90 99 99 99 99 99 99 Monaco …………98 98 98 96 … 97 Netherlands …………91 91 91 88 … 93 Norway …… … 83 98 95 95 95 94 95 Portugal …………95 98 98 98 97 98 San Marino …………98 96 97 97 97 96 Spain …… … 16 99 99 99 94 1 98 Sweden …………98 95 95 82 … 91 Switzerland …………96 90 91 81 … 91 United Kingdom …………99 96 92 93 92 94 United States

South and West Asia … 29 54 78 80 66 66 61 …… Afghanistan 36 69 94 95 95 85 85 77 …… Bangladesh …… … 92 93 89 90 87 89 … Bhutan 37 44 66 73 71 64 70 56 …… India 44 … 0 999999989695… Iran, Islamic Republic of 10 85 … 98 98 96 96 97 97 … Maldives 68 66 92 85 88 80 80 73 87 … Nepal 16 31 56 80 75 65 65 67 65 … Pakistan 84 … 73 99 98 97 97 96 85 … Sri Lanka

Sub-Saharan Africa 11 77 37 72 75 59 57 64 …… Angola 38 66 62 99 99 83 89 85 89 … Benin 34 57 11 99 98 97 97 90 79 … Botswana 19 38 81 99 99 88 83 78 …… Burkina Faso 62 46 85 84 86 74 69 75 83 83 Burundi 21 80 29 83 80 73 72 64 …… Cameroon 57 64 13 79 78 75 76 69 68 … Cape Verde 7

0 244 / ANNEX 0

Table 3A (continued) 2

Central African Republic 98 176 14 24 6 9 39 84 Chad 116 203 10 28 9 11 29 … Comoros 58 77 25 25 9 12 42 … Congo 72 108 … 14 3 4 19 89 Côte d’Ivoire 118 189 17 17 5 7 21 … D. R. Congo 119 212 12 31 9 13 38 80 Equatorial Guinea 102 181 13 19 4 7 39 … Eritrea 65 94 21 40 12 13 38 52 Ethiopia 100 172 15 47 16 11 52 65 Gabon 58 95 14 12 2 3 21 30 Gambia 77 129 17 17 4 9 19 91 Ghana 62 102 16 22 5 7 30 78 Guinea 106 166 16 21 … 11 33 98 Guinea-Bissau 120 211 22 25 7 10 30 … Kenya 68 118 10 20 4 6 30 33 Lesotho 67 123 14 18 4 5 46 75 Liberia 142 224 … 26 8 6 39 … Madagascar 79131174211134891 Malawi 111 184 16 22 … 54592 Mali 133 220 23 33 11 11 38 61 Mauritius 15 18 14 15 2 14 10 Mozambique 101 182 15 24 6 4 41 50 Namibia 44 78 14 24 5 9 24 93

Education for All Global Monitoring Report Niger 153 264 13 40 14 14 40 95 Nigeria 114 200 14 29 9 9 38 27 Rwanda 116 190 9 27 7 6 41 86 Sao Tome and Principe 82 112 20 13 2 4 29 … Senegal 83 133 18 23 6 8 25 … Seychelles …… … 6025 … Sierra Leone 165 290 23 27 9 10 34 84 Somalia 126 211 … 26 7 17 23 … South Africa 43 74 15 12 2 3 25 … Swaziland 73 143 9 10 2 1 30 80 Togo 93 137 18 25 7 12 22 84 Uganda 81 139 12 23 5 4 39 … United Republic of Tanzania 104 164 13 22 4 3 38 91 Zambia 95 173 12 23 … 54973 Zimbabwe 62 117 11 13 2 6 27 46

Weighted average Weighted average

World 57 86 16 26 10 10 31 61

Countries in transition 3746951314 … Developed countries 68 7………… … Developing countries 63 95 17 27 10 10 31 61

Arab States 49 65 15 14 3 6 21 … Central and Eastern Europe 15 19 …………… … Central Asia 64 79 …………… … East Asia and the Pacific 35 44 7 15 ……19 73 East Asia 35 44 …………… … Pacific 34 47 …………… … Latin America/Caribbean 2635971216 … Caribbean …… …………… … Latin America 25 33 …………… … N. America/W. Europe 67 …………… … South and West Asia 69 101 …………… … Sub-Saharan Africa 103 176 14 28 8 9 38 64

1. United Nations Population Division statistics, 2004 revision, 2. UNICEF (2005). 3. Data are for the most recent year available medium variant, UN Population Division (2005). during the period specified. STATISTICAL TABLES / 245

Table 3A

17 77 53 70 65 40 40 35 …… Central African Republic 277663868504756…… Chad 21 34 45 79 85 76 73 73 77 … Comoros 494138567676765…… Congo 57338516350504950… Côte d’Ivoire 24 79 52 78 76 64 63 64 …… D. R. Congo 24 ……73 65 33 39 51 …… Equatorial Guinea 52 43 62 91 91 83 83 84 83 … Eritrea 55 43 77 82 93 80 80 71 …… Ethiopia 6 62 9 89 69 38 31 55 …… Gabon 26 37 54 95 95 92 90 90 90 90 Gambia 53 62 67 92 88 80 81 83 80 80 Ghana 23 43 73 71 75 69 68 73 …… Guinea 37 36 67 80 86 80 80 80 …… Guinea-Bissau 13 84 57 87 72 73 73 73 73 73 Kenya 15 51 58 83 83 78 78 70 67 … Lesotho 35 70 45 60 48 31 33 42 …… Liberia 67 78 64 72 71 61 63 59 61 … Madagascar 44 93 77 97 99 89 94 80 89 89 Malawi 25 32 69 75 99 76 72 75 73 … Mali 21 ……99 98 98 98 98 98 … Mauritius 30 80 65 87 88 72 70 77 72 … Mozambique 19 57 37 71 88 81 81 70 …… Namibia 156617275626274…… Niger 17 64 34 48 43 25 39 35 …… Nigeria 84 79 71 86 94 89 89 84 89 89 Rwanda 56 53 42 99 99 99 99 91 99 … Sao Tome and Principe 24 64 49 95 95 87 87 57 54 … Senegal …… … 99 99 99 99 99 99 … Seychelles 451538377616164…… Sierra Leone 9 13 8 50 50 30 30 40 …… Somalia 7673097999394819292 South Africa 24 60 25 84 94 83 82 70 78 … Swaziland 18 65 65 91 83 71 71 70 …… Togo 63 75 50 99 99 87 86 91 87 87 Uganda 41 91 55 91 99 95 95 94 95 … United Republic of Tanzania 40 87 58 94 94 80 80 84 … 80 Zambia 33 90 35 95 90 85 85 80 85 … Zimbabwe

Weighted average Weighted average

36 51 46 84 86 78 80 76 49 … World

22 45 26 93 94 93 94 93 90 … Countries in transition …………98 96 94 92 63 92 Developed countries 36 51 46 84 84 76 79 74 46 … Developing countries

29 60 23 88 94 88 89 89 77 … Arab States …… … ………………… Central and Eastern Europe …… … ………………… Central Asia 43 44 27 92 94 86 87 83 71 … East Asia and the Pacific …… … ………………… East Asia …… … ………………… Pacific … 45 26 96 96 91 92 92 83 91 Latin America/Caribbean …… … ………………… Caribbean …… … ………………… Latin America …… … ………………… N. America/W. Europe …… … ………………… South and West Asia 30 67 53 76 77 65 68 66 33 … Sub-Saharan Africa

† This was the first year that DPT1 coverage was estimated. Coverage for DPT1 should be at least as high as DPT3. Discrepancies where DPT1 coverage is lower than DPT3 reflect deficiencies in the data collection and reporting process. UNICEF and WHO are working with national and territorial systems to eliminate these discrepancies. 7

0 246 / ANNEX 0 Table 3B Early childhood care and education (ECCE): education 2

Enrolment in ENROLMENT IN private institutions GROSS ENROLMENT RATIO (GER) PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION as % of total enrolment IN PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) School year ending in School year ending in School year ending in Age 1999 2004 1999 2004 1999 2004 group Total % F Total % F Total Male Female GPI Total Male Female GPI Country or territory 2004 (000) (000) (F/M) (F/M)

Arab States 1 Algeria 4-5 36 49 57 48 ..3 3 3 1.00 5 5 5 0.97 2 Bahrain 3-5 14 48 18 48 100 99 35 36 34 0.95 45 46 44 0.96 3 Djibouti 4-5 0.2 60 0.8 49 100 77 0.4 0.3 0.5 1.50 2 2 2 0.99 4 Egypt 4-5 328 48 470 48 54 37 11 11 10 0.95 14 15 14 0.95 5 Iraq 4-5 68 48 91 49 ..5 5 5 0.98 6 6 6 1.00 6 Jordan 4-5 74 46 88 47 100 95 29 30 27 0.91 30 30 29 0.94 7 Kuwait 4-5 57 49 62 49 24 33 79 78 80 1.02 71 71 70 0.98 8 Lebanon 3-5 143 48 154 49 78 76 67 68 66 0.97 74 75 74 0.98 9 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 4-5 10 48.** 17.**,z 48.**,z . 15.**,z 55.** 5.** 0.97** 8.**,z 8.**,z 7.**,z 0.96**,z 10 Mauritania 3-5 …… 5 ……78 ……….… 2 …….… 11 Morocco 4-5 805 34 685 38 100 100 62 81 43 0.52 53 65 41 0.63 12 Oman 4-5 7 45 7 46 100 100 6 6 6 0.88 6 6 6 0.91 13 Palestinian A. T. 4-5 77 48 70 48 100 100 40 41 39 0.96 30 31 29 0.96 14 Qatar 3-5 8 48 12 49 100 93 25 26 25 0.97 32 33 32 0.99 15 Saudi Arabia 3-5 93 46 96 … 50 46 5 5 5 0.90 5 …….… 16 Sudan 4-5 366 … 446 50 90.** 74 20 …….… 23 23 23 1.03 17 Syrian Arab Republic 3-5 108 46 146 46 67 73 8 9 8 0.90 10 11 10 0.91 18 Tunisia 3-5 78 47 109.**,z 48.**,z 88 86.y 14 14 13 0.95 22.**,z 22.**,z 22.**,z 0.99**,z 19 United Arab Emirates 4-5 64 48 78 48 68 72 63 64 62 0.97 64 64 63 0.99 20 Yemen 3-5 12 45 15 46 37 45 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.86 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.87

Central and Eastern Europe

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 21 Albania 3-5 82 50 81.z 49.z . 6.z 44 42 45 1.07 49.z 48.z 50.z 1.03z 22 Belarus 3-5 263 47.* 267 48 – – 80 82.*77.* 0.95* 104 105 103 0.98 23 Bosnia and Herzegovina 3-5 …… … … … … ……….………….… 24 Bulgaria 3-6 219 48 201 48 0.1 0.3 69 69 68 0.99 78 78 77 0.99 25 Croatia 3-6 81 48 87.z 48.z 58.z 40 40 39 0.98 47.z 47.z 46.z 0.98z 26 Czech Republic 3-5 312 50 289 48 2 1 94 91 97 1.06 107 110 105 0.96 27 Estonia 3-6 55 48 54 48 0.7 1.4 90 90 89 0.99 114 115 113 0.98 28 Hungary 3-6 376 48 328 48 3 4 80 80 79 0.98 81 82 80 0.98 29 Latvia 3-6 58 48 61 48 1 2 53 54 52 0.95 79 81 78 0.96 30 Lithuania 3-6 94 48 88 48 0.3 0.2 51 51 50 0.97 64 66 63 0.96 31 Poland 3-6 958 49 832 49 3 7 50 50 50 1.01 53 52 53 1.01 32 Republic of Moldova 3-6 103 48 95 48.* … 0.8 41 42 40 0.96 50 51.*50.* 0.97* 33 Romania 3-6 625 49 637 49 0.6 1 63 63 64 1.02 76 75 76 1.02 34 Russian Federation 3-6 3 471 47.** 4 385 46 7.** 1 55 57.** 53.** 0.94** 85 89 81 0.91 35 Serbia and Montenegro1 3-6 166 48 …… . … 44 44 44 0.99 ……….… 36 Slovakia 3-5 169 … 154 48 0.4 0.7 83 …….… 92 93 91 0.97 37 Slovenia 3-6 59 46 41 47 1 1 75 79 72 0.91 59 60 57 0.95 38 TFYR Macedonia 3-6 33 49 33 48 ..28 28 28 1.01 32 32 32 1.00 39 Turkey 3-5 261 47 358 48 6 4 6 6 6 0.94 8 8 8 0.95 40 Ukraine 3-5 1 103 48 977 48 0.04 0.3 48 49 48 0.98 82 83 80 0.97

Central Asia 41 Armenia 3-6 57 … 47 50 – 2 26 …….… 31 29 34 1.17 42 Azerbaijan 3-5 111 46 109 48 – 0.1 22 23 21 0.89 28 28 28 1.01 43 Georgia 3-5 74 48 74 51 0.1 – 38 37 38 1.01 49 45 52 1.15 44 Kazakhstan 3-6 165 48 269 48 10 5 15 16 15 0.95 31 32 31 0.97 45 Kyrgyzstan 3-6 48 43 49 49 1 0.8 10 11 9 0.80 12 12 12 0.99 46 Mongolia 3-7 74 54 90 51 4 0.8 25 23 28 1.21 35 34 36 1.08 47 Tajikistan 3-6 56 42 63 47 ..8 9 7 0.76 9 10 9 0.93 48 Turkmenistan 3-6 …… … … … … ……….………….… 49 Uzbekistan 3-6 …… 615.** 47.** … . ……….… 28.** 29.** 27.** 0.93**

East Asia and the Pacific 50 Australia 4-4 …… 262 49 … 66 ……….… 102 102 102 1.00 51 Brunei Darussalam 3-5 11 49 12 48 66 67 51 50 52 1.04 52 52 52 1.00 52 Cambodia 3-5 58.** 50.** 95 49 22.** 24 6.** 6.** 6.** 1.03** 9 9 9 0.99 53 China 4-6 24 030 46 20 039 45.** ……38 39 37 0.97 36 37.** 35.** 0.92** STATISTICAL TABLES / 247

Table 3B

PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOL LIFE EXPECTANCY NEW ENTRANTS TO THE FIRST NET ENROLMENT RATIO (NER) GROSS ENROLMENT RATIO (GER) (expected number of years GRADE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) IN PRE-PRIMARY AND OTHER ECCE PROGRAMMES (%) of pre-primary schooling) WITH ECCE EXPERIENCE (%) School year ending in School year ending inSchool year ending in School year ending in 2004 1999 2004 2004 2004 Total Male Female GPI Total Male Female GPI Total Male FemaleGPI Total Male Female Total Male Female (F/M) (F/M) (F/M)

Arab States 5 5 5 0.97 ……… .………… .… 0.1 0.1 0.1 3 3 3 1 44 45 44 0.96 ……… .… 47 48 46 0.96 1.3 1.4 1.3 73 75 72 2 1 1 1 0.98 0.4 0.3 0.5 1.50 2 2 2 0.99 0.04 0.04 0.04 …… …3 8 8 7 0.95 11 11 10 0.95 14 15 14 0.95 0.3 0.3 0.3 …… …4 6 6 6 1.00 5 5 5 0.98 6 6 6 1.00 0.1 0.1 0.1 …… …5 27 28 27 0.95 29 30 27 0.91 30 30 29 0.94 0.6 0.6 0.6 49 ……6 59.** 59.** 58.** 0.98** 79 78 80 1.02 71 71 70 0.98 1.4 1.4 1.4 84.z 84.z 84.z 7 72 73 71 0.98 67 68 66 0.97 74 75 74 0.98 2.2 2.3 2.2 93 93 94 8 …… … .… ……… .………… .… 0.2**,z 0.2**,z 0.1**,z …… …9 …… … .… ……… .… 4 …… .… 0.1** …… 25 25 24 10 46 56 36 0.65 63 83 44 0.53 ……… .… 1.1 1.3 0.8 …… …11 5 6 5 0.89 6 6 6 0.88 6 6 6 0.91 0.1 0.1 0.1 …… …12 19 19 19 0.96 40 41 39 0.96 30 31 29 0.96 0.6 0.6 0.6 …… …13 31 32 31 0.98 25 26 25 0.97 32 33 32 0.99 1.0 1.0 1.0 …… …14 5 …… .… 5 5 5 0.90 5 …… .… 0.2 …… …… …15 23 23 23 1.03 20 …… .… 23 23 23 1.03 0.5 0.5 0.5 49 52 44 16 10 11 10 0.91 8 9 8 0.90 10 11 10 0.91 0.3 0.3 0.3 30 29 30 17 22.**,z 22.**,z 22.**,z 0.99**,z 14 14 13 0.95 22.**,z 22.**,z 22.**,z 0.99**,z 0.6**,z 0.7**,z 0.6**,z …… …18 45 45 45 0.98 63 64 62 0.97 64 64 63 0.99 1.3 1.3 1.3 82 81 83 19 0.5**,z 0.5**,z 0.5**,z 0.94**,z ……… .………… .… 0.02** 0.02** 0.02** …… …20

Central and Eastern Europe 49.z 48.z 50.z 1.03z 44 42 45 1.07 49.z 48.z 50.z 1.03z 1.5z 1.4z 1.5z …… …21 92 92 91 0.99 ……… .… 121 122 119 0.98 3.1 3.1 3.1 …… …22 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …23 74 74 73 0.99 69 69 68 0.99 78 78 77 0.99 3.1 3.1 3.1 …… …24 46.z 46.z 45.z 0.97z 46 46 45 0.99 53.z 54.z 53.z 0.98z 1.9z 1.9z 1.8z 98.*,z 98.*,z 98.*,z 25 …… … .… 94 91 97 1.06 107 110 105 0.96 3.2 3.2 3.1 …… …26 92 93 91 0.98 90 90 89 0.99 114 115 113 0.98 4.5 4.6 4.5 …… …27 80 81 79 0.98 ……… .… 81 82 80 0.98 3.2 3.3 3.2 …… …28 …… … .… 53 54 52 0.95 79 81 78 0.96 3.2 3.2 3.1 …… …29 63 64 61 0.97 56 57 55 0.97 64 66 63 0.96 2.6 2.6 2.5 …… …30 51 51 52 1.01 50 50 50 1.01 53 52 53 1.01 2.1 2.1 2.1 …… …31 48 49.*48.* 0.97* 41 42 40 0.96 50 51.*50.* 0.97* 2.0 2.0* 2.0* …… …32 75 74 76 1.03 63 63 64 1.02 76 75 76 1.02 3.0 3.0 3.1 …… …33 …… … .… ……… .… 85 89 81 0.91 3.3 3.5 3.2 …… …34 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …35 …… … .… 83 …… .… 92 93 91 0.97 2.7 2.8 2.7 …… …36 59 60 57 0.95 87 91 83 0.92 59 60 57 0.95 2.4 2.4 2.3 …… …37 30 30 30 1.01 31 31 32 1.01 36 35 36 1.00 1.3 1.3 1.3 …… …38 8 8 8 0.95 ……… .………… .… 0.2 0.3 0.2 …… …39 41 42 41 0.98 48 49 48 0.98 82 83 80 0.97 2.4 2.4 2.3 46.y ……40

Central Asia …… … .… 26 …… .… 31 29 34 1.17 1.3** 1.2** 1.4** …… …41 19 19 20 1.04 22 24 21 0.89 29 28 29 1.01 0.8 0.8 0.8 6 6 6 42 41 38 43 1.14 38 37 38 1.01 49 45 52 1.15 1.4 1.4 1.5 2 2 2 43 30 31 30 0.97 15 16 15 0.95 31 32 31 0.97 1.2 1.3 1.2 …… …44 8 8 8 0.99 10 11 9 0.80 12 12 12 0.99 0.5 0.5 0.5 14 14 14 45 32 …… .… ……… .………… .… 1.7 1.7** 1.8** …… …46 7 7 7 0.94 ……… .………… .… 0.4 0.4 0.4 …… …47 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …48 21.z …… .… ………… ………… 1.1** 1.1** 1.1** …… …49

East Asia and the Pacific 64 64 64 1.00 ……… .… 102 102 102 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 …… …50 …… … .… 51 50 52 1.04 52 52 52 1.00 1.6** 1.6** 1.6** 88.y 88.y 88.y 51 9 9 9 1.00 6.** 6.** 6.** 1.03** 9 9 9 0.99 0.3 0.3 0.3 12 11 13 52 …… … .… 38 39 37 0.97 36 37.** 35.** 0.92** 1.1 1.1** 1.0** …… …53 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 107 105 104 111 103 101 108 112 106 102 100 110 109 97 95 94 87 85 84 77 75 74 67 65 64 57 55 54 93 91 83 81 73 71 63 61 98 88 78 68 58 96 92 86 82 76 72 66 62 56 80 70 60 90 99 89 79 69 59 Table 3B(continued) Country orterritory Country Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean Nicaragua Netherlands Antilles Montserrat Mexico Jamaica Honduras Haiti Guyana Guatemala Grenada El Salvador Ecuador Dominican Republic Dominica Cuba Costa Rica Colombia Chile Cayman Islands British Virgin Islands Brazil Bolivia Bermuda Belize Barbados Bahamas Aruba Argentina Antigua andBarbuda Anguilla Viet Nam Vanuatu Tuvalu Tonga Tokelau Timor-Leste Thailand Solomon Islands Singapore Samoa Republic ofKorea Philippines Papua NewGuinea Palau Niue New Zealand Nauru Myanmar Micronesia Marshall Islands Malaysia Macao, China Lao PDR Kiribati Japan Indonesia Fiji DPR Korea Cook Islands 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 248 group Age 2004 - 6 0195 71 82 910 53 51.03 35 1.01 34 1.03 85 35 94 84 1.04 91 1.01 29 84 92 28 1.01 28 1.01 1.08 28 73 1.01 28 77 81 1.18 28 32 72 70 76 75 16 1.01 0.97 31 73 65 60 77 78 45 1.01 0.99 32 17 11 1.04 64 65 38 46 52 90 1.01 1.01 66 1.11 64 37 50 46 52 34 9 93 88 85 63 1.01 38 49 6 52 199 34 19 92 85 76 64 0.1 1.02 50 0.99 50 34 50 93 50 84 80 37 1.07 22 77 47 161 743 3 7 52 153 1.16 43 104 84 36 0.1 22 78 100 50 66 50 3-6 39 97 51 33 36 361 4-5 3 11 77 45 57 138 100 50 426 3-4 100 49 49 4-5 37 47 62 1.00 10 49 246 3-5 92 49 52 37 97 221 3-5 308 100 1.8 45 48 184 3-5 45 49 49 88 97 4-5 50 194 484 3-6 100 49 52 181 49 102 97 49 3-4 195 46 3 4-6 50 066 49 1 49 394 5-5 79 0.6 484 3-5 0.7 70 50 3-4 49 50 83 034 46 3-5 1 450 992 49 6 1.04 0.5 53 226 4-5 100 4 0.5 3-5 41 49 50 6 3-5 49 733 3-4 5 100 39 4 50 208 3 1.01 3-4 60 49 4 4-6 40 93 50 6 51 4-5 49 266 1 49 1.05 1.4 4-4 92 0.5 3 3-4 1.05 31 50 3-4 92 0.98 9 48 191 52 3-4 1 30 91 9 1.00 0.5 4-5 175 56 2 8 3-5 31 89 93 3-4 1.1 48 50 3-4 8 88 92 45 179 8 2 53 88 0.95 1.11 1.6 3-5 47 86 8 3-5 44 24 3-5 49 91 8 50 3-4 745 3-4 2 24 13 89 52 783 4-5 8 96 61 5 3-5 47 0.6 94 49 3-5 50 0.0 535 24 47 3-5 593 54 103 3-4 54 94 0.7 44 5-5 18 0.1 5-5 49 6-6 1.5** 48 101 3-5 50 603 4-4 41 12 3 50 3-4 42 1.6 3-5 50 50 47 3-4 572 52 3-5 17 9 4-5 37 5-5 49 3-5 0.5 49 962 3-5 2 526 9 3-5 1 47 3-5 0.4 5-6 3-5 4-5 4-4 / ANNEX ENROLMENT IN (000) Total …………………… … … …… … … …… …… …… ……… … … … … …… …… …… …… ……… … … … … …… …… …… ……… … … … … …… . . . *48 ** 53 ** 49 ** 1999 PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION School yearendingin ……… … ……… … % F . . . . *16 5 ** ** 99 51 060 3 850 1 ** ** 2712 9 50 190 48 543 352 0.4 50 0.7 0.1 4 0.6 5 (000) Total ...... ** 49 ** 49 ** ** ** ** ** ** ** 54 ** z y z z private institutions 2004 y z z z ,z ,y ,z ,z ,z … ……… … … … 49 ,z Enrolment in Enrolment . . . . . *11 1 ** 23 9 ** *100 ** *1 22 ** 19 ** ……… … … … 49 49 51 49 49 49 45 48 47 48 49 52 50 % F ...... ** ** ** ** ** ** z z z z y z z ,z ,z ,z ,y ,z ,z … … … … … … ……… … … 75 90 56 282 82 66 65 as %oftotalenrolment School yearendingin ...... *18 ** 18 98 ** ** 1999 … … … …… … …… 918 40 19 49 22 25 575 75 29 28 28 28 1 0 82 810 82 81.01 28 28 28 1.03 28 27 28 100 1.06 16 15 16 1.02 17 16 17 100 … … … … 23 58 1.01 90 89 89 0.98 82 83 1.36 82 27 20 17 23 1.22 33 27 30 12 77 – ...... *4 24 .15 05 1.04 53 50 51 1.01 43 42 42 ** *4 54 .148 1.01 45 45 45 ** ** 17 … 79 2004 ...... ** ** y y z z z z z z z y z 0 0 0 .31617160.98 116 117 116 1.03 107 104 105 1.58 119 75 97 0.93 147 159 154 ……… ……… ……… ……… 08 01.00 64 80 1.23 80 69 80 56 63 37 51 ,z ,z ,z 2 . . *18 ** *47 ** 94 110 52 1.08 51 47 49 35 53 509 59 0.96 35 36 35 0 0 0 .4108 1.04 104 100 102 2 2 2 .0113 1.00 120 120 108 120 0.99 121 122 122 ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… 68 509 91 0.98 85 87 86 85 810 68 1.00 58 31 58 1.09 0.98 62 58 12 46 1.02 11 47 57 12 47 56 0.94 57 40 42 41 0.98 87 89 88 Total . *35 ** …… …… . . . *18 ** *83 ** *56 ** . *35 ** aeFml GPI Female Male . . . *10* 22 31.09 23 21 22 1.01** ** *10* 85 1.02** ** *12* 49 1.21** ** 1999 . *10* 41 1.01** ** ...... … ………… ………… … … … ………… ………… … ………… ………… … IN PRE-PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) GROSS ENROLMENTRATIO (GER) . … School yearendingin . . . . . … … … … ………… 116 (F/M) 33 41.04 34 32 33 38 0 1.15 100 87 93 44 998 99 1.00 91 91 91 68 ...... *59 ** *48 ** 47 ** 123 ** ** *44 ** 11 . 71 50 17 41.09 84 77 81 52 09 90.97 89 91 90 . . ** ** . ** …… …… ...... ** 109 ** ** ** ** ** oa aeFml GPI Female Male Total ...... *100 ** 68 ** *41 ** 48 ** 110 ** *55 ** z z y z y ,z ,z ,z ,z ,z ,y ,z ,z . *107 ** 101 115 …… …… 71 49 87 68 31 62 52 41 61 ...... *1.02** ** 1.16** ** *0.87** ** 1.01** ** 0.90** ** *1.26** ** ...... ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** z z z 2004 ,z ,z ,z ,z ,z ,y ,z ,z ...... … … … … … … … … *0.99** ** 114 111 72 50 97 68 31 62 52 41 57 ...... ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** z z z . … ,z ,z ,y ,z ,z ,z ,z ,z . . … … 0.97** 1.00 0.99** 1.01 1.01** 0.99** 0.94** 1.02** 1.02** 1.12 1.11** (F/M) z z z ,z ,z ,y ,z ,z ,z ,z ,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 249

Table 3B

…… … .… 86 87 85 0.98 91.**,z 87.**,z 97.**,z 1.11**,z 0.9**,z 0.9**,z 1.0**,z …… …54 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …55 14 14 15 1.06 17 16 17 1.02 16 15 16 1.06 0.5 0.5 0.5 …… …56 22 21 23 1.09 ……… .………… .… 0.4 0.4 0.5 37 38 37 57 85 …… .… ……… .… 99 …… .… 2.5 …… …… …58 …… … .… ……… .… 68.** …… .… 2.0** …… …… …59 8 8 8 1.06 8 8 8 1.11 8 8 9 1.05 0.3 0.2 0.3 8 8 9 60 85 86 85 0.98 89 91 86 0.95 92 93 91 0.98 2.7 2.8 2.7 96 96 96 61 75.z 72.z 79.z 1.10z 102 100 104 1.04 108.z 101.z 114.z 1.12z 1.1z 1.0z 1.1z 78.z 76.z 81.z 62 48.**,y 47.**,y 48.**,y 1.02**,y ……… .… 50.**,z 49.**,z 50.**,z 1.02**,z 1.0**,z 1.0**,z 1.0**,z …… …63 …… … .… 37 …… .………… .………… …… …64 …… … .… 2 …… .………… .………… …… …65 …… … .… ……… .… 71.**,z 71.**,z 72.**,z 1.02**,z 2.1**,z 2.1**,z 2.2**,z …… …66 91 91 92 1.01 151 151 151 1.00 ……… .… 1.8 1.8 1.9 …… …67 …… … .… 154 159 147 0.93 97 75 119 1.58 1.0** 0.8** 1.2** …… …68 …… … .… 63 56 69 1.23 64.** 59.** 68.** 1.16** 1.9** 1.8** 2.0** …… …69 …… … .… 35 36 35 0.96 59.**,z 61.**,z 57.**,z 0.94**,z 0.6**,z 0.6**,z 0.6**,z …… …70 31.**,z 32.**,z 31.**,z 0.97**,z 31 30 31 1.05 40 39 41 1.04 0.4 0.4 0.4 59 59 60 71 48 48 48 1.00 80 80 80 1.00 91 91 91 1.00 1.0 1.0 0.9 …… …72 …… … .… 51.** 47.** 56.** 1.21** 49.** 44.** 55.** 1.26** 1.0** 0.9** 1.1** …… …73 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …74 …… … .… 35.** 35.** 35.** 1.01** 41.**,z 41.**,z 41.**,z 0.99**,z 1.2**,z 1.2**,z 1.2**,z …… …75 85.** 86.** 83.** 0.97** ……… .………… .… 2.7 2.7 2.7 …… …76 …… … .… ……… .………… .… 0.2y …… …… …77 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …78 …… … .… 30 27 33 1.22 23 20 27 1.36 0.5 0.4 0.5 …… …79 …… … .… ……… .… 99 98.** 100.** 1.02** 3.0** 3.0** 3.0** …… …80 …… … .… 49 47 51 1.08 52.**,y 52.**,y 52.**,y 1.01 1.6**,y 1.5**,y 1.6**,y …… …81 43.y …… .… 41 42 40 0.94 47 47 46 0.98 1.4** 1.4** 1.4** …… …82

Latin America and the Caribbean 91.**,z 97.**,z 85.**,z 0.87**,z ……… .… 116.** 123.** 110.** 0.90** 2.3** 2.5** 2.2** 100.** 100.** 100.** 83 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …84 62.z 61.z 62.z 1.01z 58 58 59 1.02 ……… .… 1.9z 1.8z 1.9z 90.z 90.z 91.z 85 90 88 93 1.07 97 97 97 1.00 100 97 104 1.07 2.0 1.9 2.1 88 89 87 86 23.y 23.y 22.y 0.99y 12 11 12 1.09 31.**,z 31.**,z 31.**,z 0.99**,z 0.6**,z 0.6**,z 0.6**,z …… …87 81 82 79 0.96 82 83 82 0.98 89 89 90 1.01 1.8 1.8 1.8 100 100 100 88 27 27 26 0.95 28 27 28 1.03 31 31 32 1.02 0.6 0.6 0.6 …… …89 37.**,y …… .… ……… .… 52.y …… .… 0.5y …… …… …90 39.** 39.** 39.** 1.01** 45 45 45 1.01 48.** 47.** 48.** 1.01** 1.0** 1.0** 1.0** 63.z 62.z 63.z 91 53.z 57.z 47.z 0.83z ……… .… 68.z 68.z 68.z 1.00z 2.0z 2.0z 2.0z …… …92 81 79 83 1.05 ……… .… 142 141 143 1.01 1.8 1.8 1.9 98 98 98 93 44.** 48.** 41.** 0.87** ……… .… 78.** 83.** 74.** 0.89** 0.9** 1.0** 0.8** 90 90 90 94 …… … .… 77 78 77 0.99 52 52 52 0.99 1.5 1.5 1.5 …… …95 34 34 34 1.01 36 36 37 1.02 38 37 38 1.01 1.1 1.1 1.1 …… …96 …… … .… 94 94 95 1.01 67 67 67 1.01 1.3 1.3 1.3 81 79 83 97 100.z …… .… 189 184 193 1.05 209 208 210 1.01 3.5 3.5 3.5 98 99 98 98 56.**,z 56.**,z 55.**,z 0.97**,z 80 76 85 1.11 65 60 70 1.18 1.3** 1.2** 1.4** 100 100 100 99 28 28 28 1.03 34 34 34 1.01 32 31 32 1.01 1.0 0.9 1.0 …… …100 62 62 63 1.01 94 92 95 1.03 158 158 159 1.01 0.8 0.8 0.8 55 54 56 101 46.** 45.** 47.** 1.05** 42 42 43 1.01 51 50 53 1.04 1.5 1.5 1.6 …… …102 80.z …… .… ……… .… 81 77 84 1.09 1.6** 1.5** 1.7** …… …103 27 27 27 1.01 46 46 45 0.97 28 28 28 1.01 1.2 1.2 1.2 80.y 78.y 82.y 104 91.z 92.z 91.z 1.00z 122 122 121 0.99 108.** 109.** 107.** 0.99** 2.2** 2.2** 2.1** 100.z 100.z 100.z 105 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …106 27 26 27 1.04 ……… .………… .… 1.0 1.0 1.0 …… …107 91 90 93 1.04 78 75 81 1.08 92 91 94 1.03 2.8 2.7 2.8 …… …108 74 73 74 1.00 73 72 73 1.01 84 84 85 1.01 1.7 1.7 1.7 …… …109 77 75 80 1.07 ……… .… 93 87 100 1.15 1.9 1.8 2.0 100 100 100 110 100.**,z …… .… ……… .………… .… 2.3**,z 2.3**,z 2.2**,z …… …111 35 34 35 1.03 ……… .… 43 44 42 1.03 1.4 1.4 1.4 43 41 44 112 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 157 155 154 147 145 144 137 135 134 127 125 124 117 115 114 167 165 164 163 161 153 151 143 141 133 131 123 121 113 158 148 138 128 118 166 162 156 152 146 142 136 132 126 122 116 160 150 140 130 120 159 149 139 129 119 Table 3B(continued) Country orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia North AmericaandWestern Europe Chad Central AfricanRepublic Cape Verde Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Botswana Benin Angola Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal Maldives Iran, IslamicRepublicof India Bhutan Bangladesh Afghanistan United States United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Spain San Marino Portugal Norway Netherlands Monaco Malta Luxembourg Italy Israel Ireland Iceland Greece Germany France Finland Denmark Cyprus Canada Belgium Austria Andorra Venezuela Uruguay Turks andCaicosIslands Trinidad andTobago Suriname St Vincent/Grenad. Saint Lucia Saint KittsandNevis Peru Paraguay Panama 1 4 1 2 3 1 1 250 group Age 2004 - 094 96 . . . .11110.97 0.99 1 1.00 20 4 1 20 4 1 20 0.95 1.01 4 0.8 12 0.97 0.8 12 4 0.8 12 4 60 64 4 49 57 27 0.96 1.00 49 50 1.00 20 61 59 9 94 0.99 176 63 59 49 14 85 95 48 50 62 39 59 1.03 3-5 85 22 1.00 95 104 50 5 3-5 77 0.97 1.00 0.98 111 3-5 85 1.00 20 30 48 4-5 58 79 75 88 112 1.02 92 1.01 4-6 18 1.08 60 78 4-6 84 111 76 90 49 78 92 3-5 108 0.99 59 79 1.00 83 4-5 52 89 78 13 0.99 92 100 3-5 100 0.99 68 83 0.99 102 436 40 9 78 1.02 49 104 101 112 7 48 68 98 103 0.99 238 67 0.99 4-4 100 50 112 12 497 25 0.99 14 34 3-4 103 72 68 6 99 102 0.99 66 220 165 112 1 48 6 96 48 3-4 35 0.98 103 73 0.3 58 3-5 98 1.01 0.99 10 869 13 1.00 66 47 52 48 97 95 5-5 49 102 61 103 32 72 59 114 585 3-5 2 49 1.01 70 97 436 7 97 4-5 48 52 105 822 113 39 61 68 59 0.99 3-5 154 6 0.98 48 49 1.00 96 104 3-6 114 329 69 89 61 0.99 49 67 183 93 49 7 37 48 116 1.00 356 4 1 155 48 28 1 90 1.02 5 49 68 158 117 1.01 94 111 48 254 3-5 49 360 60 49 89 50 154 3-4 55 116 111 93 3 30 7 131 350 5-6 1 49 49 59 49 0.98 0.99 3-6 111 9 50 55 220 3-5 59 49 110 82 14 60 139 48 3 48 52 3-5 13 8 55 1.11 390 48 111 0.9 3-5 83 74 644 41 1 54 49 1.03 429 3-5 10 110 13 49 4-5 83 10 12 45 16 1.01 48 67 3-5 27 1.02 48 54 54 48 578 61 140 3-4 1 44 27 71 355 49 55 48 49 3-5 238 2 60 49 3-5 56 45 49 0.95 15 49 54 499 2 139 3-5 25 48 143 82 60 250 3-3 16 55 17 49 333 49 3-5 2 49 1.02 86 393 48 512 4-5 2 63 49 1.01 125 49 56 399 3-5 20 84 251 39 217 3-5 49 19 47 55 3-6 49 39 529 100 3-6 49 49 399 55 3-5 39 225 50 4-5 915 100 3-5 104 20 0.9 17 3-5 50 52 3-5 49 738 15 54 23 100 4 0.8 3-5 23 49 3-5 49 48 4-5 090 1 6 148 3-4 73 4-5 50 3-4 50 49 017 3-4 1 123 3-4 49 3-5 3-5 4-5 / ANNEX ENROLMENT IN (000) Total …………………… … … … … …… …… …… ……… … … ……… … … … …… … … … …… ……… … … … … …… …… …… ……… … … … … …… ……… … … … … …… …… …… …… …… . . *41 ** 50 ** 1999 PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION School yearendingin % F . . ** 100 49 30 ** 7 44 574 3 1 46 512 …… …… 151 21 25 17 6 349 449 51 1.9 (000) Total ...... *51 ** ** 49 ** ** 49 ** 49 ** *43 ** ** z private institutions 2004 ,y ,z ,y … Enrolment in Enrolment . . . . . ** 8 5 ** ** 28 29 ** ** 48 49 49 49 % F . . . . ** ** ** z ,z ,y ,y 100 ……… … … … … …… … … … … ……… … … … ……… … … 26 04 57 710 85 1.06 77 73 75 41 40 as %oftotalenrolment School yearendingin . *1060 100 ** 1999 … … 34 58 100 ……… … ……… … … 17 61 80 – 31 410 73 91.12 39 35 37 1.05 14 13 13 8 2 ...... *19101809 126 0.98 108 110 109 ** 61 1.02 60 59 59 31 ** 1.03 28 27 ** 27 ** … 46 49 2004 . . ** . ** z z z ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… 02 909 63 61.00 36 36 36 0.99 19 20 20 1.00 91 91 91 1.00 91 91 91 ,z ,y . *60 ** .31 1.03 2 2 2 ……… 64 610 84 91.03 49 47 48 1.00 46 12 46 1.12 11 46 27 25 26 68 1.01 67 66 67 Total . *13 ** . *61 ** aeFml GPI Female Male . *10 ** . *10* 68 61.00 86 87 86 1.01** ** 1999 ...... ………… … … ………… … … … … … … ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… . IN PRE-PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) GROSS ENROLMENTRATIO (GER) *0.73** ** School yearendingin . … 127 0 1 0 0.90 100 112 106 1.15 109 94 101 (F/M) 54 00.83 40 48 45 35 41.04 54 52 53 0.97 84 87 86 2 .* .* .* 0.80** 0.6** 0.7** 0.7** . . . . . *121 ** *2 ** *126 ** 61 ** 31 ** 90 63 40.90 34 38 36 . ** …… . . . ** ** oa aeFml GPI Female Male Total . . . . . *134 ** *2 ** *126 ** 61 ** 32 ** z ,z ,y ,y 90 11 68 . . . . . *1.11** ** *1.04** ** *1.00** ** 1.01** ** 1.01** ** 1 . . . . ** ** ** z 2004 ,z ,y ,y ...... … … … … … … … … … 91 12 67 1 . . . . ** ** ** z ,y ,y ,z 0.94** 1.01 1.00** 1.01** (F/M) z ,y ,y ,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 251

Table 3B

52 51 52 1.02 42 41 42 1.01 59 59 60 1.02 1.1 1.1 1.1 64 63 65 113 …… … .… 27 27 28 1.03 ……… .… 0.9** 0.9** 0.9** 76.z 75.z 76.z 114 60 60 61 1.01 57 57 58 1.02 60 60 61 1.01 1.8 1.8 1.8 …… …115 83.**,z 77.**,z 90.**,z 1.16**,z ……… .… 143 134 153 1.15 2.0** 1.9** 2.2** …… …116 57 53 61 1.14 ……… .… 94 90 98 1.09 1.4 1.3 1.5 100y 100y 100y 117 …… … .… ……… .… 86 87 84 0.97 1.7** 1.7** 1.7** 100 100 100 118 90.**,z 90.**,z 91.**,z 1.01**,z ……… .………… .… 1.8**,z 1.8**,z 1.8**,z …… …119 70 70 70 1.00 60.** 60.** 61.** 1.01** 86 87 86 1.00 1.7 1.7 1.7 81.*80.*82.* 120 65 67 64 0.96 ……… .… 106 112 100 0.90 2.1 2.2 1.9 100 100 100 121 …… … .… 59 59 60 1.02 ……… .… 1.8** 1.8** 1.8** 95.z 95.z 95.z 122 49 49 50 1.02 54 53 54 1.02 59 59 59 1.01 1.7 1.6 1.7 …… …123

North America and Western Europe 100.y …… .… ……… .… 127.** 121.** 134.** 1.11** 3.8** 3.6** 4.0** …… …124 …… … .… ……… .… 89 90 89 0.99 2.6 2.7 2.6 …… …125 100 100 100 1.00 110 111 110 0.98 116 117 116 1.00 3.5 3.5 3.5 …… …126 68.**,y 68.**,y 67.**,y 1.00**,y ……… .………… .… 1.3**,y 1.3**,y 1.3**,y …… …127 57 56 57 1.02 87 87 86 0.99 61 61 61 1.01 1.8 1.8 1.8 …… …128 91 91 91 1.00 ……… .… 91 91 91 1.00 3.6 3.6 3.6 …… …129 58 58 58 1.00 49 49 48 0.99 59 59 58 0.99 2.3 2.3 2.3 …… …130 100 100 100 1.00 111 111 111 1.00 114 113 114 1.00 3.4 3.4 3.4 …… …131 …… … .… 93 94 93 0.98 97 97 96 0.99 2.9 2.9 2.9 …… …132 66 66 67 1.02 68 67 68 1.01 66 66 67 1.02 1.3 1.3 1.3 …… …133 91.** 91.** 92.** 1.00** 109 110 108 0.98 126.** 126.** 126.** 1.00** 3.8** 3.8** 3.8** …… …134 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …135 88 88 89 1.01 104 105 103 0.99 112 112 112 0.99 3.4 3.4 3.3 …… …136 98 99 98 0.99 96 97 95 0.98 103 103 102 0.99 3.1 3.1 3.1 …… …137 72 71 73 1.02 72 73 72 0.99 ……… .… 2.5 2.5 2.5 …… …138 87 85 89 1.05 102 103 102 0.99 104 100 108 1.08 2.1 2.0 2.1 …… …139 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …140 89 90 88 0.98 ……… .… 89 90 88 0.98 1.8 1.8 1.8 …… …141 85 …… .… 75 73 77 1.06 85 …… .… 2.6 …… …… …142 75 74 76 1.03 68 68 68 1.00 76 75 77 1.03 2.3 2.2 2.3 …… …143 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …144 97 97 97 1.00 100 101 100 0.99 111 112 111 1.00 3.3 3.3 3.3 …… …145 85 85 84 0.99 78 78 78 1.01 85 85 85 0.99 3.4 3.4 3.4 …… …146 73 73 72 0.99 92 92 92 1.00 95 95 94 1.00 1.9 1.9 1.9 …… …147 55 55 55 1.00 ……… .… 59 59 59 1.00 1.2 1.2 1.2 …… …148 57 …… .… 59 60 58 0.97 62 63 61 0.96 1.9 2.0 1.7 …… …149

South and West Asia …… … .… ……… .… 0.7** 0.7** 0.6** 0.80** 0.03** 0.03** 0.02** …… …150 11.z 10.z 11.z 1.01z ……… .………… .… 0.3z 0.3z 0.4z 23.y 24.y 22.y 151 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …152 …… … .… ……… .… 36 36 36 1.00 1.1** 1.1** 1.1** …… …153 27.z 25.z 29.z 1.13z 13 13 14 1.05 37 35 39 1.12 0.4** 0.3** 0.4** 26 27 26 154 45.y 44.y 45.y 1.02y 46 46 46 1.00 48 47 49 1.03 1.4** 1.4** 1.5** 68.z 68.z 69.z 155 …… … .… 11.** 13.** 10.** 0.73** 36 38 34 0.90 0.7** 0.8 0.7 19 19 18 156 38.*42.*34.* 0.81* ……… .………… .… 0.9 1.0 0.8 …… …157 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …158

Sub-Saharan Africa …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …159 3 3 3 1.01 4 4 4 0.97 ……… .… 0.1 0.1 0.1 …… …160 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …161 1.**,y 1.**,y 1.**,y 0.94**,y ……… .… 1.**,y 1.**,y 1.**,y 0.94**,y 0.04**,y 0.04**,y 0.03**,y 33 3162 …… … .… 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.01 1 1 1 0.97 0.04** 0.04** 0.04** 4 3 4 163 …… … .… 12 12 12 0.95 20 20 20 0.99 0.4** 0.4** 0.4** …… …164 51 50 51 1.04 ……… .… 53 52 54 1.04 1.6 1.6 1.6 78 77 79 165 2.** 2.** 2.** 1.04** ……… .… 2.** 2.** 2.** 1.04** 0.1** 0.1** 0.1** …… …166 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …167 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 197 195 194 187 185 184 177 175 174 203 201 193 191 183 181 173 171 198 188 178 168 202 196 192 186 182 176 172 200 190 180 170 199 189 179 169 XVI XIV XIII VIII XV XII VII XI IX VI IV III X V II I population databyage. 2. Enrolmentratioswere notcalculatedduetolackofUnitedNations 1. Nationalpopulation data wereusedtocalculateenrolmentratios. Table 3B(continued) Country orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia N. America/W. Europe Latin America/Caribbean East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Arab States Developing countries Developed countries Countries intransition World Zimbabwe Zambia United RepublicofTanzania Uganda Togo Swaziland South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Seychelles Senegal Sao Tome andPrincipe Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Mali Malawi Madagascar Liberia Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Ethiopia Eritrea Equatorial Guinea D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Comoros Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia 1 252 group Age 2004 - 45 55 87 .06561.11 6 5 1.01 1 6 1 1.00 3 1 3 1.05 1 3 5 1 74 5 1 13 439 68 0.90 49 30 50 345 3-5 66 7 3-6 11 52 3 5-6 50 33 1.06 8 4-5 55 207 3-5 0.96 6 49 3-5 7 49 3 50 3 6-6 5 3-5 0.88 24 18 4 3 3-5 49 5 6 4-5 50 4-6 32 3 53 1.59 6 4-6 12 32 4-6 35 1.07 2 10 50 3-5 6 51 2 4-6 42 1 3-5 21 49 76 3-5 2 2 3-4 42 50 628 1 3-6 2 97 112 3-5 33 79 50 3-5 30 62 188 4 3-5 1 47 3-5 85 47 3-5 19 667 100 4-6 29 24 49 51 3-6 47 3-5 48 90 49 51 3-6 22 12 3-5 2 17 49 4-6 61 5-6 36 6 51 3-6 1.3 3-5 3-5 3-5 3-5 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … / ANNEX 1 7 813654 63 33 209 73 70.97 37 38 37 0.96 32 34 33 39 36 48 685 123 48 772 111 ENROLMENT IN 9114 9484 62 67 509 87 80.98 1.01 78 61 1.01 79 61 62 0.96 78 0.96 61 62 39 0.98 39 1.01 62 40 75 41 56 1.01 40 76 0.97 0.99 40 55 56 31 0.98 76 77 0.98 55 55 39 32 77 39 20 56 40 21 32 77 40 40 26 0.95 44 0.99 40 23 27 48 73 60 47 39 45 28 49 74 166 31 408 19 57 47 28 73 49 154 18 48 48 186 22 49 54 151 47 119 19 19 8 720 47 15 49 831 32 49 392 352 16 33 8 47 47 152 36 48 568 36 47 089 91 482 25 47 49 070 80 386 25 2 97394 56 01 .81 31 0.98 12 13 12 0.98 9 0.95 0.95 26 10 56 0.87 28 10 15 59 27 0.93 17 57 64 57 0.92 16 0.97 55 22 61 44 0.76 23 13 59 45 49 22 0.94 17 45 359 7 40 0.8 15 1 49 42 129 76 5 2 41 1 89 0.8 48 47 46 482 1 1 176 9 47 625 2 48 450 1 47 42 538 8 356 2 115 7 47 316 6 Sum (000) Total 7 0955 88 16 210 0 9131.03 103 99 101 1.04 72 69 71 85 88 50 48 965 520 50 673 49 416 …………………… … … … … …… …… ……… … … ……… … … … …… ……… … … … … … …… … … …… …… …… ……… … … … … …… ……… … … … … …… …… …… ……… … … … … …… ...... *51 ** 50 ** 51 ** 51 ** 52 ** 51 ** 49 ** 1999 PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION School yearendingin % F %F ...... *4 9100 448 49 ** 42 ** – 50 5 ** 171 ** 41 ** ** ** 5 49 753 1 3 50 639 49 153 3 50 731 …… …… 19 49 37 49 68 16 Sum (000) Total ...... *50 ** ** ** 50 ** * ** ** 48 ** ** z z z private institutions 2004 ,z ,y ,z ,z ,y … Enrolment in Enrolment . . . *5 59 53 ** ** *100 ** of 197,571 in ISCCED1enrolment. term ofthe school year. Notethatthefallof 261,182intheISCED0 enrolment isboradlyoffset byanincrease over 4.5andtypically(although notalways)willstartprimaryschool receptionclassesinthesecondorthird enrolment evenifthey startedtheschoolyearatthiseducationlevel. Thesearechildrenwhounder5but to includechildrencategorized asbeingaged‘4rising5’inprimary educationenrolmentratherthanpre-primary 3. Thedeclineinenrolment isessentiallyduetoare-classification of programmes.From2004,itwasdecided …… … 45 50 50 52 49 49 % F %F ...... ** ** ** * z z ,z ,y ,z ,z 100 … … …… ……… … … …… … 39 85 62 33 93 as %oftotalenrolment School yearendingin ...... *99 ** 27 – ** *100 ** ** ** *90 ** 0 100 100 737 37 1999 …… … …… 646 46 68 26 Median 100 … … 91 83 34 42 42 .33 33 0.98 32 33 32 0.93 22 24 23 44 2 ...... *22209 2 0.99 2 2 2 ** *23 ** 100 73 2004 . . ** ** . . . . ** ** ** z y z z z 0 9111.02 101 99 100 ……… ……… 14 50.74 35 47 18 41 0.91 19 21 20 40 85 810 27 20.99 72 72 72 1.00 58 58 58 ,y ,y ,z ,y ,z 0.97 1 1 1 3 . . . . *26 ** 3 ** *23 ** 40 ** 41 0 0 1 .41213100.98 100 103 102 1.04 111 107 109 .92 1.09 1 1 1 ……… ……… 44 410 35 30.99 53 54 53 1.00 44 44 44 40 1.04 32 31 31 02 010 33 1.01 20 20 20 29 1.16 21 18 19 Total . *40 ** .63 0.96 2 2 2 4 3 . . *4 ** 3 ** . . . . *28 ** 3 ** *24 ** 40 ** . *41 ** aeFml GPI Female Male . . *4 ** 3 ** . . . . *10* 24 31.04 43 42 42 1.09** ** 1.05** ** *10* 31 1.08** ** 1.02** ** 1999 . *10* 43 1.03** ** ...... … … … ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… IN PRE-PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) GROSS ENROLMENTRATIO (GER) . . *10* 0.99 2 2 2 1.00** ** 10 1.02** ** School yearendingin Weighted average . . … … ……… ……… (F/M) 92 91.02 29 29 29 51 51.00 15 15 15 59 61.01 96 95 95 24 21.03 42 41 42 1.03 6 6 6 0.95 2 2 2 . . . *18 ** *2 ** *32 ** 14 . . ** 3 . . . . . ** ** . . ** * ** oa aeFml GPI Female Male Total . . . *19 ** *2 ** *30 ** z z z ,z ,y ,y ,z ,z …… …… …… …… 33 27 . . . *1.03** ** *0.98** ** *0.94** ** 3 3 2 . . . . . ** * ** ** z ,z 2004 ,y ,z ,z ...... … … … … … … … … … 34 30 3 2 2 . . . . . ** * ** ** z ,z . … ,y ,z ,z . . . … … … 1.03 0.98** 1.12** 1.01** 0.96* (F/M) z ,z ,y ,z ,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 253

Table 3B

…… … .… ……… .………… .… 0.1** 0.1** 0.1** …… …168 6 5 6 1.06 2 1 2 1.59 6 5 6 1.06 0.2 0.2 0.2 10 10 11 169 3.*,z 3.*,z 3.*,z 0.96*,z 2 2 2 0.96 3.*,z 3.*,z 3.*,z 0.96*,z 0.1*,z 0.1*,z 0.1*,z …… …170 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …171 39.z …… .… 31 31 32 1.04 40.z …… .… 1.6z …… …… …172 5 5 5 0.95 6 6 5 0.88 7 8 7 0.90 0.1 0.2 0.1 …… …173 …… … .… 1 1 1 0.97 2 2 2 0.95 0.1** 0.1** 0.1** …… …174 …… … .… ……… .………… .… 0.4**,y …… …… …175 …… … .… ……… .… 22.** 22.** 22.** 1.01** 0.7** 0.7** 0.7** …… …176 27 26 28 1.06 40.** 40.** 40.** 1.02** 42 41 42 1.03 1.3 1.3 1.3 …… …177 6 6 6 1.03 ……… .… 6 6 6 1.03 0.2 0.2 0.2 17 17 18 178 …… … .… 3.** 3.** 3.** 1.05** ……… .………… …… …179 29 29 30 1.03 44 44 44 1.00 53 54 53 0.99 1.7 1.7 1.7 …… …180 …… … .… 23.** 23.** 24.** 1.08** 31.** 32.** 30.** 0.94** 0.9** 0.9** 0.9** …… …181 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …182 10.** …… .… 3.** 3.** 3.** 1.02** 10.** …… .… 0.3** …… …… …183 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …184 …… … .… 1 1 1 1.09 2.**,z 2.**,z 2.**,z 1.01**,z 0.1**,z 0.1**,z 0.1**,z 77 8185 83 83 83 1.00 100 99 101 1.02 95 95 96 1.01 1.9** 1.9** 1.9** 100 100 100 186 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …187 …… … .… ……… .………… .… 0.9**,z 0.8**,z 0.9**,z …… …188 1 1 1 1.00 1 1 1 1.05 1 1 1 1.01 0.04 0.04 0.04 19.z 19.z 19.z 189 11 11 11 0.97 ……… .………… .… 0.4 0.4 0.4 …… …190 …… … .… ……… .… 3.**,y 3.**,y 2.**,y 0.98**,y 0.1**,y 0.1**,y 0.1**,y …… …191 30 30 31 1.04 ……… .… 48 47 49 1.04 1.2 1.2 1.3 …… …192 3 3 3 1.12 ……… .………… .… 0.2 0.2 0.2 4 4 5 193 90 91 90 1.0 109 107 111 1.04 102 103 100 0.98 2.1 2.1 2.1 100 100 100 194 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …195 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …196 16.z 16.z 16.z 1.02z ……… .… 53.z 52.z 54.z 1.03z 0.3z 0.3z 0.3z …… …197 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… …… …198 2.** 2.** 2.** 0.98** 2 2 2 0.99 2.** 2.** 2.** 0.98** 0.1** 0.1** 0.1** …… …199 …… … .… ……… .………… .… 0.0** 0.0** 0.0** …… …200 29 29 29 1.02 ……… .………… .… 0.6 0.6 0.6 …… …201 …… … .… ……… .………… .………… 16 16 16 202 …… … .… 41.** 40.** 41.** 1.03** 43.z 47.z 39.z 0.82z 1.3**,z 1.4**,z 1.2**,z …… …203

Median Median Weighted average Median

…… … .… 46 46 45 0.98 56 56 56 0.99 1.0 1.0 1.0 …… …I

…… … .… 26 …… .… 49 45 52 1.15 2.2 2.3 2.1 …… …II …… … .… 76 75 78 1.03 85 …… .… 2.2 2.3 2.2 …… …III …… … .… 40 41 39 0.96 48 47 48 1.02 0.9 0.9 0.8 …… …IV

…… … .… 20 …… .… 22 22 22 1.01 0.4 0.4 0.3 …… …V …… … .… 55 56 54 0.96 78 78 77 0.99 2.0 2.1 2.0 …… …VI …… … .… 22 24 21 0.89 31 29 34 1.17 1.0 1.1 1.0 …… …VII …… … .… 41 42 40 0.94 55 56 54 0.96 1.0 1.1 1.0 …… …VIII …… … .… 39 40 38 0.95 49 50 49 0.99 1.0 1.1 1.0 …… …IX …… … .… 49 47 51 1.08 61 60 63 1.04 0.9 0.9 0.9 …… …X …… … .… 59 58 59 1.02 79 80 79 0.99 1.7 1.7 1.7 …… …XI …… … .… ……… .… 91 90 92 1.02 2.9 2.8 2.9 …… …XII …… … .… 55 55 56 1.02 59 59 60 1.02 1.7 1.7 1.7 …… …XIII …… … .… 92 92 92 1.00 91 91 91 1.00 2.2 2.3 2.1 …… …XIV …… … .… ……… .… 36 36 36 1.00 0.9 0.9 0.9 …… …XV …… … .… ……… .… 10 …… .… 0.4 0.4 0.3 …… …XVI

4. Enrolment ratios were not calculated due to Data in bold are for the school year ending in 2005. inconsistencies between enrolment and the (z) Data are for the school year ending in 2003. United Nations population data. (y) Data are for the school year ending in 2002. 7

0 254 / ANNEX 0 Table 4 Access to primary education 2

New entrants GROSS INTAKE RATE (GIR) Legal (000) IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) Compulsory guarantee education of free School year ending in School year ending in (age group) education1 1999 2004 1999 2004 Total Male Female GPI Total Male Female GPI Country or territory (F/M) (F/M)

Arab States 1 Algeria2 6-16 Yes 745 628 101 102 100 0.98 102 103 100 0.98 2 Bahrain … Yes 13 13 101 99 103 1.04 100 100 99 0.99 3 Djibouti 6-15 No 6 8 30 34 25 0.74 39 42 35 0.83 4 Egypt3 6-13 Yes 1 451.** 1 577.** 92.** 94.** 90.** 0.96** 99.** 99.** 99.** 0.99** 5 Iraq 6-11 Yes 709.** 826 102.** 109.** 95.** 0.88** 107 110 103 0.94 6 Jordan2 6-16 Yes 126 133 102 101 102 1.00 92 91 92 1.01 7 Kuwait2 6-14 Yes 35 41.** 97 97 98 1.01 97.** 96.** 97.** 1.01** 8 Lebanon2, 3 6-12 Yes 71 71 102 106 98 0.92 100 100 99 0.99 9 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya2 6-15 Yes … … …………………… 10 Mauritania3 6-14 Yes … 89 ………… 106 106 105 0.99 11 Morocco3 6-14 Yes 731 623 112 115 109 0.94 98 100 96 0.96 12 Oman … Yes 52 44 86 86 86 1.00 74 74 75 1.02 13 Palestinian A. T. 6-15 … 95 93 105 104 106 1.01 84 85 84 0.99 14 Qatar3 6-14 Yes 11.** 11.** 111.** 112.** 109.** 0.98** 100.** 100.** 100.** 1.00** 15 Saudi Arabia3 6-11 Yes 379 402 66 66 65 0.99 66 66 66 1.00 16 Sudan3 6-13 Yes … 637 ………… 68 73 62 0.85 17 Syrian Arab Republic2 6-12 Yes 466 543 107 110 103 0.94 120 122 118 0.97 18 Tunisia 6-16 Yes 204 162 101 101 100 1.00 95 94 96 1.02 19 United Arab Emirates3 6-15 Yes 47 54 91 93 90 0.97 89 89 88 0.99 20 Yemen3 6-14 Yes 440 691.** 78 91 65 0.71 110.** 122.** 97.** 0.80**

Central and Eastern Europe 21 Albania 6-13 Yes 67.** 60.z 102.** 103.** 102.** 0.99** 102.z 103.z 102.z 0.99z

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 22 Belarus3 6-16 Yes 173 91 131 132 130 0.99 102 103 102 0.99 23 Bosnia and Herzegovina3 … Yes … … …………………… 24 Bulgaria2, 3 7-16 Yes 93 72.4 101 102 100 0.98 106 107 104 0.98 25 Croatia 7-15 Yes 50 49.z 94 95 93 0.98 98.z 99.z 97.z 0.98z 26 Czech Republic 6-15 Yes 124 92 101 102 100 0.98 97 97 96 0.99 27 Estonia 7-15 Yes 18 13 100 100 99 0.98 101 101 101 1.00 28 Hungary 7-16 Yes 127 104 102 104 100 0.97 95 96 94 0.98 29 Latvia3 7-15 Yes 32 19 96 96.** 96.** 0.99** 90 90 89 0.99 30 Lithuania2 7-16 Yes 54 40 105 105 104 0.99 101 101 102 1.01 31 Poland2, 4 7-18 Yes 535 422 101 ……… 97 97.** 97.** 1.00** 32 Republic of Moldova3 6-16 Yes 62 48 85 85.** 85.** 1.00** 88 89 88 0.99 33 Romania3 7-14 Yes 269 276 94 94 94 0.99 126 126 126 1.00 34 Russian Federation3 6-15 Yes 1 659 1 313 86 ……… 97 98.** 97.** 0.99** 35 Serbia and Montenegro5 7-14 … … … …………………… 36 Slovakia2 6-16 Yes 75 58 102 102 101 0.99 96 97 96 0.99 37 Slovenia2 7-15 Yes 21 26 99 99 99 0.99 142 142 141 0.99 38 TFYR Macedonia2, 3 7-15 Yes 32 27 102 102 102 1.00 98 98 97 0.99 39 Turkey3 6-14 Yes … 1311 ………… 91 93 88 0.95 40 Ukraine3 6-17 Yes 623 457 93 94 93 0.99 105 105.* 105.* 1.00*

Central Asia 41 Armenia3 7-15 Yes … 44 ………… 99 96 101 1.06 42 Azerbaijan3 6-17 Yes 175 137 94 94 95 1.01 95 96 93 0.97 43 Georgia3 6-14 Yes 74 58 99 99.** 100.** 1.02** 106 107 105 0.98 44 Kazakhstan 7-17 Yes … 241 ………… 105 106 105 0.99 45 Kyrgyzstan3 7-15 Yes 120.* 108 99.*99.*100.* 1.02* 98 99 97 0.98 46 Mongolia 8-16 No 70 61 111 111 111 1.00 114 113 115 1.02 47 Tajikistan3 7-15 Yes 177 164 99 101 96 0.95 96 98.** 94.** 0.96** 48 Turkmenistan 7-15 Yes … … …………………… 49 Uzbekistan3 7-16 Yes … 596.** ………… 102.** 102.** 102.** 1.00**

East Asia and the Pacific 50 Australia 5-15 Yes … 271 ………… 104 105 104 0.99 51 Brunei Darussalam 5-16 No 8 7 107 107 106 0.99 101 103 100 0.97 52 Cambodia3 … Yes 404.** 495 117.** 120.** 114.** 0.95** 148 154 143 0.93 53 China3, 6 6-14 Yes … 18 339 ………… 94 95 93 0.98 54 Cook Islands5 5-15 … 1 0.4z 131 ……… 80.**,z 81.**,z 78.**,z 0.96**,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 255

Table 4

SCHOOL LIFE EXPECTANCY NET INTAKE RATE (NIR) (expected number of years of formal schooling IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) from primary to tertiary education) School year ending in School year ending in 1999 2004 1999 2004 Total Male Female GPI Total Male Female GPI TotalMale Female Total Male Female (F/M) (F/M)

Arab States 77 79 76 0.97 90 91 89 0.98 ………12.5** 12.6** 12.5** 1 86 83 88 1.06 83 83 82 0.98 13.1** 12.6** 13.7** 14.2** 13.7** 14.8** 2 22 25 19 0.75 30 34 27 0.80 3.2** ……4.0** 4.6** 3.4** 3 68.** 67.** 69.** 1.02** 92.** 92.** 91.** 0.99** 12.5** ……12.0** ……4 79.** 83.** 75.** 0.90** 82 86 79 0.92 8.2** 9.4** 7.0** 9.6** 10.9** 8.2** 5 ………… 60 60 60 1.00 ………13.1** 12.9** 13.2** 6 62 63 61 0.97 64.** 63.** 66.** 1.04** 13.7** 13.0** 14.4** 12.5** 11.7** 13.3** 7 75.** 77.** 74.** 0.95** 79 79 78 0.99 13.2** 13.0** 13.3** 14.1** 13.9** 14.4** 8 …………………… ………16.2**,z 15.7**,z 16.8**,z 9 ………… 36.** 37.** 35.** 0.95** 6.9** ……7.5** 7.8** 7.2** 10 51 53 49 0.93 80 82 79 0.96 8.0** 8.9** 7.1** 9.9** 10.5** 9.2** 11 70 69 70 1.01 53 53 54 1.02 ………11.5** 11.6** 11.3** 12 ………… 62 63 61 0.96 12.0 11.9 12.0 13.4 13.2 13.6 13 ………… 72.** 74.** 70.** 0.95** 12.9** 12.2** 13.8** 12.7** 12.4** 13.4** 14 40 48 32 0.68 45.** 47.** 44.** 0.95** 9.9** 10.1** 9.7** 9.9** 10.0** 9.7** 15 ………… 38 41 35 0.84 4.7** ……………16 60 61 60 0.98 63 63 62 0.98 ………………17 ………… 88 88 89 1.02 12.9** 13.0** 12.7** 13.7** ……18 48 48 47 0.99 37 38 35 0.93 11.2** 10.7** 12.0** 10.3**,z 9.7**,z 11.2**,z 19 26 31 21 0.68 ………… 7.7** 10.4** 4.8** 8.8** 11.0** 6.5** 20

Central and Eastern Europe …………………… 11.1** 11.1** 11.0** 11.3z 11.2z 11.3z 21 76 77 76 0.99 85.*86.*85.* 0.99* 13.5** 13.3** 13.8** 14.4 14.1 14.7 22 …………………… ………………23 ………… 87.y 87.y 87.y 1.01y 13.0 12.6 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.2 24 68 69 66 0.97 71.z 73.z 70.z 0.95z 12.0 11.9 12.2 12.9z 12.7z 13.1z 25 …………………… 13.5** 13.4** 13.5** 14.7 14.6 14.9 26 …………………… 14.5 14.0 15.0 15.8 14.8 16.8 27 ………… 65.** 67.** 63.** 0.94** 13.8** 13.6** 14.1** 15.0 14.6 15.4 28 …………………… 13.7 12.9 14.4 15.4 14.4 16.3 29 …………………… 14.1 13.6 14.6 15.6 14.9 16.4 30 …………………… ………15.0 14.4 15.6 31 …………………… 9.8** 9.6** 10.0** 10.3 9.9 10.6 32 ………… 78.y 78.y 77.y 0.99y 11.9 11.7 12.0 13.3 13.0 13.6 33 …………………… ………13.4** 12.8** 13.9** 34 …………………… 13.3 13.3 13.4 ………35 …………………… 13.1** 13.0** 13.3** 14.1 13.9 14.4 36 …………………… 14.8** 14.4** 15.3** 16.6** 16.1** 17.2** 37 ………… 75.y 76.y 74.y 0.98y 11.9 11.9 11.9 12.1 11.9 12.3 38 ………… 72.** 74.** 71.** 0.96** ………11.1 12.0 10.1 39 66 ……… 78.*78.*78.* 1.00* 12.6** 12.4** 12.8** 13.7 13.5* 14.0* 40

Central Asia ………… 88 85 91 1.07 ………11.3 10.9 11.7 41 ………… 63 64 62 0.97 10.1 10.2 10.0 10.8 11.0 10.7 42 69 68.** 69.** 1.02** 90 90 90 1.00 11.6** 11.5** 11.6** 12.3 12.2 12.4 43 ………… 67 69 65 0.95 12.0 11.8 12.2 14.7 14.3 15.1 44 58.*59.*58.* 0.99* 60 61 59 0.95 11.5 11.4 11.7 12.4 12.1 12.7 45 83 83 82 1.00 57 58 55 0.95 8.7** 7.8** 9.6** 11.6 10.8 12.5 46 66 68 65 0.95 ………… 9.7** 10.5** 8.8** 10.7 11.7 9.7 47 …………………… ………………48 ………… 85.z 85.**,z 85.**,z 1.0**,z ………11.4** 11.6** 11.2** 49

East Asia and the Pacific ………… 71 69 74 1.07 20.0** 19.8** 20.3** 20.3 20.2 20.4 50 …………………… 13.4** 13.1** 13.7** 13.8** 13.5** 14.2** 51 69.** 70.** 68.** 0.97** 86 88 85 0.96 ………9.7**,z 10.5**,z 8.9** 52 …………………… ………11.2** 11.3** 11.1** 53 …………………… 10.6** 10.5** 10.6** 10.0**,z 10.0**,z 10.0**,z 54 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 107 105 104 113 111 103 101 108 112 106 102 100 110 109 97 95 94 87 85 84 77 75 74 67 65 64 57 55 93 91 83 81 73 71 63 61 98 88 78 68 58 96 92 86 82 76 72 66 62 56 80 70 60 90 99 89 79 69 59 Table 4(continued) Country orterritory Country Latin AmericaandtheCaribbean Panama Nicaragua Netherlands Antilles Montserrat Mexico Jamaica Honduras Haiti Guyana Guatemala Grenada El Salvador Ecuador Dominican Republic Dominica Cuba Costa Rica Colombia Chile Cayman Islands British Virgin Islands Brazil Bolivia Bermuda Belize Barbados Bahamas Aruba Argentina Antigua andBarbuda Anguilla Viet Nam Vanuatu Tuvalu Tonga Tokelau Timor-Leste Thailand Solomon Islands Singapore Samoa Republic ofKorea Philippines Papua NewGuinea Palau Niue New Zealand Nauru Myanmar Micronesia Marshall Islands Malaysia Macao, China Lao PDR Kiribati Japan Indonesia Fiji DPR Korea 5 2 2, 5 3 5 4 5 5 3 5 3 3 7 3 3 5 2, 3 5 3 2, 3 2, 3 3 3 3 5 3 4 2 2, 4 3 5 256 Compulsory (age group) education -1Ys6 912131109 1 2 1 0.97 0.94 118 135 121 0.99 144 119 105 140 0.99 0.97 106 0.95 111 125 0.98 106 0.99 143 0.88 113 129 74 0.99 134 0.98 150 0.99 104 112 0.98 127 109 75 136 103 147 0.95 107 118 97 0.94 109 79 135 74 105 120 108 111 200 128 109 99 1.00 69 104 0.88 126 0.93 107 1.00 136 203 0.95 134 0.97 98 104 362 0.95 2 Yes 133 123 1.01 115 132 Yes 89 134 109 97 509 2 118 0.99 21 105 0.96 143 6-11 115 6-16 2 134 111 452 Yes 94 94 111 103 6-15 131 104 138 No 18 115 5-14 Yes 110 6-15 425 2 95 92 100 137 No 388 104 6-11 1 0.98 212 Yes 6-13 196 0.95 0.99 Yes 134 0.91 6-11 374 95 127 No 147 0.88 87 6-15 267 2 109 95 Yes 7-15 111 Yes 130 168 112 5-16 1 164 260 Yes 110 87 4-15 101 No 122 5-14 129 267 1 127 Yes 5-13 284 110 Yes 98 117 5-16 No 278 119 6-14 8 Yes 6-15 4 0.93 5-15 6 282 0.95 0.93 6-14 103 8 Yes 5-16 104 4 Yes 5-16 129 7 762 111 7-14 Yes 109 6-13 138 Yes 5-16 781 107 No 107 5-14 89 134 4-16 Yes 5-16 569 1 Yes 6-16 3 0.2** 0.95 1.02 0.93 5-15 6 035 2 5-16 0.2** 130 127 5-17 114 3 Yes No 137 124 No 123 6-14 6 No 6-12 133 037 1 126 118 7-14 6-14 5 No 1.06 615 2 0.89 152 7-15 711 No 6-14 113 114 551 No 2 154 0.4** Yes 6-16 106 Yes 128 5-14 No 6-15 2 Yes 109 6-12 121 6-14 Yes 6-17 1 No 5-16 3 186 5-16 No 6-16 No 180 3 6-13 6-14 No No 5-14 Yes 6-10 No 6-15 No 6-15 Yes 7-15 6-15 6-15 - o1226 1 No 5-9 / ANNEX ……… … … education guarantee of free Legal No No … … … … …… … … ………… ………… … … … … … 1 School yearendingin … … ………… ………… … … … ………… ………… … … ………… ………… … … … … ………… ………… … … … … … ………… ………… … … ………… ………… … … … 1999 . . 0 0 0 .515139 0.87 0.1 98 4 0.1 113 0.96 105 102 0.95 106 103 104 109 0.94 106 103 1 0.4 109 0.6 0.4 106 2 2.11 1 0.2 100 0.89 47 0.2 91 70 102 1.73 137 96 79 1.01 89 105 0.02 88 0.05 88 5 6 . . . . New entrants *3 ** *27132 207 ** 109 7 ** ** (000) 3964 1182 4877 1158 243 658 525 … … 53 56 19 0.3 0.8 0.03 2004 ...... ** *13101610 140 1.05 126 120 123 ** 120 1.01 125 124 124 ** 101 0.98 104 106 105 ** ** ** ** ** *1211131.02 113 111 112 ** z z z z y y ,z ,z ,z z 118 0 0 0 1.02 107 105 106 ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… 97 . . . . . *120 ** *94 ** *136 ** 109 ** 101 ** Total 0 0 0 .295 0.92 100 109 105 1 1 1 .796 116 0.97 115 119 117 110 1.00 112 111 112 ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… . *114 ** . . . . . *115 ** *83 ** *128 ** 109 ** 94 ** Male . *119 ** 1999 . . . . . *0.96** ** *08* 93 0.89** ** *09* 3 3 2 0.96 129 134 132 0.94** ** 0.96 118 124 121 1.00** ** 0.93** ** Female IN PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) . *10* 112 1.05** ** GROSS INTAKE RATE (GIR) School yearendingin (F/M) GPI 0 5171.23 117 95 104 101 0 0 0 1.02 107 105 106 2 2 2 0.99 127 129 128 100 0.96 0.98 116 103 121 105 118 104 117 ………… ………… 86 29 20.99 92 93 92 98 ...... *91 ** *88 ** 78 ** *140 ** 119 ** 101 ** *100 ** 98 ** ** 115 117 101 97 94 ...... ** ** ** Total 117 y z z z y z ,z ,z ,z ...... *96 ** *83 ** 134 ** *140 ** 120 ** 101 ** *99 ** 98 ** ** 101 116 109 110 Male ……… ……… 99 94 97 116 ...... ** ** ** y z z z ...... *1.05** ** *0.94** ** 1.72** ** *1.00** ** 1.01** ** 1.00** ** *0.99** ** 1.00** ** ** ,z ,z ,z 2004 Female 113 115 110 0.99 90 95 94 94 ...... ** ** ** y z z z ** ,z ,z ,z 1.06** 0.97 1.00 0.89** 0.97 0.98** 1.00 (F/M) GPI z z y z ,z ,z ,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 257

Table 4

…………………… ………………55 ………… 71 71 71 0.99 ………13.3** 13.1** 13.5** 56 ………… 40 41 39 0.94 ………11.7 11.9 11.5 57 …………………… 14.4** 14.6** 14.3** 14.8** 15.0** 14.7** 58 …………………… 11.7 11.2 12.2 12.6* 12.0* 13.2* 59 55 56 54 0.96 61 61 61 1.00 8.4** 9.4** 7.4** 9.3** 10.2** 8.3** 60 63 60 65 1.07 76 79 72 0.91 12.1** 12.4** 11.9** 15.3 16.4 14.4 61 …………………… 12.3** 12.1** 12.4** 12.9z 12.3z 13.5z 62 ………… 65.**,y 62.**,y 67.**,y 1.08**,y ………13.0**,z 13.0**,z 12.9**,z 63 …………………… ………………64 77.** ……… 98.z 97.z 98.z 1.01z ………7.3**,y ……65 …………………… ………7.9**,z 7.8**,z 8.0**,z 66 …………………… 17.7** 16.9** 18.5** 18.2 17.3 19.0 67 …………………… 11.9 11.5 12.4 11.1 10.8 11.6 68 …………………… ………………69 …………………… 6.0** 6.3** 5.6** ………70 47.** 48.** 45.** 0.95** 49 47 52 1.11 11.6** 11.4** 11.9** 12.0** 11.7** 12.4** 71 99 98 100 1.02 95.** 94.** 96.** 1.03** 15.0** 15.8** 14.1** 16.2 17.2 15.2 72 77 77 77 1.00 ………… 12.3** 12.1** 12.5** ………73 …………………… ………………74 …………………… 7.1 7.5 6.6 8.0**,z 8.4**,z 7.5**,z 75 …………………… ………12.4** 12.3** 12.4** 76 …………………… ………11.2**,y ……77 …………………… ………………78 50 51 49 0.95 ………… 13.3** 13.0** 13.5** 13.4** 13.3** 13.6** 79 …………………… ………………80 ………… 56 57 55 0.97 9.1** ……10.5** 10.9** 10.1** 81 80 ……… 82.**,y ……… 10.3** 10.7** 9.8** 10.5** 10.9** 10.1** 82

Latin America and the Caribbean ………… 72.** 57.** 93.** 1.63** ………11.9** 11.8** 12.3** 83 …………………… ………………84 ………… 91.z 91.z 91z 1.00z 15.1** 14.4** 15.9** 15.4z 14.5z 16.2z 85 88 89 86 0.98 84 86 81 0.94 13.3** 13.2** 13.4** 13.4 13.3 13.5 86 84 85 83 0.97 62 62 61 0.99 13.3 13.5 13.0 11.0 10.9 11.2 87 85.** 86.** 85.** 0.99** 94 94 94 1.00 14.0** 13.4** 14.6** ………88 79.** 80.** 77.** 0.96** 67 68 66 0.97 ………13.3** 13.3** 13.3** 89 …………………… ………15.3**,y ……90 69.** 68.** 69.** 1.03** 71.** 71.** 71.** 1.01** 13.5** ……14.3** ……91 …………………… 14.2** 13.9** 14.4** 14.0z 13.6z 14.3z 92 73.** 70.** 76.** 1.09** 67.** 70.** 64.** 0.92** 15.8** 15.0** 16.7** 15.9** 14.6** 17.1** 93 ………… 58 60 56 0.94 ………………94 …………………… 12.8** 12.9** 12.7** 13.7** 13.9** 13.5** 95 58.** 60.** 57.** 0.96** ………… 11.1** 10.8** 11.4** 11.5** 11.3** 11.8** 96 …………………… 10.3** 10.2** 10.4** 10.7**,z ……97 97.** 100.** 95.** 0.95** 99 100 98 0.98 12.3** 12.1** 12.4** 14.4** 14.4** 14.3** 98 80 83 78 0.94 46 46 46 1.01 12.3** 11.7** 13.0** 13.4** 13.2** 13.6** 99 60 60 60 1.00 59.**z 62.**z 57.**z 0.9**z ………12.5** 11.9** 13.2** 100 84 83 84 1.01 85 85 85 1.01 ………………101 ………… 59.** 59.** 59.** 1.00** 10.7** 10.9** 10.6** 11.5** 11.6** 11.5** 102 74.** 74.** 74.** 1.00** 61.**,z 60.**,z 61.**,z 1.00**,z ………12.1** 11.8** 12.3** 103 57 59 54 0.92 69 70 68 0.97 ………9.3**,z 9.9**,z 8.8**,z 104 90.** 88.** 91.** 1.04** 99.**,z 100.**,z 98.**,z 0.98**,z ………12.5**,z ……105 …………………… ………………106 ………… 60 59 61 1.03 ………11.0** 10.5** 11.5** 107 ………… 74.** 73.** 76.** 1.04** ………11.5**,z 11.0**,z 12.0**,z 108 87 87 87 1.00 89.z 89.z 89.z 1.00z 11.6** 11.7** 11.5** 12.6 12.5 12.7 109 ………… 63 54 73 1.36 ………13.6 13.5 13.7 110 80.** 75.** 84.** 1.12** 75.**,y 67.**,y 82.**,y 1.22**,y 15.3** 15.0** 15.6** 14.3y 13.8y 14.7y 111 41 42 40 0.95 38 39 36 0.93 ………10.8**,z 10.6**,z 11.0**,z 112 84.** 84.** 84.** 1.00** 88.** 87.** 89.** 1.02** 12.6** 12.1** 13.1** 13.4** 12.8** 14.0** 113 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 157 155 154 147 145 144 137 135 134 127 125 124 117 115 114 167 165 164 163 161 153 151 143 141 133 131 123 121 168 158 148 138 128 118 166 162 156 152 146 142 136 132 126 122 116 160 150 140 130 120 159 149 139 129 119 Table 4(continued) Country orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia North AmericaandWestern Europe Comoros Chad Central AfricanRepublic Cape Verde Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Botswana Benin Angola Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal Maldives Iran, IslamicRepublicof India Bhutan Bangladesh Afghanistan United States United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Spain San Marino Portugal Norway Netherlands Monaco Malta Luxembourg Italy Israel Ireland Iceland Greece Germany France Finland Denmark Cyprus Canada Belgium Austria Andorra Venezuela Uruguay Turks andCaicosIslands Trinidad andTobago Suriname St Vincent/Grenad. Saint Lucia Saint KittsandNevis Peru Paraguay 2 3 3 2, 3 3 2 2, 5 2, 3 3, 8 2 2, 4 2 2 4 3 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2, 4 2, 3 5 5 258 Compulsory (age group) education -4N 31 07 408 07 60.89 66 74 0.87 70 66 0.94 0.84 102 76 64 108 71 76 105 0.72 70 1.15 0.99 38 110 118 0.94 15 53 1.02 112 242 102 130 13 45 131 1.05 111 110 175 139 No 129 13 94 0.99 272 Yes 135 335 47 No 146 130 6-14 90 No 89 154 0.83 1.00 6-14 No 50 6-15 0.98 No 115 6-16 91 98 91 No 0.99 1.01 6-11 119 Yes 7-12 138 No 90 99 98 6-15 1.04 7 98 Yes 122 6-15 127 1.00 6-11 98 100 98 0.99 96 6-14 121 374 8 1 Yes 103 94 813 31 100 101 0.98 563 1 Yes 97 5-14 318 4 No 103 639 12 29 1.00 0.99 99 0.99 96 Yes 102 6-10 0.99 005 4 1.01 Yes 103 6-12 99 105 Yes 97 101 6-10 010 100 4 101 Yes 99 77 6-14 0.99 105 6-16 101 235 97 0.98 4 99 98 102 6-10 99 98 82 7-12 105 98 100 No 127 102 98 Yes 97 61 101 403 98 1.00 Yes 6-17 100 0.97 197 Yes 1.00 5-16 5 100 Yes 100 61 1.00 7-15 6 99 No 100 100 7-16 199 Yes 100 101 6-16 5 557 Yes 103 6-16 101 5 Yes 56 6-15 4 100 100 No 6-16 558 101 Yes 100 6-17 Yes 51 100 6-16 1.01 4 844 Yes 0.98 5-16 Yes 61 6-15 106 Yes 97 69 6-16 869 Yes 5-15 736 Yes 65 105 6-15 99 Yes 66 6-16 Yes 6-15 89 105 Yes 6-18 98 Yes 6-16 Yes 1.00 7-16 100 Yes 7-16 Yes 556 111 60 6-15 Yes 6-16 17 6-18 111 537 60 6-15 6-16 111 Yes 20 Yes 6-15 4 639 Yes 6-15 Yes 4-16 No 5-12 676 No 6-11 179 No 5-15 Yes 5-16 Yes 5-16 6-16 6-14 - No 5-9 / ANNEX education guarantee of free Legal …… …… … 1 School yearendingin … … ………… ………… … … … … ………… ………… … … ………… ………… … … … ………… ………… … … … … … … … … … … … 1999 .* 0.3 0.3** ...... New entrants *1 101 79 72 11 474 ** 189 ** ** 391 ** 98 3 ** 164 ** (000) 1563 4422 247 303 794 107 123 109 387 120 ………… …………… … 71 10 10 2 1 1 2004 ...... *7 45 .084 0.70 59 84 72 ** * 83 1.01 94 93 99 ** 93 0.95 93 ** 100 0.98 105 103 102 105 ** 104 106 99 ** ** 0.96 ** 97 101 99 105 0.98 ** ** 104 106 96 107 1.00 0.98 106 107 ** 97 ** ** 107 99 107 98 ** * ** 122 ** * ,y ,y ,z 0 103 102 ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ...... *102 87 79 ** ** ** 106 ** 99 ** 125 ** Total ………… ………… ………… ……… ...... *101 ** *100 71 65 ** ** ** 105 ** 96 ** 120 ** Male 1999 ...... *0.98** ** *09* 09 90.99 0.87 0.91 89 100 86 90 115 95 90 108 0.98** 91 0.81** ** 0.83** ** ** 100 0.99** ** 0.95 98 103 101 0.97** 107 ** 0.96** ** Female IN PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) GROSS INTAKE RATE (GIR) School yearendingin (F/M) GPI 0 9111.02 101 99 100 0 0 0 1.00 101 101 101 110 0 1 40.84 94 112 0.91 103 105 115 110 1.03 102 99 101 1.01 102 101 100 100 103 8 2 3 0.58 131 226 180 111 ………… 29 90.94 89 94 92 98 31.09 93 86 89 93 97 ...... *108 ** *101 ** 109 ** *98 ** 83 ** 100 ** 92 ** 102 ** 105 ** 106 ** *97 *90 ** 97 ** 103 ** 103 ** *126 104 97 64 . . . ** ** * Total ,y ,y ,z ...... *112 ** *100 ** 106 ** *70 ** 83 ** 99 ** 93 ** 96 ** 105 ** 106 ** *96 *96 ** 97 ** 102 ** 104 ** *95 109 Male 97 75 . . . ** ** * ,y ...... *1.04** ** *0.99** ** 0.97** ** *0.71** ** 1.00** ** 0.99** ** 1.01** ** 0.94** ** 1.00** ** 1.00** ** 0.98* * *1.06** ** 1.01** ** 0.99** ** 1.01** ** 0.76* * ,y ,z 2004 Female 96 98 52 . . . ** ** * ,y ,y ,z 0.69* 0.99** 0.90** (F/M) GPI ,y ,y ,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 259

Table 4

…………………… 11.1** 11.1** 11.1** 11.5**,z 11.4**,z 11.6**,z 114 79 79 80 1.00 76 76 76 1.01 ………13.7** 13.5** 14.0** 115 ………… 66.** 66.** 67.** 1.00** ………13.4** 13.2** 13.7** 116 69.** 69.** 68.** 0.99** 71.**,z 72.**,z 70.**,z 0.97**,z ………12.9** 12.2** 13.6** 117 ………… 62.**,z 62.**,z 62.**,z 1.00**,z ………11.7** 11.8** 11.6** 118 ………… 71.**,z 71.**,z 71.**,z 1.00**,z ………12.2**,y 11.3**,y 13.2**,y 119 69 69 70 1.01 68.*68.*68.* 1.00* 11.9** 11.7** 12.1** 12.3** 12.1** 12.5** 120 ………… 55 50 59 1.17 ………12.4** 11.4** 13.3** 121 …………………… 13.9** 13.1** 14.8** 15.2**,z 13.9**,z 16.2**,z 122 60.** 60.** 61.** 1.01** 63 63 64 1.00 ………11.7**,z 11.5**,z 12.0**,z 123

North America and Western Europe ………… 54.** 53.** 56.** 1.05** ………11.3** 11.3** 11.3** 124 …………………… 15.2** 15.3** 15.2** 15.3 15.2 15.5 125 …………………… 17.8** 17.4** 18.2** 16.0** 15.8** 16.2** 126 …………………… 16.0** 15.7** 16.3** 15.7**,y 15.3**,y 16.2**,y 127 ………… 91.y 90.y 92.y 1.02y 12.5 12.4 12.7 13.6 13.5 13.6 128 …………………… 16.1** 15.6** 16.6** 16.7 16.0 17.3 129 ………… 93.** 92.** 93.** 1.01** 17.4** 16.7** 18.2** 17.0 16.5 17.6 130 …………………… 15.7** 15.4** 16.0** 15.8 15.4 16.1 131 …………………… 16.1** 16.2** 15.9** ………132 ………… 96.** 96.** 96.** 1.00** 13.8** 13.5** 14.1** 15.8 15.5 16.2 133 ………… 97.** 100.** 94.** 0.94** 16.7** 16.1** 17.3** 18.3** 17.3** 19.3** 134 …………………… 16.4** 15.9** 16.8** 17.8 17.6 18.1 135 …………………… 15.0** 14.6** 15.4** 15.4 15.0 15.8 136 ………… 95.z 96.z 95.z 1.00z 14.9** 14.6** 15.1** 15.9 15.6 16.3 137 …………………… 13.1** 13.1** 13.2** 13.5** 13.4** 13.7** 138 …………………… ………14.8 14.9 14.7 139 …………………… ………………140 ………… 98.z 98.z 97.z 0.98z 16.5** 16.8** 16.3** 16.5 16.6 16.4 141 …………………… 17.5** 16.9** 16.9** 17.7 16.9 18.4 142 …………………… 15.7** 15.4** 16.1** 15.2 14.7 15.7 143 …………………… ………………144 …………………… 15.9 15.5 16.2 16.2 15.8 16.7 145 …………………… 19.1** 17.5** 20.7** 16.0 15.1 16.9 146 ………… 55.z 55.z 56.z 1.01z 15.1** 15.7** 14.5** 15.2 15.6 14.8 147 …………………… 20.0** 19.3** 20.7** 16.6 16.1 17.1 148 ………… 70.** 68.** 72.** 1.05** 15.9** ……15.8** 15.2** 16.5** 149

South and West Asia …………………… ………6.7** 9.4** 3.8** 150 91 91 91 1.00 96.**,z 96.**,z 97.**,z 1.01**,z 9.2** 9.3** 9.1** 9.2z 9.0z 9.3z 151 …………………… ………………152 …………………… ………10.1** 10.9** 9.4** 153 44.** 44.** 43.** 0.97** 90 90 90 0.99 11.5** 12.1** 10.9** 12.5** 12.7** 12.2** 154 80.** 79.** 80.** 1.01** 70.y 70.y 70.y 1.00y 11.8** 11.7** 11.9** 11.2** 11.1** 11.4** 155 …………………… ………8.9**,z 9.8**,z 8.0**,z 156 ………… 88.*100.*76.* 0.76* ………6.2** 7.1** 5.2** 157 ………… 90.** 87.** 92.** 1.06** ………6.5** 7.3** 5.6** 158

Sub-Saharan Africa …………………… 3.7** 4.0** 3.4** ………159 ………… 48 52 44 0.84 6.3** 7.9** 4.8** ………160 22 20 24 1.20 ………… 11.2** 11.1** 11.3** 11.9** 11.6** 12.2** 161 19 23 16 0.71 26 29 24 0.85 3.5** 4.2** 2.8** 4.1** 4.7** 3.5** 162 ………… 35 37 34 0.91 ………5.9** 6.6** 5.3** 163 …………………… 7.7** ……10.6** 11.9** 9.4** 164 65.** 64.** 66.** 1.03** 70 69 70 1.01 ………11.0** 11.0** 11.0** 165 …………………… ………………166 22 25 18 0.71 29.y 33.y 24.y 0.73y ………………167 16 18.** 13.** 0.70** ………… 6.5** 7.1** 5.9** 8.0** 8.7** 7.3** 168 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 197 195 194 187 185 184 177 175 174 203 201 193 191 183 181 173 171 198 188 178 202 196 192 186 182 176 172 200 190 180 170 199 189 179 169 XVI XIV XIII VIII XV XII VII XI IX VI IV III X V II I Reports undertheUnited NationsHumanRightsTreaties. 2. Informationoncompulsory educationcomesfromthe Table 4(continued) 1. Country orterritory Country Source: Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia N. America/W. Europe Latin America/Caribbean East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Arab States Developing countries Developed countries Countries intransition World Zimbabwe Zambia United RepublicofTanzania Uganda Togo Swaziland South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Seychelles Senegal Sao Tome andPrincipe Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Mali Malawi Madagascar Liberia Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Ethiopia Eritrea Equatorial Guinea D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia 3 3 3 3 2, 3 2 3 Tomasevsky (2003). 3 3 3 5 3 3 3 3 260 Compulsory (age group) education -3N 5 8 87 810 1 1 1 1.00 0.91 110 82 110 90 110 0.94 1.01 86 1.01 113 78 1.00 0.75 117 0.88 119 77 183 86 51 116 116 0.94 183 78 116 97 68 1.02 129 1.08 0.98 183 118 417 91 59 0.97 138 380 0.91 108 178 1.25 116 398 164 0.71 134 252 0.92 149 66 131 148 31 110 164 714 117 No 33 168 0.85 79 No 139 144 188 119 1 64 109 171 31 Yes 6-12 93 166 1 0.82 46 87 7-13 157 1 137 134 No 1.01 7-13 5 No 0.98 284 52 110 40 2 No 178 1.01 83 6-15 456 106 6-12 190 102 63 4 107 176 7-15 0.82 242 Yes 58 108 6-13 295 Yes 58 106 771 45 177 Yes 6-15 133 107 Yes 54 7-12 Yes 106 0.81 536 7-12 55 712 Yes 6-12 897 Yes 52 6-11 173 No 62 51 7-12 616 6-15 495 65 50 Yes 169 1 6-12 51 Yes 215 Yes 7-15 892 59 No 36 6-13 No 119 6-14 Yes 6-16 469 Yes 69 6-12 No 16 6-13 Yes 7-12 537 1 57 6-12 354 No 33 6-15 No 767 No 309 6-16 Yes 7-12 Yes 7-13 No 7-11 Yes 6-13 6-15 6-15 …… … … … … …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… / ANNEX education guarantee of free Legal e 83 38 009 17 31.04 83 79 81 0.94 80 22 85 Yes 83 31 28 Yes No No ………… ………… … … … 1 3 2 3 3 0 1 0 .21115180.94 108 115 111 0.92 101 110 106 132 134 129 130 1 0 1 3 0 1 0 .11316190.94 109 116 113 0.91 101 112 107 134 119 609 113 5922 2 89 208 0 0 0 0.92 0.90 101 125 109 138 105 0.98 0.98 131 0.88 101 114 101 0.84 82 103 115 0.94 107 103 94 1.00 102 0.95 114 128 102 101 88 0.99 116 121 118 0.99 101 105 122 924 20 117 104 892 44 101 106 982 15 119 105 273 40 265 12 0.98 105 595 12 813 12 105 100 159 13 179 33 761 33 103 460 37 021 38 101 622 11 288 12 School yearendingin 4 5 0 0 0 .71111110.99 101 101 0.98 0.99 0.94 101 97 102 92 0.97 99 0.99 101 103 97 100 98 104 102 94 101 102 1.00 0.97 0.92 100 93 100 852 8 85 101 0.99 243 96 9 92 94 101 94 89 94 529 1 612 4 747 6 785 1 94 479 5 186 6 376 3 232 4 Bentaouet-Kattan, 2005). of freeeducation(World Bank,2002; to bechargeddespitethelegalguarantee 3. Someprimaryschoolfeescontinue … … … … ………… ………… … … Sum 6 4 6 6 6 .2162 106 1.02 0.98 166 101 162 103 164 102 548 582 565 561 1999 . . New entrants *2451 254 ** ** (000) 4210 1342 3143 1550 538 … … … 35 78 20 Sum 2004 ...... 0 0 0 .7124 ** 0.97 ** 102 105 103 * ** * y z z z ,z ,z ,z ………… ………… ………… 97 60.63 46 72 0.96 84 59 88 93 1.07 86 52 49 51 27 20.99 72 72 72 0.69 63 93 78 89 91.04 99 96 98 . . *58 ** 110 ** Total 6 1 2 .2123 0.72 225 313 269 1 1 0 .7120 0.97 108 107 115 111 0.96 0.98 98 110 112 102 115 100 114 ………… 57 808 72 0.80 58 72 65 29 310 99 1.03 93 90 92 . . . *63 ** *44 ** 76 ** Male 1999 Bentaouet-Kattan, 2005). reported (World Bank,2002; but somedirectcostshavebeen 4. Notuitionfeesarecharged . . . *09* 08 11.03 91 89 90 0.96** ** *07* 46 80.85 58 69 64 0.77** ** 0.69** ** Female IN PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) GROSS INTAKE RATE (GIR) School yearendingin Weighted average (F/M) GPI 112 2 2 2 0.99 124 125 125 0.91 135 148 141 6 6 6 1.00 163 164 163 0 0 0 1.00 102 102 102 ………… ………… ………… 59 61.02 96 94 95 56 30.95 63 66 65 ...... *127 *120 ** *16110.96 0.96 111 113 116 ** 118 ** *11141.02 0.96 164 104 161 ** 108 ** 94 ...... ** * ** Total z y z z ,z ,z ,z . . 121 * *103 ** at age6or7. 6. Childrencanenterprimary school used tocalculateenrolmentratios. 5. Nationalpopulationdatawere 122 137 110 118 Male 94 75 99 z ...... ** * ** y z z ,z . . 0.95* * *0.86** ** ,z ,z 2004 118 Female 110 104 112 94 68 99 z ...... ** * ** y z z ,z ,z ,z 0.97 0.94 0.94 0.99** 1.00** 0.80 0.91* (F/M) GPI z z z y ,z ,z ,z STATISTICAL TABLES / 261

Table 4

…………………… ………7.7**,z 8.5**,z 7.0**,z 169 27 30 24 0.79 27.*,z 28.*,z 26.*,z 0.94*,z 6.2** 7.4** 4.9** ………170 23 22 24 1.09 ………… 4.3** ……………171 ………… 49.y 62.y 36.y 0.58y ………………172 19 20 17 0.89 25 26 23 0.87 4.5** 5.1** 3.9** 5.6** 6.7** 4.5** 173 20 23 18 0.80 31 33 30 0.92 3.8** 4.8** 2.9** 5.6** 6.6** 4.6** 174 …………………… 11.9** 12.3** 11.5** ………175 48.** 49.** 47.** 0.96** ………… 7.0** 7.8** 6.1** 7.8** 8.0** 7.7** 176 29.** 29.** 29.** 1.00** 29.** 29.** 30.** 1.03** ………8.3** 8.7** 7.9** 177 19 20 18 0.89 35 36 35 0.97 ………6.9 8.1 5.6 178 …………………… ………………179 30.** 29.** 31.** 1.05** 42.**,z 41.**,z 43.**,z 1.05**,z ………9.9** 10.2** 9.5** 180 28 27 29 1.06 61.** 61.** 62.** 1.01** 9.3 8.8 9.8 10.9**,z 10.6**,z 11.2**,z 181 …………………… 8.1** 9.6** 6.5** ………182 ………… 47.**,z 46.**,z 48.**,z 1.05**,z 6.1** 6.2** 5.9** ………183 …………………… 11.1** 11.8** 10.4** 9.6** 9.8** 9.5** 184 ………… 23 26 21 0.82 4.0** ……5.4** 6.3** 4.5** 185 72 71 74 1.03 81 81 81 1.00 12.1** 12.2** 12.0** 13.5** 13.6** 13.3** 186 18 18 17 0.93 30.** 29.** 30.** 1.01** 5.4** ……7.6** 8.4** 6.8** 187 52.** 51.** 54.** 1.07** 55.**,z 54.**,z 57.**,z 1.06**,z ………10.9**,z 10.8**,z 11.1**,z 188 25 30 20 0.68 37 43 31 0.72 ………3.2** 3.8** 2.6** 189 ………… 69.** 74.** 64.** 0.86** ………8.8** 9.7** 7.9** 190 ………… 91.** 90.** 92.** 1.03** 6.8** ……8.2** 8.3** 8.2** 191 …………………… 7.6** 8.4** 6.9** 10.1 10.2 10.1 192 36 36.** 35.** 0.96** 58 57 59 1.02 5.0** ……6.2** ……193 75 74 77 1.03 69.z 67.z 72.z 1.06z 14.0 13.9 14.2 12.8** 12.4** 13.2** 194 …………………… ………………195 …………………… ………………196 43 44 42 0.96 44.z 45.z 43.z 0.97z 13.3** 13.1** 13.5** 13.0**,z 12.7**,z 13.0**,z 197 42 41 44 1.06 47.z 46.z 47.z 1.01z 9.8** 10.1** 9.5** 9.4**,z 9.6**,z 9.2**,z 198 37 40 35 0.87 39 41 37 0.90 9.1** 11.1** 7.1** ………199 ………… 64 63 65 1.03 10.1** 10.8** 9.5** 10.4** 10.7** 10.2** 200 14 13 15 1.16 90 89 90 1.02 5.1** 5.2** 5.1** ………201 35 33 36 1.07 39 38 41 1.06 6.5** 6.9** 6.1** ………202 ………… 45.z 45.z 46.z 1.03z 9.7** ……9.1**,z 9.3**,z 8.9**,z 203

Median Weighted average

………… 67 70 64 0.92 9.9 10.3 9.4 10.7 11.0 10.4 I

………… 81 81 81 1.00 11.9 11.8 12.0 12.7 12.5 12.9 II …………………… 15.8 15.5 16.1 15.7 15.4 16.1 III ………… 64 63 65 1.03 9.1 9.7 8.5 10.1 10.5 9.7 IV

62 63 61 0.97 63 63 64 1.01 9.6 10.3 8.9 10.3 10.8 9.7 V …………………… 12.1 12.1 12.0 12.9 12.9 12.8 VI ………… 67 69 65 0.95 10.9 11.1 10.8 11.7 11.8 11.6 VII …………………… 10.5 10.6 10.3 11.5 11.6 11.5 VIII …………………… 10.4 10.6 10.2 11.5 11.6 11.4 IX …………………… 14.5 14.4 14.6 14.7 14.7 14.7 X 79 80 78 0.98 69 69 68 0.98 12.5 12.4 12.6 13.0 12.8 13.2 XI 80 75 84 1.12 67 70 64 0.92 11.0 11.1 10.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 XII 69 68 69 1.03 71 71 71 1.01 12.6 12.4 12.7 13.0 12.8 13.2 XIII …………………… 16.2 15.8 16.6 15.9 15.5 16.4 XIV ………… 90 87 92 1.06 8.3 9.3 7.2 9.6 10.3 8.8 XV 28 27 29 1.06 45 45 45 1.00 6.5 7.2 5.8 7.6 8.3 6.9 XVI

7. Enrolment ratios were not calculated due to lack of United Data in bold are for the school year ending in 2005. Nations population data by age. (z) Data are for the school year ending in 2003. 8. Enrolment ratios were not calculated due to inconsistencies (y) Data are for the school year ending in 2002. between enrolment and the United Nations population data. 7

0 262 / ANNEX 0 Table 5 Participation in primary education 2

Enrolment in private ENROLMENT institutions as % GROSS ENROLMENT RATIO (GER) IN PRIMARY EDUCATION of total enrolment IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) School-age Age population1 School year ending in School year ending in School year ending in group (000) 1999 2004 1999 2004 1999 2004 2003 Total % F Total % F Total Male Female GPI Country or territory (000) (000) (F/M)

Arab States 1 Algeria 6-11 4 035 4 779 47 4 508 47 ..105 110 100 0.91 2 Bahrain 6-11 80 76 49 83 49 19 23 105 105 105 1.01 3 Djibouti 6-11 124 38 41 49 44 9 15 35 40 29 0.71 4 Egypt 6-10 7 873 8 086.** 47.** 7 928.** 48.** … 8.** 101.** 106.** 97.** 0.91** 5 Iraq 6-11 4 402 3 604 44 4 335 44 ..92 101 83 0.82 6 Jordan 6-11 815 706 49 800 49 29 30 99 99 99 1.00 7 Kuwait 6-9 164 140 49 158 49 32 32 100 99 101 1.01 8 Lebanon 6-11 425 395 48 454 48 66 65 115 117 112 0.95 9 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 6-11 662 822 48 744.**,z 49.**,z . 3.**,z 114 115 113 0.98 10 Mauritania 6-11 461 346 48 434 49 2 7 87 89 84 0.94 11 Morocco 6-11 3 843 3 462 44 4 070 46 4 5 87 96 78 0.81 12 Oman 6-11 351 316 48 306 49 5 4 91 92 89 0.97 13 Palestinian A. T. 6-9 418 368 49 389 49 9 8 106 106 107 1.01 14 Qatar 6-11 64 61 48 65 48 37 42 105 107 103 0.96 15 Saudi Arabia 6-11 3 544 2 260 48 2 386 48 6 7 70 71 69 0.96 16 Sudan 6-11 5 337 2 513.** 45.** 3 208 46 2.** 4 51.** 55.** 47.** 0.85** 17 Syrian Arab Republic 6-9 1 784 2 738 47 2 193 48 4 4 102 107 98 0.92 18 Tunisia 6-11 1 118 1 443 47 1 228 48 1 1 114 117 111 0.95 19 United Arab Emirates 6-10 304 270 48 255 48 44 58 90 91 89 0.97 20 Yemen 6-11 3 552 2 303 35 3 108 40 1 2 73 93 52 0.56

Central and Eastern Europe 21 Albania 6-9 237 292 48 253.z 48.z . 2.z 110 111 109 0.98

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 22 Belarus 6-9 399 632 48 404 48 0.1 0.1 109 110 108 0.98 23 Bosnia and Herzegovina 6-9 186 ………………………… 24 Bulgaria 7-10 300 412 48 314.2 48.3 0.3 0.4 106 107 104 0.97 25 Croatia 7-10 202 203 49 192.z 49.z 0.1 0.2z 92 93 92 0.98 26 Czech Republic 6-10 525 655 49 534 48 1 1 104 104 103 0.99 27 Estonia 7-12 92 127 48 92 48 1 2 102 104 100 0.97 28 Hungary 7-10 456 503 48 447 48 5 6 102 102 101 0.98 29 Latvia 7-10 100 141 48 92 48 1 1 99 100 98 0.98 30 Lithuania 7-10 175 220 48 170 49 0.4 0.4 103 104 102 0.98 31 Poland 7-12 2 888 3 434 48 2 856 49 … 1 98 99 97 0.98 32 Republic of Moldova 7-10 237 262 49 202 49 … 1 84 84 85 1.00 33 Romania 7-10 944 1 285 49 1 006 48 . 0.2 105 105 104 0.98 34 Russian Federation3 7-9 4 335 6 138 49 5 330 49 0.3 0.5 100 100 99 0.99 35 Serbia and Montenegro4 7-10 … 418 49 …… . … 104 105 103 0.99 36 Slovakia 6-9 257 317 49 255 48 4 4 103 103 102 0.99 37 Slovenia 7-10 76 92 48 93 49 0.1 0.1 101 102 100 0.99 38 TFYR Macedonia 7-10 116 130 48 113 48 ..101 102 100 0.98 39 Turkey 6-11 8 437 …… 7 873 48 … 2 ………… 40 Ukraine 6-9 1 953 2 200 49 1 851 49 0.3 0.5 105 106 105 0.99

Central Asia 41 Armenia 7-9 143 …… 145 48 … 1 ………… 42 Azerbaijan 6-9 627 707 49 607 48 – 0.1 94 94 94 1.00 43 Georgia 6-11 381 302 49 363 48 0.5 3 98 98 98 1.00 44 Kazakhstan 7-10 989 1 249 49 1 080 49 1 1 98 98 98 1.00 45 Kyrgyzstan 7-10 453 470 49 444 49 0.2 0.3 98 98 97 0.99 46 Mongolia 8-11 226 251 50 236 49 0.5 3 98 97 100 1.04 47 Tajikistan 7-10 691 690 48 690 48 ..97 100 95 0.95 48 Turkmenistan 7-9 317 ………………………… 49 Uzbekistan 7-10 2 446 …… 2 441.** 49.** … .z …………

East Asia and the Pacific 50 Australia 5-11 1 881 1 885 49 1 935 49 27 29 98 98 98 1.00 51 Brunei Darussalam 6-11 42 46 47 46.4 47.9 36 36 114 115 112 0.97 52 Cambodia 6-11 2 023 2 127 46 2 763 47 2 0.6 99 106 92 0.87 53 China5 7-11 102 869 ……120 999 47 … … ………… STATISTICAL TABLES / 263

Table 5

GROSS ENROLMENT RATIO (GER) NET ENROLMENT RATIO (NER) . IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) OUT-OF-SCHOOL CHILDREN (000)2 School year ending in School year ending in School year ending in 2004 1999 2004 1999 2004 Total Male Female GPI Total Male Female GPI TotalMale Female GPI Total Male Female Total Male Female (F/M) (F/M) (F/M)

Arab States 112 116 107 0.93 91 93 89 0.96 97 98 95 0.98 362 141 221 41 – 41 1 104 104 104 1.00 96 95 97 1.02 97 96 97 1.01 0.9 0.9 0.1 1.5 1.0 0.5 2 39 44 35 0.79 28 33 24 0.73 33 36 29 0.81 79 37 42 83 40 44 3 101.** 103.** 98.** 0.96** 93.** 97.** 90.** 0.93** 95.** 97.** 94.** 0.97** 320.** 28.** 293.** 220.** 58.** 161.** 4 98 108 89 0.83 85 91 78 0.85 88 94 81 0.86 603 175 428 540 129 411 5 98 98 99 1.01 92 91 92 1.01 91 90 92 1.02 33 18 15 43 26 17 6 96 96 97 1.00 87 86 87 1.01 86.** 85.** 87.** 1.03** 10 5 5 15.** 9.** 6.** 7 107 109 105 0.96 94.** 96.** 92.** 0.96** 93 94 93 0.99 13.** 4.** 9.** 20 10 10 8 112.**,z 113.**,z 112.**,z 1.00**,z ……… .………… .… ………… … …9 94 95 93 0.98 63 65 61 0.94 74 75 74 0.99 150 71 78 117 58 60 10 106 111 100 0.90 72 77 66 0.86 86 89 83 0.94 1 114 456 659 528 218 310 11 87 88 87 1.00 80 80 80 1.00 78 77 79 1.02 63 32 30 71 38 33 12 93 93 93 1.00 97 96 97 1.01 86 86 86 1.00 4 3 1 40 22 19 13 102 102 101 0.98 94 94 94 1.01 96 97 95 0.99 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.5 14 67 69 66 0.96 58 60 56 0.93 59.** 62.** 56.** 0.91** 1 345 651 694 1 425..** 682.** 743.** 15 60 64 56 0.87 ……… .………… .… ………… … …16 123 126 120 0.95 92.** 95.** 88.** 0.93** 92 94 90 0.96 137.** 22.** 115.** 32 – 32 17 110 112 108 0.97 94 95 92 0.98 97 97 98 1.00 72 30 42 17 11 6 18 84 85 82 0.97 79 79 79 0.99 71 72 70 0.97 56 28 28 83 41 42 19 87 102 72 0.71 57 72 42 0.59 75.** 87.** 63.** 0.73** 1 334 449 885 861.** 229.** 632.** 20

Central and Eastern Europe 104.z 105.z 104.z 0.99z 99.** 100.** 99.** 0.99** 96.z 96.z 95.z 0.99z 1.6** –.** 1.6** 11.z 5.z 6.z 21 101 103 99 0.97 ……… .… 90 91.** 88.** 0.97** ………38 16.** 21.** 22 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …23 105 106 104 0.98 97 98 96 0.98 95 96 95 0.99 5 1 4 10 5 5 24 94.z 95.z 94.z 0.99z 85 86 85 0.98 87.z 88.z 87.z 0.99z 18 9 9 14.z 7.z 7.z 25 102 103 101 0.99 ……… .………… .… ………… … …26 100 101 98 0.97 96.** 96.** 95.** 0.98** 94 94 94 1.00 0.2** 0.0** 0.2** 3.2 1.9 1.3 27 98 99 97 0.99 88 88 88 0.99 89 90 88 0.99 15 8 7 18.3 9.7 8.6 28 93 94 91 0.97 ……… .………… .… ………14 7 7 29 97 98 97 0.99 95 96 95 0.99 89 90 89 1.00 4 2 2 13.5 7.1 6.4 30 99 99 99 0.99 ……… .… 97 97 98 1.00 ………73.2 40.6 32.6 31 85 85 85 0.99 78.** …… .… 78 78 77 0.99 58.** ……45 23 22 32 107 107 106 0.98 96 96 95 0.99 92 92 92 0.99 1.6 – 1.6 47 23 24 33 123 123 123 1.00 ……… .… 91.** 91.** 92.** 1.01** ………369.** 198.** 171.** 34 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …35 99 100 98 0.99z ……… .………… .… ………… … …36 123 123 122 0.99z 97 98 97 0.99 98 98 98 1.00 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2 – 37 98 98 98 1.00z 93 94 92 0.98 92 92 92 1.00 1.4 0.1 1.3 2.9 1.6 1.3 38 93 96 90 0.94 ……… .… 89.** 92.** 87.** 0.95** ………900.** 354.** 546.** 39 95 95 95 1.00 ……… .… 82 82.*82.* 1.00* ………317 162.* 155.* 40

Central Asia 101 99 103 1.03 ……… .… 94 92 95 1.04 ……… 33–41 97 98 96 0.98 85 85 86 1.01 84 85 83 0.98 110 58 52 101 50 51 42 95 95 95 1.00 ……… .… 93 93 92 0.99 ………26 13 13 43 109 110 109 0.99 ……… .… 93 93 92 0.99 ………11 4 6 44 98 98 98 1.00 88.*89.*87.* 0.99* 90 90 90 0.99 35.*17.*18.*1810945 104 104 105 1.02 90 88 91 1.04 84 84 84 1.01 20 13 7 24 13 11 46 100 102 97 0.95 89 92 86 0.94 97 99 94 0.96 78 30 48 20 3 17 47 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …48 100.** 100.** 99.** 0.99** ……… .………… .… ………… … …49

East Asia and the Pacific 103 103 103 1.00 92 92 92 1.01 96 96 96 1.00 154 82 72 77 42 35 50 109 109 109 1.00 ……… .………… .… ………… … …51 137 142 131 0.92 85.** 89.** 81.** 0.91** 98 100 96 0.96 321 119 201 48 4 44 52 118 118 117 1.00 ……… .………… .… ………… … …53 7

0 264 / ANNEX 0

Table 5 (continued) 2

54 Cook Islands4 5-10 … 3462.z 47.z 15 19.z 96 99 94 0.95 55 DPR Korea 6-9 1 580 ………………………… 56 Fiji 6-11 107 116 48 113 48 … 99 110 111 110 0.99 57 Indonesia 7-12 24 917 …… 29 142 49 … 16 ………… 58 Japan 6-11 7 228 7 692 49 7 257 49 1 0.9 101 101 101 1.00 59 Kiribati4 6-11 … 14 49 16 50 ……104 104 105 1.01 60 Lao PDR 6-10 760 828 45 885 46 2 2 117 126 107 0.85 61 Macao, China 6-11 38 47 47 40 47 95.** 95 100 102 97 0.96 62 Malaysia 6-11 3 299 3 040 48 3 056.z 49.z 61.z 100 101 99 0.98 63 Marshall Islands 6-11 … 8489.**,z 47.**,z 25 24.y ………… 64 Micronesia 6-11 16 ………………………… 65 Myanmar 5-9 5 112 4 733 49 4 948 50 ..88 88 87 0.99 66 Nauru 6-11 ………1.z 47.z … 21.y ………… 67 New Zealand 5-10 347 361 49 353 48 2 2 102 102 103 1.01 68 Niue4 5-10 … 0.3 46 0.2 51 . … 99 99 98 1.00 69 Palau4 6-10 … 2472.** 48.** 18 … 114 118 109 0.93 70 Papua New Guinea 7-12 926 623 45 681.**,z 45.**,z 2 … 78 81 75 0.93 71 Philippines 6-11 11 586 12 503 49 13 018 49 8 7 113 113 113 1.00 72 Republic of Korea 6-11 3 983 3 845 47 4 125 47 2 1 95 95 96 1.01 73 Samoa 5-10 31 27 48 31 48 16 17 99 99 98 0.98 74 Singapore 6-11 381 ………………………… 75 Solomon Islands 6-11 73 58 46 88 47 …… 88 91 85 0.93 76 Thailand 6-11 6 205 6 120 48 5 975 48 13 16 94 97 92 0.95 77 Timor-Leste 6-11 120 …… 184.y ……… ………… 78 Tokelau6 5-10 ………0.2z 50.z … .z ………… Education for All Global Monitoring Report 79 Tonga 5-10 15 17 46 17 47 7 9 112 113 110 0.98 80 Tuvalu4 6-11 … 1481 50 …… 98 97 99 1.02 81 Vanuatu 6-11 33 34 48 39 48 ……110 111 109 0.98 82 Viet Nam 6-10 8 523 10 250 47 8 350 47 0.3 0.3z 108 112 104 0.93

Latin America and the Caribbean 83 Anguilla 5-11 … 2501 50 5 11 ………… 84 Antigua and Barbuda 5-11 …………………………… 85 Argentina 6-11 4 156 4 821 49 4 675.z 49.z 20 21.z 117 116 117 1.00 86 Aruba4 6-11 … 9 49 10 48 83 80 112 114 111 0.98 87 Bahamas 5-10 37 34 49 34 49 … 20 95 96 94 0.98 88 Barbados 5-10 21 25 49 22 49 … 11 108 108 107 0.98 89 Belize 5-10 39 44 48 49 49 … 82 118 120 116 0.97 90 Bermuda4 5-10 ………4.9y 50.3y … 35.y ………… 91 Bolivia 6-11 1 362 1 445 49 1 546.** 49.** 8 20.**,z 113 114 112 0.98 92 Brazil 7-10 13 509 20 939 48 18 919.z 48.z 89.z 155 159 150 0.94 93 British Virgin Islands4 5-11 … 3 49 3 48 13 19 112 113 110 0.97 94 Cayman Islands 5-10 … 3 47 3 49 36 33 ………… 95 Chile 6-11 1 694 1 805 48 1 756 48 45 50 101 102 99 0.97 96 Colombia 6-10 4 727 5 162 49 5 259 49 20 17 113 113 112 1.00 97 Costa Rica 6-11 499 552 48 558 48 7 7 108 109 107 0.98 98 Cuba 6-11 903 1 074 48 906 48 ..106 109 104 0.96 99 Dominica4 5-11 … 12 48 10 48 24 30 104 107 102 0.95 100 Dominican Republic 6-11 1 145 1 315 49 1 282 48 14.** 15.** 113 114 112 0.98 101 Ecuador 6-11 1 702 1 899 49 1 990 49 21 28 114 114 114 1.00 102 El Salvador 7-12 914 940 48 1 045 48 11.** 10.** 111 113 109 0.96 103 Grenada4 5-11 ………16 49 … 76.z ………… 104 Guatemala 7-12 2 015 1 824 46 2 281 47 15 11 101 108 94 0.87 105 Guyana 6-11 88 107 49 111.** 49.** 1 1.z 119 120 118 0.98 106 Haiti 6-11 1 230 ………………………… 107 Honduras 6-11 1 113 …… 1 257 49 … … ………… 108 Jamaica 6-11 348 316.** 49.** 331 49 4.** 8 93.** 93.** 93.** 1.00** 109 Mexico 6-11 13 540 14 698 49 14 781 49 7 8 109 110 107 0.97 110 Montserrat4 5-11 … 0.4 44 0.5 45 38 37 ………… 111 Netherlands Antilles 6-11 18 25 48 23.**,z 49.**,z 74 73.**,z 134 139 130 0.94 STATISTICAL TABLES / 265

Table 5

82.**,z 83.**,z 81.**,z 0.98**,z 85 87 83 0.96 ……… .… 0.4 0.2 0.2 ………54 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …55 106 107 105 0.98 99 99 99 1.01 96 97 96 0.99 1.1 0.8 0.4 1.4 0.6 0.9 56 117 118 116 0.98 ……… .… 94 95 93 0.98 ………242 – 242 57 100 100 101 1.00 100 100 100 1.00 100 100 100 1.00 3 – 3 7 7 – 58 115 113 116 1.03 88.** 88.** 88.** 1.00** ……… .… 1.3** 0.7** 0.6** ………59 116 124 109 0.88 80 84 77 0.92 84 87 82 0.94 141 59 82 119 50 68 60 106 110 101 0.92 85 84 85 1.01 89 91 88 0.97 7434 2 261 93.z 94.z 93.z 1.00z 98 99 97 0.98 93.z 93.z 93.z 1.00z 67 20 46 222.z 112.z 110.z 62 113.**,z 116.**,z 109.**,z 0.94**,z ……… .… 90.**,z 90.**,z 89.**,z 0.99**,z ……… 0.7**,z 0.3**,z 0.3**,z 63 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …64 97 96 98 1.02 80.** 81.** 80.** 0.99** 88 87 88 1.02 1 051.** 521.** 530.** 634 340 293 65 84.**,z 84.**,z 83.**,z 0.99**,z ……… .………… .… ………… … …66 102 102 102 1.00 99 98 99 1.01 99 99 99 1.00 3.1 2.4 0.7 1.9 0.8 1.1 67 87 80 95 1.19 99 99 98 1.00 ……… .… 0.004 0.002 0.002 ………68 114.**,z 119.**,z 109.**,z 0.92**,z 97.** 99.** 94.** 0.94** ……… .… 0.05** 0.0** 0.05** ………69 75.**,z 80.**,z 70.**,z 0.88**,z ……… .………… .… ………… … …70 112 113 111 0.99 ……… .… 94 93 95 1.02 ………646.4 391.6 254.9 71 105 105 104 0.99 94 94 95 1.01 99 100 99 1.00 214 121 93 14 4 10 72 100 100 100 1.00 92 92 91 0.99 90.** 90.** 91.** 1.00** 2 0.8 0.8 0.3** 0.3** –.** 73 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …74 119 121 117 0.97 ……… .… 80 80 79 0.99 ………15 8 7 75 97 100 95 0.95 ……… .………… .… ………… … …76 140.y …… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …77 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …78 115 118 112 0.95 91 92 89 0.97 93 95 91 0.96 1.4 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.5 79 99 95 102 1.07 ……… .………… .… ………… … …80 118 120 116 0.97 91 91 90 0.99 94 95 93 0.98 2.8 1.4 1.4 2 0.7 0.9 81 98 101 94 0.93 96 …… .… 93.**,y …… .… 393 ……634.**,y ……82

Latin America and the Caribbean 93.** 91.** 94.** 1.03** ……… .… 88.** 87.** 89.** 1.02** ……… 0.1** 0.1** 0.0** 83 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …84 112.z 113.z 112.z 0.99z 99.*99.*99.* 1.00* 99.z 99.z 98.z 0.99z 10.*5.*5.*22.z 3.z 19.z 85 114 117 111 0.95 98 97 98 1.01 97 97 96 0.99 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 86 93 93 93 1.00 89 90 89 0.99 84 83 85 1.02 4 1.8 1.8 6 3 3 87 107 108 106 0.99 97.** 97.** 97.** 0.99** 97 98 97 0.99 0.7** 0.3** 0.4** 0.6 0.2 0.3 88 124 126 123 0.98 94.** 94.** 94.** 1.00** 95 95 96 1.01 2.** 0.9** 0.8** 0.6 0.5 0.1 89 102.y …… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …90 113.** 114.** 113.** 0.99** 95 95 95 1.00 95.** 95.** 96.** 1.01** 52 26 26 44.** 25.** 18.** 91 141.z 145.z 137.z 0.94z 91 …… .… 93.z …… .… 1 032 ……800.z ……92 108 110 105 0.96 96.** 95.** 97.** 1.02** 95.** 95.** 95.** 1.00** 0.04** 0.03** 0.02** 0.1** 0.1** 0.1** 93 93.** 96.** 91.** 0.95** ……… .… 87.** 89.** 85.** 0.95** ……… 0.4** 0.1** 0.2** 94 104 106 101 0.95 ……… .………… .… ………… … …95 111 112 111 0.99 88 88.** 89.** 1.01** 83 83 84 1.01 431 232.** 200.** 713 379 334 96 112 112 111 0.99 ……… .………… .… ………… … …97 100 103 98 0.95 98 98 98 1.00 96 98 95 1.00 4 4 – 29 9 20 98 95 96 95 0.99 94.** 95.** 93.** 0.98** 88 87 88 1.01 0.4** 0.1** 0.2** 0.7 0.4 0.3 99 112 115 109 0.95 84 84 85 1.01 86 85 87 1.02 167 90 78 140 77 63 100 117 117 117 1.00 97 97 98 1.01 98.** 97.** 98.** 1.01** 17 14 3 11.** 11.** –.** 101 114 116 112 0.97 ……… .… 92.** 92.** 92.** 1.00** ………54.** 29.** 25.** 102 92 94 90 0.96 ……… .… 84 84 84 0.99 0.01 – 0.01 2 1.1 1.1 103 113 118 108 0.92 82 86 79 0.91 93 95 91 0.95 292 114 178 112 32 80 104 126.** 127.** 125.** 0.99** ……… .………… .… ………… … …105 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …106 113 113 113 1.00 ……… .… 91 90 92 1.02 ………70 43 27 107 95 95 95 1.00 88.** 88.** 88.** 1.00** 91 90 91 1.01 38.** 19.** 18.** 30 16 14 108 109 110 108 0.98 98 98 97 1.00 98 98 98 1.00 25 16 9 29.6 22.3 7.3 109 108 109 106 0.97 ……… .… 94 96 92 0.96 ……… 0.0 – 0.0 110 126.**,z 127.**,z 124.**,z 0.98**,z ……… .………… .… ………… … …111 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 157 155 154 147 145 144 137 135 134 127 125 124 117 115 114 165 164 163 161 153 151 143 141 133 131 123 121 113 158 148 138 128 118 162 156 152 146 142 136 132 126 122 116 112 160 150 140 130 120 159 149 139 129 119 Table 5(continued) Country orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia North AmericaandWestern Europe Cape Verde Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Botswana Benin Angola Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal Maldives Iran, IslamicRepublicof India Bhutan Bangladesh Afghanistan United States United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Spain San Marino Portugal Norway Netherlands Monaco Malta Luxembourg Italy Israel Ireland Iceland Greece Germany France Finland Denmark Cyprus Canada Belgium Austria Andorra Venezuela Uruguay Turks andCaicosIslands Trinidad andTobago Suriname Saint VincentandtheGrenadines Saint Lucia Saint KittsandNevis Peru Paraguay Panama Nicaragua 4 7 6 4 4 266 / ANNEX Age group 2004 -17 24 54 1 2 1 0.96 116 0.70 122 0.67 36 119 59 52 – 89 44 74 23 – 5 13 28 11 49 11 5 85 46 7 43 49 2 979 2 49 1.01 140 92 1 43 0.99 329 45 1.03 102 3 320 1 40 134 104 2 50 702 77 111 102 0.96 816 39 104 1.00 322 552 2 108 48 39 212 872 6-11 1 102 121 104 100 150 6-11 2 0.98 1.01 63 110 314 1.01 7-12 127 51 335 100 7-12 1 37 5 107 106 4 6-12 100 49 307 124 7 0.99 6 6-11 100 109 0.99 106 29 74 99 50 47 1.00 102 5 194 136 3 10 108 430 106 4 103 2 953 667 17 8 3 100 95 43 103 61 1.00 7 104 49 49 986 110 69 9 093 38 103 49 7 0.99 94 99 7 1 622 957 6-12 49 103 17 1.00 559 686 24 4 206 117 532 6-10 106 94 691 6-10 68 99 36 7 480 49 16 102 48 49 771 6-12 4 0.99 1 7 49 107 49 6-10 938 24 661 758 4 49 102 99 7-12 530 7 432 103 48 48 107 7 763 813 24 102 1 48 398 49 4 283 31 1 104 519.9 49 6-11 1 697.2 815 15 7 0.98 35 5-10 48 49 48 104 412 12 318 7-12 2 49 48 7-12 99 268 768 775 1 2 653 49 1 35 6-11 15 450 31 48 437 55 6-10 11 31 101 48 49 194 6-11 1 657 49 6-12 48 876 30 2 49 49 722 100 6-11 55 34.8 49 457 48 30 6-10 783 388 3 731 5-10 2 0.97 420 703 646 14 6-11 1.01 49 49 423 49 6-10 31 106 49 6-11 944 461 747 3 2 103 647 383 4-11 15 110 372 6-12 49 103 49 610 6-11 3 386 108 404 2 48 416 763 103 2 6-10 7-12 453 366 3 10 401 7-12 2 719 15 6-11 137 48 49 49 6-11 6-11 10 261 24 3 366 49 16 6-11 172 287 3 49 48 336 49 26 6-11 430 134 6-11 54 942 6-11 17 48 5-11 23 49 6-11 951 393 5-11 830 629 5-11 3 893.6 5-11 383 6-11 840 6-11 6-11 7-12 - 0 6 93354 0 0 0 0.99 105 106 0.99 106 102 3 103 102 2 5 49 305 3 4 49 767 3 49 373 300 3 48 6-9 389 352 6-9 - 0 057 1 806 1 42 6-9 588 3 650 1 748 19 534 3 5-9 5-9 5-9 School-age population 2003 (000) … ………………… …………… … ……… … ……… . . 8 82484 33 0 0 0 0.98 106 108 107 33 33 48 498 2 48 580 2 9 0.99 122 123 123 15 13 49 133 4 49 350 4 6 1 School yearendingin …… …… 00 (000) (000) Total …… …… 14 91 46 81 1.00 97 98 97 6 4 49 62 48 64 250 24 18 51 2 49 2 . . . *44 ** 48 ** *46 ** 1999 IN PRIMARYEDUCATION . . . *984 1 45 968 ** 946 ** ** % F ENROLMENT 62741 207 16 612 1 3 46 030 4 …… …… 848 65 18 447 650 ...... *47 ** ** 49 ** ** 48 ** *49 48 ** ** Total . 3** 2004 … ,z ,y ,y . . . . . ** 1 1 ** ** *72 15 ** …… 49 47 49 % F . . . ** ** ** ,z ,y ,y …… … … …… … … … … ………… … … … 21 0 0 0 1.03 103 100 101 10 12 31 5 School yearendingin . . . . . *261 2 ** 72 ** 16 ** *31314120.98 102 104 103 3 ** ** 1999 … 2 57 of totalenrolment ………… … … 12 16 15 1 1 1 0.99 112 113 112 – 69 30.95 93 98 96 4 3 1 ...... *9 0 80.98 98 100 99 ** 0.99 101 102 102 * 113 ** *1213110.99 111 113 112 ** *8 88 0.82 80 98 89 ** – ………… … 48 2004 . ** . ** z z z z Enrolment inprivate Enrolment ,z ,y institutions as% ………… ………… ………… ………… 7178 0.82 87 107 97 54 0.08 4 46 25 64 . . . *68 ** *115 ** *69 ** ………… 0 0 0 1.00 102 101 102 0.77 1.01 98 131 128 0.99 130 114 109 130 110 110 Total ………… 89 81.00 98 98 98 GROSS ENROLMENTRATIO (GER) . . . *54 ** *111 ** *59 ** IN PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) School yearendingin Male . . . *0.80** ** *0.96** ** *0.86** ** 1999 Female (F/M) GPI STATISTICAL TABLES / 267

Table 5

112 113 111 0.98 78 78 79 1.01 88 89 87 0.99 145 76 69 49 25 23 112 112 114 111 0.97 96 96 96 0.99 98 98 98 1.00 11 5 6 5 2 3 113 106.** 108.** 104.** 0.97** ……… .………… .… ………… … …114 114 114 114 0.99 98.** 98.** 98.** 1.00** 97 97 97 1.00 2.** –.** 2.** 14.6 12.3 2.3 115 101 98 105 1.07 ……… .… 94 91 98 1.08 ……… 0.2 0.2 – 116 106 108 103 0.96 91.** 91.** 91.** 0.99** 98 99 96 0.97 2.** 1.0** 1.0** 0.4 0.1 0.3 117 106 109 103 0.95 ……… .… 94.** 95.** 92.** 0.97** ……… 0.6** 0.3** 0.4** 118 120.**,z 118.**,z 121.**,z 1.02**,z ……… .… 92.**,z 90.**,z 96.**,z 1.07**,z ……… 3.3**,z 2.7**,z 0.6**,z 119 102.* 104.* 101.* 0.97* 93 93 93 1.00 92.*92.*92.* 0.99* 5324.*2.*2.* 120 94 92 95 1.03 ……… .… 81 78 85 1.08 ……… 0.4 0.2 0.1 121 109.** 110.** 108.** 0.98** ……… .………… .… ………… … …122 105 106 104 0.98 86 85 86 1.01 92 92 92 1.01 423 226 197 199 110 90 123

North America and Western Europe 101.** 102.** 100.** 0.98** ……… .… 89.** 90.** 87.** 0.97** ……… 0.5** 0.2** 0.3** 124 106 106 106 1.00 ……… .………… .… ………… … …125 104 104 104 0.99 99 99 99 1.00 99 99 99 1.00 8447 4 3126 100.**,y 100.**,y 100.**,y 1.00**,y 97 97 97 1.00 ……… .… 70 36 34 ………127 98 98 97 1.00 95 95 95 1.00 96 96 96 1.00 1.3 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.4 128 101 101 101 1.00 97 97 97 1.00 100 100 100 1.00 8 4 3 0.4 0.4 – 129 101 101 100 0.99 99 99 98 1.00 99 99 99 1.00 5232 0.91.0130 105 105 104 0.99 99 99 99 1.00 99 99 99 1.00 9 6 3 14 11 4 131 100 100 100 1.00 ……… .………… .… ………… … …132 102 102 101 0.99 92 92 93 1.01 99 100 99 0.99 31 17 14 3 – 3 133 101.** 102.** 100.** 0.98** 99 100 98 0.98 99.** 100.** 98.** 0.98** 0.3 – 0.3 0.3** –.** 0.3** 134 106 107 106 0.99 93 93 93 1.01 96 96 96 1.00 31 16 14 15 8 7 135 110 110 111 1.01 98 98 98 1.00 98 97 98 1.01 15 7 8 16 9 7 136 101 102 101 1.00 99 99 98 0.99 99 99 99 1.00 9 – 9 11 4 7 137 99 100 99 1.00 96 95 97 1.02 91 91 91 1.00 0.9 0.6 0.3 2.9 1.5 1.4 138 102 103 102 0.99 95 94 96 1.02 94 94 94 1.00 2 1.0 0.7 1.8 0.9 0.9 139 ………… ……….………… .… ………… … …140 107 109 106 0.97 99 100 99 0.99 99 99 98 0.99 6 0.1 6 14 3 11 141 99 99 99 1.00 100 100 100 1.00 99 99 99 1.00 0.7 0.3 0.5 4.8 2.4 2.4 142 116 119 114 0.96 ……… .… 99 99 99 0.99 ……… 0.8 – 0.8 143 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …144 108 109 107 0.98 99 …… .… 99 100 99 0.99 13 ……13 3 10 145 99 99 99 1.00 100 100 99 0.99 99 99 98 1.00 2 – 2 9.5 4.4 5.2 146 102 103 102 0.99 96 96 95 0.99 94 94 94 1.00 2 1.3 1.1 9 5 4 147 107 107 107 1.00 100 99 100 1.01 99 99 99 1.00 20 20 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.2 148 99 ……… 94 94 94 1.00 92 …… .… 1 154 622 532 1 626 ……149

South and West Asia 93 127 56 0.44 ……… .………… .… ………… … …150 109 107 111 1.03 89.*89.*89.* 1.00* 94.*93.*96.* 1.03* 1 151 610 541 404 354 51 151 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …152 116.** 120.** 112.** 0.93** ……… .… 90.** 92.** 87.** 0.94** ………4583.** 654.** 3 929.** 153 103 98 108 1.10 82.** 83.** 80.** 0.97** 89 89 88 0.99 1 666.** 799.** 868.** 803 400 402 154 104 105 102 0.97 97 97 98 1.01 90.y 89y 90y 1.01y 1.3 0.8 0.6 6y 3.y 3.y 155 113 118 108 0.91 65.*72.*57.* 0.79* 79.** 84.** 74.** 0.87** 1 046 413 633 698.** 264.** 434.** 156 82 95 69 0.73 ……… .… 66.*76.*56.* 0.73* ………6463.* 2 259.* 4 204.* 157 98.** …… .… ……… .… 98.** …… .… ………47.** ……158

Sub-Saharan Africa ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …159 99 111 86 0.77 50.*59.*40.* 0.68* 83 93 72 0.78 585 241 344 220.0 43.7 176.3 160 105 105 104 0.99 78 77 80 1.04 82.** 81.** 83.** 1.03** 63 35 28 50.** 28.** 22.** 161 53 59 47 0.78 35 41 29 0.69 40 46 35 0.77 1 205 551 655 1 271 590 681 162 80 87 73 0.83 ……… .… 57 60 54 0.89 ………518 240 278 163 117 126 107 0.85 ……… .………… .… ………… … …164 111 113 108 0.95 99.** 99.** 98.** 0.98** 92 92 91 0.99 0.8** 0.1** 0.7** 6 3 3 165 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 197 195 194 187 185 184 177 175 174 167 203 201 193 191 183 181 173 171 198 188 178 168 202 196 192 186 182 176 172 166 200 190 180 170 199 189 179 169 XVI XIV XIII VIII XV XII VII XI IX VI IV III X V II I data arefor 2004. school year, inwhichcase for countrieswithacalendar 1. Dataarefor2003except Table 5(continued) Country orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWestAsia N. America/W.Europe Latin America/Caribbean East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Arab States Developing countries Developed countries Countries intransition World Zimbabwe Zambia United RepublicofTanzania Uganda Togo Swaziland South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Seychelles Senegal Sao TomeandPrincipe Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Mali Malawi Madagascar Liberia Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Ethiopia Eritrea Equatorial Guinea D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Comoros Chad Central AfricanRepublic Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia 4 268 enrolled either inprimaryorsecondary schools. the proportionofprimary schoolagechildrenwhoare at all,derivedfromthe totalprimaryNER,whichmeasures 2. Datareflecttheactual numberofchildrennotenrolled / ANNEX Age group 2004 -194944 8 63 012179 0.75 96 127 0.98 112 105 0.68 40 108 23 106 36 34 0.72 49 – 2362 29 43 0.97 251 2 46 49 985 92 59 48 – 460 208 2 4 50 556 1 47 95 0.65 43 51 190 4 7470 49 433 2 288 6 49 954 278 45 2 4 94 49 213 023 6-12 7 30 35 0.82 883 7-13 5 935 7 51 68 974 7-13 204 40 19 6-12 51 49 753 1 46 22 57 153 6-11 7 980 407 24 6-12 1 0.95 034 409 1 45 62 50 798 0.85 7-13 22 6-12 43 39 289 569 48 1 3 21 50 819 57 6-11 1 69 22 50 869 530 397 6-11 16 1 49 43 383 51 49 470 7-12 1 842 2 50 82 15 7-12 41 277 302 366 21 2 3 8 133 3 194 7-12 2 50 427 48 49 408 76 959 6-11 49 42 761 7-12 3 43 582 926 2 5 123 52 6-12 11 012 2 51 396 25 191 147 6-12 2 1 10 49 365 274 5-10 2 175 521 7-12 2 38 782 281 4 44 552 145 6-11 10 47 326 12 46 727 6-10 375 78 50 325 6-11 5 377 2 247 150 6-12 48 38 265 45 451 6-11 1 46 44 291 7-12 3 368 046 584 4 2 215 262 75 7-12 104 47 217 6-11 43 49 430 125 7-12 8 1 022 4 45 564 6-11 911 65 1 276 7-10 37 83 304 7-11 9 877 840 7-11 2 659 6-11 121 6-11 585 6-11 1 654 6-11 6-11 6-11 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … School-age 1 5 9724 0 2 71 07 57 0.85 72 85 79 0.99 0.99 112 10 111 113 112 0.91 11 112 112 95 0.92 47 2 105 46 96 16 424 101 884 100 187 45 104 4 44 7 772 79 100 11 510 157 48 551 111 48 919 170 712 202 8 11 217 206 48 48 277 214 47 7 575 217 879 600 546 178 126 182 46 47 733 558 225 682 47 634 562 985 644 092 642 population 0835 5 95 3 8761312131.01 0.97 103 0.97 119 102 119 123 103 123 0.87 121 0.96 6 121 82 97 15 1.00 95 0.99 102 7 16 102 15 89 99 100 102 15 48 48 101 102 1.0 734 51 7 637 66 48 100 49 4 0.4 48 259 69 857 52 7 0.6 705 67 48 48 4 883 50 206 70 46 649 0.3 56 630 22 700 36 710 58 48 48 49 46 419 67 489 25 926 13 725 34 49 273 22 49 418 70 355 39 834 15 509 66 949 12 6 0 92624 12 1 1 1 0.97 0.99 113 93 117 0.99 95 115 98 94 99 27 99 21 21 0.8 16 49 0.5 622 2 48 505 3 49 49 500 2 48 376 6 298 3 062 2 49 581 853 3 6 274 6 Sum 2003 (000) … 1 Sum School yearendingin ……………………………… ………… ………… …… 00 (000) (000) Total 04 955 5 49 9 49 10 . . *43 ** 40 ** 1999 IN PRIMARYEDUCATION . . . *2 1 55 45 111 21 ** ** *1334 21 166 61 11 12 48 383 1 ** % F %F ENROLMENT 4 49 50 541 7 152 7 48 930 2 46 019 8 421 2 49 124 …… …… …… ...... *41 ** *49 ** * 39 ** Sum Total one-third of primarypupilsareenrolled. Grossenrolment ratiosmaybeoverestimated. of primaryeducationstarting atage7.However, afour-grade structure alsoexists,inwhichabout basis ofthemostcommon orwidespreadstructure.IntheRussianFederation thisisthreegrades 3. Incountrieswheretwo ormoreeducationstructuresexist,indicators werecalculatedonthe y z z z z 2004 ,z . . . ** *1 29 17 ** 34 25 ** 48 50 44 49 48 49 % F %F y z . . . . * z z z ,z ………… … … … … … …… …… … …… … … 38 19 19 42 0 0 0 1.00 106 105 105 25 24 13 0.2 School yearendingin . . . ** ** ** 1999 211 33 12 887 88 –– 22 44 of totalenrolment Median … … … … … 21 57 20.92 72 0.92 78 120 75 132 126 2 0.98 9 98 100 99 1 1.08 110 101 105 0.3 5 1 4138 0.82 85 103 94 4 . . . . *5 24 0.62 45 72 59 ** *1212121.00 132 132 132 ** … 2004 . . . . . ** y z z z z z Enrolment inprivate Enrolment ,z 3 4 3 0.95 136 143 139 institutions as% 88 46 41.00 64 64 64 0.74 59 79 0.97 69 92 0.85 94 74 93 86 80 67 20.92 72 79 76 59 20.74 72 97 85 70 0.90 46 51 48 . . *98 ** *84 ** 3 4 1 0.79 116 148 132 0 0 80.95 0.98 98 113 0.99 102 116 116 100 114 117 1.02 116 105 103 104 Total 08 00.74 60 0.58 80 47 70 81 64 8109 0.97 97 100 98 GROSS ENROLMENTRATIO (GER) . . . *57 ** *77 ** *56 ** IN PRIMARYEDUCATION (%) Weighted average School yearendingin Male . . . *0.86** ** *0.78** ** *0.67** ** 1999 Female (F/M) GPI STATISTICAL TABLES / 269

Table 5

64.** 76.** 52.** 0.69** ……… .………… .… ………… … …166 71.** 86.** 56.** 0.64** 52 64 40 0.62 57.**,z 68.**,z 46.**,z 0.68**,z 636 236 400 657.**,z 243.**,z 413.**,z 167 85 91 80 0.88 49 54 45 0.85 ……… .… 53 24 28 ………168 89 92 85 0.93 ……… .………… .… ………… … …169 72.*,z 80.*,z 63.*,z 0.79*,z 53 61 46 0.75 56.*,z 62.*,z 50.*,z 0.80*,z 1 254 523 731 1 223.*,z 519.*,z 705.*,z 170 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …171 127.y 133.y 121.y 0.91y 83 93 73 0.79 85y 92y 78y 0.85y 9279y 2.y 6.y 172 66 74 59 0.80 36 39 34 0.86 48 52 44 0.85 293 140 153 291 135 156 173 93 101 86 0.86 33 38 28 0.74 56.** 58.** 55.** 0.94** 4 962 2 297 2 665 3615.** 1 734.** 1 880.** 174 130.** 130.** 129.** 0.99** ……… .………… .… ………… … …175 81 79 84 1.06 67 71 62 0.88 75.** 73.** 77.** 1.06** 61 26 35 52.** 28.** 24.** 176 88 90 87 0.96 57.** 58.** 56.** 0.96** 65 65 65 0.99 1 330.** 659.** 670.** 1 129 572 557 177 79 87 71 0.81 44 51 36 0.71 64 69 58 0.84 709 317 392 519 228 291 178 ……… .… 45.** 53.** 37.** 0.71** ……… .… 114.** 49.** 65.** ………179 111 114 108 0.94 64 63 64 1.01 76 76 77 1.00 1 834 934 899 1 226 618 607 180 131 131 131 1.00 60 56 63 1.13 86 83 88 1.06 139 76 63 45 27 18 181 ……… .… 41 47 36 0.77 ……… .… 271 123 148 ………182 134 136 131 0.96 63 63 63 1.01 89 89 89 1.00 785 396 389 272 136 136 183 125 123 126 1.02 98 99 97 0.98 95 93 98 1.05 23 – 23 89 71 19 184 64 71 56 0.79 40.** 46.** 34.** 0.73** 46 50 43 0.85 1 113.** 507.** 606.** 1 172 557 615 185 102 102 102 1.00 97 96 97 1.01 95 94 95 1.02 422743186 95 104 86 0.83 52 58 46 0.80 71 75 67 0.90 1 602 703 899 1 089 475 614 187 101.z 100.z 102z 1.01z 73 70 76 1.08 74.z 71.z 76.z 1.08z 100 56 44 106z 59z 47z 188 45 52 37 0.72 24 29 20 0.68 39 46 32 0.71 1 393 674 718 1 326 609 717 189 99 107 91 0.85 ……… .… 60.** 64.** 57.** 0.89.** ………8 109.6** 3 786.** 4 323.** 190 119 118 120 1.02 ……… .… 73 72 75 1.04 ………390 205 185 191 133 134 132 0.98 85 85 84 0.99 98 98 98 1.00 3 2 2 0.01 – 0.01 192 76 78 74 0.95 52 55.** 48.** 0.88** 66 68 64 0.95 808 379.** 429.** 616 296 320 193 110 109 110 1.00 ……… .… 96 96 97 1.01 ……… 0.3 0.2 0.1 194 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …195 ……… .… ……… .………… .… ………… … …196 105.z 107.z 103.z 0.97z 93 92 94 1.02 89.z 88.z 89.z 1.01z 171 139 32 487.z 287.z 200.z 197 101.z 103.z 98.z 0.95z 75 74 75 1.02 77.z 76.z 77.z 1.01z 53 28 25 48.z 24.z 23.z 198 101 110 92 0.84 79 89 70 0.79 79 85 72 0.85 147.6 28.6 119.0 180 55 125 199 118 118 117 1.00 ……… .………… .… ………… … …200 106 108 104 0.96 48 47 49 1.04 91 92 91 0.98 3 405 1 736 1 669 604 273 331 201 99 101 97 0.96 63 64 62 0.96 80 80 80 1.00 760 370 391 435 221 214 202 96.z 97.z 95.z 0.98z 81 81 82 1.01 82.z 81.z 82.z 1.01z 449 230 219 429.z 224.z 206z 203

Weighted average Weighted average Weighted average Sum

106 109 103 0.94 83 86 80 0.93 86 88 84 0.96 98 172 40 717 57 455 76 841 33 252 43 589 I

107 108 107 0.99 85 85 84 0.99 91 91 90 0.99 2 093 1 034 1 059 1 086 545 541 II 101 102 101 0.99 96 96 96 1.00 96 96 95 0.99 2 024 1 065 959 2 282 938 1 344 III 107 110 103 0.94 81 84 78 0.92 85 87 82 0.95 94 056 38 619 55 437 73 473 31 770 41 704 IV

93 98 88 0.90 77 81 73 0.89 81 85 78 0.92 8 361 3 407 4 954 6 585 2 695 3 890 V 101 103 100 0.97 89 91 88 0.97 91 92 90 0.98 2 592 1 129 1 463 2 014 936 1 078 VI 102 102 101 0.99 89 89 88 0.99 92 92 91 0.98 544 269 275 364 171 193 VII 113 114 112 0.99 96 96 96 1.00 94 94 94 0.99 6 827 3 381 3 446 9 671 4 757 4 914 VIII 114 114 113 0.99 96 96 96 1.00 94 94 94 0.99 6 382 3 159 3 223 9 298 4 587 4 712 IX 98 99 96 0.97 87 88 87 0.99 90 91 88 0.97 445 222 222 373 170 203 X 118 120 116 0.97 93 94 93 0.98 95 96 94 0.99 3 731 1 712 2 019 2 698 1 203 1 495 XI 126 128 125 0.98 77 79 76 0.96 83 85 82 0.96 435 211 224 341 155 185 XII 118 119 116 0.97 94 95 93 0.98 95 96 95 0.99 3 296 1 501 1 795 2 358 1 048 1 309 XIII 102 103 101 0.98 96 96 96 1.00 96 97 95 0.98 1 519 806 713 1 845 703 1 142 XIV 110 115 105 0.91 77 84 70 0.83 86 89 82 0.92 31 309 9 646 21 663 15 644 4 873 10 771 XV 91 96 85 0.89 55 58 52 0.89 65 67 63 0.93 43 289 20 368 22 922 38 020 17 914 20 106 XVI

4. National 5. Children enter primary school at age 6 or 7. Since 7 is the 6. Enrolment ratios were not calculated due to lack Data in bold are for the school year ending in 2005. population data most common entrance age, enrolment ratios were calculated of United Nations population data by age. (z) Data are for the school year ending in 2003. were used to using the 7-11 age group for both enrolment and population. 7. Enrolment ratios were not calculated due to (y) Data are for the school year ending in 2002. calculate NER is not published due to inconcistencies between inconsistencies between enrolment and the United enrolment ratios. enrolment and the United Nations population data by age. Nations population data. Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 55 54 47 45 44 37 35 34 27 25 24 17 15 14 53 51 43 41 33 31 23 21 13 11 48 38 28 18 56 52 46 42 36 32 26 22 16 12 30 20 10 50 40 49 39 29 19 7 5 4 3 1 8 6 2 9 Internal efficiency: repetition education inprimary Table 6 Arab States orterritory Country East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Fiji DPR Korea Cook Islands China Cambodia Brunei Darussalam Australia Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Tajikistan Mongolia Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Georgia Azerbaijan Armenia Ukraine Turkey TFYR Macedonia Slovenia Slovakia Serbia andMontenegro Russian Federation Romania Republic ofMoldova Poland Lithuania Latvia Hungary Estonia Czech Republic Croatia Bulgaria Bosnia andHerzegovina Belarus Albania Yemen United ArabEmirates Tunisia Syrian ArabRepublic Sudan Saudi Arabia Qatar Palestinian A.T. Oman Morocco Mauritania Libyan ArabJamahiriya Lebanon Kuwait Jordan Iraq Egypt Djibouti Bahrain Algeria 270 / ANNEX of primary education Duration 04Ml Female Male 2004 ...... 0.8 2.2 1.5 5.2 1.5 7.5 2.7 6.4 2.1 0.2 1.1** 7.8 0.1 1.6 2.8** 0.1 0.2 0.1 10.3 2.0** 0.1 2.7 0.3** 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.4** 9.2 0.3** 0.4 0.1 2.2 0.3 1.4** 0.1 0.2 10.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 3.4 0.9** 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2** 12.9 0.5** 0.1 0.1 5.7 0.1 0.2 0.2** 0.2 0.2 11.8 1.6** 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 1.3 4.6 0.1 0.2 1.1** 0.2 18.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.3** 0.2** 0.1 1.6 0.1 0.2 20.3 0.2 1.4 6 1.4 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.4** 0.2** 0.3 4 3.5** 0.2 0.1 1.5 19.3 0.1 0.2 6– 0.9** 0.3 2.0 0.2 0.5 0.4 2.0** 0.2 0.2 5 0.3 0.2 0.06** 0.1 1.3 0.2 1.0 0.2 6 2.7** 0.2 1.7 0.2** 0.2 0.03** 1.2 0.7 0.9 6 0.6 0.3 0.2 2.8** 0.1 1.7 0.2** 0.1 7– 2.4 0.2 0.3 1.1 0.05 0.0 0.7 1.4 0.6 1.5 1.9** 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 1.5 0.1** 0.2 0.1 1.8 0.3 1.8 2.3** – 2.2 0.1 4– 1.1 1.3 0.5 1.2 0.2 0.1** 0.2 0.2 3 0.1 1.9 0.2 2.4** 0.9 0.3 1.5 4 3.1 0.1 0.9 0.7 – 0.9 0.4 0.1 0.2 2.1** 4 0.2 2.3 0.2 2.2 4 0.3 1.5 2.7 0.2** 0.7 2.2** 0.6 1.6 0.3 4 0.3 – 2.1 0.2 1.6 0.3** 6 4.6** 2.3 1.8 1.0 0.5 1.2 1.1 4 0.3 0.3 4.9** 4.9 0.2 3 1.1 0.3 1.9 2.7 6.6 0.9 0.7 1.4 3.6 4.7** 0.5 0.3 3.6 4.5 5.2 0.2 2.5 4.1 2.3 3.0 4 10.8 0.9 0.6 2.0 2.4 0.4 0.6 6 4.7 1.1 5.0 1.8 5.5 8.8 4.4** 4 2.2 5.0 1.1 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.3 0.6 4 0.9 4.2 2.6 6.1** 3.0 4 4.8 1.4 3.3 4.0 1.0 3.6 2.0 1.7 4 2.0 0.6 5.5** 4.8 4.4 6.7 3 0.7 2.2 2.8 2.3 4.4** 1.5 4.8 1.8 4 1.3 1.7 6.4 0.8 16.7 4 4.9 5.2** 0.1 1.8 0.7 6.0 15.8 1.4 1.7 6 4.2 1.8 0.0 22.1 4.9** 5.6 2.4 4 1.4 14.3 0.3 8.8 0.9 4.2 4 1.1 1.6 2.0 3.9** 19.6 0.1 4 6.5 0.9 3.8 15.0 2.5 0.3 4.2** 11.8 6 0.8 2.4 1.3 5.5 1.9 0.0 5 8.8 0.6 15.7 4.1** 10.4 1.2** 4 3.6 0.3 4.3 0.3 9.1 3.3 4 3.4** 3.9** 7.9 0.1 14.9 7.7 2.1 1.8** 0.5 4 3.1 3.4 3.7** 0.3 7.4 2.8 4 1.5** 15.3 13.8 0.1 10.9 3.1 0.6 4 3.6** 2.5 2.6** 7.3 0.3 13.8 5.6 3.0 11.0 0.1 12.8 0.4 0.6 3.6** 3.8 21.5** 13.8 8.9 6 7.3 0.3 8.6 11.9 0.3 3.1** 5 18.3** 1.7 13.8 3.2 6 8.2 12.7 0.2 1.9** 19.7** 7.2 0.1 4 3.0** 21.6** 15.3 1.9** 6 5.3 10.2 0.3 4.3 18.7** 6 0.2 1.9** 14.8 6 7.1 20.0** 5.2 17.2 0.3 –––––––––0.60.70.6 6.5 3.5** 4 17.5** 15.1 6 11.3 5.3 16.0** 3.9** 0.3 6 5.4 16.7** 6 3.7** 9.3 3.1 2.3** 6 0.3 6 8.8 2.8** 2.4 4 6 2.6** 12.1 6 2.8 5– 10.5 6 6 6 1 ……………………………… ……………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… . . . . *– ** ** – ** Total y y y y y ,y ,y ,y …………………… …… Grade 1 18.2 . . *– ** – ** – – 1.6 1.0 4.5** 3.4** 1.6** . . ** y y y y ,y ,y ,y ,y . . *– ** 3.8** 6.6** 5.3** 2.5** 4.5** 3.6** 2.1** 3.5** 2.9** ** 16.1 – – 2.5** 1.3** 1.2 0.8 3.2** . . ** y REPETITION RATES BYGRADEINPRIMARYEDUCATION (%) y y y ,y ,y ,y ,y 0.3 .. *– ** ……………………… ……………………… 14.9 – 0.2 0.9 0.3 2.7** oa aeFemale Male Total . ** y y y y ,y …… …… ,y . *– ** Grade 2 16.6 – 0.2** 1.3 0.3 3.0** . ** y y y ,y ,y ,y School yearendingin2003 . *– ** 12.9 – 0.1** 0.6 0.2 2.2** . ** y y y ,y 0.4 0.02 ,y ,y . *– ** 15.4 – 0.1 1.7 0.2 2.0** oa aeFemale Male Total . ** …… …… y y y y ,y . *–* ** ,y Grade 3 17.7 – 0.2** 2.3 0.2 2.3** . ** y y y ,y . *– ,y ,y 12.8 – 0.1** 1.0 0.1 1.8** ……… . ** 0.8 0.02 y y y ...... *– ** ,y ,y ,y 12.4 – …… …… 0.1 2.0 0.1 2.2** oa aeFemale Male Total . ** . *– ** y y y y ,y ,y Grade 4 14.8 – 0.1** 2.7 0.1 2.5** . ** . ** y y y ,y ,y ,y – 0.1** 1.1 0.1 2.0** 9.4 . ** y y y ,y ,y ,y STATISTICAL TABLES / 271

Table 6

. REPETITION RATES BY GRADE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) REPEATERS, ALL GRADES (%) School year ending in 2003 School year ending in Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 1999 2004 Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total MaleFemale Total Male Female

Arab States 11.5 14.5 8.2 16.0 19.1 12.4 ...11.9 14.6 8.7 11.8 14.3 8.9 1 2.8 3.5 2.1 2.0 3.1 0.7 ... 3.8 4.6 3.1 3.2 3.6 2.7 2 22.1** 20.6** 24.0** 33.1** 32.5** 33.9** ...16.6 16.7** 16.4** 18.0 17.4 18.7 3 8.1** 10.0** 5.9** ...... 6.0** 7.1** 4.6** 4.0** 5.0** 2.9** 4 ……………… ...10.0 10.7 9.2 8.0 9.1 6.5 5 2.1 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.2 ... 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.1 6 ...... 3.3 3.4 3.1 2.5** 2.8** 2.3** 7 12.3 13.9 10.6 10.8 12.3 9.2 ... 9.1 10.5 7.7 10.6 12.3 8.7 8 ……………… ...…… …… … …9 15.8 15.3 16.4 23.3 22.4 24.3 ...…… …14.4 14.1 14.6 10 10.6y 13.0y 7.6y 9.4y 11.5y 6.7y ...12.4 14.1 10.2 13.2 15.2 11.0 11 1.6 2.0 1.1 0.9 1.2 0.7 ... 8.0 9.5 6.4 0.8 0.9 0.6 12 ...... 2.1 2.2 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 13 ……… 4.6**,y 7.0**,y 2.0**,y ... 2.7** 3.5** 1.9** ………14 3.4 3.7 3.2 1.4 1.4 1.3 ... 5.4 6.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 3.3 15 2.7 1.3 4.4 2.7 1.2 4.6 ...…… … 2.2 0.8 3.8 16 ...... 6.5 7.2 5.6 7.5 8.3 6.6 17 11.6 13.7 9.2 7.5 9.1 5.7 ...18.3 20.0 16.4 7.3 8.7 5.7 18 2.2 3.1 1.1 ...... 3.5 4.4 2.5 2.2 2.6 1.8 19 5.5** 6.1** 4.4** 4.5** 5.1** 3.3** ...10.6 11.7* 8.7* 4.3** 4.8** 3.7** 20

Central and Eastern Europe ...... 3.9** 4.6** 3.2** 2.8z 3.2z 2.4z 21 ...... 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 22 ...... …… …… … …23 ...... 3.2 3.7 2.7 2.3 2.7 1.8 24 ...... 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4z 0.4z 0.3z 25 0.8 1.0 0.6 ...... 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.9 26 2.3y 3.6y 1.0y 3.5y 5.4y 1.3y ... 2.5 3.5 1.4 2.0 3.0 1.0 27 ...... 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.6 1.7 28 ...... 2.1 2.7** 1.3** 2.7 3.7 1.6 29 ...... 0.9 1.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.4 30 0.8 …… 0.5 …… ... 1.2 …… 0.6 0.9 0.2 31 ...... 0.9 0.9** 0.9** 0.4 0.4 0.4 32 ...... 3.4 4.1 2.6 2.4 2.9 2.0 33 ...... 1.2 …… 0.7 ……34 ...... …… …… … …35 ...... 2.3 2.6 2.0 2.6 2.8 2.4 36 ...... 1.0 1.3 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 37 ...... 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 38 2.6** 1.8** 3.5** 4.7** 3.6** 6.0** ...…… … 3.2 2.7 3.8 39 ...... 0.8 …… 0.1 0.1 0.1 40

Central Asia ...... …… … 0.1 0.1 0.1 41 ...... 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 42 ……………… ... 0.3 0.5** 0.2** 0.3 0.4 0.2 43 ...... 0.3 …… 0.1 0.2 0.1 44 ...... 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 45 ...... 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.6 46 ...... 0.5 0.5** 0.6** 0.2 0.2** 0.2** 47 ...... …… …… … …48 ...... …… … –.** –.** –.** 49

East Asia and the Pacific –.** –.** –.** –.** –.** –.** –.** –.** –.** …… … –––50 1.6** 2.5** 0.6** 8.7** 11.5** 5.5** ...... 2.6 3.6 1.4 51 4.2 4.9 3.4 2.1 2.4 1.8 ...24.6** 25.4** 23.5** 10.6 11.6 9.4 52 0.1y 0.1**,y 0.1**,y ...... …… … 0.3 0.3 0.3 53 ……………… ... 2.6 ……………54 ……… ...... …… …… … …55 2.0 2.5 1.6 0.4 0.5 0.2 ...…… … 2.2 2.7 1.5 56 7

0 272 / ANNEX 0

Table 6 (continued) 2

REPETITION RATES BY GRADE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION (%) Duration1 of primary School year ending in 2003 education Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Country or territory 2004Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

57 Indonesia 6 6.0 6.1 6.0 3.5 3.4 3.6 3.0 2.9 3.0 2.3 2.3 2.3 58 Japan 6 ……………………………… 59 Kiribati 6 ...... 60 Lao PDR 5 34.8 35.3 34.2 19.7 21.0 18.1 13.0 14.6 11.2 8.3 9.9 6.3 61 Macao, China 6 2.4 2.8 2.0 3.2 4.4 1.9 5.0 6.7 3.2 6.9 8.5 5.1 62 Malaysia 6 ...... 63 Marshall Islands 6 .y .y .y ………………………y 64 Micronesia 6 ……………………………… 65 Myanmar 5 1.3** 1.3** 1.3** 0.6** 0.6** 0.6** 0.6** 0.6** 0.6** 0.5** 0.5** 0.5** 66 Nauru 6–.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y 67 New Zealand 6 ……………………………… 68 Niue 6 .y .y .y ……………………… 69 Palau 5 ……………………………… 70 Papua New Guinea 6–.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y 71 Philippines 6 4.8 5.6 3.8 2.5 3.3 1.7 1.8 2.4 1.1 1.2 1.7 0.7 72 Republic of Korea 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.00 0.01 73 Samoa 6 5.3x 6.1**,x 4.4**,x 1.8x …… 1.4x …… 1.7x …… 74 Singapore 6 ……………………………… 75 Solomon Islands 6 ……………………………… 76 Thailand 6 ……………………………… 77 Timor-Leste 6 ……………………………… 78 Tokelau 6 .y .y .y .y .y .y .y .y .y .y .y .y 79 Tonga 6 .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x 80 Tuvalu 6 ...... 81 Vanuatu 6 13.2** 13.4** 13.0** ……………………… 82 Viet Nam 5 5.4**,y 6.2**,y 4.4**,y 2.6**,y 3.0**,y 2.1**,y 1.7**,y 2.0**,y 1.3**,y 1.6**,y 1.9**,y 1.2**,y

Education for All Global Monitoring Report Latin America and the Caribbean 83 Anguilla 7 2.4 2.1 2.7 19.4 22.6 16.2 26.8 22.5 32.5 19.0 28.6 10.3 84 Antigua and Barbuda 7 ……………………………… 85 Argentina 6 9.9x 11.4x 8.4x 7.1x 8.3x 5.8x 6.2x 7.3x 5.0x 5.2x 6.3x 4.1x 86 Aruba4 6 14.1 15.6 12.4 12.4 15.1 9.6 9.3 11.3 7.1 7.5 8.6 6.5 87 Bahamas 6 ...……………………… 88 Barbados 6 ...... 89 Belize 6 16.6 18.2 15.0 10.8 12.7 8.7 10.7 12.8 8.6 9.7 11.4 8.0 90 Bermuda 6 .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x .x 91 Bolivia 6 1.4** 1.5** 1.4** 1.3** 1.4** 1.2** 1.6** 1.7** 1.5** 1.5** 1.6** 1.3** 92 Brazil 4 29.3x 29.3**,x 29.3**,x 19.7x ……15.4x ……13.5x …… 93 British Virgin Islands 7 7.8 9.6 5.6 7.1 9.7 4.6 4.9 6.4 2.8 2.6 3.6 1.5 94 Cayman Islands 6–.y –.y –.y ……………………… 95 Chile 6 2.3 2.6 2.0 3.1 3.6 2.6 1.7 2.0 1.3y 2.3 2.9 1.7 96 Colombia 5 7.4** 8.0** 6.7** 4.3** 4.7** 3.9** 3.5** 3.8** 3.1** 2.6** 3.0** 2.2** 97 Costa Rica 6 13.6** 15.3** 11.7** 8.1** 9.2** 6.9** 6.3** 7.5** 5.0** 7.9** 9.0** 6.6** 98 Cuba 6 – – – 1.7 2.3 1.0 – – – 1.1 1.6 0.6 99 Dominica 7 7.2 9.1 5.1 5.1 6.7 3.4 2.6 3.4 1.9 2.9 3.8 2.0 100 Dominican Republic 6 3.4 3.9** 2.8** 5.4 6.4** 4.4** 12.6 15.6** 9.4** 7.8 9.5** 6.0** 101 Ecuador 6 3.9** 4.2** 3.6** 2.8** 3.1** 2.4** 1.8** 2.1** 1.5** 1.4** 1.6** 1.2** 102 El Salvador 6 15.5** 17.0** 13.9** 5.7** 6.5** 4.8** 4.3** 5.0** 3.7** 4.1** 4.8** 3.3** 103 Grenada 7 4.2y 5.6y 2.7y 2.0y 2.1y 1.9y 2.2y 3.1y 1.4y 1.9y 2.6y 1.2y 104 Guatemala 6 26.9** 28.2** 25.5** 14.4** 15.1** 13.7** 11.3** 12.0** 10.4** 7.7** 8.3** 6.9** 105 Guyana 6 1.6**,y 1.9**,y 1.2**,y 1.4**,y 1.8**,y 1.1**,y 2.4**,y 2.8**,y 2.0**,y 1.5**,y 1.8**,y 1.2**,y 106 Haiti 6 ……………………………… 107 Honduras 6 ……………………………… 108 Jamaica 6 4.1 5.3 2.7 1.1 1.5 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.6 4.0 5.5 2.3 109 Mexico 6 7.6 8.8 6.3 7.5 8.8 6.1 5.1 6.2 3.9 4.3 5.3 3.3 110 Montserrat 7 3.9** 8.1** –.** 2.8** 2.4** 3.2** 6.8** 8.7** 3.6** ……… 111 Netherlands Antilles 6 18.9**,y 24.8**,y 12.4**,y 13.6**,y 15.7**,y 11.2**,y 11.4**,y 14.4**,y 8.5**,y 12.2**,y 14.4**,y 10.0**,y 112 Nicaragua 6 17.7** 18.9** 16.4** 10.7** 11.9** 9.3** 10.5** 11.8** 9.1** 8.1** 9.2** 6.9** 113 Panama 6 8.5** 9.2** 7.7** 8.4** 9.7** 7.0** 6.2** 7.2** 5.1** 4.2** 5.3** 3.0** 114 Paraguay 6 13.7y 15.2y 12.0y 9.8y 11.4y 8.1y 7.3y 8.6y 5.9y 5.3y 6.4y 4.1y 115 Peru 6 5.2x 5.4x 5.0x 16.6x 17.0x 16.2x 13.5x 13.8x 13.2x 9.6x 9.8x 9.4x 116 Saint Kitts and Nevis 7 ...... 117 Saint Lucia 7 5.8 6.8 4.7 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.5 2.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 STATISTICAL TABLES / 273

Table 6

1.6 1.6 1.6 0.2 0.3 0.2 ...…… … 2.9 2.9 2.9 57 ……………… ...…… …… … …58 ...... 59 5.3 6.4 3.9 ...... 20.9 22.4 19.1 19.9 21.1 18.5 60 8.0 10.2 5.4 7.1 8.9 5.1 ... 6.3 7.3 5.1 5.9 7.5 4.1 61 ...... z .z .z 62 .y .y .y .y .y .y ...... z .z .z 63 ……………… ...…… …… … …64 0.3** 0.3** 0.3** ...... 1.7 1.7** 1.7** 0.7** 0.7** 0.7** 65 –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y ... –– ––.z –.z –.z 66 ……………… ...…… …… … …67 ……… .y .y .y ...... 68 ……… ...... –– –………69 –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y –.y ... –– ––.**,z –.**,z –.**,z 70 1.0 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.2 ... 1.9 2.4 1.4 2.1 2.8 1.5 71 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ... –– –0.01 0.00 0.01 72 1.5x …… 1.1x 1.4**,x 0.8**,x ... 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.9** 1.1** 0.7** 73 ……………… ...…… …… … …74 ……………… ...…… …… … …75 ……………… ... 3.5 3.4 3.5 ………76 ……………… ...…… …… … …77 .y .y .y .y .y .y ...... z .z .z 78 .x .x .x 29.2**,x 31.3**,x 26.8**,x ... 8.8 8.5 9.2 6.2**,y 6.9**,y 5.5**,y 79 ...... 80 ………13.5** 13.5** 13.5** ...10.6** 11.1** 9.9** 10.7 11.5** 9.7** 81 0.2**,y 0.2**,y 0.2**,y ...... 3.8 4.2 3.2 2.4**,z 2.8**,z 1.9**,z 82

Latin America and the Caribbean 30.4 28.8 32.0 28.9 24.5 33.7 25.5 26.2 24.8 0.3 0.4 0.3 21.8 22.8 20.8 83 ……………………… ………………84 4.3x 5.2x 3.3x 3.6x 4.5x 2.7x ... 6.1 7.1 5.0 6.4z 7.5z 5.2z 85 6.0 5.8 6.2 3.8 4.1 3.4 ... 7.7 9.5 5.9 8.5 9.6 7.3 86 ……… ...... 87 ...... 88 9.5 11.4 7.4 8.8 10.2 7.4 ... 9.7 10.8 8.4 10.8 12.5 9.0 89 .x .x .x .x .x .x ...... y .y .y 90 1.4** 1.6** 1.3** 2.9** 3.3** 2.5** ... 2.4 2.6 2.3 1.6** 1.7** 1.5** 91 ...... 24.0 24.0 24.0 20.6y ……92 3.4 4.4 2.3 ……… 0.5 1.1 – 3.8** 4.1** 3.6** 4.1 5.6 2.5 93 ……………… ... 0.2** 0.2** 0.1** – – – 94 2.8 3.8 1.8 2.7 3.6 1.8 ... 2.4 2.9 1.9 2.4 3.0 1.9 95 2.2** 2.4** 1.9** ...... 5.2 5.8 4.6 4.3 4.7 3.8 96 5.7** 6.8** 4.6** 0.5** 0.5** 0.4** ... 9.2 10.4 7.9 6.9 8.0 5.8 97 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 ... 1.9 2.6 1.1 0.7 0.9 0.4 98 3.2 5.5 0.9 2.3 3.5 0.9 5.7 6.0 5.4 3.6 3.8 3.5 4.3 5.7 2.9 99 6.2 7.9** 4.5** 5.0 6.5** 3.6** ... 4.1 4.5 3.7 7.3 8.8 5.5 100 0.9** 1.0** 0.8** 0.5** 0.6** 0.4** ... 2.7 3.0 2.4 2.0** 2.3** 1.8** 101 3.5** 4.2** 2.7** 3.2** 4.0** 2.5** ... 7.1** 7.7** 6.4** 6.7** 7.6** 5.7** 102 1.4y 1.5y 1.3y 2.1y …… 4.0y 3.5y 4.5y 2.7** 3.3** 2.0** 3.4 4.6 2.1 103 4.9** 5.3** 4.5** 1.8** 1.9** 1.7** ...14.9 15.8 13.8 13.3 14.0 12.5 104 0.9**,y 1.2**,y 0.6**,y 0.8**,y 0.9**,y 0.8**,y ... 3.1 3.6 2.5 1.5** 1.7** 1.1** 105 ……………… ...…… …… … …106 ……………… ...…… … 8.5 9.4 7.5 107 1.0 1.1 0.9 6.2 5.6 6.7 ...…… … 2.8 3.3 2.3 108 2.9 3.7 2.1 0.5 0.7 0.4 ... 6.6 7.6 5.5 4.8 5.8 3.8 109 –.** –.** –.** 4.6** 7.9** –.** 6.3** 8.7** 4.0** 0.5 0.5 0.6 3.4 5.0 1.4 110 11.2**,y 12.5**,y 9.8**,y 6.6**,y 8.4**,y 5.0**,y ...12.0** 14.5** 9.3** 12.6**,z 15.5**,z 9.6**,z 111 6.2** 7.3** 5.1** 3.3** 4.0** 2.6** ... 4.7 5.3 4.1 10.5 11.8 9.2 112 2.9** 3.7** 2.0** 1.2** 1.5** 0.9** ... 6.4 7.4 5.2 5.5 6.4 4.5 113 3.2y 3.9y 2.4y 1.5y 1.9y 1.0y ... 7.8 8.8 6.7 7.3** 8.5** 6.0** 114 8.1x 8.4x 7.8x 3.9x 4.1x 3.8x ...10.2 10.5 9.9 7.6 7.8 7.4 115 ...... 116 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.0 4.0 3.5 4.5 2.4** 2.8** 2.0** 2.3 2.6 2.1 117 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 164 157 155 154 147 145 144 137 135 134 127 125 124 174 167 165 173 171 163 161 153 151 143 141 133 131 123 121 168 158 148 138 128 118 172 166 162 156 152 146 142 136 132 126 122 170 160 150 140 130 120 169 159 149 139 129 119 Table 6(continued) North AmericaandWestern Europe orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWest Asia Ethiopia Eritrea Equatorial Guinea D. R.Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Comoros Chad Central AfricanRepublic Cape Verde Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Botswana Benin Angola Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal Maldives Iran, IslamicRepublicof India Bhutan Bangladesh Afghanistan United States United Kingdom Switzerland Sweden Spain San Marino Portugal Norway Netherlands Monaco Malta Luxembourg Italy Israel Ireland Iceland Greece Germany France Finland Denmark Cyprus Canada Belgium Austria Andorra Venezuela Uruguay Turks andCaicosIslands Trinidad andTobago Suriname St Vincent/Grenad. 274 / ANNEX of primary education Duration 04Ml Female Male 2004 972. 021. 922. 991. 042. 0723.7 20.7 22.0 29.1 20.4 30.8 19.4 19.5 30.0 25.5 35.8 19.9 34.2 22.6 29.1 14.8 36.8 20.1 36.0 0.4 25.1 14.5 36.4 24.2 24.4** 19.2 35.2 26.9 14.6 0.7 22.7** 20.8 21.6 7.5** 19.6 23.4 23.4** 29.6 12.9 0.5 13.1** 21.5 22.7 25.9** 30.2 1.1 24.2 26.6 13.9 10.3** 25.0** 3.8 22.0 21.2 26.8 29.4 3.1** 23.8 25.4** 2.5 27.9 13.5 28.1 7.3 29.8 22.3 4.2 5.5** 25.1 24.9** 29.7 32.3 31.3 10.6 1.8 48.1** 24.0** 28.8 4.3** 26.2 23.5 4 8.2 25.8 4.0 34.4 24.3** 28.2 10.8 5 3.4** 13.3** 1.0 31.3 0.8 23.0 27.2** 21.2 5 7.7 33.4 3.8 29.6 10.7 5.6** 6 27.2** 30.2 32.2 2.3 20.2 1.2 1.4 6 27.2** 4.5** 8.9 30.9 7.4 3.8 6 33.5 20.6 1.7 6 1.0 1.7 28.8 10.0 9.4 7.7 3.8 6 32.9 22.4 6 1.9 1.6 29.8 10.1 9.2 6 7.6 2.7 22.3 6 3.4 10.1 1.8 6 6.7 2.7 22.4 6 2.6 1.9 3.2 7 6.6 2.7 0.1 6 3.5 0.9 1.9 4 5.7 6.7 3.4 0.5 0.3 4.9 1.6 2.5 4.5 7.4 3.6 5 0.6 5.8 0.2 0.8 5 4.2 1.3 2.6 5.1 6.8 5 3.5 0.6 0.2 0.1 7 1.0 0.7 2.6 6.9 5 7.1 0.8 0.3 5 0.2 0.9 0.1 1.4 1.0 6.1 7 1.0 0.2 5 0.02 0.2 1.3 1.1 1.3 6 4.8 0.9 0.2 0.04 0.3 1.6 0.8 1.1 4.3 6 1.3 0.4 0.5 – 1.5 6 1.4 4.5 6 4.9 1.8 0.3 0.4 0.1 6 1.6 1.9 1.1 5.1 6 8.0 1.6 0.3 0.03 5 0.7 4.1 2.0 1.3 4.8 6.3 6 6.5 2.1 –––––––––––– 0.5 7 0.1 0.8 1.1 2.9 1.9 2.9 6 9.8 2.8* 5.7 6.6 2.8 5 0.4 0.1 0.9 3.3 1.4 4.3* 6 2.2 7.4 4.8** 10.6 6 2.5 0.1 0.6 3.6* 3.9 1.6 5 7.5** 3.7 8.6 6 1.2 3.3* 6.2** 1.0 8 3.6 1.5 6.5 –––––––––––– 7 7.2 6.3** 4.8* 1.5 6 0.8 8.5 9.1** 5.2 4 11.0 4.1* 5 1.3 7.7** 13.0 6 3.8 9.2 4.1* 9.1** 6 10.5 6 6.3* 5.4 9.6 11.8** 6 10.5** – 6 5.3* 4.7 13.6 4 14.1** –––––––––––– 1.8 6 8.9* 19.0** 11.7 4.1 16.7** 13.0* 0.9 6.9 6 11.0* 6 6 5.6 7 6 7 1 ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… ……………………………… 43.0 ...... 021. 9.7 10.5 10.2 6.6 8.1 7.5 7.0 8.1 7.6 8.5 9.7 9.1 . . Total ** y y y y ,x ,y 42.6 Grade 1 44.6** 14.0** 6.5 0.8 ** . . y y y y ,x ,y 43.5 51.7** 12.5** 5.2 0.8 ** . . REPETITION RATES BYGRADEINPRIMARYEDUCATION (%) y y y y ,x ,y 16.6 ……………………… 40.2** ** 0.7 oa aeFemale Male Total . . . y y y y …… ,x 15.6 ** Grade 2 38.1** 0.9 . . . y y y y 17.8 ,x School yearendingin2003 ** 42.2** 0.5 . . . y y y y 12.4 27.7 ,x ** 33.6** 0.7 oa aeFemale Male Total . . . y y y …… 12.1 y ,x ** Grade 3 32.8** 0.6 . . . y y y 12.7 y ,x ** 34.4** 0.7 12.9 23.5 . . . y y y y ** ,x 32.5** …… 0.8 12.5 oa aeFemale Male Total . . . y y y y ** ,x Grade 4 33.0** 13.4 0.9 . . . y y y y ** ,x 32.0** 0.6 . . . y y y y ,x STATISTICAL TABLES / 275

Table 6

6.6 7.6 5.6 5.0 5.9 4.2 9.5 9.6 9.4 …… … 6.4 7.4 5.2 118 ……………………… ………………119 4.4* 5.5* 3.3* 4.4* 5.1* 3.7* 3.1* 3.3* 2.9* 4.7 4.9 4.4 5.2* 6.1* 4.2* 120 7.1 7.3 6.9 12.2 14.0 9.9 ...…… … 5.5 6.7 4.3 121 4.9** 6.0** 3.7** 2.3** 2.9** 1.7** ... 7.9 9.3 6.5 8.3** 9.7** 6.9** 122 4.5 5.6 3.4 1.9 2.3 1.4 ... 7.0** 8.5** 5.5** 7.3 8.9 5.7 123

North America and Western Europe –––––– ...…… … –––124 ……… ...... 1.5 1.8 1.3 ………125 ……………… ...…… …… … …126 ……………… ...…… …… … …127 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.2 0.1 ... 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 128 .y .y .y .y .y .y ...... 129 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 ... 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 130 ……… ...... 4.2 4.2** 4.2** ………131 ……… ...... 1.7 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.3 132 ……………… ...…… …… … …133 ––––––––– ––––.** –.** –.** 134 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.8 2.1 1.6 1.0 1.1 0.9 135 1.2 1.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 0.7 ...…… … 1.6 2.0 1.1 136 0.4 0.4 0.3 ...... 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 137 3.7 4.0 3.4 1.0 1.4 0.7 ...…… … 4.3 4.8 3.8 138 0.7y 0.8y 0.5y 9.0y 9.9y 7.9y ... 2.1 2.4 1.8 2.0 2.4 1.6 139 ……… ...... –– –………140 .y .y .y .y .y .y ...... 141 ––––––––– ––––––142 ……………… ...…… …… … …143 ……… ...... …… …… … …144 ……………… ...…… …… … …145 ……………… ...…… …… … …146 1.6 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.3 0.8 ... 1.8 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.4 147 ……………… ...... ………148 ……………… ...…… …… … …149

South and West Asia ……………… ...…… …… … …150 5.1 5.5 4.7 ...... 6.5 6.8 6.2 7.0 7.2 6.9 151 ……………………… 12.1 12.5 11.7 12.9**,y 13.5**,y 12.3**,y 152 3.9 4.1 3.7 ……… ... 4.0 4.0 4.1 3.2** 3.3** 3.1** 153 0.8 1.2 0.5 ...... …… … 2.3 3.0 1.6 154 .y .y .y .y .y .y ……… 8.4** 7.6** 9.2** 11.3** 11.6** 10.9** 155 10.8** 10.7** 11.0** ...... 22.9 22.2 23.8 23.1** 22.9** 23.3** 156 ……… ...... …… …… … …157 ……… ...... …… …… … …158

Sub-Saharan Africa ...... 29.0** 29.0** 29.0** ………159 30.8 29.8 32.2 31.4 30.8 32.4 ...…… …23.1 23.0 23.2 160 2.8** 3.5** 2.2** 2.4** 2.9** 2.0** 0.2** 0.2** 0.2** 3.3 3.9 2.7 5.2** 6.2** 4.2** 161 15.7 15.2 16.4 33.1 32.2 34.5 ...17.7 17.5 18.0 13.0 13.2 12.8 162 37.1 33.7 41.5 43.6 39.8 48.4 ...20.3** 20.3** 20.4** 29.1 27.8 30.6 163 24.3 24.9 23.6 22.1 23.1 20.9 ...26.7** 26.8** 26.5** 25.1 25.6 24.5 164 0.6 0.6 0.6 16.2 18.0 14.3 ...11.6** 12.8** 10.3** 13.0 15.0 10.8 165 ……………… ...…… …… … …166 22.3** 21.5** 23.8** 24.7** 24.6** 25.1** ...25.9 25.7 26.3 24.2** 23.8** 24.7** 167 22.7 ……27.2 …… ...26.0 26.4 25.5 27.1 28.2 25.9 168 25.4 26.4 24.4 10.8 10.4 11.3 ...…… …24.5 25.1 23.9 169 ……………… ...23.7 22.8** 24.9** 17.6*,z 17.5*,z 17.7*,z 170 ……………… ...…… …… … …171 33.5**,x 32.0**,x 35.0**,x ...... 11.8 9.3 14.9 40.5y 38.1y 43.0y 172 14.5 14.0 15.3 ...... 19.4 18.2 20.8 21.3 20.6 22.2 173 ...... 11.4 10.7 12.5 7.0 7.6 6.3 174 Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2 0 0 7 197 195 194 187 185 184 177 175 203 201 193 191 183 181 198 188 178 202 196 192 186 182 176 200 190 180 199 189 179 XVI XIV XIII VIII XV XII VII XI IX VI IV III X V II I 2. Allvaluesshownaremedians. and maydifferfromthatreportednationally. 1. Durationinthistableisdefinedaccording to ISCED97 Table 6(continued) Country orterritory Country Sub-Saharan Africa South andWestAsia N. America/W.Europe Latin America/Caribbean East AsiaandthePacific Central Asia Central andEasternEurope Arab States Developing countries Developed countries Countries intransition World Zimbabwe Zambia United RepublicofTanzania Uganda Togo Swaziland South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Seychelles Senegal Sao TomeandPrincipe Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Mali Malawi Madagascar Liberia Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Latin America Caribbean Pacific East Asia 2 276 / ANNEX of primary education Duration 04Ml Female Male 2004 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 862. 822. 402. 612. 672. 1122.8 21.1 21.9 12.3 26.7 7.3 12.1 17.5 25.6 21.3 6.5 12.2 18.8 26.1 20.0 6.8 12.5 18.2 23.8 20.7 2.6** 12.9 23.3 5.8 24.0 19.3 2.4** 25.7 12.7 25.3 5.3 23.9 2.5** 18.8 23.6 26.2 11.3 24.4 2.9** 28.2 5.5 19.1 5.4 24.5 27.5 13.4 11.2 23.1 2.7** 5.6* 29.0 1