Cultivating and Forming Regional Traditions by the Visegrad Group Teachers NR 3321 Cultivating and Forming Regional Traditions by the Visegrad Group Teachers

Edited by Beata Pituła Anna Waligóra-Huk

Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego • Katowice 2015 Editor of the series: Pedagogy Ewa Wysocka

Referees Małgorzata Suświłło, Gabriela Petrová

Publication within the project “Cultivating and Forming Regional Traditions by the Visegrad Group Teachers” The project is partially funded by the International Visegrad Fund Table of contents

Introduction (Beata Pituła, Anna Waligóra-Huk) ...... 7 Imre Lipcsei The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a in Hungary . 11 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková The school as a place of regional education in a global world . 29 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences — analyses in the scope of the theory of upbringing and education and the history of pedagogical and praxeological philosophy. 41 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the in the context of forming regional traditions...... 59 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher The teacher facing the difficulties in cultivating regional traditions . . . . . 81 Tatiana Slezáková, Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová Regional education in the pre-primary education as an essential means in children’s development ...... 99 Krisztina Katona, Attila B. Kis The role of folk riddles in children’s development ...... 105 Ewa Szadzińska Regional cultural traditions in the school education content — a contribution to ethnopedagogy ...... 115 Anna Waligóra-Huk Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions within the eTwin- ning framework of international collaboration of schools...... 123 6 Table of contents

Anna Brosch The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition in early school education . 133 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer Regional education as a significant area of the preschool educational activities. . 143 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education. . . . 159 Julia Ivanovičova, Anna Klimentova Regional education in kindergarten and the first grade of primary education . . 191 Mirosław Kisiel Cultivation of regional traditions by members of child folklore song and dance ensembles ...... 199 Natalia Stankowska Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions (on the basis of the arts workshop conducted by Anna Donder)...... 209 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers from Siedlce commune...... 223 Zoltán Roszik Education in Szarvas . 255 Introduction

The European nations’ community seems self-evident, since in addition to hav- ing shared roots consisting of cultural and scientific heritage dating back to antiquity, the of the continent can refer to the common philosophical and axiological foundations, which is significant in the fields of education and arts. At the same time, the traditions of particular , stemming from the specificities of their forming process and the consequences thereof, make Eu- rope richly varied. It is the major task for the contemporary societies to stress and appreciate the said differences regardless of popular opinions, encountered much too often, that render a false picture of the phenomenon in question. Regional cultures are manifested in the emergence of material, artistic, intellectual, and spiritual goods, as well as values accompanied by rules and conventions of social life (i.e. local customs). It is an area of great importance in the course of cultural identity development. Currently, cultural phenomena are mainly understood by way of presenting the values and goods to the gen- eral public. The most common and effective way of doing it is disseminating cultural contents through the mass media easily reaching millions of people at the same time. Simultaneously, however, we observe a rather distressing process involving the atrophy of the “regional instinct,” still at work in the pre-media times, that made it possible for an individual to choose from the wide array of cultural products those of the greatest value. Most efforts exerted by the media to provide culture to the general public focus on the commercial aspect of the process. Therefore, the consumer at- titudes towards life become dominant. It is especially alarming with reference to children and adolescents due to their vulnerability to television, the Internet, and other computer-related activities.1 In this context, the mission of teachers

1 Cf. works by J. Koblewska, A. Przecławska, J. Izdebska, J. Gajda, B. Łaciak et al. 8 Introduction

seems crucially important because it allows children to have a first-hand ex- perience of regional traditions, which gives them the sense of connectedness and community with their own region. This process of identification, when properly conducted by the teacher, paves the way for benefiting from this area of human activity in the future, which eventually translates into the students’ quality of life. Future is being built right now and the shape thereof depends on our present actions in all of their complexity. The act of cultivating regional traditions can be a powerful defense against the onslaught of a unified (and unifying) popular culture, as well as the resultant confusion of an individual in the cosmopolitan society. Passing the present publication to our readers, we would like to stress its significance that stems from the fact that the majority of the texts contained herein are of research character. It gives readers a chance to overview the is- sues discussed within the scope of the international research project entitled “Cultivating and forming regional traditions by the Visegrad Group teachers” financed by the Visegrad Fund. The book is a collection of texts by Polish, Czech, Slovak, and Hungar- ian researchers who attempted to answer the question of whether and to what extent teachers are involved in the process of cultivating and creating regional traditions. Imre Lipcsei in his study “The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary” attempts to answer the question concerning the value of tradition in the process of supporting minority cultural identity. The analyzed examples encompass the national minorities living in Hungary, and particularly developing the attitudes of acceptance and tolerance to attain peaceful coexist- ence. Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, and Tatiana Slezáková in their article “The school as a place of regional education in the global world” focus on regional education in the schools of the Slovak Republic. In the presented re- search report, the authors suggest that the emphasis put on the quality of tasks performed pertaining to regional education is greater than ever. Alicja Żywczok and Beata Ecler-Nocoń in the article “Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences — analyses in the scope of theory of upbring- ing and education, and the history of pedagogical and praxeological philosophy” describe and analyze the basic principles of the approach to tradition. Using the biography of a Silesian woman, they present the influence of local environment on the process of cultural identification and creation of one’s own identity. In the text “Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic in the context of forming regional traditions,” Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, and Kateřina Ducháčová discuss the issue of further education of the secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic, particularly focusing on the curriculum contents covering the issues of regional traditions. Introduction 9

“The Teacher facing the difficulties in cultivating regional traditions” by Beata Pituła and Wiesława A. Sacher is a research report on the difficulties in implementing the selected objectives of regional education in kindergarten and primary school. In Tatiana Slezáková, Viera Kurincová, and Anna Klimentová’s “Regional education in the pre-primary education as an essential means in children’s devel- opment,” the authors point out to possible ways of teaching regional education to preschool children, taking into account the issues of sociocultural identity, as well as the foundations of the intercultural competences development. Krisztina Katona and Attila B. Kis in their study “The role of folk riddles in children’s development” analyze the meaning of folk wisdom delivered in a form of sayings, dictums, adages, etc. in the process of stimulating socio- psychological development of kindergarten and lower primary school children. The article by Ewa Szadzińska “Regional cultural traditions in the school education content — a contribution to ethnopedagogy,” in turn, constitutes a voice in the discussion on the issues of ethnopedagogy with reference to regional education. Anna Waligóra-Huk’s “Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions within the eTwinning framework of international collaboration of schools” presents the opportunities to create and cultivate regional traditions by using the tools and methods offered by the eTwinning platform for international collaboration of schools to be applied by Polish teachers. The significant role of the multimedia in the process of cultivating and supporting regional traditions as well as in the development of student’s own cultural identity is the subject of the discussion in the article by Anna Brosch entitled “The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition in early school education.” The importance of regional education in teaching preschool children as well as the significance of teachers’ work in this field, are presented by Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer in the article “Regional education as a significant area of the preschool educational activities.” The actual degree of cultivating regional traditions in the work of kinder- garten teachers and integrated education teachers is the subject of the research study by Agata Cabała and Violetta Rodek “Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early primary school education.” Julia Ivanovičova and Anna Klimentova’s “Regional education in kindergar- ten and the first grade of primary education” is a report from the implementation of the educational project KEGA which developed innovative activities based on the new model of regional education in the context of globalization. The article by Mirosław Kisiel entitled “Cultivation of regional traditions by members of child folklore song and dance ensembles,” is a description of artistic activities including singing and dancing which raise children’s awareness of their own regional traditions. 10 Introduction

The article by Natalia Stankowska, “Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions,” describing the work performed by teachers in the art workshops for children with disabilities, emphasizes the role of an educator who, due to their attitude, may uncover to children the cultural values of their own cultural region. In Anna Klim-Klimaszewska and Ewa Jagiełło’s “Cultivation of cultural festivals, holidays, and traditions by preschool teachers from Siedlce com- mune,” based on surveys, the authors depict the traditions of Podlasie which are most frequently cultivated by kindergarten teachers. Finally, in his paper “Education in Szarvas,” Zoltán Roszik turns the read- ers’ attention to the significance of regional education in the of Szarvas. We hope that, owing to the themes presented, the book will prove to be an interesting reading and may become a source of inspiration for further in-depth analyses and discussions.

Beata Pituła Anna Waligóra-Huk Imre Lipcsei Gál Ferenc College, Hungary

The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary

Abstract: The study aims to present a historical perspective on national minorities in Hungary by tracking quantitative and qualitative changes. Moreover, it directs the reader’s attention to particular regional values by using the example of Békés and putting them in the context of state and church tendencies that involve the entire . The author’s intention is to show the role of various churches in running different types of school as well as the minorities’ fight for preserving their identity. The implemented methods include statistical surveys and analyzing central documents and the county’s educational files regarding the national groups. Keywords: multiculturalism, inclusion, receptivity, tolerance, identity, tradition, integration

Introduction

In this day and age, such issues as the quality of social coexistence, and toler- ance towards “otherness” seem to be gaining increasing importance. The second half of the 20th century brought about the influx of new cultures, religions, and cultural conventions into societies that, as a consequence, became more heterogeneous. It resulted in greater contradictions as well as hightened tension between different social groups. The revaluation of “otherness,” by emphasising dissimilarieties between individuals, has made peaceful coexistence a prerequi- site in the endeavour to learn about others. The Europe’s aim to provide sustainable wellbeing to diverse societies is becoming more and more difficult to attain. It partially stems from the fact that immigrant groups who settled in European countries, tend to instigate social, economic, and demographic changes that impact entire states. Members of 12 Imre Lipcsei

majority society turn to migrants first with interest, then anxiously, to finally express growing hostility, which leads to generalizations in referring to diverse ethnic groups. Thus, “they” are, among others, blamed for increasing unem- ployment and deteriorating public security. Inhabitants of the “receiving” state are also worried about social allocation provided for them by the welfare state. Several politicians have already suggested that, contrary to common practice, benefits for economic refugees, such as the job seeker’s allowance, must be reviewed. Some politicians even consider reviewing the granting of the refugee status in order to reduce the scale of this phenomenon. The politicians’ urgent calls for austerity measures, which have been heard in many places, divide the society, but the opposite camp, referring to statistical data, is also anxious. A growing number of immigrants in European countries does not have to pose a daunting challenge, but various extreme manifestations thereof can sometimes constitute threats to national security. (When this study was being written, the social unrest resulting from the attack on Charlie Hebdo was still palpable.) The major aim of the European integration policy is achieving the improve- ment of social relations that would encompass everybody in the long term. In order to do this, the active participation of all the citizens, both immigrants and nonimmigrants, is required. We need to allievate the tension that arises, on the one hand, from the reasons related to immigrants’ origin, and on the other hand, from the conditions of discrimination. The majority societies face increasing diversity and the adaptation to the values that were hitherto not present. The fact of diverse cultures and traditions living together within a single state organism is hardly a novelty for the European countries. Nowadays, about 90% of mankind lives in multi-ethnic states and not only the history of particu- lar countries, but also their presence and future is interwoven with complicated contradictions stemming from different cultures’ features. For this reason, in the European Union, different protective mechanisms had to be developed, such as the European Convention on Human Rights in which the principle of non-discrimination has been declared. According to the said principle, each and every individual has to be provided with the equal access to existing social services, facilities, and amenities. Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights stipulates: “The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other sta- tus” (European Convention on Human Rights, 2015). The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 13 The situation of minorities in Hungary

Like in many other European countries, also in Hungary several ethnic com- munities have lived side by side throughout the history. Since the state’s establishment in 1000 AD, the proportions and positions of different national minorities have changed, which was to a great extent influenced by Turks and the period of their occupation. (when Turks were driven out of the country, there was a considerable decrease in mortality, and the increase in the number of non-Turkish population due to migration of 17th and 18th centuries). The restructuring of the population resulted from two processes, namely, organized settlement and spontaneous migration. Minorities had been entering Hungary mainly over 17th and 18th centuries, as a consequence of which by the 19th century nearly half of the population belonged to the national minorities. This situation did not change until the end of the First World War. This is well il- lustrated by Figure 1 which is based on the data of the 1910 official census.

Figure 1. Distribution of nationalities in Hungary (1910) S o u r c e: The Census Report of the Central Bureau of Statistics.

In the aftermath of the First World War, following the Treaty of Trianon (1920) two-thirds of Hungary’s former had been lost, so a well-devel- oped country became less significant both economically and politically, with the area of mere 93,000 square kilometres in Central Europe. The redrawing of borders adversely affected not only the Hungarian-speaking population, but also seemed to be to the detriment of the nationalities living there until then. 14 Imre Lipcsei

The proportion of the recorded non-Hungarian-speaking ethnic minorities on the remaining territory of the country barely exceeded 10%. Over the 1920s and 1930s the politicians reacted to the shock stemming from the altered borders by implementing policies against national minorities. Even though some initiatives were undertaken to improve the situation of mi- norities at first, later they were not realized. Nor were the minorities’ assimila- tion efforts supported. The period after the Second World War was equally disadvantageous to the national minorities in Hungary for such reasons as expulsions, deportations, emigration, population exchanges, as well as the natural demographic processes brought about by the fact that in 1990 the change of regime caused the propor- tion of non-Hungarian speakers to largely decrease. There were attempts made by the newly established democratic system to rectify the errors of socialism, also in terms of national minorities. To this end, in 1993 the Hungarian Parliament adopted the law on National and Ethnic Minorities Rights. Pursuant to this law, national and ethnic minorities native to Hungary have a right to establishlocal and national level minority self-governments. Resultantly, 12 national and one ethnic self-government were established, namely: the Roma self-government, and self-governments of the following nationalities: Bulgarian, Greek, Croatian, Polish, German, Armenian, Romanian, Ruthene, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Ukrainian. In 2011, the Act CLXXIX on the Rights of Nationalities was enacted which declared that: “Hungary protects nationalities, ensures the fostering of their culture and the use of their mother tongues, provides education in their mother tongues, enables them to use names in their own languages and to collectively take part in public affairs, promotes the attainment of their cultural autonomy and guarantees the right of their actual communities to self-administration and self-government.” Nowadays we observe the effects of affirmation encouraging citizens to take on their ethnic and minority identity. As a consequence, according to surveys conducted over the last two decades, groups cultivating traditions, minority re- search institutes, libraries, regional folklore museums, and cultural groups, have come into being. Consequently, the statistical data show that the proportion of citizens who affirm their nationality has increased. Of course, those processes are not equally distributed across different regions of Hungary, but the reason for this lies in the fact that the national minorities traditionally settled in par- ticular areas. In my study I attempt to outline the situation of minorities in Békés County. I have decided to focus on this region first of all, because the Faculty of Educa- tion of Gál Ferenc College is located in here, namely in Szarvas; secondly, it is a diverse county where six nationalities live together, which allows comparative analysis among regions of the impact of the national trends. The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 15 The presentation of Békés County’s recent history

The provisions of the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 considerably changed the life of Békés County: “The frontier engendered both a threat and some pos- sibilities. One of the regional centers of the management of the built-up border security was transferred to Gyula. Békéscsaba’s military role has increased, and permanent military units were also settled in Orosháza to new barracks” (Kassa & Sándor, 1999). Orosháza’s situation improved since the vast majority of the neighboring county’s (Csanád) agricultural production taken over by the plants in Orosháza, and the county’s merchants conducted the business. Békés County was transferred to ’s catchment area which was also preferred by the government, since the greater public investments of the region were realized there. Subsequently to the change of the borders, the strategic role of the low- land , including that of Békés, strengthened, therefore, in addition to the county seats, some of the larger also benefited from state aid. The redrawing of borders gave regional preferences to Békéscsaba again. As Arad and Nagyvárad (Oradea) remained on the other side of the border, the earlier well-trodden economic and trade relations ceased to exist. Those areas which had previously orientated towards these two cities, found the new economic centers in Békéscsaba: “After the territorial changes, the importance of the increased to such an extent that it was among the first 15 cities in the country, even though it was granted city status only in 1918” (Csepelényi & Attila, 2001). As a result of the economic boom of the 1920s, before the global economic crisis, in Békéscsaba, the greatest number of houses and public buildings was built in the county, and its rail passenger traffic surpassed that of Szeged, Győr, and . In the county, after the initial difficulties, the boom started after 1925, but at the end of the decade, the unfolding economic crisis thwarted this process until the mid-1930s. The permanent jobs were scarce, but seasonal workforce demand was sustainable in agriculture and industry. It made it possible to create the conditions to obtain livelihood. From 1930 onwards, the social problems seriously affecting the county began to recede, as the economy slowly revived. All this was facilitated by the prolonged land reform since 1921, as a result of which the peasantry increasingly strengthened in the second half of the 1930s in Békés and Csanád counties. The preparation for the war brought consider- able subsidies to Békés and Csanád counties’ treasuries, which were mainly utilized to modernize the production and processing of food and industrial raw materials. 16 Imre Lipcsei

The present territory of Békés county was formed during the county plan- ning in 1950. At that time, Békéscsaba, in the place of Gyula, became the county seat. Békés is ranked among agricultural counties, the terrain conditions of this region are outstandingly better than the national average. Industrializa- tion largely attracted the workforce that had been made redundant as a result of the mechanization of agriculture. However, mainly the food and light industry sectors prevailed. After the regime change in 1990 recession ensued since many of the large state-owned companies were closed, or at least they operated with decreased production output or downsized workforce. Currently, the county may be characterized as a backward one. It is the sev- enth largest in the country, whereas in terms of population it ranks fourteenth. The population decrease, in comparison with the national average, stems from lower birth rate as well as significant emigration. Another negative character- istic is stagnation of the county’s industry which clearly results from the poor infrastructure (there is no highway crossing Békéscsaba). Of course, we may also mention numerous positive aspects, such as uni- versity and college faculties with research institutions. Moreover, it is a county of thriving tourism with famous spas as well as wildlife conservation areas. Situation in Békés County in terms of ethnic composition seems improved, too. According to the 2011 census, 8.1% of the population belongs to nationali- ties other than Hungarian, which represents an increase compared with the data from the census conducted ten years earlier. Slovaks, Germans, Romanians, and Roma make up the four largest national/ethnic minority groups. Roma population constitutes the lion’s share of all the minorities in the county; their proportion is 3.0% of the entire country’s Roma population. The percentage of Germans is 1.8% compared to the entire German population living in Hungary. In the case of Slovaks and Romanians, the county, however, ranks first in the country, since most of the citizens representing those two national minorities live in Békés County: 25.0% of the Slovak ethnic group, 18.0% of Romanians. The surveys of local governments also indicate the prevalence of Roma representatives, since out of 75 settlements of Békés county, the Roma self- governments were established in 35 places. Slovaks and Romanians are present in 17 settlements each, whereas Germans run nine local governments. It is also worth mentioning Serbs, who maintain their local government only in one , namely Battonya, whereas Poles represent themselves in Békéscsaba. In the following sections of the article, I will closely examine the situation of ethnic and national minorities. The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 17 National minorities in Békés County

Slovaks

Slovaks settled (or were settled) in present-day Hungary by arriving from the northern overpopulated counties at the end of the 17th century after the expul- sion of the Turks. At the beginning of the 18th century, the settlement of Slovaks progressed in an organized manner, that is in a way aided by the settlement organizers; the then landowners frequently had brought the Slovaks into the country with state licences to their abandoned land property. During this phase, a series of independent Slovak settlements and enclaves came into being. Baron János Harrucken located the Slovak settlers in the then territory of Békés county, therefore they got to Békéscsaba, Szarvas, and Mezőberény. The 19th century was characterized by further migrations. At the time, the Slovaks of Békéscsaba founded Tótkomlós and Apateleku, and next, by moving to the north, they ar- rived in Nyíregyháza. The newest Slovak settlements are Kétsoprony and Tel- ekgerendás in the Békés country, the shape of which came to being as a result of consolidation of former homesteads at the beginning of the 1950s. When it comes to religiosity, according to the data of the 2001 census, 46.6% of the Slovaks in Hungary are Roman Catholic, 29.9% are Lutheran, 4.8% are Reformed, and 2.5% declare to belong to other Christian denomina- tions. The lack of affiliation to any church or religious community is declared by 10.7% of Slovaks, while 4.6% of them decline to answer the question on religious affiliation. The above-mentioned proportions are thought-provoking, since according to the data of the 1920 census, in terms of the distribution of religious denomina- tions, Békés county significantly differed from the national average. After the settlement in the 18th century, clear Protestant dominance was characteristic of the county, which remained the same in the 20th century. During that time the proportion of Roman Catholics in Hungary was 64.0%, whereas Lutherans constituted 6.2%, and the share of Reformed was 20.9%. From the point of view of the entire Hungarian state, the situation of the Greek Catholics was interest- ing, since their proportion was 2.2%, whereas the Orthodox merely amounted to 0.6% from of overall population. The data presented in Figure 2 reveal the fact that in Békés county Prot- estants lived in a proportion much higher than the national average. As to Reformed, their number was 150% of the national average, and the number of Orthodox was nearly four times the national average, whereas the number of Lutherans was only slightly above it. Moreover, these data did not refer to the particular national minorities, but to the entire population. If in 1920 the pro- portion of religious affiliations among different nationalities had been measured 18 Imre Lipcsei

Figure 2. Distribution of (the Slovak) population in terms of religion in Békés County (1920) S o u r c e: Karner Károly (1931): Denominations in Hungary in the Light of Statistics.

separately, as it happens today, it would have shown an even greater differences because of Slovaks, the overwhelming majority of whom were Lutheran at the time. It is not a matter of coincidence that the largest Lutheran church in Hun- gary was built in Békéscsaba which, in terms of its capacity, is amongst the Europe’s largest. Therefore, it is worth pointing out that nowadays Catholics are much more numerous than Lutherans among the Hungarian Slovaks. The data presented in Figure 2 mainly refer to the Slovak, yet they are illustrative (keeping the proportions) of the overall population of the Békés county.

Romanians

The historians who are leading experts on the subject cannot decide as to when Romanians actually settled in the territory of the present-day Hungary. They are sure that from the 18th century onwards, the number of Romanians certainly increased. In this respect, experts distinguish between two kinds of population movement happening in several waves. First of them was voluntary migration, when the hope of improved living conditions and the incentives coming of landowners’ instigated the movement from the more densely populated areas to- wards the Great Plains. The other was the organized settlement when Hungarian The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 19 landowners settled Romanians. The result of such a settlement(s) was, among others, coming into being of creolized population, for example in Csorvás and Lökösháza in Békés County, but in the later, the Romanians eventually became completely Magyarized. At the same time, however, settlements with entirely Romanian population evolved (in smaller numbers) in Békés county. They were for example Méhkerék, Kétegyháza, and Pusztaottlaka. When it comes to religion, the vast majority of Romanians in Hungary belong to the Orthodox Church within which we can distinguish 20 congrega- tions. Their characteristic feature is the language of both the liturgy and the internal church administration, that is, Romanian. Additionally, the number of Greek Catholics and Baptists is significant among the Romanians in Hungary. At the end of the 19th century, the became more popular amonst Greek Catholic and certain Baptist houses of worship, chiefly in the Bihar County. Up until today, merely three Baptist communities still use their mother tongue, namely, Magyarcsanád, Méhkerék, and Kétegyháza.

Germans

Certain tiers of Hungarian Germans came to their current place of residence in distinctive demographic waves. Thus, different factors must have been at play here. In this respect, the period of the Turkish occupation, more precisely, the moment of liberating the country from Turkish rule at the end of the 17th cen- tury, was a milestone in this process. The Hungarian landowners’ “recruitment agents” were looking for people willing to migrate mainly in the southern and central Germany. What was of significance here was also the fact that Lutheran and Calvinist German peasants could rely on a considerably more secure shelter from the Protestant Hungarian landowners than the one they were receiving in the German or Austrian which were tormented by Counter-Refor- mation at the time. The German national minority groups are larger primarily in Baranya, Tolna, and Bács-Kiskun counties, whereas smaller German groups occur in Almáskamarás, Elek, Gyula, Kétegyháza, and Mezőberény in Békés County.

Roma

Roma people constitute the largest officially recognized minority of the country. Among the ethnic groups currently living in Hungary, only Roma have no state of their own; based on which, they are not defined as national minority but an ethnic one. If we analyze their history, it will appear that has been one of constant persecution and migration. In the 18th century, Maria Theresa passed 20 Imre Lipcsei

several decrees to regulate the compulsory settlement of Roma people. How- ever, these strictly supervised measures proved only partially successful. Various groups of Roma were skilled at different trades. For example, the Lovari Roma were the most famous horse dealers operating in Hungarian fairs since the 19th century. They were known for their unsurpassed skills and love of horses. The Boyash Roma who had been emigrating from Romania in the 19th century pursued an itinerant way of life, and they offered different serv- ices to the settled villagers, such as: braziery, knife grinding, horseshoeing, making adobe, basketry, etc. In the 20th century, spreading of mass-produced manufactured goods made the traditional occupations of Roma people redundant in . Moreover, the laws enecated between the two world wars limited the activity of itinerant traders, so the majority of Roma became unemployed, which led to social conflicts. Roma were entirely left out of the postwar land distribution and offered new ways to earn livelihood. Most of Roma people landed seasonal unskilled jobs yet men were also directed towards remote industrial centers. So, many countrymen “commuted,” that is during working weeks, they lived in workers’ hostels provided by employment agencies. Since the late 1960s, the elimination of Roma settlements began, wich meant that Roma people were given preferential loans to purchase houses. Thus, they were given chance to take possession of old vacant houses in many villages. Roma settlement and moving to villages, however, met with social resistance in some places, because after Roma people had moved in, the value of property decreased, triggering migration of the natives from the villages. Generally speaking, Roma people display a considerably lower level of education than the national average, which obviously translates into the highest level of unemployment among national and ethnic minorities (this phenomenon especially affects the Roma women). In most cases, the Romani religion is identical to that of the people liv- ing around them. Within the Roman Catholic Church, the institutions of Roma pastoral counselling deal with the targeted mental health care of the Roma.

The situation of national minorities education in Hungary

The endeavour to attain the conditions of tolerance, leading to peaceful coex- istence, starts at school. On the part of minority cultures, education from its early stages assists them in the process of understanding the majority society’s tradition, values, culture, as well as the rules of peaceful coexistence. What is more, over the period of education, the minorities have a chance to obtain The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 21 useful qualifications and, as a result, contribute to society while retaining their culture, tradition, language, and identity. However, apart from creating opportunities, education can sometimes strengthen the effects of assimilation. Overwhelming, or even complete, dominance of the majority society that ignores the minorities’ values (in par- ticular their language and culture) advances assimilation. Analyzing Hungarian educational policies of the past, we see the examples corroborating the above- mentioned tendency. Currently, however, the education policies directed at minorities are in the process of transformation. Assimilation endeavours are no longer present, and “positive discrimination” implemented in education system suggests significantly more inclusive approach. Nevertheless, the Hungarian national education has come a long way. In accordance with European efforts of the time, the Law I. of 1868 on People’s Academy declared that all students shall be able to obtain education in their mother tongue. For this reason, in multilingual villages, only the teachers who were able to teach in the languages spoken there could be employed. Conse- quently, the law stipulated that upon employing teachers, there must have been a requirement for them to meet the above-mentioned linguistic standards. A few years later, the Law of 1879, however, diverged from József Eötvös’s ambitions. In teacher training schools Hungarian language was made compulsory subject and persons who could not teach in Hungarian where prevented from obtaining the post of a teacher (or even a teaching assistant). Also, all the school boards were exclusively staffed by Hungarian-speaking employees. After the Treaty of Trianon, high politics invaded the life of schools even more visibly. In 1922, the separate Ministry of National Affairs was dissolved. Instead, by relying on the work of governmental commissioners, the Department of Nationalities begn to deal with this issue. The governmental commission- ers regularly visited the settlements inhabited by the minorities; they had to write reports concerning their experience. Yet, their task was not to protect the minorities, but ensure their Magyarization and advance the process of assimila- tion. The most effective means of Magyarization were elementary schools. In recognition of this fact, several regulations were adopted that ostensibly aided the education of minorities, but in fact limited their freedom of choice. In the decree entitled “The Rights of Linguistic Minorities When Determin- ing the Language of Teaching” 209.494/1919. Number B. II., a blueprint for the education of national and ethnic minorities was formulated. At the same time, however, the validation of the language of teaching in connection with the minority languages was reinterpreted in the decree 110.478/1923.VIII./a. It provided the following: Type A Schools with instruction in the language of minorities. Hungarian is a regular subject; education is delivered in a mother tongue. 22 Imre Lipcsei

Type B Bilingual school. Type C: Schools with instruction in the Hungarian language, mother tongues are taught only in the scope of reading and writing. This regulation also provided that the curriculum for the minorities should be elaborated, which was to be achieved with the help of the decree 62.800/1925. VIII/a. However, the decree referring to the education of the minorities, more exactly the possibility of the choice from the three types of schools, was short-lived. In 1935, the Prime Minister Order of 11.000/1935 abolished the said option, and introduced a uniform system which was based on the aforementioned Type B schools. Henceforth, in several settlements, certain numerous national minorities did not avail themselves of the chance to apply for a Type A schools. It was not so only in Békés County, but the wait-and-see policy was typical at the national level. Although the population of national and ethnic minorities was significant, there were no Type A schools, that is, schools with instruction in the language of the minorities. In the middle of the 1930s, among the elementary schools in Hungary, there were only 50 in which instruction was delivered also in the . Only three of them were of Type B and 47 of Type C. It is important to mention that none of the Type B schools existed in Békés County.

T a b l e 1 The Language of instruction of elementary schools of Békés County in the school year 1932—1933 Type of elementary schools Ro- Language of Greek Mu- man Re- Lu- Uni- Mano- Pri- instruction Public Catho- Other Jewish Total nicipal Catho- formed theran tarian rial vate lic lic Hungarian 49 53 58 22 6 1 — 2 6 4 3 204 Hungarian — — — — 2 — — — — — — 2 and German Hungarian 1 — — — 34 — — — — — — 35 and Slovak Hungarian 2 — — — — — 3 — — — — 5 and Romanian

S o u r c e: Szentkereszty (1933): The History of Public Education of Békés County.

The language of instruction of the state-run elementary schools was Hun- garian. In Békés County, however, religion was taught in the language of the minorities in three public schools in Békés County: “In the elementary school of Kétegyháza, the religious education class of Orthodox, Wallachian-speaking The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 23 students takes place in the Wallachian language. At the same place, Baptist, Wallachian-speaking students also learn religion in Wallachian, but not compul- sorily” (Sub-Prefect Report 6278/1924 Archives of Békés County 6278/1924). In Tótkomlós, because of the numerous Slovak population, the national minorities constituted the majority of students in public schools; therefore, the Slovak language was optionally used during the classes of religious education of Lutheran Slovak-speaking students as well. Even though the persons in charge of the Hungarian educational policies at the time did not promote instruction in the language of minorities, they created the conditions for it to thrive. In the decree Number 62.800-VIII. of 1925, the curriculum for the mother tongue and the Hungarian language in elementary schools with instruction entirely in the language of minorities were specified. It declared that minority students must also acquaint themselves with the geog- raphy and history of Hungary, the civil rights and obligations. For the sake of better comprehension, this knowledge also had to be imparted in the languages of the national minorities, but they were at the same time expected to learn the Hungarian language at appropriate level. The decree draws the teachers’ atten- tion to the following recommendations: “[…] in exercises developing speaking and thinking and while communicating with students, teachers should convey all the knowledge in the students’ mother tongue also while practising the Hungarian language. Teachers should prepare the topics which they teach in Hungarian with the help of the mother tongue to such an extent that students should be able to give an account of what they have learnt coherently in their mother tongue” (Official Gazette, 1927). After the Second World War in 1945, the Provisional National Government declared in its decree Number 10030/1945. M.E. that in primary schools with at least 10 minority parents it shall be required to make decision out of two options by means of a secret ballot: 1. Instruction is delivered in the mother tongue in such a manner that the Hun- garian language should appear only as a subject. 2. Hungarian should be the language of instruction and students should only learn the minority language as a separate subject. Secondary national education was regulated by other decrees. Those provi- sions suggested that the period of reconstruction, which was a period of momen- tary political pluralism, equality was present in Hungarian national education. The Hungarian political situation changed in 1948. As a result of the for- mation of the one-party system nationalist tendencies became ever stronger. After the exchange of population, during the period of the cult of personality, it was claimed that the nationality issue should not be dealt with because this “problem” would gradually resolve with time. The national and ethnic minori- ties, over the following years, would be assimilated or they would blend into the Hungarian nation through marriages, education, and culture. 24 Imre Lipcsei

The national minorities, however, did not give in. The political power could not compete with the bottom-up initiatives. Therefore, despite the not very adventageous atmosphere, the national minorities education system was established. In addition to primary and secondary education, the training of minority teachers began. After the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, this relative improvement of the minorities’ situation soon subsided. The national minorities education was over- shadowed, its conditions worsened, but in spite of these negative tendencie, it did not cease to exist. The devotion of the national minorities to their respec- tive mother tongues and cultures was so strong that it became increasingly obvious to the senior leadership, still engaged in “building socialism” at that time, that they could not abolish the fundamental rights of national minorities. Of course, there still were a lot of constrains on this bottom-up process, but with some compromises, national minorities education began to bloom again. The said revival is corroborated by the fact that kindergarten, low primary and upper primary, as well as secondary school teachers training, were all provided for each national minority. In addition to this, different central and regional organizations have appeared again to help teacher training in its entirety.

National minorities education in Szarvas

The annals which contain the records of the mentioned years, specifically in reference to the year 1959 draw attention to the fact that even during those days the range of institutional minorities education covered the entire state. Similarly to the current situation, not too many students, however, applied to this institu- tion at that time, despite the fact that applicants could benefit from different types of allowances. For example, they could sit for the entrance examination in the language of the national minorities, and apart from their academic achieve- ment, they were located at students’ hostels. The quota proposed by the ministry could not be introduced even if the fixed ratio was not too high. Initially, it was determined that the number of minority students to be subsidized was to be 6, and later — 10. Figure 3 presents data concerning the number of graduates which is divided into ten-year periods. There may be several reasons for such a low number of students. On the one hand, the number of students graduating from the minority high schools is not too high, and not all the students graduating from such a high school want to continue their studies. One the other hand, another reason for the low rate of frequenting these institutions lies in the fact that school graduates, even if The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 25

Figure 3. Data concerning the number of national minorities graduates S o u r c e: Documents of the Faculty of Pedagogy of Gál Ferenc College. they want to continue their studies, do not opt for the teaching profession. By choosing another profession requiring university studies, they rather apply to other higher education institutions, or even if they still want to become teachers, they choose more prestigious upper primary school teacher training colleges.

Forms of education

Like other higher education institutions, starting from the 2006/2007 academic year, Gál Ferenc College accepts students to the BA courses of the two-part uniform training system, but from that time onwards, national minorities education does not appear on the offer as a separate course of studies due to a low number of candidates, but as a specialization of BSc training. Since the 2007/2008 academic year, there is the Roma specialization in the educational offer, whereas since the 2010/2011 academic year, there is also the German specialization in the offer of both the basic courses in Szarvas. Our courses are conducted in accordance with the qualification require- ments stipulated at the central level. It should be noted that in addition to full-time and usual correspondence courses, we have initiated additional train- ing and different types of new postgraduate studies. At our college, both low primary and upper primary school teachers may pursue a degree in kindergarten teaching, of course taking a shorter period of time. The other factors that make our educational offer significantly varied, are the following: the students who did not attend national minorities high schools enrol on our programs, both full-time and correspondent. Moreover, there are teachers who have not gradu- ated from a full-time programs of teaching to national minorities, yet enrol to 26 Imre Lipcsei

training courses within this scope, since their cultural identity and family ties (mostly Slovak or Romanian) motivate them to pursue this path. They cannot speak their respective minority languages properly, so they have to “catch up” linguistically while pursuing their teacher training. The training of students who choose the ethnic and minority specializa- tion is necessarily complemented with the practicum period in kindergartens attended by children of national minorities and Roma.

The content of professional curriculum

The preparation for the teaching profession is enhanced by drawing up and development of competence-based curriculum model. In the case of future kindergarten teachers to ethnic minorities, students must earn 32 credits of the ethnic minority specialization by using a part of the credit value of the special programs, specialized professional subjects and elective courses. In the case of ethnic minority schoolteachers, they can earn their 40 credits of the ethnic minority specialization within the compulsory module of their choosing. In the case of Slovak, Romanian, German minority, and Roma ethnic specialisation, the structure and content of the curriculum serve together to achieve the com- petences determined by the Training and Outcome Requirements. Thanks to the education conducted in accordance with the sample syllabus of the ethnic minority specializations, the students acquire high-level competencies in their respective minority languages, and they also know the history and culture of a particular national or ethnic minorities. They display advanced knowledge in the field of early bilingualism and are familiar with the procedures of language pedagogy, language transfer, and development strategies, to implement them ef- fectively during the education of preschool children. In addition to all this, the current curriculum contents enables students to carry out tasks related to the education in the mother tongue of nursery school- and elementary school-aged children of different national minorities. Similarly, they can apply the method- ologies to allow children in kindergartens and schools for the acquisition of modern knowledge of ethnography and ethnic minorities. As far as the profes- sional qualifications are concerned, this part of currculum helps students to gain practical skills necessary to deepen the ethnic identity, which should strengthen the awareness of the universal human and national or ethnic minority values, as well as the respect for moral norms. The effects of social coexistence as exemplified by a region in Hungary 27 Conclusions

Our ethnic minority training aims at preparing the students who, after finding employment in the ethnic minority nurseries and schools, should be able to affirm ethnic identity in their pupils. At the same time, the graduates should help their students realize the fact that they are expected to accept the values of the majority society and the norms of peaceful coexistence. With the help of education, the disadvantages of families belonging to “other” (that is — minority) cultures can be alleviated, and their integration facilitated. The role of school is to ensure that students coming from various backgrounds (with different attitudes to race, ethnicity, and gender roles) appreciate each others values, customs, and norms. In the course of education, the children’s negative and excluding attitudes should be altered, and the aim to attain must be the communication that is characterized by tolerance and the will of cooperation. If kindergartens and schools manage to achieve all this, the social inte- gration will become easier, and the marginalization of certain groups leading to conflicts could be avoided. Along this way, it is essential to simply make children aware of the fact that not everybody shares the way of thinking and behaving they are accustomed to. In the Preamble to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, it is declared that the “Union contributes to the preservation and to the development of [the] common values while respecting the diversity of the cul- tures and traditions of the peoples of Europe, as well as the national identities of the Member States.” This idea can be referred to Title XIII of the Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union which deals with culture. The first paragraph of the latter document states that the Union “shall contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common cultural heritage to the fore.” As we can see, the European Union strongly emphasizes the role of culture in creating peaceful coexistence. Additionally, the European Union pays great attention to the views of its Member States in the field of multicultural education. In the course thereof it is fundamental to develop in students the abilities to cooperate within groups being composed of different traditions and values. School, therefore, must stress the fact that it is necessary to harmonize the relationship between the minority and the majority. Mutual understanding and peaceful coexistence can be, after all, regarded as a natural expectation of the society. 28 Imre Lipcsei References

Forray, R.K. (2003). A multikulturális/interkulturális nevelésről. Iskolakultúra 6—7, 18—27. Karády, V. (1997). Iskolarendszer és felekezeti egyenlőtlenségek Magyarországon (1867—1945). : Peplika Kör. Karner, K. (1931). Denominations in Hungary in the light of statistics. District of Transtisza. The Printing Company of Royal Free City and the Reformed Church Table No. IV. Mihály, I. (2001). A multikulturális nevelésről — a világban. Új Pedagógiai Szemle 4, 58—65. Szabó, L.T. (1994). Kisebbségek európai oktatási rendszerekben: kihívás és válaszkísérletek. Új Pedagógiai szemle 11, 94—101. Szabó, M. (Ed.) (1970): A Szarvasi Óvónőképző Intézet jubileumi évkönyve. 1959-60.—1969-70. Szarvas. Torgyik, J. (2004). Multikulturális társadalom, multikulturális nevelés. (Multicultural society, multicultural education. Új Pedagógiai Szemle 4—5, 4—14. Torgyik, J., & Karlovitz, J. (2006). Multikulturális nevelés. Budapest. Gál Ferenc Főiskola Pedagógiai Kar dokumentumai (The Documents of the Faculty of Education of Gál Ferenc College). Köznevelés (1945), 10. Köznevelés (1947), 21. Központi Statisztikai Hivatal népszámlálási jelentése (The Census Report of the Central Bureau of Statistics). Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková Constantine the Philosopher University (UKF) in , the Slovak Republic

The school as a place of regional education in a global world

Abstract: The paper deals with regional education taught at schools in . The theoretical part provides an analysis of the relation between multicultural education in the global world and regional education with its individual dimensions and possibilities provided in this field by the school environment. The authors also present selected results of the empirical research they have conducted, claiming that in recent years the issue of regional education has duly been in focus and, accordingly, teachers are willing to creatively transfer the recommendations of curricular documents into their everyday practice. In this way, they cooperate with pupils’ parents in the main, as well as with local organizations. Keywords: culture, regions, regional education, folk traditions, schools with the increased teaching of regional education, questionnaire, teachers’ opinions of regional education

Introduction and wider social and historical starting points for contemporary understanding of regional education and the application of folk traditions in education

In a world full of turbulences related to migration and encounters with different cultures an individual has to properly appreciate efforts to come into contact with professionals from other countries through various specialist fora. Of cru- cial importance are thus meetings of professionals who are engaged in the field of education and training of young generation in a multicultural world. 30 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková

The Visegrad Group countries (V4: , Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia) are connected geopolitically and historically, having common cultural and historical roots, and similar educational systems which were formed under these conditions. As the so-called post-socialist countries, at approxi- mately the same time they entered a new stage of building pluralist democracy, market economy, and the rule of law. As far as the processes of the transforma- tions of systems of education are concerned, they have faced similar problems, however, the fact that they have cooperated in search for new models of educa- tion seems encouraging. Very similar tasks and challenges emerged with regard to their EU membership, in which each country has built its own system of education, as well as assumed responsibility for respecting common educational objectives, priorities, and recommendations of the Union, in order to participate in the creation of common educational space in the globalised world, and thus to contribute to the development of such competences which would allow stu- dents to live a better life and work in an international space. Therefore, they are expected to acquire new competences which would help them get oriented in an intricate world, affected by globalization and in consequence face a chal- lenge to search for their own place in this world, to build their own identity and understand the natural link between the local and the global environment. In this way, the formation of responsibility to the future world seems to be an approved procedure in this process. And it is to be done through the creation of strong ties to the closest environment and with all its elements. We claim that the V4 countries thus represent a specific framework for the performance of regional education and the protection of cultural heritage. Regional education (or education based on the so-called geographically defined areas) has currently reached a new quality level. It is not, however, constrained to a school environment only, but it is a point of intersection of the present and the anticipated, that aims at cultural, social, and natural envi- ronment, and, with regard to the students’ personality, develops their cognitive, emotional, as well as conative and volitive competences. Beata Kosová claims that regional education must be perceived within wider circumstances, therefore it should go beyond mere understanding of the surroundings. It is, she argues, just the beginning of shaping children’s lifelong attitudes and acts, which ena- bles students to come to adopt positive attitude towards themselves and towards others, and if they are conscious of their own identity, and proud of their origin, they do not easily succumb to external influences, but further establish favorable relation towards others. In other words, if one knows one’s fellow citizens and is familiar with their unique culture, one can better understand people from other nations and cultures, and thus becomes more tolerant and broadminded. Regional education then lays the foundation for global education. A responsi- ble attitude to one’s homeland, the respect for the environment the student has been raised in, gratification from successes, the love of nature, as well as things The school as a place of regional education… 31 which underlie learners’ patriotism, active citizenship, and environmental feel- ings are all embedded in regional education (for more see Kosová, 2002, p. 6). Nonetheless, the discussed area is not clearly defined in the Slovak educa- tional environment. As Miroslava Gašparová points out, in defining the concept of regional education one has to take into account its content (regional stud- ies), as well as its educational value and also its changeable nature (the study of homeland and natural sciences). The author explains regional education “as a program aimed to develop students’ personality by means of realia, that is real-life facts, subjects, and phenomena of one’s own cultural, social, and natural environment, in parallel with the understanding of the value system and potential influence on its setting and reordering, as well as mutual educational interaction of the teacher, the student, and local environment.” She further main- tains that “the level and efficiency of regional education is determined by the selection of educational strategies and organizational forms, which must be car- riers of useful and meaningful activities for students” (Gašparová, 2012, p. 9). As far as the scholarly aspect is concerned, regional education is saturated by such disciplines as pedagogy and psychology, as well as regional studies, geography, history, ethnography, and other fields. Moreover, recommendations of influential national and international documents are projected into its con- tent as well, especially the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO, Paris, 1972) and the Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO, Paris, 2003).

The school and its place in regional education

In the very beginning, the school was an institution which reflected the culture of the world it belonged to. The image of the school has always provoked re- flection of the society on the level of its knowledge, science, technology, and economy, nature of its governing power and politics, as well as entire social and cultural atmosphere. As a result of the influence of external factors, the analy- sis of the dominance of its individual functions makes evident certain shifts in the stage of pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial society. According to Eliška Walterová, they may be divided into three categories: civilizational and cultural factors, social and demographic factors, as well as economic factors (Vančíková, 2011, p. 31). It is evident that the school has served the purpose of intentional upbringing of children in the spirit of a particular epoch’s tenets concerning the required personal qualities, as an organised environment of in- fluencing students’ views and attitudes, and their value system as well. 32 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková

As regards the topic undertaken in the paper, it should be emphasized that the more complicated individual levels of the school’s external determinants are, the more demanding it becomes to ensure the quality of all the functions that a society expects from it. This also concerns its educational and social- izing functions, which are associated especially with regional education. It is perceived through the prism of a culture one is born in (and thus immersed in from the very beginning, not being able to exist out of it with no difficulty whatsoever) and which is addressed and delineated by the school. Drawing on Katarina Vančíková, we understand the socialization process as “a triangular relationship in which the child acts as an active object of his or her develop- ment, and, at the same time, as a novice of a culture, with a natural talent to acquire the surrounding culture, that is, all its artefacts — material and sym- bolic (knowledge, values, patterns of behavior, institutions, etc.) and a medium — an interpreter of culture, that is, a kind of mediator of meanings, skillfully handling cultural artefacts accumulated by previous generations” (Vančíková, 2011, p. 11). In our case, the interpreter is the school in which child’s school socialization takes place (or secondary socialisation, e.g. a continuation of the primary, family socialization). Generally, the human being acquires culture genetically, in the process of enculturation and social learning. The globalization of social life, and multiculturalism as one of its accompanying signs, brings new tasks and chal- lenges to education. Coming to terms with cultural variety, the implementation of the elements of different cultures into national cultures, the building of ethnic and national identity, the respect for the so-called social address of a child (for more see Šulová, as cited in Vančíková, 2011, pp. 55—56), strengthening the creation of his or her own cultural and social identity (search for the answers to the questions: Who am I? What am I? Where do I belong?), together with the formation of tolerance and understanding of a cultural diversity, are extremely difficult tasks that a contemporary school has to face. They are, however, not limited to the Slovak educational process only, rather, they form the educational imperative on an international scale. In the above-mentioned process, the school implements regional education by applying the elements of traditional folk culture into school curricula. Re- gional studies occupy the position of a cross-sectional theme which can be made part of subjects like visual arts education, musical education, mother tongue and literature, ethical education, work education, sciences, local studies, history, as well as in electives. Its primary aim is to cultivate relationships among people, inspire respect to people and to the results of their work, to one’s closest en- vironment — a , town, country, and to kindle the sense of belonging to one’s nation, and, by means of these values, to create the sense of partnership and learn tolerance towards others. Gašparová highlights the impact on the affective or social and emotional part of the development of students’ person- The school as a place of regional education… 33 ality. In the process of regional education there occurs the “development and formation of students in establishing values and their gradual hierarchization, formation of attitudes and relationships — towards specific objects, subjects, their history, people and their work traditions and cultural manifestations, to- wards nature as a determinant of human survival, and the symbiosis of human beings with nature. It is through understanding that the region and its inhabit- ants evoke higher feelings in students, like patriotism and local patriotism — as well as create the space for the understanding of cosmopolitanism, considered an instance of attitude. The performance of activities and projects strengthens effective cooperation among students, mutual help and communication. Students gradually understand the sense of preserving the diversity of natural and cultural environment, and the sense of its protection, that is, its preservation for future generations, etc.” The author sees potential of regional education also in the fact that the school creates adequate space for students activities in their closest environment and allows them to participate in the public sphere. It is one of the ways to make students understand things and phenomena that are not deprived of their context, but rather, to see them as part of daily problems, to which it is necessary to search and find meaningful solutions (for more see Gašparová, 2012, pp. 9—16). We have found similar concept of education while researching some foreign sources. The concept of place-based education (USA) is purposefully based on the homeland study principle. The place-based education “immerses students in local heritage, culture, ecology, landscapes, opportunities, and experiences as a foundation for the study of language, arts, mathematics, social studies, sci- ence, and other subjects. Moreover, it encourages teachers and students to use the schoolyard, community centers, public lands, and other special places as resources, turning communities into classrooms. Findings are clear: place-based education fosters students’ connection to place and creates vibrant partnerships between schools and communities. It boosts student achievement and improves environmental, social, and economic vitality. In short, place-based education helps students learn to take care of the world by understanding where they live and by taking action in their own backyards and communities.” It is clear, that place-based education helps student learn; it invites students to become active citizens, energizes teachers, transforms school culture and connects schools and communities (for more see http://www.peecworks.org/). Certain parallels can also be found in foreign school systems applying the so-called Heritage Education. One of the projects focused on heritage education was, for example, the Aqueduct project (Acquiring Key Competences through Heritage Education, LLP, Comenius Multilateral Project supported by the Euro- pean Commission). In this project cultural and natural heritage is described as a wide umbrella concept, including a variety of cultural and natural, tangible and intangible elements (e.g. monuments, buildings, sites, oral traditions, performing 34 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková

arts, rituals, traditional craft, physical and biological formations, geological and physiographical formations, natural sites — that which is linked to environment and landscape, etc. Hence heritage was perceived “as something that has a value of its own, but at the same time has an added instrumental value to achieve other societal goals, such as healthy and inspiring environment which serves people’s wellbeing and contributes to the quality of cultural life and the human processes which are part of it, such as learning, development, communication. It strengthens social cohesion, intercultural and intergenerational understanding, as well as the acquisition of key competences that are necessary to accomplish all of this (Aqueduct, pp. 14—15). Heritage education, as depicted in the said project, was based on the idea that heritage offered opportunity to learners to engage in experiences that make them learn (active, discovery learning). It was proved that heritage education is also a vehicle for developing a set of core competences of lifelong learning, which means, it promotes language acquisi- tion, skills and knowledge on science and technology, and, what is more, it adds to the development of personal and social skills; it evokes entrepreneurship, stimulates cultural expression, serves digital and learning competence (Aque- duct, pp. 15—16). Partial projects of the participating institutions analyzed in this paper are found inspiring by schools in Slovakia as well. As regards the process of developing children’s and youth’s (as well as their parents’) close attachment to their region and its traditions, an extraordinary position in the Slovak educational space is held by the Association of Teachers from Schools with Regional Education, who have had the influence on both curricular and extracurricular education in the discussed field for many years. The association initially emerged as the Association of Teachers from Schools with Increased Teaching of Regional Education and Folk Culture in 1997, with headquarters at the elementary school in Liptovské Sliače. From the onset, the professionalism of the association was guaranteed by the Department of Folklore and Regional Studies of the then Faculty of Human Sciences in Nitra (the former name of the present Faculty of Arts of Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra) and the Department of History of Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica. The origin of the association was the aftermath of teachers’ interest in strengthening children’s national pride and in creating a platform for the understanding of cultural differences. Drawing on the analyses of several- years-long activity of schools included in the association, its present director René Kováčik (2012) evaluates positively the stimulation of interest in the activities related to regional education and its integration into education on the first level of elementary schools, and emphasizes the fact that the association went beyond the school framework by organizing a great number of methodo- logical seminars and conferences (also attended by foreign participants). In 2012, the association acquired a new form, name, legislative framework, as well as it adopted a new idea of activities and a model of schools accredita- The school as a place of regional education… 35 tion, and also it introduced teacher training in regional education. The present Association of Teachers from Schools with Regional Education stresses educa- tional benefits obtained from the cooperation of individual schools. It focuses attention on the following areas of regional education: significant personalities in the region, historical buildings and monuments, technical monuments and works, natural landmarks of the region, folklore and customs, oral literature, and traditional crafts. Every school which fulfils at least seven out of the proposed ten con- ditions can become a member of the association. Certificates to the newly accepted (accredited) schools are awarded once a year at the association’s an- nual conferences (last year it was in November). Conditions for the accredita- tion of a school that offers regional education are as follows: (1) the school must offer an independent subject of regional education within its educational program; (2) the school’s curricular documents must contain a clear applica- tion and integration of phenomena of regional education; (3) every year the school must organize at least 3 events featuring the theme based on regional education; (4) the school must offer competitions and quizzes on regional education within the school or an entire region; (5) it is expected that the school houses a special classroom (interior or exterior) to present regional education and folk culture (e.g. a grandmothers’ room, a workshop to support crafts, an open air museum, etc.); (6) the school must actively participate in the creation of methodological materials regarding regional education and its distribution; (7) cooperation with institutions and organizations supporting the ideas of regional education is expected (local cultural centers, museums, galleries, local offices, libraries, etc.); (8) the school has to participate in making available and preserving the legacy of outstanding personalities of the region in various ways, for example, by naming the school after renowned figures; (9) the school develops cooperation in a triad: community — school — family in regional education (at least 2 common events); (10) the school has a secure system of the dissemination of methodological materials through local or regional periodicals, and has its own website (cf.the documentation published at http://www.regioskola.sk).

Selected results of the empirical research

In the theoretical part of the paper we would like to point to the potentialities of regional education and the use of elements of folk culture in the process of the cultivation of children and their relation to the environment. Professional literature, domestic as well as foreign, confirms the multidimensionality of this 36 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková

area of children’s education and its many-sided educational effects, provided that it is performed through high quality methods and contents. The aims and methodology of the research: At the empirical stage of the project, the focus was on the specific pedagog- ical area of primary education in our closest environment. With the intention to explore current pedagogical practice in the given area, our main objective was to map the conditions under which regional education is carried out and which means are dominant. Taking into account the nature of the problem, our own questionnaire was used as a research instrument, containing, in addition to the introductory question on the school’s characteristics, further 15 open questions. In general, the outcomes of 29 questionnaires were processed; 16 of them from country schools (3 church schools) and 13 municipal schools (2 church schools). As far as the number of students is concerned, our sample contained 11 schools with the number of students up to 200, 7 schools with the number of students up to 300, 8 schools with the number of students up to 400, 2 schools with the number up to 800, and 1 school was not fully organized, with a rela- tively small number of students. The data from schools were obtained in several regions, mostly from the Nitra and Trenčin region. The answers were evalu- ated, based on the frequency of occurrence of educational elements. The 3 of the schools were included into the group of schools with regional education. The obtained data allowed an insight into a teaching practice, providing a summary of teaching subjects with possibilities of using elements of regional culture, prevailing methods and forms of teaching, specific activities of schools supporting folk traditions, cooperation of school with family and neighborhood in this area, as well as school’s extracurricular forms supporting the revival of cultural traditions in a particular region. Selected research results into regional education: 1. Subjects with the highest potential for the application of the elements of regional education. This part of the questionnaire showed that the greatest possibilities for the penetration of the elements of regional education are provided in local study (the subject was mentioned 19 times), followed by Slovak language and literature (14 times), sciences (10 times), visual arts education (8 times), musical education (6 times), physical education (twice), regional education as an elective subject (twice), and, finally, religious education and Hungarian language — at a school with Hungarian as a language of instruction (once) (cf. Doušková, 2002, pp. 36—37). 2. Prevailing methods and forms in the area of regional education. Our students have a possibility to acquire knowledge and skills, as well as to establish a relationship to the closest environment, through various teaching methods. Teachers most often mentioned traditional verbal methods, such as speaking, explanation, and description as monological methods, while The school as a place of regional education… 37

conversation and various discussions as dialogical methods (17 times). Furthermore, illustrative methods were indicated (film screening, using CD carriers, etc. — 5 times), and activating methods as solutions to problem tasks (5 times), creation of projects (5 times), dramatization, role and staging methods (4 times), the use of didactic games in teaching and brainstorming (3). Of the organizational forms, in addition to lessons and group work, ex- cursions and trips were mentioned. These data correspond with the officially proposed methodology of regional education. Certain inadequacies occurred in the naming of methods and forms of education, with conceptual confu- sion of some respondents. It is also stated that a more complex view was provided by the schools with the increased teaching of regional education, which was expected anyway (cf. Makišová, 2013, pp. 19—20). 3. Presentation and support of folk traditions in school environment. Most activities in this area are related to the preservation of customs and local traditions connected with the life of generations during a year, in winter — customs related to Sts. Barbara and Lucia, Christmas, Epiphany, Shrovetide celebrations and the arrival of spring season: burning and drown- ing of Morena (an effigy), Easter, putting up May Trees, etc. (17 times). These holidays were reminded of by songs, dances, making of decorative ob- jects for interiors, typical Slovak cuisine, clothing worn during holiday days, etc. Most often public events organized along with the generation of parents and grandparents included school festive musical evenings, especially before Christmas (18 times), on the occasion of Mother’s Day and Grandparents’ Day, and Shrovetide carnivals. Some schools have a tradition of organizing the Days of Crafts (8 times) in which craftsmen from the area and parents or grandparents demonstrate the production of traditional artefacts and lead creative workshops (making of gingerbread, baskets, carving, production and decoration of painted Easter Eggs, pottery, making of typical cloths — blueprints, various types of embroidery, etc.), organizing competitions with folk and regional topics as well as trips and excursions to significant memo- rial places (in cooperation with students’ families). Schools have permanent exhibitions on their premises, rooms of folk traditions (3 times), specialized space for club activities (4 times, e.g. a room with ceramic stove), though in most of them just a wall space in classrooms and connecting spaces are available. 4. Extracurricular forms of folk culture support. In extracurricular time children mostly work in clubs (folklore-dancing: 6 times, visual arts: 4 times, singing: 3 times, skilful hands: 5 times, mak- ing of wired jewellery: once, pottery: once, non-traditional crafts: once), or they are members of children’s folklore ensembles (3 times). In the discussed area of educational work schools cooperate with museums and galleries in the vicinity (10 times), elementary art schools (5 times), spare time centers 38 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková

(6 times), local cultural centers (KOS, 3 times), the Center for Folk Art Pro- duction (2 times), community institutions (3 times), parish offices (3 times), retirement homes (3 times), and others. Cooperation is most often connected with the preparation of festive musical evenings, creative workshops guid- ance, organization of local competitions, etc. In our region, a significant position among the organizations and institutions which cooperate with schools in the extracurricular time is held by the Regional Cultural Center in Nitra. Based on the study of its documentation and interview with its director (Daniela Gundová), it may be stated that the cultural center cre- ates conditions for the increase of regional education quality at schools. Its Act of Association states that the institution’s basic mission is to exchange informa- tion and knowledge in culture, science and technology, to deepen relationship to one’s own country, cultural identity of the nation, national minorities and ethnic groups in the region. In addition to this, the center’s mission includes care for environment, protection, preservation and providing access to folk traditions with emphasis placed on traditional folk culture, development of art and club activities. It provides teachers with professional, methodological, information, and documentation services (e.g. in managing folklore ensembles, choirs, folk crafts activities), and publishes promotional and methodological material. Of no less importance is also the cooperation of cultural centers with schools in organization of various competitions and spare-time artistic activities (e.g. dec- lamation contests, competitions in children’s dramatic creativity, competitions of folklore ensembles, folk dance soloists, children’s choirs, etc.) We are aware of the fact that the level of regional education is to a con- siderable extent determined by teachers’ training, which was manifested in the respondents’ answers. In the teacher-training study programs, as part of pre- school and elementary pedagogy (Department of Pedagogy PF UKF), the area is of the cross-sectional nature, drawing especially on the subjects related to mother tongue and literature (together with the methodologies of these subjects), subjects dealing with natural and social environment, theory and methodology of elementary literacy, theory of education, multicultural education and work with ethnic groups, pre-school pedagogy, regional history of pedagogy, visual arts, musical and movement culture, work and technical education, folk crafts, and many others. Many possibilities are also provided by excursions and various levels of pedagogical practice during the course of study. It should be stressed that also other UKF’s departments contribute towards the discussed area of education, such as, for example, the Department of Eth- nology and Folklore Studies, the Department of History and the Department of Archaeology at the Faculty of Arts, the Department of Geography and Regional Development at the Faculty of Natural Sciences, the Department of Tourism at the Faculty of Central European Studies, the Institute of Romological Stud- ies at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Health, the Department of Language The school as a place of regional education… 39

Pedagogy and Intercultural Studies at the Faculty of Pedagogy, as well as other workplaces in which students may choose their elective subjects. Students may actively participate in the Ponitran — a folklore ensemble with a long tradition.

Conclusions

Issues of teachers’ competences and training may initially seem distant from issues of regional education. Nevertheless, Zdeněk Helus appealing to the general public encourages not to neglect the humanistic, anthropological and professional aspects of teachers’ work whenever any complex problems arise. Therefore, Helus’s ideas seem relevant to the article as he makes teachers’ com- petences and training his point of departure in the discussion of regional educa- tion. Helus focuses on teachers’ desirable competences to which he adds the aspect of educational potential of the local community. According to Helus, the school may become a place that is open towards community and surroundings — natural, cultural, interpersonal, and professional one. The school, teachers, students, and parents enter community life, and, vice versa, representatives of the community enter the life of the school. They are connected and motivated by a common interest in the environment, which is home for all of them (for more see Lukášová-Kantorková, 2003, p. 162). We share this view as well.

References

Budniak, A. (2009). Edukacja społeczno-przyrodnicza. Podręcznik dla studentów. Kraków: Impuls. Čellárová, L. (2002). Postavenie regionálnej výchovy v edukačnom procese. Zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie Regionálna výchova a škola. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB, pp. 12—19. Čellárová, L. (2008). Špecifiká regionálnej výchovy z aspektu makroprostredia. In E. Bujnová et al. (Eds.), Vybrané teoretické a metodické aspekty regionálnej výchovy (pp. 8—18). Nitra: PF UKF. Doušková, A. (2002). Regionálna výchova na 1.stupni ZŠ ako proces rozvíjania postojov. Zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie Regionálna výchova a škola (pp. 35—38). Banská Bystrica: PF UMB, Gašparová, M. (2012). Regionálna výchova a jej postavenie v primárnom vzdelávaní. Zborník príspevkov z konferencie Regionálna výchova ako súčasť školského vzdelávacieho programu (pp. 9—16). Slovenská Ľupča. Ivanovičová, J., Bujnová, E. (Eds.). (2007). Rozvojové a inovatívne programy edukácie so zam- eraním na regionálnu výchovu. Nitra: PF UKF. 40 Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová, Tatiana Slezáková

Kosová, B. (2002). Úvodné slovo dekanky PF UMB. Zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie Regionálna výchova a škola (pp. 6—7). Banská Bystrica: PF UMB. Kováčik, R. (2012). Regionálna výchova a Združenie pedagógov zo škôl s regionálnou výchovou. Zborník príspevkov z konferencie Regionálna výchova ako súčasť školského vzdelávacieho programu (pp. 4—8). Slovenská Ľupča. Kyseľ, V. (2013). Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Slovakia. Slovak Ethnology 61(5): 561—576. Lukášová-Kantorková, H. (2003). Učitelská profese v primárním vzdělávání a pedagogická příprava učitelú (Teorie, výzkum, praxe). Ostrava: PF Ostravská univerzita. Makišová, A. (2013). Regionálna výchova v primárnom vzdelávaní. : MPC. Van Lakerveld, J., Gussen, I. (Eds). Aqueduct. Acquiring Key Competence through Heritage Education. Bilzen. Vančíková, K. (2011). Škola a spoločnosť. Kapitoly zo sociológie výchovy. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB. Walterová, E., Greger, D. (2006). Transformace vzdělávacích systému zemí Visegrádské skupiny: Srovnávácí analýza. Orbis Scholae 1: 13—29.

We b s i t e s http://www.regioskola.sk. http://www.regiony.eu. The benefits of place-based education. Retrieved from http://www.peecworks.org/PEEC/Benefits_ of_PBE-PEEC_2008_web.pdf. Accessed 19.01.2015. Promise of place. Enriching lives trough place-based education. Retrieved from http://www.pro miseofplace.org/what_is_pbe/principles_of_place_based_education. Accessed 20.01.2015. http://www.promiseofplace.org/Research_Evaluation. Accessed 20.01.2015. KYSEĽ, V.: Representative list of the intangible cultural heritage of Slovakia. Retrieved from http://www.uet.sav.sk/files/etno5-2013-text-web.pdf. Accessed 21.01.2015. Dohovor o ochrane svetového a kultúrneho dedičstva. Retrieved from http://enviroportal.sk/up loads/scoredocument/pariz1611_1972_upr.pdf. Accessed 25.01.2015. The Convention for safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage. Retrieved from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_for_the_Safeguarding_of_the_Intangible_Cultural_ Heritage. Accessed 25.01.2015. Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń University of Silesia

Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences — analyses in the scope of theory of upbringing and education, and the history of pedagogical and praxeological philosophy

Abstract: In this text, the authors describe and analyze basic principles underlying the approach to tradition. The authors also propose a differentiation within the number of models of perceiving and describing tradition with the objective of reaching an optimal definition, from ethical, social, as well as pedagogical perspectives. The background for the discussion on this topic shall be the narration of a local Silesian woman. A look at the subject’s biography shows how the power of upbringing exerts a great influence through such narratives, thus making them the most significant factors in the discovery and creation of one’s own identity. Keywords: tradition, education, narration, identity

Introduction

In the following article, the authors attempt to describe and analyze the basic approaches to tradition, namely: the traditionalist approach, the anti-traditional- ist attitude, and the approach based on the affirmation of three temporal com- ponents which lay the foundation of the basic factors forming tradition, that is the past, the present and the future. The key assumption here is that tradition forms the fundamental basis of the process responsible for the upbringing of future generations. Moreover, what is necessary is also a differentiation within 42 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

the number of models of perceiving and describing tradition with the objective of reaching an optimal definition, from ethical, social, as well as pedagogical perspectives. In addition, the authors formulated a number of practical recom- mendations, included hereinafter, that indicate the ways or methods in which we should facilitate the legacy of our predecessors, while at the same time continuing to come up with novel solutions, coming from both the world of culture as well as modern civilization. Each of the approaches described herein may result in the creation of particular negative phenomena, which might influence either the individual or the social group as a whole, thus the authors strongly recommend a careful ap- proach in the implementation of the legacy of previous ages. Simultaneously, the authors would like to warn against an extremist rejection of the past, or on the other hand, neglecting the future. The fair evaluation of the achievements of past ages and contemporary generations allows us to form both an objective outlook on the possibilities of our input into social development as well as the well-being of future generations. That kind of balanced approach seems to be necessary, especially in the context of drastic technological development, be- cause more and more often we come across the situations in which the modern human is misguided and persuaded to dedicate his or her respect solely to that which is contemporary. Technological progress, in order not to be deemed as socially destructive, must guarantee both a dynamic development of humanist values and, at the same time, proving to be sensitive to the good of the indi- vidual as well as dedicating care for the future wellbeing of humankind. The illustrative section of the text has provoked the authors to facilitate the philosophy proposed by Charles Taylor (Taylor, 2001, pp. 380—381) in relation to tradition; for the philosopher perceives tradition as a type of generational message based on the relations between ideas and practices. This relation tends to be strengthened through the implementation of practical, everyday activities, whereas the source of the changes of this message most often lies in new ideas (Taylor, 2001, p. 382): the ideas and values which are rooted in these messages fall into a type of characteristic, generation-based, regional picture. The intention of the authors has been to draw attention to this message, which has been passed from generation to generation through verbal narration, stressing the fact that the recipient of these tales is, by definition, a member of the younger generation. Thus, we come to the conclusion that the meaning and impact of regional folk tales, ethnically-based, is a key element in the process of education and upbring- ing. The background for the discussion on this topic shall be the narration of a local Silesian woman (a Pole from the vicinity of the city of Tarnowskie Góry), which, in turn, will incorporate itself into the cultural legacy of the tradition of the region of Silesia. There is no doubt that similar local narrations have en- riched everyone’s lives, even the smallest of local social groups, even individual families. A look at the subject’s biography shows how the power of upbringing Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 43 exerts an incredible influence through such narratives, making them the most significant factor in the discovery and creation of one’s own identity.

Traditionalism as a basis for apotheosis of the past

The term traditionalism (derived from the traditio, meaning, among others, ‘a message’) was first used to describe a French philosophical and social trend which was developed within the enclaves of European conserva- tive theory at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Its main representatives were, amongst others, Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre. Preceding the Revolution of 1789, the traditionalist movement heralded ideas and values of conservative political and religious behavior (conserver) which they saw as be- ing endangered by the newly-emerging, enlightened rationalism. Conservatism, as well as the said times, were perceived as the age of an intellectual movement which guarded society from the invasion of revolutionary ideas and attitudes. One aspect, which was common to all forms of conservatism, was an apolo- getic approach to the past, which resulted in negative ridicule of any attempts to create a new social order. The conservatives, generally, did not hold a steadfast view on the approach that everything which is derived from the past — tradition1 — is sacred and holy. However, even this type of sanctification of tradition was not in itself a rare event. The typical rationale proposed by the conservatives was based on the preconception that any social or economic organization or formation had to have lasted long enough to have been deemed as possessing certain merits and advantages, which must in turn possess relatively positive traits and that there is no need in destroying the efforts of our predecessors. Conservatives believed that the highly insensible and spontaneous surrender to the activities of enthusiasts of new solutions brought about by the passage of time, especially those connected with social and political ideas, such as the madness which they deemed to be the obliteration of the tried and tested traditions, solely based on intuitive and inexperienced novices or individual agitators, bored with its positively dangerous ideas and presumptions. The conservatives were certain that there is no need to believe in the idea that the individual or small group of individuals is to be wiser than the rest of society, which would be composed of supporters of a social status quo. Fierce defenders of tradition did not stop

1 Tradition is defined as a collection of practiced behaviors with the objective of cultivating and teaching of certain norms and values, which is intended to ensure a steadfast connection with the past; these practices are usually connected with commonly approved symbolic behaviors, for example rituals, rites, customs, habits (Marshall, 2008, p. 403). 44 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

there, by merely proclaiming their ideas that tradition deserves trust and faith. In fact, they attempted to prove that innovations are only an illusion, as they must always be based on formulas which have already been discovered, activi- ties already undertaken, or simply usurpations (Szacki, 2011, pp. 47—48). The key argument brought up in discussions with their adversaries was the indication of the idea of continuity of generations, which adhered to common values and reminded society of the basics and principles of behavior stemming from the belief that no generation may treat society as if it were the proverbial terra nova (or at least land which they would deem as newly-formed). It is then true that in every society there is a necessity to be rooted in tradition, in which it finds a direction of behavioral patterns in the form of social and moral norms. The depiction of tradition as not only an area which is abundant in social ideas, cultural and educational norms, but also something of a foundation in the building of national identity, forms an undeniable basis of that which had been achieved by the conservatives. Perceiving the achievements of our ancestors as valuable wisdom, the conservatives endowed their work and their efforts with honour. This was very often linked with idealization of the past: for instance the glorification of histori- cal events and the achievements of great people of bygone ages. A true treasure trove of wisdom was only formed, in their opinion, by laws and tradition which had long been created — ethical codes, technical and scientific achievements, cultural works which would have to be cherished and secured at all cost. Re- spect, fealty and loyalty, as well as gratitude, form the most significant values for human existence — and all incorporate themselves in the idea of tradition. A compulsive loyalty to tradition in the case of extremely orthodox leaders may have, however, had a psychopathic background — an overwhelming feel- ing of danger and a panic-based approach to the new (xenophobia). Individuals bearing traits of dogmatic personalities could be prone to such schematics in their reactions to even the slightest of change. Any novelties whatsoever should thus be labelled as “nothing more than a passing phase” through the prism of the past, meaning that any proposals of the modification of social life ought to be based on the wisdom and position of those perceived as great intellectual predecessors — an idea in itself rather absurd, considering the dynamics and extreme character of revolutionary changes. An individual proclaiming affirmation of conservative tradition and wish- ing to strengthen their social position would device a terminology based upon public opinion, for example “the wisdom of the ages,” “the experience of my forefathers,” “a tradition passed on from father to son for generations,” “institu- tions sanctified by the passage of time,” and so on. Individuals rebelling against the existing order were referred to as utopian troublemakers; people who merely induce problems. The conservatives, on the other hand, used the tradition as a means of persuasion. The imperative to Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 45

“start from scratch” was interpreted as “nothing new,” that is simply a means of refreshing or reordering tradition. This type of rhetoric supported the argu- mentation for the necessity of a non-revolutionary improvement of social life. In order to generalize these analyses, it seems useful to classify the number of intellectual and emotional approaches towards the past, or rather the number of models of perceiving tradition: 1. Tradition as the sacred. 2. Tradition as a reservoir of wisdom. 3. Tradition as a synonym of experience. 4. Tradition as the manifestation of collective consciousness. 5. Tradition as a means of learning about ancestry and discovering one’s true genealogy. 6. Tradition as the source of building blocks for individual and group identity, serving as the basis of defining oneself. 7. Tradition as a collection of general human values (especially respect, fidel- ity, loyalty, and gratitude). 8. Tradition as the basis of modern social heritage. 9. Tradition as a source of acquiring social ideals, moral norms, and role- models for behavior. 10. Tradition seen as a tried and tested system of upbringing and educational methods — and the socialization of subsequent generations. 11. Tradition as a point of resistance against revolutionary social changes. 12. Tradition as a method of ensuring the continuity of history throughout the ages, means of emphasizing the process of the existence of society over the passage of time. 13. Tradition as a link between generations and a manifestation of solidarity between them. 14. Tradition as an obligation to safeguard that which has been achieved (espe- cially cultural heritage), as well as an obligation to transmit or communicate this throughout society.

Anti-traditionalism as a negation of the world we see

Individuals introducing reforms would establish new relations between the present and the future with the past, demanding the freeing of the past and the unanimous support for the idea of being “against” tradition. Practically every age or epoch has been abundant in those who would see the past as “the king- dom of superstition,” backwardness, and social or political stagnation. Achieve- ments of the bygone generations were seen as uninspiring for modernity and 46 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

counter-revolutionary per se. This lack of reflection lead those individuals into the trap of simplification, based on describing the past as a burden which limits the freedom and creativity of the younger generation. Attempting to combat the so-called “old social order,” they aimed at per- suading society that which had been considered aged (distantly situated in time) could neither serve as a sufficient indicator of values or play the part of a lawful, institutional judge, nor could it be the only rationale for undertaking current decisions. The invocation of the views represented by individuals per- ceived as people of authority from past ages was, in the opinion of radicals, synonymous with giving up the individual and independent activity by modern humans as such. Emulating one’s ancestors and a passive reconstruction of their achievements was a substitute for self-reflection and supplanted the need for the reform of structures and social relations. A negation of the world as perceived by these individuals was thus linked with a lack of acknowledgement of the efforts made by their predecessors, the minimisation of their achievements and deeds and a peculiar type of megalomania, stemming from a lack of experience, insufficient knowledge of historical issues, as well as those connected with the economic situation of a given society, and a lack of understanding of biologi- cally predestined mental capacity, resulting from the limits of human existence. Tradition was only used in order to pinpoint the anti-values and negative role models. A hypercritical approach to models of social life belonging to the past was also accompanied by group enthusiasm connected with the introduc- tion of new social and political solutions and legal regulations. However, the utopian character of the proposals made by these radicals was often met with social distrust directed towards the ideas which were deemed too abstract and perceived as idealistic desiderates. Radicals had barricaded themselves against the idea that modernity could also bring about a destructive change (Bauman, 2013), possibly generating a number of consequential social problems. Dehumanization, however, may also affect the past, the same way it affects the processes occurring in the present. In order to generalize the position of anti-traditionalists, it seems worthwhile to classify some of their characteristic traits: 1. Clear distanciation from any emotional relations with the past. 2. Contempt towards everything which belongs to the past, the things that might have been the endeavour of previous generation, disregard for the social heritage as a thing of little value, outdated and, as such, deemed useless in modern human society. 3. Delusional longing for the beginning of something different, for “starting anew”; the contemporary scholars and scientists point to the fact that neither is it possible to introduce total innovation, nor is it achievable to live according in total harmony with the past, as social progress occurs through the in-depth analysis of historical events, combined with meticulous planning of the future. Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 47

4. Competitive approach to the achievements of ancestors, often resulting in escalation of group hatred in the form of an effective rebellion, for exam- ple the outbreak of revolution, war, riots provoked by social groups (which perceive themselves as being somehow victimized) as well as a number of other situations related with social unrest.

An approach based on the affirmation of the past, present, and the future — the optimal outlook on the process of upbringing with relation to tradition

The basis for the affirmation of the three temporal categories is linked with the perception of the past, the present, and the future as forces which hold within themselves the ability to create values. The essence of this position can be found in the following statement: we must remain faithful to tradition, while at the same time keeping in pace with the present. Cultural heritage forms a type of foundation of that which is tangible as well of the intangible, from which present society can benefit. However, society’s role is to ensure the support for ideas of solidarity with its ancestors and upholding an emotional relation with its successors. Tradition is not a cultural resource which makes way for the present; it rather serves as an inspiration for a constructive discourse and is a means of communication between generations. According to this opinion, tradition is defined as a collection of all relations between the present (current generations) and the past (previous generations). Tradition is sometimes also seen as a social fact that demands acknowledgement regardless of the public opinion. However, tradition does not represent the sacred sphere or an object of cult; it is rather an area of meaningful context, both for individuals as well as whole societies. Remaining conscious of the fact that it is possible to enumerate multi- ple examples of both positive as well as negative examples of tradition, the affirmation-based approach is naturally characterized by the selective attitude to tradition, that is, a kind of selectiveness based on the common sense. According to it, it is recommended to facilitate those solutions deemed as rational, those which humanize modern quality of life, and those which are prone to social inclusion. Space for tradition is not synonymous with a necessity to slavishly copy our predecessors. It is accepted that cultural heritage may be verified, especially its spheres connected with science and observing customs. A mod- ern modification, updating or reinterpretation of the achievements of the past generations quite often tends to be a necessity. 48 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

Collaboration between the past, the present, and the future is based, among others, on the fact that the past may be subject to limitation through present achievements, in which modern society may find the basis for its existence, formed through the access to information gained from the past, and thus recover the sense of meaningfulness of life. The efforts of people from the past ages increase in value owing to the work of their modern continuators, whereas suc- cessors have the possibility of strengthening their reputation and authority with the help of famous ancestors. Adjusting tradition, in the opinion of pedagogues who affirm the past, the present, and the future reflectively, has a lot on offer for humanity, among others: 1. It satisfies the need for love and affection, safety and security, affiliation, a sense of belonging (especially when analyzing the emotional bonds with those closest to us, for example our grandparents or great-grandparents). 2. It provides theoretical as well as practical knowledge, granting people the possibility and ability of rational behavior and lifestyle which is led in both a proper and satisfactory way. 3. It provides us with material to modeling our lives on and for the identifica- tion with others, mainly by providing ethical and intellectual role models. 4. It allows to achieve an appropriate level of emotional, social, and axiological maturity (as famously said by Cicero, “Not to know what happened before you were born is to be a child forever”). 5. It enriches societies through the introduction of a number of basic methods of communication between generations: the conversation/restoration princi- ple (securing that which has been acquired), the principle of transmission (transmitting the results of past efforts to our successors), the principle of improvement (tradition facilitated as a tool for social change), the principle of continuity (nurturing the link between generations). 6. It can provide a form of sanctuary from failures or catastrophes experienced by members of society or by members of a given social group. 7. It may be used as a weapon in the struggle against, for example, social in- justice, by way of searching for past values which can be juxtaposed against the modern world. 8. It teaches us to anticipate and also to protect material and spiritual achieve- ments against a variety of hazards and local or global dangers. 9. It provides assistance in an in-depth diagnosis of modernity through the comparison of the achievements of representatives from a variety of histori- cal periods. Despite the fact that every new generation finds its own elements of past generations within itself, for example in social norms, collective values, ethical codes, the basis of certain customs, religions, judicial laws; in itself it is defined by none of the above, being in itself a new social and cultural quality. Due to Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 49 this fact, the conflict usually arising from applying unilateral pressure on either being for or against the tradition, which is pedagogically groundless.

Regional folk tales as a way of discovering one’s own identity

The first part of our article was concluded with the opinion that the inclusion of tradition in the process of education and upbringing is of the upmost impor- tance. After all, our relation with tradition may provide a way to engage our own creative selves, in other words — it can provide us with a way of improv- ing our own selves. To receive the answer to the question “who am I?,” it is essential to first answer the questions of where I come from and what heritage I have received, as well as defining values which have contributed to shaping my fellow compatriots, my neighbors and my parents. Even in the event that we should wish to negate any part of our generation or our heritage, the prior- ity is to first gain knowledge as to the quality of this element. A method which may assist us in this endeavour may simply lie in listening to the narrations of the older generation. The word narration originates in Latin narratio which can be translated as ‘a story’ or ‘a tale’ (Sobol, 1993, p. 586). The narrations which we consider the most valuable are those stories which have been passed orally (see Lalak, 2010, pp. 60—63). Oral history is a kind of mirror of the past (ideas, understanding the context of events), which is perpetuated in spoken form. All history provides us with values which underlie behaviors attributed to historical heroes, or at least it may seem so from the narrator’s point of view. The meaning of human history itself (in an attempt to give such written stories or passages a certain scientific value) is apparent to Alan Nevins, when he analyzes the life of Stephen Grover Cleveland. He came to the understanding that it was not formal competence that guaranteed Cleveland’s success as the President of the United States, but rather internalized values such as honesty, courage, and independence (Lalak, 2010, p. 60). These made him independent in a certain way and gave him traits which are characteristic of a very individual approach to behavior. Oral histories undoubtedly build the identity of ethnic, social, and regional groups. People begin to understand themselves and to a large extent — their own language. As Błażej Baszczak observes, adhering to the aforementioned views expressed by Taylor: “[...] The construction of human identity is not ac- complished outside designated cultural circle, from which the individual comes, as it is this cycle which attributes certain definitive frameworks to an individual. These may take the form of interpretational clarifications for understanding 50 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

your own self. In addition to this, language in itself is such a flexible medium that it allows for a variety of changes and interpretations in the course of the narration. Owing to self-interpretation, we can actually conduct this type of self- alteration through language — this could be the phenomenon of overvaluing something, attributing new meaning to a number of issues related to the story of our life — in this way we are able to change ourselves and participate in creation” (Baszczak, 2011, p. 138). Taylor’s reflections lead us to believe that oral, local histories contain pre- cious material for inner development and for the process of growing up. Local tales take place in the young person’s immediate environment — however, not in their present timeframe (seeing as they refer to the past) but in their own well-known space. This common space, with its abundance of experience, can actually be responsible for the activating of certain basic educational mecha- nisms, described by Maria Grzywak-Kaczyńska: 1. copycat behavior, when we learn from others (consciously or unconsciously) how to behave, think and feel; 2. identification, when we take ideas and life goals from others; 3. suggestions, when we adhere to other people’s views; 4. syntonic harmony, in which case we inherit emotional states from others, for example anxiety, anger, compassion, happiness, sadness, enthusiasm (Grzywak-Kaczyńska, 1988, pp. 25—32). The aforementioned mechanisms indicate the way to achieve passive ac- ceptance of traditional views, objectives, or feelings. However, in the proposed narrative work model, these mechanisms should be treated as a whole, and initiate growth. This way every individual, in the course of developing his or her own self, should actively relate or react to these developmental incentives. Active participation does not, however, rule out ideas which have been handed down from generation to generation, but suggests their verification in one’s own inner self. Such creative verification is a way to develop a person’s own identity (Grzywak-Kaczyńska, 1988, pp. 34—35).

Knowledge handed down from generation to generation and its role in regional education and upbringing — presented on the example of local Silesian narratives

An example of the advantages which have been described above, connected with psychological and educational issues, is a collection of fragmentary nar- Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 51 rations or stories told by a Silesian woman living in the vicinity of the city of Tarnowskie Góry.2 The stories which she has been telling her children and grandchildren have a great potential to build the listeners’ identity, rooted (or at least apparent) in local folklore. The stories have been written down in Silesian dialect3 (despite the fact that it has a number of phonetic versions, sometimes even depending on an individual family). These following written record quite loosely adheres to the true story — being more of a description or a number of its versions. The stories are set in the biography of the Silesian woman who was a subject of our research. They are, however, quite loosely based on authentic events. The most significant factor is that they all convey the same message or idea. Now, let us discuss the said message. First of all, it is obvious that the principles which are respected in the nar- ratives have a source in the storyteller’s religious beliefs. It can therefore be concluded that, in her opinion, a person’s religiousness plays a decisive role in terms of a person’s morality. In her view, cultivated traditions (customs, habits) are, to a large extent, linked with religiousness.

Example 1 On Christmas

The original version in the local dialect Tyn Adwynt już nic z cekania niy mo. Ludzie by ciyngiem uciechy chcieli. Mi zaś się widzi, że trza umieć dockać do łostatniej chwili. Dopiyro w Wilija wstać, choinka postroić, siymiyniotka nawarzyć, makówki zrobić, to wszystko ło godzie. […] Potym jeszcze stoł urychtować, wyszkrobiony serwet łościongnąć, noczynie połoskłodać. […] I downij kożdy taki gód mioł, co przy wiecerzy wiela niy godoł. Żodyn tyż niy biadoł, że siymiyniotka za gorzko, a kompot cornymi fuzeklami śmierdzi. Potym my się kole choinki posiadali, kolendy śpiywali na dwa gosy, dalyj maszkyciyli i tak do pastyrki. Wybiyrali my się kole jedynostyj,

2 As a part of her cooperation with the Department of Culture of the Local of the city of Tarnowskie Góry (Polish: Wydział Kultury Starostwa Powiatowego w Tarnowskich Górach) in 2001, Beata Ecler-Nocoń took part in a competition organized by the Polish-German Cooperative Center (Polish: Dom Współpracy Polsko-Niemieckiej) entitled “Local History Based on the Example of Chosen , Cities and .” The objective of the project was to show the inhabitants of the region of Upper Silesia the social and cultural potential of the region’s history. The project described herein was financed from the budget of the Federal Republic of Germany. A fragment produced by one of the authors (February 2002) includes explorations conducted on the topic of “The Respect for Work — an Element of Upbringing in a Silesian Family.” The objective of the research was the depiction of the specific educational forces acting within a Silesian family — this objective was to be reached through a case study. 3 As the Silesian dialect has no uniform written form, the transcript merely mirrors the sound of the words by using the Polish diacritics. 52 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

bo do kościoła my mieli kawoł drogi. Kożdy w nojlepszym mantlu, ciepłych strzewikach. Szlli my przez las, śniyg skrzypioł.

Translations into Polish and English „Dzisiejszy Adwent już nic w sobie z czekania nie ma. Ludzie ciągle chcieliby uciechy. Ja zaś uważam, że trzeba umieć wyczekać do ostatniej chwili. Dopiero w Wigilię wstać, choinkę udekorować, ugotować siemieniotkę, zrobić makówki, a to wszystko bez posiłku. […] Potem jeszcze nakryć stół wykrochmalonym obrusem, porozkładać naczynia. […] Dawniej to każdy był taki głodny, że przy kolacji wiele nie mówił. Żaden też nie narzekał, że siemieniotka za gorzka, a kompot brudnymi skarpetami pachnie. Potem do samej pasterki siedzieliśmy koło choinki, śpiewaliśmy kolędy na dwa głosy i jedli smakołyki. Na pasterkę szliśmy około godziny jedenastej, bo do kościoła mieliśmy daleko. Każdy w najlepszym płaszczu i ciepłych butach. Szliśmy przez las a śnieg skrzypiał.”

“Nowadays the Advent has lost its entire atmosphere of waiting. Everyone just wants to have fun. On the other hand, I believe that you have to be able to wait till the last moment. It is only on Christmas Eve that we should get up, decorate the Christmas tree, prepare the traditional meal — and all of this on an empty stomach. After this we should lay the table with a clean, crisp tablecloth and shiny plates. It used to be that everybody was so hungry that during the dinner itself nobody really talked too much. Nobody complained either that the soup or the meal was too bitter and that the dessert smelled a bit off. After that, we would sit by the Christmas tree till midnight mass, singing Christmas carols as a duo and eating sweets. The trip to take part in midnight mass actually started around 11.00 as we lived quite far away from the church. Everybody had their best coats on, and was wearing warm shoes. We would walk through the forest and the snow would crunch under our feet.”

Example 2 On (Polish Tłusty Czwartek, a traditional Christian feast marking the last Thursday before Lent, associated with the celebration of Carnival.)

The original version in the local dialect W tusty czwortek, modo cy staro, kożdo krepli upiykła. Juzaś tak drogo to niy wychodzioło. […]. A i kożdy w doma kury chowoł, to roz dwa te pora jajec uszporowo. Terozki to tym babom się nic niy chce. Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 53

Translations into Polish and English „W Tłusty Czwartek młoda czy stara, każda upiekła pączki. Pieczenie nie było takie drogie. […] A w każdym domu hodowało się kury, to kilka jajek było uskładanych. Teraz to kobietom nic się nie chce.”

“On Fat Thursday every woman, young or old, used to make traditional dough- nuts. The baking itself wasn’t even that expensive. […] And in every house they used to keep chickens, so everybody had a few eggs stacked up. Nowadays women can’t be bothered to do anything.”

Secondly, according to the opinion of the Silesian woman who was subject of this research, life is composed of such values as hard work, responsibility, and honesty. It is probable that attitude is rooted in many years of experience of family life. She speaks of her husband who had to be responsible and hard- working in order to support his family and to care for all their needs. Such traits gave hope for survival in difficult circumstances.

Example 3 On choosing a husband

The original version in the local dialect Możno terozki byś padała, co ze Karlikiem, twoim dziadkiym, to niy była żodno wielko romantyczno miłość. Miałach swoje lata, wydać się musiałach. Niy myś se jednak, że Karlik to był pierwszy, co mi się nadarzoł. […] Wybrałach Kar- lika. Synek z porzodnyj rodziny, niy pioł, do roboty chodzioł, geltag mioł niy najgorszy, szykowny tyż boł, a jak już co pedzioł, to my się wszyscy uśmioli. […] I widać, żech źle niy trefioła, bo na bezrok bydzie sześdziesiąt lot po naszym ślubie.

Translations into Polish and English „Może teraz byś powiedziała, że z Karolem, twoim dziadkiem, to nie była żadna wielka, romantyczna miłość. Miałam sporo lat, musiałam wyjść za mąż. Nie myśl jednak, że Karol to był pierwszy, jaki mi się trafił. Wybrałam Karola. Chłopak z porządnej rodziny, nie pił, chodził do pracy, zarabiał sporo pieniędzy, był także przystojny, a jak już coś powiedział, to wszystkich rozbawił. Widać także, że mąż mi się udał, bo w przyszłym roku będzie sześćdziesiąt lat po naszym ślubie.”

“Well, perhaps nowadays you might say that Karol, your grandfather that is, and me, didn’t really have what you would call romantic love. I was getting on a bit I had to get married. But don’t you think for one minute that Karol 54 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

was the first one that came along! It was Me who chose him. The boy came from a good family, didn’t drink, went to work, made quite a lot of money, he was also good-looking, and when he said something, everyone used to laugh. I suppose you can also say that looking at my husband now he was a good match because next year it will be our 60th wedding anniversary.”

Thirdly, the narrator promotes such values as helpfulness and support given to others. It is such values, respected within a social group, that allow every member of the group to overcome unforeseen difficulties and misfortune.

Example 4 A story of an explosion in a factory

The original version in the local dialect A przeco mom w pamiynci casy, jak jednym szło ło drugich. Na tyn przykład jak wybuchła prochownia. To było jakoś przed Bożym Narodzyniym. Już my się po leku do świont rychtowali. Matka warzoła syrop z maślonki na pierniki. Jo się przyglondała tyj robocie. Naroz Hanikowi zachciało się iść do wychodka. Z sniego był ftedy taki mały ślimok a wychodek mieli my na dworze. […] Ledwo seblokłach mu galotki, jak coś gruchło. […] Wzionach Hanika na rynce i leca. W doma szyby popynkane. Ftoś rycoł: wybuch na prochowni. Matka bioło jak śmiertka, w samyj zopasce stoła na schodach. Hanik dar się w niebogłosy. Po- tym my się dowiedzieli najgorszego: dwóch chopów zabioło, jedna baba. Niy żodnych cudzych, naszych ze wsi. Przed samymi świyntoma ich chowali. […] Cało wieś żałowała tych niyboszczyków. Nikomu się niy przelywało, ale kożdy patrzoł coś dać ich familyji, żeby jakieś świynta mieli.

Translations into Polish and English „A przecież mam w pamięci czasy, jak jeden zabiegał o drugiego. Na przykład, kiedy wybuchła fabryka prochu. To było jakoś przed Bożym Narodzeniem. Przygotowywaliśmy się do świąt. Matka gotowała syrop z maślanki na pierniki. Ja się przyglądałam jej pracy. Nagle Henryk chciał iść do toalety. Z niego był wówczas taki mały ślimak, a toaletę mieliśmy na podwórku. […] Ledwie rozebrałam mu spodenki, jak coś uderzyło. […] Wzięłam Henryka na ręce i poleciałam. W domu szyby popękane. Ktoś krzyczał: wybuch w fabryce prochu. Mama była biała jak śmierć, w samym fartuchu stała na schodach. Henryk krzyczał w niebogłosy. Potem dowiedziałam się najgorszego: dwóch mężczyzn zabiło i jedną kobietę. Nie żadnych obcych, ale z naszej wsi. Pogrzeb był przed samymi świętami. […] Cała wieś żałowała zmarłych. Nikomu się nie przelewało, ale każdy starał się coś podarować ich rodzinom, aby wyprawili jakieś święta.” Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 55

“But of course I remember times when everybody looked after one another. For example when the powder factory exploded. It was around Christmas. We were getting ready for the holiday season. My mother was cooking buttermilk syrup to make gingerbread. I was looking on while she worked. Suddenly Henryk wanted to go to the toilet. He was such a little tyke and the toilet was outside. […] As soon as I pulled down his shorts, something blew up. […] I took him in my arms and ran for it. At home, all the windows were broken and the glass shattered. Somebody was shouting: explosion in the powder factory. My mother was as white as a sheet, in her cooking apron, standing there on the stairs. Henryk was shouting and crying like mad. Later, I found out the worst: two men had been killed, and one woman. Not some strangers mind you, but people from our village. The funeral was just before Christmas. […] The whole village mourned the dead. Nobody had a lot of money those days but everybody tried to give them something so that their families could somehow get through it all and celebrate Christmas.”

Fourthly, the narrator clearly cultivates an authoritarian upbringing.

Example 5 A priest’s home visit (traditional in Roman Catholic Polish families during the Christmas period and recognized as an important family event)

The original version in the local dialect Kolynda to była ważno wizyta. Farorz w doma. Teroz to się wiela z tego niy robią. […] Piyrwyj to było niy do pomyślynio. […] W świynta się wiela niy kromioło, ale ksiądz to boł ksiądz. Lod nowa pucowało się łokna. Pastowało izby. Wyblyszczyło klomki. Matka rychtowała tyż zogówek, żeby farorz mioł na cym klęceć. Jak już było wszystko gotowe, to my przynosili micha i się myli. Kożdy nojlepsze łachy łoblykoł i się zacynało cekanie.

Translations into Polish and English „Kolęda to była ważna wizyta. Ksiądz w domu. Teraz to nikt do kolędy nie przywiązuje wagi. […] Kiedyś to było nie do pomyślenia. […] Choć w święta się nie bałaganiło, to ksiądz to był ksiądz. Od nowa myło się okna. Pastowało pokoje. Czyściło klamki. Matka szykowała poduszkę, żeby ksiądz miał na czym klęczeć. Jak już wszystko było gotowe, to przynosiliśmy miskę i myliśmy się. Każdy też ubierał najlepsze ubranie i zaczynało się czekanie.”

“The priest’s Christmas visit was a very important occasion. The priest in our house! Nowadays nobody really cares about these visits. […] Those days, it would be unthinkable. […] Despite the fact that nobody ever made a mess dur- 56 Alicja Żywczok, Beata Ecler-Nocoń

ing Christmas, a priest was a priest after all. The windows were washed again and the rooms cleaned — even the doorknobs were polished. Mother prepared a special cushion so the priest could kneel comfortably. When everything was ready, we used to bring in a bowl and take a bath. Everybody put on their best clothes and waiting would start.”

Fifthly and finally, the author of the narratives emphasizes the strength of the human character manifested in not giving up in difficult circumstances, which was probably connected with a complex social and economic situation.

The original version in the local dialect Ludzie twardzi byli, niy to, co teroz.

Translations into Polish and English „Ludzie byli twardzi, nie to, co teraz.”

“People used to be tough, not like today.”

Conclusions

From the narratives analyzed in the second part of the article, it seems that such values as work and religiousness were seen as priorities. In literature, these are very often associated with the role of region in Silesia (see Swadźba, 2012). This fact revolves around a very characteristic regional feel. The narratives also show that the values mentioned above are interconnected to a large extent with the cultivation of traditions. If the case be that such relations possess a very familiar character — that is, they are told by important or respected members of the community, they undoubtedly form an atmosphere which supports the formation of internal values and promotes the discovery of one’s own identity. This will come to pass if the following two stages of the educational and up- bringing process are put into practice: listening (this is the time when the identi- fication, harmony and the ideas and suggestions which are given by the narrator shall take place), and secondly (a conscious, deliberate, intentional acceptance of attitudes and values or, alternatively, intentional negation of these values, not based on chance). For example, it would be advisable for communication between generations in Silesian families to be based on such values as proper hard work, responsibility or an altruistic instinct to help others. Perhaps it is still necessary to verify the definition and understanding of authority, as one that does not necessarily have to be indivisibly linked with an official authorita- Attitudes towards tradition and their consequences… 57 tive function. Thus, a creative approach to tradition still finds strong bases in pedagogical and praxeological philosophy.

References

Baszczak, B. (2011). Tożsamość człowieka a pojęcie narracji. Analiza i Egzystencja, 14. Bauman, Z. (2013). Nowoczesność i zagłada. Holokaust — choroba czy produkt cywilizacji? Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie. Dymara, B., Korzeniowska, W., & Ziemski, F. (2002). Dziecko w świecie tradycji. Kraków: Impuls. Grzywak-Kaczyńska, M. (1988). Trud rozwoju. Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Pax. Lalak, D. (2010). Życie jako biografia. Podejście biograficzne w perspektywie pedagogicznej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie „Żak.” Marshall, G. (Ed.) (2008). Słownik socjologii i nauk społecznych. (M. Tabin, Trans.). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Sobol, E. (Ed.) (1993). Słownik Wyrazów Obcych. Warszawa: PWN. Swadźba, U. (2012). Wartości — pracy, rodziny i religii — ciągłość i zmiana. Socjologiczne studium społeczności śląskich, Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Szacki, J. (2011). Tradycja. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Taylor, Ch. (2001). Źródła podmiotowości. Narodziny tożsamości nowoczesnej. Warszawa: PWN.

Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová Jan Amos Komensky University in Prague

Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic in the context of forming regional traditions

Abstract: This study deals with further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic. The text analyzes the current state and possibilities for the development of teaching profession including legislation and motivation tools affecting further education of teachers. The emphasis is put on the analysis of changes in the elementary and secondary education curriculum stressing the importance of regional traditions development and shaping of the teachers’ attitudes. Keywords: further education of teachers, teaching profession, specific research, high school teacher, teaching competencies, legislation on further education of teachers

Introduction

The teaching profession necessitates obtaining further qualifications, which means developing knowledge and skills, that is, professional competencies. Further education of teachers is an integral part of the continuous teaching prac- tice. This process includes the acquisition and improvement of qualifications in a specific field of expertise, but also in the area of pedagogical psychology and andragogical didactics. The kind of further education is mostly up to the teachers themselves; however, motivation and other aspects play a role here, too. Legislation, and possibly the demands of the management of a particular school, are also factors of the essence. Among the pillars of the Czech school system reform is therefore the devel- opment of primary and secondary education. Both of these stages are considered 60 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

very important, as they play a substantial role in the life of each and every individual. Primary education should thus be of a high quality and indiscrimi- nately open to everybody. There are observable limitations in the secondary education though. The latter should be clearly structured and focused on the professional, civic, and personal success of an individual in the society. Young people ought to master the effective ways of learning to be able to assume an active and positive attitude towards life, work and their social environment. The subsequent vocational education aims at acquiring new skills. Only those who want to learn will effectively plan appropriate educational activities during their lifetime, thus becoming the creators of their own life path — with the space and possibilities to fulfill their dreams and interests. Such a quality of life as the one outlined here occupies a central place in today’s pedagogical sciences and has become the object of theories and research within the scope of the reform, which are changing approaches towards the teaching process in the primary and secondary education. Teachers perform the most important role in the ongoing reforms (Veteška, 2001). Curricular reform is a priority in most European countries. According to Veteška (2001), the main objective of the reform efforts is to increase the qual- ity, efficiency, and innovation in education on all its levels and ensure that pu- pils and students develop a positive relationship towards learning and that they are motivated for Lifelong Learning. Stress is put on the development of pupils’ and students’ individualities which is enabled by the variability of educational programs on the school level. There also occurred a significant change in the school climate in general, and in the implementation of pedagogical autonomy in particular. Teaching has been counted among traditional professions for many decades. It is a domain of incessant development. Like other areas, education has to adapt to the ever faster developing society and mainly the demands it puts on individuals. The present day and age is rather dynamic, turbulent, full of mod- ern information and communication technologies. Pupils and students are often overwhelmed by information on the Internet, television, or press. There is in- creasingly less knowledge which they obtain solely thanks to school. It depends on teachers alone how they will mediate the subject matter. The constant stream of changes in education and its unstoppable development as well as efforts to maintain the present-state qualities require well-educated teachers who are pre- pared for changes in education and sufficiently motivated (Václavková, 2014). For modern education system, an educated and highly qualified worker is an appreciated human resource, as we often see it expressed in modern termi- nology. If they possess necessary social and professional competences which make their orientation in today’s world easier, they certainly have an advantage. The initial and further education make up the system of Lifelong Learning and Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 61

Education, which comprises all the activities connected with an individual’s education throughout his or her life path (Veteška, 2011, 2013). The school system in the Czech Republic is in the process of adapting to changes and needs of society. The curricular change was initiated by broader socio-political demands that are, to a considerable extent, determined by the European integration process. Industrial factors also exercise a significant in- fluence on curricular changes. These factors had a modifying impact on the approach towards the objectives and contents of the primary, and later also of the secondary and tertiary education, especially in Central and Eastern Europe after 1990. Politicians come to realize more than ever before that school and school education play an indispensable role for understanding and identification with the processes of the European identity development. It is impossible to perceive Europeanisms in its complexity, since each European Union country approaches the concepts of “national” and “European” in a different way. It was not until recently that the significance of national and regional traditions, that is history, customs, cultural traditions, values, and attitudes started to be emphasized again (Veteška, 2011).

Specificity of the profession of the high school teacher and the curricular development

Teaching profession is one of the most widespread professions in today’s society and its significance is comparatively high. Průcha, Walterová, and Mareš (2009) define teacher as of the basic agent in the educational process, as a qualified pedagogical worker who is co-responsible for the preparation, management, or- ganization, and outcomes of this educational process. In earlier times, a teacher was considered the main subject of education whose priority task was to trans- mit knowledge to pupils. Teachers are perceived in a different way now than they used to be. The scope of their work is quite broad and includes, beside teaching activities (ac- counting for about one third of their working time), other activities, too (Průcha & Veteška, 2014). The teacher is a co-creator of the educational environment, classroom climate, the organizer and coordinator of pupils’ activities, manager and evaluator of the educational process. Teaching profession cannot be limited solely to professional knowledge as it also includes skills, practical experience, and attitudes. Therefore, tha teacher ought to master teaching strategies on both theoretical and practical level, with regard to social and psychological aspects that are brought about by education (Dytrtová & Krhutová, 2009). 62 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

At faculties of philosophy in the Czech Republic which produce the high- est percentage of teachers of Humanities (Czech language, foreign languages, history, civics, pedagogy, andragogy) attention is paid to topics linked with na- tional traditions. In case of Czech culture these are crucial themes such as the arrival of Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century, the activities, and influence of the Roman Emperors and the Czech Kings (Charles IV and Rudolph II) in Prague, the preaching of Magister Jan Hus in the 15th century, the project of King George of Poděbrady aiming at the creation of a political-geographical in the 15th century that would be similar in fashion to today’s Eu- ropean Union; suggestion made by Jan Amos Komensky in the 17th century to create an “organization of united nations”; the humanist work of the first Czechoslovak president Masaryk. An interesting European dimension is also to be found as a message of humanism in the works of the Czech playwright renowned worldwide, Karel Čapek, and the 20th century was completed with the humanist attitudes of the first post-revolutionary president of the Czecho- slovakia, later the Czech Republic, Václav Havel. The school system organization has long been connected with the idea of curriculum. For successful planning and implemention of curriculum it is im- portant to understand how we approach the concept of curriculum and the im- plementation thereof. The comprehensive analysis of various philosophies and theories of curriculum, and their practical ramifications is beyond the scope of this article — in general, it yields a typical picture of the discourse in today’s educational reality. Currently, it is more obvious than ever in the history of mankind that without permanent education an individual will hardly succeed in postmodern society. A learner needs a whole spectrum of abilities and skills, in- cluding relevant knowledge and information competence to succeed in learning. In the present-day globalized world, more and more demands are imposed on teachers. These concern primarily the inclusion of various didactic techniques and new technologies into the educational process. This trend often instigates a movement away from traditional teaching toward forms where pupils are no longer merely passive recipients of information but rather participate in look- ing up and processing various information and shaping their own opinions and attitudes (Václavková, as cited in Veteška & Salivarová, 2013). This goes hand in hand with the demands on further education of teachers which is regulated by law in the Czech Republic. According to ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education) the concept of high school corresponds to the level of upper secondary educa- tion. These are schools that follow basic education and are therefore designed for pupils who are fifteen years old and older. In the Czech Republic, upper secondary education is comprised of various kinds of schools such as upper secondary general school (Czech gymnázium), high school, upper secondary Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 63 technical school, upper secondary vocational school, and conservatoires (Průcha & Veteška, 2014). Act No. 563 of 24 September 2004 on Pedagogical Staff and Amending Some Other Acts, in its section 9 classifies secondary school teachers as fol- lows: •• teacher of general subjects taught at secondary schools; •• teachers of vocational subjects taught at secondary schools; •• teacher of practicum; •• teacher of practicum in the field of medical study subjects; •• teacher of vocational training; •• teacher of vocational training in the field of medical study subjects; •• secondary school teacher who teaches in a class or at a school established for pupils with special educational needs. Upper secondary (vocational) education constitutes a specific situation. Within their professional education and training, the role of teachers involves two aspects: acting as a partner and an expert. Teachers will be able to develop their new professional identity through active adoption of strategies of the system reform. As long as teachers in the countries undergoing a reform are being engaged as key partners, they will have the opportunity to contribute to the implementation of new learning theories and practice directly while imple- menting the reform described in the ETF yearbook — Teachers and Trainers: professionals and Stakeholders in the Reform of Vocational Education and Training (2005, pp. 12—13). The National Education Program which provides background for individual Framework Educational Programs states the objectives of education at the most general level. This strategic document is state-guaranteed and binding for all the stakeholders. Framework Educational Programs (FEP) set specific objectives, forms, length, and compulsory content of general and vocational education according to orientation of each educational area, its organizational structure, professional profile, conditions of implementation and completion of education as well as principles for the development of a school educational program, teaching pupils with special educational needs and the necessary material, per- sonnel and organizational needs, health safety, and security. Framework Education Programs (according to the Education Act) must be based on the latest findings: •• in science whose interesting aspects and practical usage should be mediated by education; •• of pedagogy and psychology on methods and organization of education ap- propriate to the age and level of pupils. In accordance with the new principles of curricular policy presented in National Program for the Development of Education (White Paper, 2005) and included in Education Act on Preschool, Basic, Secondary, Tertiary Professional, 64 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

and Other Education, new system of curricular documents for pupils from 3 to 19 years of age is introduced into the education system. Curricular documents are made on the state levels and school levels. In the system of curricular documents, the state level is presented by the National Education Program and FEP. The National Education Program sees initial education as a whole. FEPs provide binding education frameworks for each stage — preschool, basic, and higher education. On the school level there are school education programs (SEP), which provide background for education at individual schools. National education programs and school education pro- grams are public documents accessible to both pedagogues and non-pedagogues. Among the goals of the ongoing curricular reform is a significant enforce- ment of the role of school (and its partners) in setting educational objectives and contents by designing school education programs which further elaborate and specify the more general framework, that is framework education programs. These stress the balance between the main components of content (knowledge, skills, and attitudes), introduce key competencies which are crucial for success in today’s society and for coping with permanent changes, create sufficient space for systematic education towards toleration, understanding and respect to others, other nations and cultures but also to the environment (sustainable development). Foundations of key competencies can be laid as early as at the preschool age. They are elementary but important not only for a child’s preparation for entering systematic education but also for its further life stages and lifelong learning. Good and sufficient foundations of key competencies laid at the preschool age may be a promise of favorable development and education of a child; insufficient foundations can be, on the contrary, hindrance which may disadvantage a child from the outset of its life and educational path. School education should thus pursue their acquisition. For basic and upper secondary education the following are regarded as key competencies: 1. Learning competencies. 2. Problem-solving competencies. 3. Communication competencies. 4. Social and personal competencies. 5. Civil competencies. 6. Working competencies. For upper secondary technical and vocational education eight key compe- tencies were introduced (the aforementioned ones plus mathematical and ITC competencies). Key competencies present an objective expressed by means of outcomes, in Czech curricular documents generally defined as “sets of expected knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, and values important to personal growth and success of each person.” Key competencies are target states whose attainment should Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 65 be aimed at throughout the whole education. Their conception and content are based on values that are generally accepted by society and on generally shared ideas as to which competencies of the individual contribute to his or her edu- cation, welfare, and success in life and to a strengthening of the functions of civil society (FEP BE, 2005). Competencies are chunks of activity-oriented and practically exploitable outcomes which are complementary and interconnected. They gradually become more complex and more useful (universal application). Acquiring key competencies is a long-lasting and complex process which starts during preschool education, continues during basic and secondary education and takes its definite shape during subsequent life (Framework Education Program for Basic Education, 2007; and Framework Education Program for Preschool Education, 2004). As we can see from the previous text, FEPs do not favor key competen- cies over knowledge. Key competencies are based on knowledge; however, they are something more than that. They enable pupils and students to use this knowledge and make them count in real life. Framework education programs also determine the educational content which is divided into educational areas (e.g. in FEP for basic education nine of them are stated: Language and language communication, Mathematics and its application, Information and communica- tion technologies, Man and his world, Man and society, Man and nature, Arts and culture, man and health, Man and the world of work). Each educational area has certain topics attached to it which are related in terms of content. FEPs also inform on minimal time allotment for each area. Schools are also offered available time allotment, for instance for more lessons in certain educational areas; the compulsory time allotment is firmly given by FEPs, though. On the basis of educational areas, schools proceed to create their own subjects accord- ing to their wish — they may retain the already existing ones, but are allowed to design brand new ones as well. FEPs give schools the duty to include cross-curricula subjects in their education. As their name suggests, they penetrate all the educational areas and interconnect the educational content; for example in FEP BE they are: •• Personal and social education; •• Democratic education; •• Education towards thinking in European and global contexts; •• Multicultural education; •• Environmental education; •• Media education. A separate framework educational program is being prepared for each field of study, and the original 800 fields of study are being reduced to 250 and defined more broadly. Consequently, technical school framework educational programs are prepared by the National Institution of Technical and Vocational Education gradually, and the process of approving these programs is divided 66 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

into several phases. During the first phase 61 FEPs were approved (July 2007); during the second phase, it was 82 FEPs (May 2008); during the third phase 82 FEPs (May 2009). In the fourth to sixth phases, 55 FEPs were created. Schools are going to start teaching according to the new FEPs of the sixth phase since the 1 September 2015.

Further education of teachers and the development of teacher competencies

According to Průcha (2009), teacher education can be characterized as lifelong development of professional competencies, which follows the initial teacher training. Further education of teachers comprises all the activities that serve the purpose of maintaining and increasing present professional competence of teachers as well as those activities in which teachers take part in order to broaden and improve their knowledge and skills, and to develop their profes- sional attitudes. Schools focus selected subjects on the development of regional traditions in the context of integration between European and world cultures, they deal with the topics of social globalization, perception of regional history (customs, traditions, and cultural heritage) their possible use for the develop- ment of an individual within society. Kohnová et al. (1995) describes further education of teachers as a system- atic, coordinated and continuous process which follows the pre-graduate educa- tion and continues throughout the whole teaching career. She also describes it as a socially significant area of adult education. Teachers find themselves in a network of needs — the ones concerning education policy, needs of school and, primarily, in the network of their own educational needs and interests. It is often very difficult to identify and analyze these needs and find one’s bearing. Broadly speaking, we can see several groups of teacher needs which are related to various competencies. Goal-oriented education and all types of learning centered on competence lead to successful personal and professional development and positive per- ception of society as a lively and changing organism (Veteška, as cited in Veteška et al., 2011). Some authors identified eight basic areas of teacher competencies (Vašutová, 2004), whereas Lazarová (2006) delimitates two main spheres of teacher educa- tional needs. The summary of the mentioned views can be presented as follows 1. Expertise-related competencies: —— the need for education in one’s own area of expertise in order to increase one’s knowledge and skills. Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 67

2. Didactic and psycho-didactic competencies: —— the need for obtaining knowledge on new teaching methods, forms and means to be used in the teaching process. 3. Diagnostic and intervention competencies: —— the need to deepen one’s knowledge on the diagnosing and correction of learning disabilities, crisis intervention, career counselling, evaluation of pupils etc. 4. Social, psycho-social and communicative competencies: —— the need to perfect one’s abilities and skills in communication with pupils, parents, colleagues, school management, etc. 5. Pedagogical competencies: —— the need to have a general picture and information in questions of educa- tion, school system, and trends in education; 6. Managerial and normative competencies: —— the need to obtain knowledge of school legislation, education policy, cooperation on projects or for instance organizing internship. 7. Competencies of professional and personal cultivation: —— teacher’s interest in personal growth, the development of personal and emotional aspects of intelligence, etc. 8. Other prerequisites for the development of teacher competencies. The aim of competency-based education is, in general, for teachers to be able to successfully, efficiently and purposefully handle the various school situa- tions and tasks which they encounter in their profession; they are also supposed to gradually become more autonomous in reaching personal and especially social goals (Veteška, 2010).

Teacher education in the context of national identity

Further education of teachers, that is, further education of pedagogical staff in the Czech Republic is given by legislation and specified in Acts and Decrees. The topic of further education in the Czech Republic is dealt with in the Act No. 563/2004 Collection of Laws, on pedagogical staff and the Decree No. 317/2005 Collection of Laws, on further education of pedagogical staff. Act No. 563/2004 Collection of Laws regulates in general provisions the prerequisites for the performance of duties by pedagogical staff, their working hours, their further education, and the career scheme. The Act also defines a pedagogical worker as a person who performs direct teaching, direct edu- cational function, or direct special educational needs activities or direct peda- gogical-psychological activities directly affecting learners. Title II § 9 focuses 68 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

on secondary school teachers who are divided into more groups according to types of schools. The Act also determines working hours and the scope of direct pedagogical activities. According to this Act, pedagogical staff has the duty to participate in further education as long as they perform their profession in order to renew, maintain, and complete their qualification for 12 days of a school year. It also determines that a head teacher shall organize further education of pedagogical staff. The study interests of a pedagogical worker, the school needs, and budget, etc. are to be taken into account (Václavková, 2014). The aforementioned Decree No. 317/2005 Collection of Laws, on further education of pedagogical staff determines the kinds of further education of pedagogical staff and establishments which enable this education. It also de- termines the accreditation commission, its composition and activities, with the aim to regulate the offer of educational programs. According to Bareš (Kohnová & Macháčková, 2007), although strategic documents and legislation react to the necessity of further education of peda- gogical staff and emphasize its key significance, there are still a number of unsolved problems. The most obvious negatives along with the positives are presented in the following juxtaposition.

Positive and negative aspects of further education of pedagogical staff (FEPS) High popularity of topics, educational forms, and methods used Wide offer of FEPS programs provided to schools Convenient location and time possibilities of programs on offer + Free choice between accredited programs Responsibility of head teacher for professional growth of pedagogical staff Duty of pedagogical staff to pursue education throughout their teaching career Flexible content of programs on offer with the possibility of adaption to current needs There is no significant statistic research of FEPS Little connection between further education and career system of pedagogical staff; still no clear link between participating in educational activities and career progress There is no system of recognition of qualification gained through self-study or partici- pating in similar seminars by the same or other organization Educational programme offer is not structured in a user-friendly way; programs are offered in different ways, through different means and in a scattered manner – Standards of some educational events are only set for certain themes There are no analyses of the educational content; no record is kept of what educational events took place, how many clients participated, how many teachers were schooled during these events, etc. Very few long-term programs are made that would be significant for education policy There is no system for monitoring the work of lecturers; certification of lecturers takes place separately in just some programs S o u r c e: Václavková (2014). Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 69 Research realization and methodology

This study brings selected results of specific research entitled “Analysis of the system of upper secondary school teacher education in the Czech Republic” which was carried out from April 2013 to June 2014 at Jan Amos Komensky University, Prague. Between September and December 2013 the actual data col- lecting was realized and results were obtained from teachers who at the time had been employed in selected institutes offering further education of pedagogical staff, and at upper secondary schools in the Czech Republic. Controlled inter- view was used as a method, whereby individual upper secondary school teach- ers were addressed. This way partial information was obtained concerning the current state of teacher education in the Czech Republic; at the same time, the analysis of motivation tools for further education was carried out. This method of data collection was selected despite the amount of time needed for both the data collection as well as answering and processing results. The controlled interview consisted of several parts. The upper secondary school teachers who participated were given an opportunity to express their opinions about various aspects connected with their further education. The in- terview displayed four basic themes (Table 1) on which the participants could comment at length if they wished to. These themes made up the skeleton of the interview. The interview provided the interviewer with prompt/immediate replies and a chance to ask additional questions. The outcomes were subse- quently analyzed and interpreted in the forms of tables and charts, and finally the conclusions were drawn. T a b l e 1 Basic themes of controlled interview Theme Basic theme of interview Aims no. 1. availability of informa- This theme aimed to find out about the ways in which teach- tion about courses of fur- ers learn about course offers and whether or not they consid- ther teacher education at ered the offers sufficient with ample possibilities of thematic a given school. selection corresponding with their professional orientation. 2. attitude of the head teach- The aim was to obtain the information on how the head er towards further educa- teacher addresses further education of teachers and whether tion of his/her teachers. he/she orders them to participate or shows relaxed approach. 3. motivation aspects of fur- This aimed to find out about the motivation of upper sec- ther education. ondary school teachers to participate in further education; whether it is money, career, satisfaction of self-education, getting away from everyday routine, etc. 4. positive/negative reactions The fourth theme aimed to elicit opinions of upper second- to undergone educational ary school teachers, their experiences, the perceived value of courses. courses, the lecturer personality. S o u r c e: Václavková (2014). 70 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

In total, 355 upper secondary school teachers took part in the research; their distribution by sex (Table 2), length of professional experience (Figure 1), type of school (Table 3) is presented in the figures and tables that follow. Out of the 355 analyzed teachers, 164 were men, which is 46%, and 191 were women, which accounts for 54% of the total (see Table 2).

T a b l e 2 Distribution of respondents by sex Respondent distribution Number Percent Men 164 46 Women 191 54 S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

The research also took into account the length of professional experience. The age distribution covered the entire scope of the production age, which cor- responded to the length of professional experience (Figure 1). All the analyzed teachers had been teaching at upper secondary schools since the attaining of their undergraduate studies. The majority of them, more specifically 94 (27%), stated the length of their professional experience as being between 1 and 5 years; whereas for 92 (26%) of them it was between 16 and 20 years. The group of teachers whose professional experience was 6—10 years ranks third in the chart and encompasses 68 teachers (19%).

Figure 1. Length of professional experience of respondents S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

Teachers were subsequently divided according to their area of expertise. Most of the analyzed teachers (61%) stated that they taught general educa- tion subjects. They were for the most part teachers at upper secondary general schools — gymnázium (Figure 2 presents statutory authority and number of Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 71 upper secondary general schools in regions of the Czech Republic), but also teachers at business academies, academies of agriculture, or secondary social schools. From the gender viewpoint, the latter was mostly stated by women.

Figure 2. Upper secondary general schools in the Czech Republic by type and location as of 31 2011 S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

As many as 25% of teachers in the research stated to be qualified to teach- ing vocational subjects of various specializations. Only a small part of teachers said they taught practical training (9%) or vocational training (19%). From the gender viewpoint, the latter was mostly stated by men. The percentage of upper secondary school teachers by their subjects corresponds to the overall composition of upper secondary school education system in the Czech Repub- lic, where there have been noticeable changes since 1989, mostly in terms of the increase in number of upper secondary general schools and upper second- ary vocational schools and in the decrease in the number of upper secondary vocational schools. 72 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

T a b l e 3 Distribution of respondents by area of expertise within their qualification Upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic by their area of Number of Percent expertise respondents Teachers of general educational subjects 218 61 Teachers of vocational subjects 86 25 Teachers of practical training (specialization: healthcare) 32 9 Teachers of vocational training 19 5 S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

Evaluation of research outcomes

The following commentary on the research outcomes is based on the out- line (the skeleton of the interview) described in Table 1. Teachers are mostly informed by the head teacher about the further education possibilities or other theme-specific courses. This option was selected by majority of teachers — 340 (96%) out of 355. The most frequent way used by head teachers to convey materials and information about further education is the school email, more specifically, by forwarding original email from educational organiza- tions/institution offering a given training. Teachers pointed out that they often received offers which do not correspond with their area of expertise. The second most frequently selected option was obtaining the information from colleagues in a form of a recommendation in favor of certain educational events which they had personally attended or being warned about the less sensible ones (59% of all teachers). Paradoxically enough, a large number of teachers admitted that they let the subjective opinion of their colleagues influence their own to a considerable measure. Comparatively few teachers (17%) stated that the search for information about possibilities of further education was made out of their own initiative through a use of web pages of educational institutions. As little as 6% of the analyzed teachers mentioned in the controlled interview other ways of obtaining information about fur- ther education (e.g. information leaflets in their traditional mailboxes, from a lecturer during another educational event, etc.). Figure 3 clearly illustrates that respondents could choose more options to answer this question and they did so. Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 73

Figure 3. Ways of getting information about further educational possibilities S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

During the controlled interview, the interviewees had the possibility to express their opinion about thematic orientation of educational offers. Their re- sponses are presented in the Figure 4. It seems a positive phenomenon that 29% (“definitely yes” option) and 55% (“probably yes” option) of the interviewees stated that, in their opinion, the further educational offer was fairly varied as to thematic focus, which they considered satisfying. Their answers showed that those teachers who are interested in further education are definitely not hindered by insufficient offers by Czech education institutes. Only 19 of the analyzed upper secondary school teachers (5%) were not at all satisfied with the offers by institutes for further education of teachers. Active or passive approach and views held by head teachers about further education is reflected in teachers’ attitude towards this issue. Interviewees stated that they were very perceptive of their head teacher and if he or she manifests relaxed or even negative attitude to further education, they did not feel any need to pursue it either. Figure 5 shows that the great majority of upper secondary school head teachers in the Czech Republic have a very positive and pro-active approach to this issue. Quite a large number of respondents (40%) admitted that their head teachers do perceive further education as positive but take a rather passive role. In practice, this means that they do not mind teachers’ interest in further education but they rather enable them to leave their workplace, reward them financially, but do not actively try to mediate course offers or search for any. 74 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

Figure 4. Variety of further education courses for upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

Figure 5. Attitudes of head teachers to further education of their teachers S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

Motivation is without a doubt the basic prerequisite for the teacher further education to be successful. It is also a necessary condition of the efficiency thereof. However, motivation in itself is a very complicated process, a complex network of inner and outer rational as well as emotional stimuli which are fre- quently elusive in terms of research or analysis (Lazarová, 2006). Teachers are mostly aware of the necessity of further education and usu- ally regard themselves as motivated and open to further education. At the same time, they mention various factors which pose limitations and complications to Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 75 their further education. These are, for example, the heavy workload, tiredness, stress, lack of time, financial demands, being irreplaceable at school, as well as problems with commuting to work or family problems, etc. As we can see in Table 4, motives do not differ so much between men and women, but they are rather correlated with the length of professional ex- perience. Respondents mentioned a large number of motivational factors that play an integral role in their decision-making process in favor or against their further education. For the sake of this paper, the most frequent answers have been selected. Higher financial reward promised by head teachers is a relatively signifi- cant motivational factor concerning further education. Money plays the biggest role for teachers whose length of professional experience is 6—10 years where 93% of respondents from this group expressed this option. It is also signifi- cant among teachers with professional experience longer than 20 years. Into the 6—10 years group fall, for example, women on or after maternity leave who mentioned the need for higher salary for the sake of family support and household maintenance. Higher financial reward as source of motivation sup- ports the idea of the so-called career system project. This project deals with the long-awaited career system in schools which will enable teachers and head teachers to increase the quality of their work in connection with a motivational system of rewarding that will function according to clearly stated rules. Increase in professional skills and improvement of the working conditions of pedagogi- cal staff have been among the priorities of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. To fulfill this priority it is necessary to create multilevel standards for teachers and head teachers, describe conditions and possibilities of career growth, prepare evaluation processes and design institutional and financial cov- erage of the whole system. Another interesting factor is the possibility of keeping one’s job. The research found that the longer the professional experience of upper second- ary school teachers in the Czech Republic, the more important is to them the security of having their jobs. Respondents in the group with 11 to 15 years of professional experience or more, have the biggest fear of younger teachers who have no trouble using modern didactic technologies (interactive board, the Internet, tablet) and apply them to a great extent in the teaching process. Educational courses frequented by these older respondents are not focused on the subject of their expertise but rather on using new methods and aids in teaching. Personal interest in the area of expertise and expanding competencies is an important motivational factor for further education of teachers. As many as 86% of beginning teachers with professional experience under 5 years most often selected this option. Teacher with the shortest professional experience seek to obtain certificates from courses related to their further education. This 76 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

motivational factor gradually loses its significance as teachers gain years of professional experience. It is positive to see that teachers do not perceive further education as neces- sary evil accompanying their careers. Many of them even manage to discover in it a source of amusement, relaxation and possibility to get away from every- day routines. A large number of the teachers stated that the educational events helped them find new friends from all over the Czech Republic with whom they maintain contact, plan other educational events and share experience and teaching materials. Among other motivational factors to be found in the answers was the ac- quisition of new teaching materials or feeling of personal satisfaction stemming from self-improvement.

T a b l e 4

Motivational aspects towards further education of teachers (percent) Length of professional experience [%] Motivational factor 0—5 6—10 11—15 16—20 over years years years years 20 years Higher financial reward 73 93 77 82 91 Keeping job 15 33 57 66 7 Personal interest in area of expertise and/ 86 72 70 59 68 or certain topics Obtaining a certificate 39 21 14 7 9 Entertainment, relaxation 69 49 30 69 71 S o u r c e: Václavková (2014).

The last part which this study deals with is focused on subjective evaluation of courses that teachers attended. Most teachers were satisfied with the courses they attended. Teachers have mostly positive experience with further education and their participation in educational events is perceived as being worthwhile. Respondents praised a wide range of instructional methods (lecture, seminar, experimental teaching, or field education) used in adults education these day, they also appreciated positive and friendly approach of institutes as well as lecturers, and modernly equipped instruction places. Nearly all the respondents agreed that the personality of lecturer is the most important element of the entire event. The lecturer has the biggest influence on the success of the educational event and its positive evaluation. Further education of upper secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic… 77 Conclusion

Today’s world is changing and so are educational needs. There is no doubt that education belongs among the most important factors of the development of an individual and society. Education policy should promptly react to both inner and outer changes of economic and social nature and bring such educational offers and possibilities which will lead to effective education and development (Veteška, 2011). The significance or even crucial role of teachers in the education of pu- pils and students at schools is beyond any doubt. Our globalized era brings increasing social requirements for teachers. Not only must an upper secondary school teacher be educated in his or her field of expertise and pedagogy but is supposed to possess overall knowledge. This is based on deep general and vo- cational education as well as pedagogical education (general pedagogy, hygiene in school, didactics, psychology, teaching methods of vocational subjects, etc.). We can actually come across teachers who show great active interest in further education, search for topics that suit their individual needs, do not rely merely on offers mediated by school but rather follow journals, internet sites and reflect upon references from their colleagues. And there are, of course, teachers who passively wait for an offer to come and rely fully on what school offers to them. More arguments in favor of higher significance of teachers and lecturers of further education are provided by the so-called new learning theories which promote active participation of students in their own learning development. These theories are based on the latest findings from various disciplines such as psychology and medicine. Among new topics that appeared in school educa- tion curricula are “People and their world” (containing the following thematic areas: People and time, People around us, The place where we live, Diversity of nature, People and their health). Another important educational area linked with the V4 project is “People and society” (containing: History and civil education — roots of European culture; A divided and integrating world). There is an extra part to vocational education of teachers or their lifelong education that is realized by means of educational courses organized by the state, semi-state, or non-profit institutes. They are aimed at teachers who work mainly on the first and second stage of schools and their objective is to increase their knowledge on framework educational programs. As to education towards national traditions, customs, values, and attitudes, pupils are familiarized with these during their schools attendance within the school subjects; there are also possibilities of other related activities (visiting museums, exhibitions, theaters), mutual visits between boarder region schools, exchange stays, school trips (e.g. for language learning and fostering good 78 Jaroslav Veteška, Markéta Václavková, Kateřina Ducháčová

neighbor relationship: in Czech-German, Czech-Slovak, and Czech-Polish bor- der regions).

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Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher University of Silesia

The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions

Abstract: The article is a research report on difficulties in implementing selected assumptions of regional education in pre-school and primary school. The results compelled the authors to reflect on the quality of professional teachers’ performance of tasks (and problems that hinder or prevent the process) related to cultivating regional traditions of the local communities in which they work. The conclusions of the said reflections constitute the main topic of the present study. Keywords: teacher, regional traditions

Introduction

In both the academic discourse and everyday conversations there is a palpable axiological uncertainty stemming from the deluge of information and the result- ant concern for the future of next generations. Sometimes those feelings are accompanied by the lack of awareness of the urgent need for change — which constitutes the nature of everything around us — as well as by the attempts at resorting to the past, that is, tradition, in order to anchor one’s own existence in it. In the meantime, the said changes transpire but, at the same time, the odds to predict their trajectory and quality are almost nonexistent. We merely try to cope creatively with the man-made reality, giving a start to a new, different dimension of culture in the process. The habit of participating in culture is formed, on the one hand, based on the organized systematic education, on the other hand, however, it is acquired through the process of acculturation which includes external influences. The latter relate to the close and more distant surroundings, financial resources, 82 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

as well as a person’s inner needs which, in turn, are shaped in the course of integrating oneself into the culture of one’s own region, country or a particular civilization type. Interpreting the notion of culture in a broad way, following Krystyna Ferenc (2003) we can say that it is “a sphere of the world protecting the man against the total domination of narrowly utilitarian, technocratic solu- tions” (p. 7). At the same time, we should assume that the central category of thinking about culture is the concept of value, along with a hierarchy of values, modes of affirmation and performance. In this context, cultural education be- comes either the culture’s derivative or its function (Ferenc, 2003), and regional education represents an immanent part of thus defined cultural education, as integration into one’s environment allows the individual to create/form a bond with other people and, at the same time, acknowledge his or her own identity. The issue of upholding regional cultures’ heritage in Polish schools has been controversial for various reasons over different periods of our recent history. In the times immediately after the Second World War, the perception of this problem was particularly disturbed; the then political regime coerced people into taking actions to “erase” the genuine regional traditions, promoting a prescriptive approach in cultural education focusing on political issues. Even when this question was raised, the traditions from before the Second World War were replaced with the “interpretation” thereof that would emphasize so- cialist ideology (Sośnierz, 1999). The context of this type of regional politics prompted understandable social resistance, creating negative attitudes towards the phenomena of local culture, which later discouraged also the young from cultivating traditions in their regions. What is more, in the Polish Regained Ter- ritories people from different regions of pre-war Poland were mingled together, which made it possible to draw a dividing line between “us” and “them.” It took us a lot of time to be able to look at the cultural potential of our own regions with benevolence and interest, after the exhilarating experience of regaining freedom in the year 1989 and becoming a part of the Western culture. In this day and age, the acculturation process of the European youth is strongly influenced by the mass media impacting their attitudes, type of mentality and lifestyles, and certainly the level of their participation in culture. It partially results from the “excess of choice” — that is, inability to cope with free- market situation, “whose main features are transitoriness, novelty, consumerist temptations, when relativism in evaluations makes people accept a simplified and often infantile offer” (Pielasińska, 1996, p. 113). One should expect that integration into one’s own regional culture naturally occurs in the family setting. Children are expected to inherit patterns of cultural behavior from their parents who, in turn, took them over from the previous generations. However, a very important role in cultivating regional traditions is performed by primary school teachers, especially those convinced of the value of tradition and emerging from (brought up in) the same community they later work for. Culture is a key factor The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 83 in social development and it involves a great variety of activities, artifacts and products of human thought. Some belong to canon, which means they are of timeless value, others represent peripheral phenomena and objects (Kozielecki, 1997, p. 186). In the meantime, over the last few decades, the mass media have become a permanent, perhaps the major, element of culture, and they are often the source of mediocre contents which — due to generally acknowledged aesthetic standards — will not enter the canon. Thus, cultural education, the one that would encompass the mass media, seems necessary. This thesis can be supported by the results of the research into teachers’ expectations concerning regional education, conducted ten years after the political transformation took place in our country. Then, the teachers already suggested including into the course of studies elements of regional ethnography, culture, language, geogra- phy, history, and economy. As the research was conducted in Silesia, it was expected that the teachers’ didactic work in regional education should include: Silesian culture, folklore, traditions and customs, history of the region, local dia- lect, legends and literature of the region, Silesian monuments and architecture, and important figures in the region. Then, the teachers expected to be given an opportunity to participate in special courses, workshops and lectures, and gain additional qualifications. These expectations have been met to some extent, but rather in the case of requirements for the teachers than in the case of helping them to gain qualifications in regional education (Budniak, 1999, pp. 62—63). School has always been an active agent in the process of preserving re- gional traditions. Education and content knowledge may shape students’ at- titudes towards their own region and their sense of belonging. What is more, “regional education does not constitute a section of education, but refers to education as a whole” (Budniak, 1999, p. 63). A significant confirmation of the need for regional education development is the act adopted by the Ministry of Education in 1995, entitled Cultural Heritage in the Region (Grabowska, 1995), which provided an education program for teachers and educators in the then schools and preschools and stressed the necessity of cooperation between educational institutions and the local community. Regardless of the ministerial recommendations currently in force, teacher is the most important figure who acquaints the pupils with regional traditions and knows about both the manner of their implementation and the way to perpetuate them (Kostewicz, Hulewska, & Słomska, 2006). Based on their steady educational contact with children, teachers are in a position to encourage them to share traditions and beliefs of the region they live in. Thus, it is the teacher who has to be educated in the field in question and given an opportunity to work on issues connected with this topic, he or she should engage in regional education, instead of implementing tasks being part of regional education or introducing incidental regionalisms in the teaching process (Sacher, 1999), which may only stand as the substi- 84 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

tutes of the genuine contact with regional tradition and culture, and as such are uninteresting to pupils. Before we move on to discussing the teachers’ actual activities aimed at cultivating cultural traditions in modern school, we will briefly present the qualifications required from them and their areas of professional activities. The document which describes the aforesaid fields is the Act on the School Educa- tion System of 7 September 1991, the Act “The Teacher’s Charter” of 26 Janu- ary 1982, and other detailed directives concerning the organization and course of the educational process implemented in public preschools, schools and other educational and care institutions. Based on the above, there can be distinguished four basic areas of the teacher’s professional activity: 1. Teaching, education, and day care. 2. Cooperation at school/in the institution. 3. Activity for the benefit of the community, or activity within the community. 4. Professional training/development (Pituła & Sacher, 2013). The above-mentioned areas include tasks whose performance constitutes the necessary requirement for professional teachers. In the area of teaching, education, and day care, the teacher is obliged to: •• create the optimal conditions for the accelerated development of pupils; •• further the educational process in a proper and efficient way; •• be prepared for systematic pupils’ cognition and monitoring their achieve- ments; •• prepare pupils for independent work; •• prepare them for satisfactory functioning in the society; •• enable them to make right choices concerning their education and profession; •• prepare them to take responsibility for their actions; •• teach them how to develop their own career/how to plan and manage their educational path; •• systematically cooperate with the pupils’ parents/legal guardians. In the area of cooperation at school/in the institution, the teacher is obliged to: •• participate in the process of school/institution management; •• create a good atmosphere for cooperation between teachers and other school/ institution workers. In the area of social activity, which is naturally related to the need to cultivate regional traditions, the teacher is obliged to: •• activate the community to participate in the educational process and support the pupils’ development; •• cooperate with institutions supporting the pupils’ development; •• undertake actions (which can be perceived as unusual, original) aimed at community integration. In the area of professional development, the teacher is obliged to keep up-to- date and verify his or her factual knowledge as well as his or her knowledge The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 85 of methodology, pedagogy and psychology, to reflect on his or her pedagogic activity and systematically document it (Goźlińska, 2005). Even this general presentation of the scope of the teacher’s tasks allows us to conclude that the teacher’s profession involves educational activity which is multi-faceted, multi-contextual, and, what is more, the require- ments are inconsistent, unclear and they induce a lot of psychological strain (Białkowski, Grusiewicz & Michalak, 2010; Kwiatkowska, 2008). It also seems that any attempt to analyze the process of professional activity will require looking at it from the perspective of the three basic skills which determine the quality of performance related to the teacher’s professional role (Kwiatkowska, 2008). They include communicative skills, empathizing and decision-making skills. The teacher’s communicative competence is the major determinant of his or her pupils’ achievements. The integral element of the latter is a high level of motivation to the long-term and systematic intellectual effort. The level of the pupil’s motivation for learning is also influenced by material motivators (the use of different prizes) as well as symbolic ones (the so-called good word or a friendly gesture) (Brophy, 2002). Thus, it is important that the teachers not only have the knowledge of motivators and competence how to use them, but also actually use them in a proper and systematic way (Pituła & Sacher, 2013). The character of the teacher’s work requires taking into consideration the children’s and adolescents’ natural developmental features; in the case of individuals who are emotionally disturbed or immature, the teacher has to refer to directives and control their behavior. In order to implement the directives successfully the teacher has to be empathetic. The pupil’s crea- tive activity cannot be stimulated without positive emotions expressed by the teacher. It is simply not feasible to educate responsible and internally integrated individuals without genuine joy, care, acceptance and trust, which are not possible without understanding for and approval of otherness. Such empathetic contact of the teacher with the pupil makes it possible for the latter to develop in an unrestrained way. At present a lot of attention is devoted to the teaching and educating organ- ized in cooperation that requires conferring some rights to all group members, and implies the necessity for a democratic approach to the classroom manage- ment (which has been popularized for many years, not only in pedagogy). In this context, it should be noted that although the teacher participates in the decision-making process, the responsibility for decision-making is shifted from the teacher alone to the whole group including both the pupils and the teacher (Arends, 1994). To be able to successfully perform the managerial function and organize pupils’ activities, the teacher has to be able to make different kinds of decisions, divided according to varied management criteria: 86 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

•• planning — concerning the division of content knowledge, order of its pres- entation and importance, etc.; •• organizational — relating to the proper use of time and space of teaching; •• coordinating — stimulating and motivating to work, and providing some useful knowledge and hints; •• commanding — being an expression of the teacher’s formal power, legitimiz- ing his or her necessary decisions of authoritarian nature; •• monitoring — checking and verifying the pupils’ knowledge, acquired skills and opinions presented (Arends, pp. 59—95). In the light of the contemporary cultural conditions and the teachers’ pro- fessional obligations mentioned above, cultivating regional traditions seems to be obvious and necessary, but at the same time it is hindered by many obsta- cles. Teachers themselves are under the influence of the environment which has formed them. And the process of cultivating regional traditions depends solely on teachers’ knowledge of regional culture and their awareness of the need to educate children and adolescents about it. If, apart from possessing the knowledge, teachers are convinced of the rightness of the content knowledge selection, they may be able to provide the pupils with an alternative for the mass media culture and introduce them to the world of values cherished by their ancestors, and in this way engage them in the process of cultivating regional tradition.

The research procedure and method

The aim of our research is to identify and describe difficulties that occur, ac- cording to the opinions expressed by teachers, in the regional tradition cultiva- tion. It was also possible to formulate an indirect aim of the research, namely a diagnosis concerning teachers’ attitudes towards thetradition of their own region. As a result, defining the main obstacles in cultivating regional traditions, along with teachers’ views/take on those difficulties, constitute the paramount aim of our research. The main problem of the research has been formulated in the following way: do teachers notice any difficulties in cultivating regional traditions? If so, how do they cope with them? In order to find the answer to the above research problem, we decided to, first of all, utilize the survey as a data collecting method. We elaborated our research tool by previously testing it during a pilot study conducted in Siemia­ nowice Śląskie on a group of 10 teachers working in different types of schools. This foregoing study allowed us to improve the survey both with respect to linguistic correctness and contents, so that the questions should become clear The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 87 and the elicited data more reliable. The questionnaire consists of 15 questions: four of them open-ended ones, two yes/no questions, seven multiple-choice questions and two questions which require rating items on a scale. It enabled us to evaluate the intensity of certain phenomena as perceived by the respondents. In addition, the main problem is going to be analyzed in detailed questions, which will enable us to provide a thorough description of the phenomena under our scrutiny, indicated by the teachers during the survey. The questions are the following: 1. What do the teachers know about traditions in their own region? 2. What sources of knowledge do they use? 3. What is the teachers’ attitude towards traditions in their own region? 4. What activities do the teachers use to form pupils’ positive attitudes towards regional traditions? 5. Which cultural phenomena, according to the teachers, pose problems in regional tradition cultivation? 6. What is the degree of pupils’ identification with their regional culture, ac- cording to the teachers? 7. Does popular culture hinder the process of cultivating the regional traditions? If so, to what extent? 8. Do the teachers introduce any educational activities in order to overcome difficulties in the process of cultivating regional traditions? If so, what kind of activities do they apply?

Results of the research

The research proper was conducted in primary schools in Bytom, in January 2015. We distributed 120 questionnaires, 116 were returned, yet only 108 of them were fully completed, which means they could be qualified for our analy- sis. Thus N = 108. The research group of teachers is characterized by similar formal education. The group was not differentiated with respect to gender, as all the respondents were women. Table 1 presents the data concerning the number of respondents, their work experience, level of professional advancement and subjects taught. The table presenting the research group clearly shows that the majority of teachers gained the title of appointed teacher and their work experience ranges from 16 to 26 years in the profession. The title of certified teacher was bestowed upon 44 teachers who constitute precisely 50% of the group in question with the work experience between 26—30 years. The least numerous group is the one of contract teachers consisting of 4 respondents, that is, approximately 4%. 88 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

T a b l e 1 General information about the researched group (N = 108) Work experience number Level of professional number Subjects taught of teach- advancement of years ers 0—5 5 degree N name N name N 6—10 14 nauczyciel 4 Mathematics 16 History 2 kontraktowy and society 11—15 12 (contract teacher) Religion 10 Elementary 15 education 16—20 31 nauczyciel 60 Polish 9 Preschool 11 mianowany education 21—25 17 (appointed teacher) Foreign 19 Musical 7 language education 26—30 18 nauczyciel 44 Computer 7 Biology 8 dyplomowany education < 30 2 (certified teacher) School 3 Art 1 education N — number of individuals/teachers in the examined sample S o u r c e: the authors’ original research.

The research overview of the group of teachers shows that the level of their formal qualifications is generally appropriate, as all of them have MA degrees and qualifications in pedagogy. As many as 16 teachers have some additional qualifications gained during postgraduate studies or other courses (≈ 16%). In order to interpret the research results providing the answer to the main question of our study, we described the teachers’ level of knowledge of tradi- tions in their own region and its sources. Since the research was conducted in Silesia, it concerns the knowledge of traditions existing in this particular region. The answers to the open-ended questions provided us with the names of traditional rituals and customs known from different sources to the teachers. The frequency of their occurrence and their sources are presented in Table 2. Analyzing the data presented in Table 2, we cannot fail to notice that Si- lesian traditions are closely related to religious rituals, which results from the fact that cultivation of traditions was, among others, an expression of national identity and affiliation to Silesian community (Szołtysek, 1998). It is related to the complicated history of the region as well as to the ethos of work which has been highly valued and constituted the source of pride for many genera- tions of Silesians. The fact that teachers so rarely refer to literature to learn more about their own region (8 respondents, 7.4%) is rather worrisome, and all this despite the available literature on the subject is quite rich (Gawlik & Olbert, 1995; Hryń-Kuśmierek & Śliwa, 1998; Reszka, 2002; Synowiec, 1997; Szczepański, 1998; and others). The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 89

T a b l e 2 Regional traditions known to the respondents and their sources mentioned by them Sources of the Number of Number of Name of the regional tradition knowledge about the mentions references tradition Barbórka (St. Barbara’s Day, which is also 98 family 51 Miners’ Day) Christmas Eve, Dzieciątko (The Baby [Jesus]) 106 Christmas rituals and family meetings 108 Easter rituals and customs, Easter Bunny 99 work 21 regional cuisine 61 Babski comber (women’s party) 42 going with the Old Man 12 local media 98 the Epiphany pageant 16 plucking (pluckers) 27 carollers (Christmas carols singing) 62 nationwide media 101 Dożynki (parochial harvest festival) 19 gwarki (miners) 44 Legends 46 local community 92 Traditions 51 Gaik (country folks’ spring festival) 29 offering during the mass 4 literature 8 drowning an effigy of Marzanna to celebrate 87 the end of winter Corpus Christi procession 8 Politeness formulae used to express respect for 2 the elderly and relatives S o u r c e: the authors’ original research; the mentions do not add up to 108, as the respondents had a multiple choice.

What is more, the majority of the respondents come from Silesia (103 re- spondents), and/or they live and work here (108). It can be explained by the fact that 79 of them (73.1%) are indecisive about identifying with the region, 15 of them (13.8%) do not relate to the region, some of them completely deny any identification with Silesia (5 respondents, 4.6%). Only nine of the questioned teachers declare a strong bond with Silesia (8.3%). Such results also provide an answer to another question: not all the respondents, as could be expected, support the idea of introducing regional content knowledge to schools and preschools. Although the number of persons who are against it is small (16 respondents, 14.8%), the fact is rather worrying in the context of ministerial recommendations on cultivating regional traditions in the education process. It is highly probable that these teachers avoid the use of this content knowledge in their work with pupils. Assuming that a single teacher is in charge of 27 pupils 90 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

on average, we can conclude that approximately 400 pupils may be deprived of regional education. Certainly, investigating the problem would require further research in which pupils should be questioned, but it is not our goal here. The questioned teachers do not show sufficient awareness of traditions ex- isting in their region. Asked to discuss their regional identity, they were not able to mention any rituals, customs and patterns of behavior specific to inhabitants of Silesia, other than those acquired during the acculturation process (see Table 2). There exists a clear relation between the teachers’ awareness of regional traditions and the activities they initiate during their work at school. Apart from typical Silesian celebrations and rituals, the respondents also mentioned a nice custom consisting in presenting children starting their school career with tyta — that is, a colorfully decorated big cardboard cone filled with sweets, which is supposed to resemble the cornucopia. Asked about the regional identity of their pupils, the decisive minority of respondents (35, 32.0%) answered positively. The majority merely assume that their pupils identify with their region (62 respondents, 57.4%); and 11 respond- ents maintain that their pupils do not identify with the region and have little knowledge of the regional culture and customs. It should be noted that this opinion was expressed by history teachers (2), Polish teachers (2), and religion teachers (7), which can be explained by the fact that teachers of these subjects are more sensitive to this type of content knowledge and more demanding in this respect. The research results discussed above refer to teachers’ practical activity: the informants enumerated only a few forms of activity used to cultivate regional traditions with their pupils. To make thing clear, almost all of them can be ap- plied to implement/actualize other educational goals (see Table 3). Forms of engaging children and adolescents used in regional education, as presented in Table 3, can be applied in different areas of education. Thus, the key question here concerns the content knowledge which is introduced in these forms of activity. The forms used depend on regional traditions the teacher is familiar with; thus, the greater the teacher’s competence in regional culture the better. Another question concerning regional education of children and adolescents is related to frequency of the use of content knowledge. Neither of the teachers introduces regional topics several times a week. The majority do so several times a year (91 respondents, 84.2%), which can be explained by the need to participate in events and festivals. The greatest activity is reported by preschool teachers (11 respondents, that is all preschool teachers from the group) and teachers engaged in elementary education (6 respondents). This situation results from the specificity of educating children at that age; celebra- tions and festivals provide an opportunity to play and to present their skills to parents, who expect a performance. Besides, younger children are more willing to participate in activities related to regional traditions. They are not addicted The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 91

T a b l e 3 Forms of activity aimed at creating pupils’ positive attitudes towards regional traditions and other educational goals A form of activity Other possible educational goals Meetings with interesting Kindling new interests; forming proper attitudes towards people other persons’ achievements; developing appropriate forms of behavior. Acting in a school theatre Developing imagination; forming attitudes; shaping spatial orientation and hand-eye coordination; developing pro-social forms of behavior. Music, singing Developing musical talent and skills, attention and thinking; developing emotionality, a sense of aesthetics; developing musical taste and acquainting pupils with musical culture. Dancing Developing nimbleness and litheness; increasing body-con- sciousness; developing musical talent and skills, attention and thinking; developing emotionality and a sense of move- ment aesthetics; developing pro-social forms of behaviour and the ability to cooperate in a group. Excursions Developing cognitive abilities and organization skills; excit- ing interest; broadening knowledge. School trips to museum Learning history and other cultures; kindling interest; learn- ing how to behave in institutions of culture. Exhibitions of pupils’ works Exercising fine motor skills by manipulating with objects and plastic tools; developing imagination and a sense of aesthetics; building up self-esteem and resistance to criti- cism. School contests Building resilience to defeat; developing modesty, fair com- petition and honesty; developing group cooperation and pro- social forms of behavior. S o u r c e: the authors’ original research. to the mass media, as older children are, and the teacher is an indisputable authority for them. In the light of the results presented above, it is gratifying to know that in spite of some insufficiencies in the teachers’ knowledge of regional culture and traditions, they are aware of the difficulties arising during the work with pupils on such topics. Beside some indications of different kinds of shortages and inconveniences (rooms that are not adjusted to work with children; inability to purchase necessary realia for classroom instruction and costumes; lack of funds for excursions and thematic outings/school trips, etc. [86 respondents, 79.6%]), the teachers mentioned difficulties in cultivating regional traditions resulting from the impact of the contemporary culture. In order to define the difficulties, we have analyzed the answers to the questions which require rating one item on a scale. The results are presented in Table 4. 92 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

T a b l e 4 Modern cultural phenomena hindering the cultivation of regional traditions, in the questioned teachers’ opinions Mean value Number of Cultural phenomenon Percent (on a 10-point mentions scale) Secularization 26 24.0 7.8 Advertisements 69 63.8 7.2 The influence of foreign customs 29 26.8 5.2 Lack of time spent with parents 66 61.1 6.9 Scarcity of information on regional culture in the 18 16.6 5.1 mass media The influence of the Internet 101 93.5 8.9 School 42 38.8 4.3 Americanization of European and Polish cultures 27 25.0 9.1 Migration 12 11.1 8.2 Loose family bonds 56 51.8 7.1 Globalization 88 81.4 8.6 S o u r c e: the authors’ original research.

The above data suggest that the teachers are aware of threats to regional traditions. Near the top of the list are the Americanization of European and Polish cultures, the Internet, globalization and migration of people. However, the number of mentions suggests that the greatest threats to regional traditions, in the teachers’ opinions, are the Internet, globalization, advertisements, and loosening of family bonds. Thus, according to the questioned teachers, the Internet has the greatest impact on children and adolescents, and this impact is estimated as negative. Some of the teachers also stress the negative influence of popular culture (M = 8.9 was calculated on the basis of the results in the researched group) on the process of cultivating regional tradition. Unfortunately, the questioned teachers did not indicate any solutions to those problems.

Conclusions and discussion

The presented research results describe a relatively small group of teachers (N = 108), working in different schools in Bytom, teaching different subjects, including those working in preschools. Thus, it should be stressed that the re- sults concern only the studied group, and not the entire population of teachers. As the results presentation was accompanied by their analysis, we are now go- ing to concentrate on drawing conclusions on the basis of the research problems presented earlier. The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 93

Trying to determine the causes of difficulties arising in the process of cul- tivating regional traditions, the questioned teachers mentioned, first of all, the excessive use of ther Internet by pupils, although financial problems with fund- ing were mentioned several times. Other factors also have a negative impact on the situation (see Table 4). An important piece ofinformation elicited from the respondents’ answers is that the teachers’ knowledge of regional traditions is insufficient. The teachers rarely refer to literature on the topic, and this source is not treated as a primary one to obtain useful information on the region. One can ponder upon why the respondents, asked about their own regional identity, were so indecisive and did not relate to their regional culture. This can be the reason for a small variety in forms of activities employed in regional edu- cation. The teachers do not know much about their pupils’ level of identification with their regional culture. The educators’ knowledge seems fragmentary, which indicates poor cooperation between the teachers and their pupils. To overcome these difficulties, the teachers suggest the use of certain forms of education during different subjects’ lessons; these forms could be, and in fact are, used regardless of the content knowledge introduced. An exception was the special type of activity, reported by the respondents, which had a form of “project” and was used to introduce the topic of regional traditions. Can the described situation be improved? And if yes, to what extent? We think that the key issue here is extending teacher training courses to include cul- tural education in them. The subject would cover the European culture, culture of the country, but first of all, regional culture. It seems reasonable to involve teachers in international projects on preservation of regional culture heritage.

References

Arends, R.I. (1994). Uczymy się nauczać. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. Białkowski, A., Grusiewicz, M., & Michalak, M. (2010). Edukacja muzyczna w Polsce. Diagnozy, debaty, aspiracje. Warszawa: Fundacja „Muzyka jest dla wszystkich.” Brophy, J. (2002). Motywowanie uczniów do nauki. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Budniak, A. (1999). Przygotowanie nauczycieli do realizowania treści regionalnych — rekone- sans badawczy w oparciu o działalność Instytutu Pedagogicznego w Katowicach w latach 1928—1939. In T. Michalewska (Ed.), Edukacja regionalna. Z historii, teorii i praktyki (pp. 57—64). Kraków: Impuls. Ferenc, K. (2003). Konteksty edukacji kulturalnej. Społeczne interesy i indywidualne wybory. Zielona Góra: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego. Gawlik, S., & Olbert, W. (1995). Edukacja regionalna a współczesne tendencje w pedagogice. In Wszechnica Górnośląska XI Edukacja Regionalna. Katowice: Drukarnia Archidiecezjalna. Goźlińska, E. (2005). Ściąga dla nauczyciela, czyli co nauczyciel musi, co może, a co powinien. Warszawa: WSiP. 94 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

Grabowska, D. (Ed.). (1995). Dziedzictwo kulturowe w regionie: założenia programowe. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo MEN. Hryń-Kuśmierek, R., & Śliwa, Z. (1998). Encyklopedia tradycji polskich. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Podsiedlik Raniowski i Spółka. Kostewicz, W., Hulewska, A., & Słomska, J. (Eds.). (2006). Edukacja regionalna. Wybór tekstów. Warszawa: PWN. Kozielecki, J. (1997). Transgresja i kultura. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo „Żak.” Kwiatkowska, H. (2008). Pedeutologia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne. Pielasińska, W. (1996). Rola świadomości w procesach edukacji kulturalnej. In D. Jankowski (Ed.), Edukacja kulturalna i aktywność artystyczna. (pp. 109—122). Poznań: UAM. Pituła, B., & Sacher, W.A. (2013). Funkcjonowanie zawodowe nauczycieli szkół podsta- wowych przedmiotów ogólnych oraz nauczycieli muzyki w Czeskiej Republice i Polsce. Analiza porównawcza. In T. Lewowicki, J. Wilsz, I. Ziaziuna, & N. Nyczkało (Eds.), Kształcenie Zawodowe. Pedagogika Psychologia. (pp. 221—231) Polsko-Ukraiński Rocznik. Częstochowa—Kijów. Reszka, B. (2002). Bliżej regionu i dziecka. Życie Szkoły 4. Sacher, W.A. (1999). Regionalizmy w powszechnej edukacji muzycznej czy muzyczna edukacja regionalna? In T. Michalewska (Ed.). Edukacja regionalna. Z historii, teorii i praktyki. (pp. 163—166). Kraków: Impuls. Sośnierz, M. (1999). Edukacja regionalna w polskiej szkole po 1945 roku. In T. Michalewska (Ed.), Edukacja regionalna. Z historii, teorii i praktyki. (pp. 13—18). Kraków: Impuls. Synowiec, H. (1997). Gwara w edukacji regionalnej. In L. Gilowa, K. Heska-Kwaśniewicz, & H. Synowiec (Eds.), Program Edukacji Regionalnej w zakresie języka polskiego dla klas IV—VIII szkoły podstawowej. Projekt. Katowice. Szczepański, M.S. (1998). Wielki mały świat regionalizmu. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Śląsk. Szołtysek, M. (1998). Śląsk, takie miejsce na ziemi. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Śląskie ABC. The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 95 Appendix

Questionnaire

Ladies and Gentlemen, Within the frame of the Visegrád Group project, “Cultivating and forming re- gional traditions by the Visegrád Group teachers,” we conduct research signifi- cant for preserving cultural identity. Could you answer sincerely the questions in this questionnaire? It is anonymous, and its results will be used exclusively for academic purposes. Thank you very much for your cooperation.

1. Do you know traditions cultivated in you region? If so, enumerate them: ......

2. Which sources do you refer to in order to learn about traditions cultivated in your region? Family Neighbors, local community Nationwide and local mass media Traditions found at work Literature Others ......

3. Do you currently work in the region in which you were brought up and educated? Yes No

4. Do you identify with traditions of your own region? If so, to what extent? (The question concerns your present place of residence and work.) Decisively yes Rather yes No opinion Rather not Decisively no 96 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

5. If you replied in the affirmative to the previous question, enumerate the traditions attesting to your identification with the region......

6. Do you think that regional traditions should be cultivated by making them part of the education content? Yes No

7. Are any regional traditions still alive in the school environment? (Enumerate them and characterize briefly.) ......

8. Do you consider regional traditions important for national culture? Decisively yes Rather yes No opinion Rather not Decisively no

9. Do your pupils identify with their region? If so, to what extent? They fully do so. They rather do so. No opinion. They rather do not. They do not. The teacher facing difficulties in cultivating regional traditions 97

10. Which forms of activities positively shape the pupils’ attitudes towards regional traditions? Please enumerate them and describe briefly......

11. What modern cultural phenomena hinder cultivating regional traditions? Please enumerate them and rate their impact on the scale below...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

12. Does popular culture hinder cultivating regional traditions? Please rate its impact on the scale below...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

13. Do you include regional traditions into the content knowledge of the subject you teach? If so, how often? At least several times a week At least once a month Several times a year Once a year Not at all

14. What forms of activities do you use introducing the content knowledge related to regional traditions? —— Meetings with representatives of regional societies and regional culture centers; 98 Beata Pituła, Wiesława A. Sacher

—— The use of elements of traditional culture of the region: dialect, mu- sic, dances, customs, rituals, and traditional arts and crafts (underline a selection); —— Organization of local events aimed at cultivating regional traditions; —— Musical performance; —— Theatrical performance; —— Others ?......

15. Do pupils know traditions existing in their region? If so, to what extent? Very well Well No opinion Inadequately They do not

The respondent’s personal data Gender F M Work experience ...... Level of professional advancement ...... The subject taught ...... Education ...... Additional qualifications ...... Tatiana Slezáková, Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, the Slovak Republic

Regional education in the pre-primary education as an essential means in children’s development

Abstract: The paper gives prominence to the increasing need of growing interest in the issue of regional education among scholars, as a holistic process which integrates individuals’ positive attitudes towards the spiritual and material culture of their region. Moreover, it familiarizes the natural, economic, social, political, cultural and historical landmarks. The authors of the article investigate possible ways of the implementation of regional education into the pre-school educa- tion program as a means of the formation of children’s sociocultural identity as well as the basics of their intercultural competences. Keywords: regional education, pre-primary education, curriculum, holistic approach, personal identity, cultural identity, intercultural competencies

Introduction

Owing to stronger globalization processes occurring on the economic, environ- mental, and cultural levels, the role of regional education is becoming more essential these days. One of the elements of regional education is the study of folk culture. Traditional folk culture in Slovakia presents lively and valu- able cultural heritage created during centuries under the influence of historical and social events by Slovak citizens, national minorities, and ethnic groups. Regional differences contribute to cultural diversity in an entire country. Every region can boast its unique spiritual and material culture. All the natural, eco- nomic, social, political, and historical peculiarities of the environment comprise individual character of each region. A given cultural variety also determines 100 Tatiana Slezáková, Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová

the development of our cultural identity, civic unity and tolerance, as well as acceptance of other cultures. In relation to the above-delineated ideas, regional education has an essential didactic, pedagogical, and formative value and its implementation in the pre- primary education will undoubtedly prove highly beneficial.

Characteristics of regional education as a part of curriculum in pre-primary education

Within a family and later in preschool years, children gain their first experiences with the mother tongue, customs, traditions, ways of life, clothing, eating habits, the arts, religions, etc. The culture of their region enables children to create with the feeling of affinity towards their home, region and gradually towards their country. These attitudes underlie each individual’s personal identity and refer to their roots. Knowing one’s roots, the human being knows where his or her home is, and thus develops a feeling of belonging to a certain place. The familiarization with one’s culture comes with it, and therefore, opens the way for acknowledging and understanding other cultures. In a world full of intoler- ance, prejudice, racism, xenophobic feelings towards other cultures this comes as an issue of utmost importance. Regional education has become a significant part of preschool curriculum included in the State educational program, that is, the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 0: Early childhood education). This pro- gram comprises the onset of school educational programs. The curriculum is structured into four thematic fields: (1) “I am,” (2) “People,” (3) “Nature,” and (3) “Culture.” Each of the fields is divided into three educational sub-fields — perceptual and motor, cognitive and social, and emotional one. Cross-sectional topics, that is, personal and social development, protection of health and en- vironment, transport, environmental, multicultural education, etc. are also parts of the curriculum (Hajdúková et al., 2011). At the same time the pre-primary graduate profile has been designed, which assumes reaching a certain level of development in the elementary key competences of a child in the field of psychomotor, personal, socialising, communicative, cognitive, learning and informative skills. An adequate development of these fields should prepare children for a life in a society and provide them with a non-problematic transi- tion into a new schooling environment as well as successful adaptation to new conditions. Thus, goals of regional education become a suitable means of development of the above-mentioned competences. In a natural family environment, and sub- Regional education in the pre-primary education… 101 sequently in a kindergarten, children gradually learn about the characteristics of their home and, in due time, of their region. Moreover, they develop images of the world’s variety, its nature, society, people and relationships among them. At the same time, they gain basic competences to create lifelong attitudes to- wards, other people, nature, home, environment, unique regional customs, and finally to themselves. Regional education is also a repository of multicultural, environmental, and aesthetic information. In fact, due to its holistic character regional education has potential for being incorporated into all thematic fields of pre-school education. It might well constitute a thematic field of “Culture,” “Nature,” “People” as well as “I am” when respecting all the individual and age specificities peculiarities of children, as well as conditions offered by a given kindergarten. Many kindergartens in Slovakia have created their profiles mainly with regards to regional education, particularly to the traditional verbal culture, songs, dances, games, customs and traditions of a given region. Therefore, the article is motivated by a presentation of regional education as an essential means of children personal and cultural identity development, including their intercultural competences.

The formation of self-awareness and cultural identity at an early age

A region can be defined as an environment characterized by certain specificity of natural settlement (geography of the country, flora, fauna, and mineral re- sources). Then, it is depicted by its social environment (character and residen- tial density, demography, educational level, values, norms, political order, and economy). An essential part of a region is also its cultural environment which encompasses the means of expressions stemming from material and spiritual culture (Čellárová, 2008). As it is stated above, one of the aims of regional education is to create a relationship of an individual with other people, an attachment to the region one has been brought up in. This process occurs naturally in the immediate environment where a person lives a life in company of others who share the same surroundings. One of the fundamental questions an individual tends to keep asking is the following: “Who am I?” However, the answer is reflected in each person’s au- thentic being in the world, his or her unique features, and by each individual’s dwelling in particular space and time (Morgensternová & Šulová, 2007). Human self-awareness is being developed since the moment the human be- ing is born. The key to this success is an unconditioned acceptance by a child’s 102 Tatiana Slezáková, Viera Kurincová, Anna Klimentová

parents. Around the age of three, a child establishes close personal ties to the figure of the mother (mainly, it is the figure of the mother or father, or a third person) as well as to the closest environment. The quality of the bond influences a real picture a child builds up of his or her own being (the awareness of strong and weak qualities), the level of self-evaluation. Some authors refer to a notion of self-efficacy, that is, the level up to which the human being believes in his or her capabilities (see Hoskovcová, V 2006). If a child is accepted and loved, he or she tends to create a healthy self-awareness, self-esteem, and learns to trust the world as well as his or her capacities. A self-awareness is composed cognitive, affective and action elements which are gradually developed within a human interaction and closer environment. A cognitive element is created by a structure of knowledge about the world, the human self, the way of thinking, and self-reflection. An affective element, in turn, includes the relation towards oneself and self-esteem. An action element is also a part of self-awareness (motivation and self-regulation). A healthy bond between a child and the figure of mother is socially moti- vated, as each person generally longs for society (Morgensternová & Šulová, 2007). Thus, a part of the real “I” is also a cultural and social identity. In the formation of the cultural identity, the culture of the closest environment in which a child grows up also plays a significant role. Family, viewed as a part of a wider social and cultural environment, is the first sign of this culture. Family ensures cultural continuity. Early interaction with the mother figure, later with other people in a closest environment, has a lifelong influence on certain patterns of behavior and attitudes (Kotásková, 1987). Children are born into a particular culture. During the years children grow up, they learn about and acquire peculiarities as well as divergent regional elements (e.g. economy, interests, values, etc.). Thus, what they actually develop is their cultural identity, and, in consequence, the awareness of belonging to a certain culture. An important element in an individual’s cultural identity is perception of home. Home is always embedded in a certain place. An adult person can per- ceive home from various perspectives, that is, with regards to its geographical and cultural characteristics. For some people home connotes abstract notions such as safety, certainty, and understanding. On a deeper level, home appeals to our senses, for instance, the smell of cakes, Christmas traditions, and moments spent together with the family; it can be a well-known street in my home town, or a sweetshop where I used to go with my parents. Children perceive home in much a simpler way. It is thus designated by people, things, rules bound to a certain environment. Therefore, to be at home means to put down roots and find acceptance of who one is, with the control over the things. Children need to have their own places (“corners”) at home, Regional education in the pre-primary education… 103 so that adults cannot reach them. Only then can children feel empowered to change things in their world and influence it (Morgensternová & Šulová, 2007). In other words, regional education provides a wide range of possibilities to create a positive relation of a child to his or her family, home, region, by means of experiencing the beauty of regional songs, dances, customs, cultural rituals which enable people to extend and express their identity.

Conclusions

Regional education provides both teachers and parents with multitudinous sources to form and strengthen children’s self-awareness as well as their cultural identity. Moreover, regional education classes pave the way for recognizing and gaining knowledge about one’s intercultural competences. This, in turn, opens the vast world of intermingling cultures and makes the human prepared and ready to encounter them. Nevertheless, there still remains the issue concerning the extent to which parents, teachers, pedagogues, and other members of society, are able to cul- tivate and communicate knowledge on regional traditions, by returning to the roots, and building one’s national identity and intercultural sensitivity, tolerance and respect, based on that knowledge.

References

Čellárová, L. (2008). Špecifiká regionálnej výchovy z aspektu makroprostredia. In E. Bujnová & K. Račeková (Eds.), Vybrané teoretické a metodické aspekty regionálnej výchovy (pp. 8—18). Nitra. Guziová, K. et al. (2011). Metodika predprimárneho vzdelávania. Bratislava. Hoskovcová, S. (2006). Psychická odolnost předškolního dítěte. Praha: Grada. Ivanovičová, J. (2008). Rozvojové a inovatívne programy edukácie so zameraním na regionálnu výchovu. In E. Bujnová & K. Račeková (Eds.), Vybrané teoretické a metodické aspekty regionálnej výchovy (pp. 31—42). Nitra. Kotásková, J. (1987). Socializace a morální vývoj. Praha: Akademia. Morgensternová, M., & Šulová, L. (2007). Interkultúrní psychologie. Rozvoj interkultúrní senzitiv- ity. Praha: UK. Karolinum. Štátny vzdelávací program isced 0 — predprimárne vzdelávanie. Bratislava: ŠPU.

Krisztina Katona, Attila B. Kis The Gál Ferenc College, Hungary

The role of folk riddles in children’s development

Abstract: Nowadays the practice of saying riddles has gone beyond its prime family environ- ment and thus became adapted in educational institutions. The present article gives an overview on studies on this short form of word play conducted by Hungarian scholars and suggests how and what purpose they serve when implemented in children’s development at the preschool and elementary levels. Keywords: riddle, wisdom test, joking questions, long-term memory, observing and combinative skills, mathematical-logical skills, language-communication skills

I come from a forest where I have never been. I round a forest in which I live. I walk to a forest that I’ll never reach. Sándor Weöres, Rebus Introduction

Over the last one and a half decade, both international and Hungarian folklorists perceptibly displayed more profound interest in studying riddles (see Kaivola- Bregenhøj & Annikki, 2001; Vargha, 2010). Although originally oral puzzles were meant to focus adults’ attention and thus were invented predominantly for their amusement, changes in lifestyle and customs made them part of the sphere of children’s folklore (cf. Vargha, 2008, pp. 359—368). This can be eas- ily proven by the fact that most of folk rhyme collections as well as students’ textbooks at lower elementary school level contain oral puzzles. Moreover, a riddle collection entitled Sző, fon, nem takács. Mi az? (Weaves, spins, not 106 Krisztina Katona, Attila B. Kis

a webster. What is it?) published for children in Hungary brought out the 9th edition in 2012, since its first publication in 1975. These days the genre still remains to be popular, also in the sense that modern children’s poetry continues to use and renew this literary form of verbal play — for example, either in gapped verses or in a longer epic structure.1 Having based our observations on this tendency, we would like to give an overview on the genre of riddle in the Hungarian culture and come to some conclusions regarding the role they play in children’s development.

The riddle as a genre

The riddle has got a special place in folk literature; however, its name may pose some difficulties. There are many synonyms for the phenomenon, such as riddle, rebus, puzzle, hidden word, tricky question, enigma, head-breaker/brain-teaser, etc., whereas in lexicons one may encounter the expression “riddling tale” as well. The Révai Encyclopaedia contains no entry for “riddle,” however, there is one for “riddling tale” with a few-word definition designating the term as “the folkish name of a puzzle,” then the reader is redirected to the entry “puzzle” (RNL, 1925/1997, Vol. 17. p. 819). The Hungarian Explanatory Concise Dic- tionary’s relevant entry also handles “riddle” and “riddling tale” as synonymous terms, which is confirmed by the Hungarian Encyclopaedia of Ethnography by cross-referencing the two definitions right at the beginning of the entries (1982, pp. 323—324). Identification of riddle’s question with riddling tale is made pos- sible by their common features. They are oral, humorous puzzles, head-breakers of folk origin which aim at amusing people (cf. MNL) and both are defined by the Hungarian Encyclopaedia of Ethnography as a short epic genre. In the literature on the subject, referred to by Vilmos Voigt, “Szendrey makes differ- ence (following international examples) between the subtypes of the riddling question and riddling tale (Néptalányok [Folk puzzles], pp. 333—335)” stress- ing that “the prior is formed in a question in itself, while the latter sets forth a story and separately adds what the listener shall say” (Voigt, 2010, VII). The riddling tale is rightly defined as an epic genre with view even to its origin: the meaning of the word “tale” in Hungarian tradition was confined to “riddling

1 The first form often used by modern poets includes strophes in which the last rhyme, ac- cordingly the solution of the riddle, shall be inserted by the interactively involved recipient. For instance, Stefánia Mándy’s poem “Rácsendítő” [Ringer] includes 12 riddles with the end rhyme of each strophe. The other type is when a series of riddles form the basis of a longer epic story with stable characters. This can be observed in Zoltán Zelk’s verse tale entitled “Tale on the cleverest rabbit” or “The funny bears” by István Kormos. The role of folk riddles in children’s development 107 tale” as late as the 14th century, then in the 15th century it was extended to “narrated, fictive story, example, enigma”; however, it was not until the 18th century when the term became limited to its present usage (cf. Balassa-Ortutay: Magyar néprajz [Hungarian ethnography]). With no intention of questioning the epic elements of oral puzzles, and therefore considering that nowadays literature regards riddling tales as longer, narrative-like puzzle texts (cf. Voigt, 2010, XIV) we need to call the attention to the fact that some riddles also unveil lyrical- like character, which can be seen in the riddling questions that are based on the “rhymed, rhythmic, versed structure” (Kolta, 1960, p. 35) and their form bears resemblance not to tales but folk rhymes as well. This versed character of riddles is emphasized by István Cs. Nagy in his study Gyermek- és ifjúsági irodalom [Children and Youth Literature] when he argues that “though puzzles do not belong to folk rhymes or play songs […] they are their close relatives” (1997, p. 17). Cs. Nagy also notes that “the most representative summary of folklore riddles in our time is the collection entitled Sző, fon, nem takács. Mi az?, in which half of the puzzles are formulated in verse” (1997, p. 17). The lyric-like character of the verse-formed riddling questions are strengthened by the following poetic pictures: similes, metaphors, personifications and other stylistic devices — that is, various forms of letter rhymes (cf. Mándoki, 1988, pp. 238—251). The richness of the poetic setting in riddling questions is also stressed by János Ráduly. In his introductory study to his volume Hold elejti, Nap felkapja [Moon drops down, Sun picks up] when having examined almost two thousand riddling questions collected throughout the years Ráduly concludes that “there is almost no rhyme formula of which we cannot find an example in the published text” (Ráduly, 1990, p. 30). Supported by the examination of this material Ráduly also states that “the strophe-structure of the riddling questions shows the same variety” as its rhythmic forms (1990). Regarding other musical quality he finds that frequent end rhymes are often completed with jingling head rhymes in this genre (cf. Ráduly, 1990, pp. 31—32). Division, categorization, and systemization of riddles also pose an exciting challenge to researchers; however, due to the limited space of this article we will not go further than to discuss the above-delineated issue. Based on the formulation, description, and structure of the question in rid- dles we can differentiate between two large groups, that is, the wisdom test and joking questions (cf. Kolta, 1960, p. 35; MNL V., 1982, p. 323). “Wisdom tests try how great the listener’s learning is” (Kolta, 1960, p. 35), as they in- clude questions concerning knowledge acquired in schools and churches in the main. They also stimulate creativity by certain twists hidden in the way they are solved (MNL). This category includes number riddles and puzzles as well. Some joking questions derive from language games that are based on synonymy, homonymy, and polysemy, whereas others are grounded in etymology, however, “circumscription is also quite frequent, when a question, in a disguised form, 108 Krisztina Katona, Attila B. Kis

discloses certain characteristic features of an object or phenomenon and the player shall guess the hidden meaning” (Kolta, 1960, p. 35). Katalin Vargha, in her study Források és rendszerezési javaslat a 19. szá- zadi magyar találósok antológiájához [Sources and systemization proposal to the 19th-century anthology of Hungarian riddles], refers to the system of clas- sification of riddles forwarded by Robert Lehmann-Nitsche, and approaches the issue of classifying riddles with view of the questions. Vargha points to the fact that “from earlier researches Lehmann-Nitsche used mostly Robert Petsch’s work. Lehmann-Nitsche took over from him the division of the mate- rial into “true” and “false” riddles (2008, p. 33). Vargha also stresses that in case of “true” riddles Lehmann-Nitsche overestimated questions at the expense of answers, handling the latter almost a neglectable part of riddles and, what is more, in one of his relevant studies he did not consider it necessary to even include the answers. Nevertheless, Vargha underlines that regarding “false” rid- dles Lehmann-Nitsche acknowledged the significant, occasionally dominant role of the answers and the closer relation between the two parts (p. 33). Differentiating between questions is not the only way of classifying riddles as they can be arranged according to their solution as well. The method of classification based on a system of solutions goes back to the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. In Hungarian literature it was introduced by Vilmos Voigt in his preface to the volume Magyar találós kérdések. 19. szá- zadi szövegek antológiája [Hungarian riddles. Anthology of 19th-century texts]. Voigt founded the idea of systemization on the public opinion that the “puzzle” brings up a question (called element A) and expects a “solution” (element B) from the listener or reader. This involves an A → B structure, in reality, how- ever, it is the solution with view to which the text of the riddle is formulated. Therefore, it is more proper to define it as a B → A structure (Voigt, 2010, IX). Consequently, he urges that “B-elements should be classified in a way that they could be comparable both at national and international level” (2010, X). In relation to solution system and A-B elements of riddles, Voigt also calls our attention to the fact that by using the linguistic terminology, “we can call element B topic and element A comment” (2010, X). Furthermore, Voigt adds that “inherently elements B may not be limited to one word, but extend to more sentences or occasionally to a whole story. By using poetic, metaphoric, and other transformations, elements A may be made very beautiful, complex, or even cryptic. Texts composed of elements B are simpler, which proves that they can be more easily systemized” (2010, X). Nonetheless, there is another, theme-centred classification, exploiting the fact that riddles can easily be grouped according to their contents. The catego- ries can extend to natural phenomena, human beings, animal or plant world, various areas of constructed environment, languages, numbers, etc. This con- tent-centred system is less used for international comparison than for classifica- The role of folk riddles in children’s development 109 tion of a certain community’s collected materials, and thus may help teachers in finding proper riddles that are adjusted to children’s age and interests.

Riddles in service of children development

Literary works, and especially folklore creatures, play a considerable role in shaping children’s personality and developing many skills from their early childhood (Vajda, 1972). At the beginning, folk rhymes and various types of folk tales exert a positive influence on children’s emotional and intellectual growth. From the end of preschool or beginning of elementary school age this circle is extended to a wider scope of modern poetry. However, when we talk about literary genres implemented in lower education curricula, we tend to omit the potential the riddles may have in education (cf. Dankóné, 2004; Zilahiné, 1998; Bauer, 1983; Zóka, 2009; Szikszainé, 1988; Kernya, 2008). Therefore, to bridge this gap we would like to present how riddles can be introduced in preschool and lower elementary school education. The discussion will be illus- trated with relevant examples in Hungarian and their translation into English. Riddles may play a considerable role in helping children to master skills of longer-term memory. As Vilmos Voigt puts it, the “difficult questions” formu- lated in riddles “can be answered only by the initiated one — provided that he or she has learnt the not at all self-evident questions requiring good memory skills” (2010, V). This involves that one shall keep in mind both the formula of the question and the solution. This statement is especially valid for the riddling tales with longer explanations, for example,

Two-leg sits on three-leg working on one-leg. Four-leg sneaking in, grabs one-leg, Two-leg gets angry, picks up three-leg, and flings it at four-leg in a way that it drops one-leg out of its mouth. (554)2

2 The numbers in bracket hereinafter refer to the place of the relevant riddle in Sző, fon, nem takács. Mi az? Találós kérdések gyerekeknek (Weaves, spins, not a webster. What is it? Rid- dles for children) Ed. Varga Ferencné. Budapest, 1995. The quoted riddle in Hungarian: “Két láb ül háromlábon, / farigcsál egylábat. / Besomfordál négyláb, / elkapja egylábat. / Megharagszik kétláb, / kapja háromlábat, / s úgy üti négylábhoz, / hogy tüstént elejti / szájából egylábat” (554). This Hungarian riddle resembles the enigma the Sphynx offered to Oedipus. “What is that which 110 Krisztina Katona, Attila B. Kis

The boot-maker is sitting on a three-leg chair and is sewing a boot. A dog comes in and catches the boot. The boot-maker gets angry and flings the chair at the dog.

The text of the riddle, especially if it is rhythmic, may have an aesthetic impact on both the recipient and the formulator of the question. The repetition may generate joy of recognizing the elements as the listener either hears or reads the previously heard riddle.3 Kolta considers it important to stress that “riddles can be used extraordinar- ily efficiently in developing children’s observing and combinative skills” (1960, pp. 35—36). Riddles that point at certain observations of nature require cogni- tive skills to arrive at conclusions that are deductible from the phenomena. The solution to this type of riddles may be considerably facilitated by any personal experience relating to the given object. A popular way of putting a question on a typical natural phenomenon is when the solution is behind the rhetorical personification:

You have seen me many times, my prison is the furnace, but I some- times break out from my captivity, I bake cake and bread, whoever feels cold likes me, if I am sprinkled I fall asleep, I’m angry at all waters, my red clothes is waving in the air, Guess who I am! — Fire.

A similar process is when human environment is projected onto a larger cosmic scene.

Bridge but never built, it has got seven colours but no paint, its two ends emerge from the earth but leads to the sky. Nobody takes toll but you cannot walk on it because no way to find the head of the bridge. — Rainbow.4

in the morning goes upon four feet; upon two feet in the afternoon; and in the evening upon three?” 3 The aesthetic features can be certainly perceived and enjoyed only in the original lan- guage. Two examples for musically and artistically created riddles in Hungarian folklore: “Füle is van, orra is van, / Mégsem hall, de nem is szusszan. / Sarkantyút hord, s nem huszár, / Nincs lába és mégis jár.” (372) — Csizma; “Ló lába szúrta, / Kerék talpa gyúrta, / Tarka disznó orra túrta, / Az út szélén kész a torta. / Mi az?” (512) — Sár. 4 The original versions were made in bound musical form enhancing much of their effects: Sokszor láttál, ismersz-e? / Börtönöm a kemence. / De rabságom nem örök, / kapom magam, kitörök. / Lángost sütök, kenyeret, / aki fázik, megszeret. / Ha locsolnak, elalszom, / minden vízre haragszom. / Kandallóban táncolok, / elviszem az álmotok, / ha kígyózva éjfelen / kibújok a kéményen. / Piros ruhám ég, lobog! / Találd ki, hogy ki vagyok! — Fire. (91) “Híd, de sosem építették, / hét színe van, egy se festék. / Földből nyúlik mindkét vége, / mégis felvezet az égbe. The role of folk riddles in children’s development 111

Other types of riddles may have a strong impact on the development of mathematical-logical skills or text comprehension. The main type of these riddles with complex effect is number puzzles. The solution in this case may require no more than counting skills as quick as lightning: “Three olds, six piglets, nine hogs, how many are these?” — Eighteen.5 In other cases a more thorough understanding of the context cannot be communicated, for example the following riddle requires the listener to quickly recognize the possible relation between family members:

Peter Balogh had six beautiful daughters, of whom he was very proud, all girls had a brother, and they loved each other to their father’s delight, who can count well, may easily tell how many children did Peter Balogh have?” Seven: the six daughters had one brother.6

Approaching the role of riddles in children’s development we cannot neglect the fact that a considerable part of them is pregnant with metaphors. However, they are not tropes with aesthetic goals but rather the so-called everyday meta- phors to put it in George Lakoff’s words. Metaphor does not only permeate our thinking and everyday language use but it functions as well as a device of children’s language acquisition and verbalization of the world. Children’s inclination for using metaphors is well-known. The first grade of acquir- ing language, in parallel with subjective analogies, is embedded in diversity and almost unlimited variability of word usage. In a one-year-old girl’s first language-manifestation, for example the changeable voice pomp-momp-lomp, reflecting the Hungarian word for button (“gomb”), was randomly referred to as button, gravel, chestnut, candy, toe, and consequently as all, more or less ball-shaped objects which can be taken into mouth and sucked. In all children’s speech, these universal “wish words” precede the usage of circumscribed, stable concepts and their variability and the whole unlimitedness are all reflected in the always renewing metaphors (Péntek, 2000, p. 2). This metaphoric diversity can be observed in riddles as well: for instance, for word “stove” the follow- ing allusive, circumscribing tropes can be found in the materials collected by

/ Senki nem szed rajta vámot, / széles útját mégse járod, / mert a hídfőt nem találod” — Rainbow (66). 5 The original is rhymed: “Három öreg, hat malac, / kilenc disznó, mennyi az?” (615). 6 This text is also rhymed in Hungarian: “Balogh Péter uramnak volt hat szép leánya, / bizony büszke is volt őkegyelme rája! / Mindegyik leánynak volt egy fitestvére, / szerették is egymást apjuk örömére. / Mondják meg hát, akik számolni jól tudnak, / hány gyermeke is volt Balogh Péter úrnak?” (610). 112 Krisztina Katona, Attila B. Kis

Kibéd: “old father, her worship, queen, bride, oldish woman, damsel, witch, maid, grandma” (Ráduly, 1990, p. 32) or when the metaphors used for snow vary from a table cloth, cover, white rug, to butterfly or bird (cf. Juhász, 2006, p. 203; Ráduly, 1990, p. 67). In riddles built on metaphors we encounter the “inverse” of metaphorization, detectable in children’s language: the shortage of language appears in the formulation of the puzzle which prompts a solution culminating in a fixed word or phrase. Riddles have been popular in preschool and elementary school education owing to their primary roles in the development of intellectual skills and — what is more — in releasing tension or creating good and playful atmosphere. The source of humor in riddles is predominantly derived from word games, language comics like funny-sounding rhymes, a frequent use of imitative words, playful word combinations, or simply the re-formation of words (cf. Ráduly, 1990). Nowadays, the number and form of riddles of this kind seem to be infinite.7 As regards the whole process of children’s development, riddles can have a profound impact on acquiring language-communication skills and their gram- matical, semantic, and pragmatic aspects. A very popular stylistic instrument widely applied in riddles are head rhymes (Mándoki, 1988). Riddles that oc- casionally resemble tongue-twisters, in fact improve children’s perception and production of certain sounds.8 In this way, children are presented with a model- example that shows them how certain grammatical structures can be used in a sentence. Not only by means of their spontaneous communication but also by formulated literary texts, folk rhymes, verses, riddles (all abundant in complex- compound sentences), being repeated in their everyday life, are children exposed to practical language application as well as observation and analysis of various sentence-types at further levels of education.9 At the semantic level, all groups of riddles enrich vocabulary. Word power can be extended by the unusual or unknown words of the question part or the meaning-activating function of the

7 These examples certainly cannot be translated to other languages. We therefore give some Hungarian examples. “Bírja egy kis veréb, / de ló, ökör egy se, / befér egy vödörbe, / de csöbörbe egy se” (A v betű 562.); “Melyik só nem olvad el a víztől? (A korsó 577); Milyen hó lakható?” (A kunyhó 580). In the first one, the listener should guess something that can be taken by a sparrow or a bucket but not a horse or ox. The solution is letter “v.” As regards the next one, the challenge is to find what kind of salt cannot melt in water. The solution is “jug,” because the sound of salt (“só”) is included in its pronunciation (“korsó”). 8 A Hungarian example of alliterative riddle: “Tim-töm tenyerem, / tiba-liba fedelem, / kerekulya katulya, / közepébe a lyuka.” (436) — Daráló. “Mihelyt meglesz, mindjárt megmar, / Mihelyt megmar, mindjárt meghal.” — Tűzszikra. 9 A Hungarian example of a riddle including co-ordinate and subordinate clauses: “Erdőn- mezőn / láthatod, meg is csíp, / ha megfogod. / Feje mákszem, / hasa bors, / lába vékony, / mint a cérna, s be szorgalmas, / fürge, gyors!” (296) — Hangyaboly, hangya. The role of folk riddles in children’s development 113 solution part.10 By saying riddles, either at home or at an educational institution, an interaction is created: the question-answer form of this genre represents the “giving-receiving” feature of communication and thus helps to make understand the rules of social interactions.11

Conclusion

As there are hardly any guides, ideas, or instructions in the literature on the subject on how and why to use this genre in preschools or elementary schools, the present study has been motivated by some of these shortages as well as the need to incorporate riddles in school curricula. Having identified the beneficial aspects of riddles in children’s development, which was complemented with the selected examples, we have intended to encourage the readers to think the op- portunities that this verbal form of word play may offer to children at preschool and early stages of elementary school education.

10 A Hungarian example for a word-creating riddle in which imitative words suggest, but not clearly define, the meaning of the text: “Felültem zörgődre, / elmentem zajgódra, / megvettem lyukasdit, / beletettem veresdit, / odajött szőrösdi, / úgy megütöttem a / karafütyülővel, / hogy felhencseredett!” (555). 11 “Van szája, és mégsem szól, / ha tele van, dugd be jól. Mi az?” (427) — “It has got mouth but cannot speak, if it is full, cork it well. What is it?” — a bottle.

References

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Regional culture traditions in the school education content — contribution to ethnopedagogy

Abstract: The contemporary trends of global development strongly alter the functioning of people in a multicultural environment. What is important, is the contents of school education which would help students find themselves in different social conditions. This notion includes regional tradi- tion necessary to shape the identity of individuals and to prevent their alienation. The presented descriptions of the cultivation of the Silesian traditions at schools indicate that the content is presented in intentional as well as incidental school situations and extracurricular activities, and thus they cover a wide spectrum of cultural, linguistic, and artistic concepts. Their juxtaposition shows an interdisciplinary approach in the selection of the educational content, which indicates that the assumptions of ethnopedagogy are realized in the school practice. The achievement of its objectives determines the definition of the pedagogical standards aimed at engaging people in the life of the local communities. Keywords: regional tradition, school education content, functions of cultivating traditions

Introduction

Tendencies of global development play a crucial role in the dynamics of changes at school. Migrations that nowadays occur for economic or cultural (the need to see other cultures) reasons or due to armed conflicts require certain changes in human lives. A foreign culture environment is often a source of new problems for the newcomers, in many instances resulting from their ignorance of social norms existing in the new place. Rapid cultural changes that happen on many levels of social life on a global scale, in local communities and in 116 Ewa Szadzińska

the individual’s life, according to Anna Brzezińska, can be characterized by the following features: multiplicity, variety and changeability of offers; mobility of individuals, groups, and communities. Due to the multiplicity of offers and an excessive amount of goods, many people might encounter certain difficulties in decision-taking and choice-making caused by focusing on the present rather than on long-term planning (Brzezińska, 2005, p. 688). Challenges of the mod- ern civilization focus on the role of education in preparing young people for living in a new cultural environment. The analysis of the results of the research on the understanding of multicul- turalism conducted by Beata Ecler-Nocuń i Małgorzata Kitlińska-Król showed that there is a general need for discovering one’s own cultural identity and understanding of the meaning of one’s tradition, culture, and history, which is not contradictory to respect for other nationalities, but helps understand oneself as a human being. At the same time, the ability to change is being appreciated, thanks to which it is possible to shape one’s identity that is not locked in the past (Ecler-Nocoń & Kitlińska-Król, 2013, pp. 37—42). The conducted research on functioning and learning in the culturally diversified environment gave an incentive to construct the concepts of multicultural, intercultural, and regional education. Multicultural education focuses on maintaining stable value systems and takes into account the sociocultural need for flexibility and the degree to which one can adjust to changes. If it is not possible to foresee every op- portunity or risk which results from civilization changes of the modern world, everything should be done to prevent value marginalization. A definitely broader meaning of learning, teaching, and upbringing is presented within the concept of intercultural education. It involves the concept of a diversified culture, with its different values, customs, and rituals. It is not the goal of intercultural edu- cation to build a unified global culture but to broaden identities of individuals, groups, and communities by propagating tolerance and engaging into dialogue. In regional education, the curriculum is enriched with presenting partici- pants with regional values and issues of general human significance in order to pass them to future generations as a cultural value (Nikitorowicz, 2009). In educational practice, apart from the formal base, there is a particular education content that is most important. The focus of this paper is therefore on the content knowledge concerning regional traditions. The term tradition in the linguistic sense is “a code of conduct, customs, views, knowledge, and behavior that is unique to a particular social group, passed from one generation to another and strengthened in the course of time as a set of customs (Nowy słownik języka polskiego, 2003). Regional culture traditions in the school education content… 117 The significance of cultural traditions in school education

The significance of cultivating traditions for the sake of students’ development is valuable both in intentionally organized education as well as in self-educa- tion. In school education, the issue of cultivating traditions is perceived as an element of learners’ identity formation process. Krzysztof Karwowski (“Jedność w różnorodności”) associates identity with the essence, sense, or features of the self or autonomy. An individual becomes aware of his or her own different identity, when at least two cultures which perceive each other as different come into contact. This encounter might result in different types of relations between the groups: from aggression, demonstration of antagonism and dislike, signs of misunderstanding, finally to accommodation and interest. In the latter case, individuals seek information about each other, which facilitates assimilation, mutual acceptance, and cooperation. Apart from the personal form of identity, there exists social identity. Social identity involves cultural differentness resulting from historical heritage, cultiva- tion of basic values and acquisition of cultural patterns. The term identity in its narrow meaning refers to sociocultural aspects of self-perception. The definition of identity might as well be narrowed to the sociocultural aspects of perceiving ourselves in the context of affiliation to a certain social group with a certain degree of autonomy. The value of culture in education becomes evident when some ethnic issues arouse interest. Anna Łobos (2009) defines folklore as a folk culture which includes customs, rituals, beliefs, and artistic creation in literature (fairy tales, legends, and proverbs), music (songs and dances), as well as in painting, sculpture, and decorative arts. Aside from intentional cultural activities, traditions can also be cultivated in self-education. Folk tradition is an important component of adolescents’ lives in rural areas. Bartłomiej Gołek points to the significance of folk tradition in getting rid of false images of reality and countering threats related to the excess of cultural possibilities. For adolescents tradition provides trusted points of ref- erence and the experience of the primeval and the natural (Gołek, 2014). The author adduces the argument presented by Brezinka, who stated that elements of tradition have a tried-and-tested sense-creating, normative meaning. In the time of technical and financial changes, elements of tradition ensure the continuity in the ever-changing world, because they protect groups and individuals from al- ienation, and they connect generations (Brezinka, 2005, pp. 12—13). Supported by adults’ proper attitude and school’s commitment, traditions can help learners achieve cognitive and socio-moral competences, as well as to shape affirmative 118 Ewa Szadzińska

and creative attitudes in the process of creating mature and consistent personal- ity and resist a growing, harmful tendency that seems to be prevailing in society these days. Also, they can pave the way for accomplishing goals and adhering to values that are pragmatic and utilitarian in character.

Examples of maintaining regional traditions in preschools and primary schools in Upper Silesia

To follow traditions, one has to become aware of characteristic features and functions of culture in Upper Silesia. Academic texts tend to refer to the idea of “emeraldness” of the Silesians. The word, however, derives from the expression the emerald of Europe referring to Silesia, which was first used by the Breslau- born poet Henryk Muhlfort in the 17th century. The price of emerald depends on the amount of admixtures it contains. Silesia is a region abundant in a variety of “admixtures” of many national cultures which determine its diversity and spiritual wealth. Its geographic location at the junction of three cultures: Polish, German, and Moravian, had a great impact on Silesian rituality. Abundance of rituals stems from the Silesians’ ability to freely use the resources available in all the cultures (Szadzińska, 2009, p. 108). One of the distinctive features of Silesia is the social egalitarianism of eth- nically Polish inhabitants. Silesian society did not know class differences and conflicts within one nationality. The external expression of this egalitarianism in social behavior was the deeply rooted idea of equality, lack of servility, lack of inferiority complex with respect to those of higher social standing, high self- reliance, social maturity, and good organization of the plebeians. The conviction that egalitarianism was best developed in Silesia was a significant element of Silesians’ self-awareness. Egalitarianism and work ethos were the main values which distinguished Upper Silesia from other regions. The rigorous professional ethics was built on the basis of work as value; among the most important values were reliability, honesty, conscientiousness, respect for professional competence, solidarity, and a sense of responsibility for others. The ability to cooperate and easiness in establishing professional relations are also typical features of Silesian laborers. Such an understanding of work constituted the basis of their strong sense of self-esteem, dignity, and honor. Work was the basic criterion for evaluation. In Silesia, work was not a means of social advancement, the achievement of which used to be related to abandoning one’s ethno-linguistic group. That is why social status was not a criterion for evaluation. An individual was evaluated as a professional in terms of salary and his orher qualifications, Regional culture traditions in the school education content… 119 as well as a family and local community member (Błaszczak-Wacławik, Błasiak & Nawrocki, 1990, p. 14). School is the place where regional traditions are cultivated. Helena Sy­ nowiec points to the integral relationship between education and the past, the present and the future of the local environment, based on the criteria of Truth, Goodness, Beauty and Sanctity. Education effects are experienced in creativ- ity of many Silesians, which is worth propagating in the modern society. The author stresses the significance of intellectual cognition and the individuals’ emotional relationship with the local environment, their involvement in current problems of the surrounding reality and its active creation in regional education (Synowiec, 1997, p. 11). The material presented below, which concerns the issue of regional tradi- tions in preschool and primary school education, is a result of the analysis of contents goals, preschool and primary school curricula found on the institutions’ websites. The aim of the analysis was to describe the education content concern- ing regional traditions. The analysis of the data allowed the author to distinguish the following categories of the education content concerning local traditions. 1. The content of educational projects presented in school classes. On February 18—21, the project “Regional Week in Our School” was car- ried out in our school. The educational project was part of regular classes aimed to broaden the knowledge of our region (an hour a day during one week). The previous week, pupils and their teachers had created an artistic program “What is close to our hearts…” — a musical-theatrical presentation. The “Regional Week in Our School” project was based on the core curricu- lum of general education in primary schools (for more see http://zspkobyla. kornowac.pl/). 2. The content of educational projects presented in extracurricular classes. One of the school traditions is the carnival ball for the forms 1—3. Its aim is to cultivate the custom of common entertainment for all the pupils, who can fulfill their dreams and dress up as characters from fairy tales and regional legends. Music is always played by a befriended music band; teachers pre- pare competitions in which pupils who are “invisible” in the school’s daily life may succeed. Our goal is to involve all the pupils in this entertainment and help them overcome shyness and lack of self-confidence (Primary School no. 3 in Środa Śląska, for more see http://www.sp-srodaslaska.ogicom.pl). 3. The education content introduced in intentionally organized situations that serve to engage students in content knowledge construction. In the Primary School no. 13 in Żory, the “Regional Days” were organized once again. In course of the “Regional Days,” classes devoted to Silesian traditions and customs were conducted, and pupils were told legends from Żory. Young residents of our town visited also the school regional hall and 120 Ewa Szadzińska

went for an outing to a befriended school in Katowice (“Regional Days” in the Primary School no. 13 in Żory, for more see: http://www.zs6zory.pl). 4. The educational content used in activities performed in cooperation with the community. “Countryside in the past” is a name of traditional festivities which are organ- ized by the parents’ council, teachers, and pupils in the Adam Wodziczka pri- mary school in Rogalinki. The main idea of these festivities was to present to the young people and children how everyday life and holidays looked like in the country; thus, seasonal work on the land and following folk traditions were the main themes of the festivities. The community event was aimed at integrating residents of the village in which all the pupils attend the same school. In the village, there live multigenerational families strongly related to the local rituals, customs and traditions, “strongly tied to their own place on earth,” their small homeland (Silesian traditions — customs, celebrations, feasts, folk costumes, language, and legends. For more see http://www.zso12. gliwice.pl/index.php/konkursy/). 5. The education content as a foundation for activities in stable conditions. In the project “Trances of the past — students adopt monuments,” together with the students from the school community we have taken care of a grave of third Silesian uprising insurgents. A moving and beautiful ceremony took place in the Sośnica cemetery, in the presence of the insurgents’ descendants, representatives of municipal authorities, school management and Sośnica residents, the students signed an act of adoption. Now the act is displayed in the school’s corridor to remind students about their commitment to take care of the grave, bring flowers and light candles on public holidays, anni- versaries of the Silesian uprisings and on All Saints’ Day (Stefan Żeromski Primary School no. 14 in Gliwice, for more see http://www.sp14.brojek.com/ side/jasinska_kunas.pdf). 6. The education content used to reconstruct activities in intentionally organ- ized situations. In Upper Silesia, yearly rituality is strongly related to the church calendar and folk beliefs. Folk and religious motifs often merge. In Silesian tradition, there are many seasonal customs and rituals. In spring and summer, they include: drowning an effigy of Marzanna to celebrate the end of winter; going with gaik ‘a decorated twig’ (country folks’ spring festival); going with wooden rattles during Holy Week; Easter customs and rituals; Corpus Christi procession; Night; and Silesian dożynki (parochial har- vest festival). In autumn and winter, the following customs and rituals are cultivated: Advent fasting; fortune-telling on St. Andrew’s Day (November 29); St. Nicholas’ Day (on which children get presents and sweets) (Decem- ber 6); forecasting next year’s crops and weather (St. Lucy’s Day, Decem- ber 13); Christmas customs; carol singing; the carnival tradition of walking Regional culture traditions in the school education content… 121

a bear; babski comber (women’s party); the end of carnival celebrations; and family customs and rituals. The main aim of all the customs and rituals is to make every individual feel the support of the community in every moment of his or her life. In the above presented descriptions of educational practice in preschools and primary schools in Upper Silesia, the education content includes the com- munity life information. It is very important that educational practice should involve references to patterns of behavior, which have an impact on the beauty of our life, everyday chores, our role in the community, as well as on our un- derstanding of others.

Conclusions

Including in pedagogy issues specific for other disciplines, such as linguistics, cultural anthropology and ethnography makes the development of ethnopeda- gogy possible. The presented education content concerning regional traditions indicates such a tendency. In every ethnographic region, there are different customs, traditions, and historical heritage. That is why referring to this content knowledge is important for children’s identity-creation and self-education. In the rapidly globalizing world, people attach significance to local traditions; this also happens in other ethnic culture domains. It is an inexhaustible resource. Elements of ethnic culture can be successfully used in preschools and primary schools. Introduc- ing children to traditional culture, the teacher can shape their system of moral principles and human values, and develop their sense of beauty, creativity, and respect for life and admiration of nature. Cultivation of regional traditions at school performs many vital functions — that is, educational, cognitive, and social. It broadens children’s knowledge, develops their national consciousness, strengthens family bonds, and contributes to local community integration. In modern pedagogy, the phenomenon called renaissance of regionalism (also called ethnic awakening, getting back to one’s roots, or taking roots in one’s local homeland) attracts much attention and can be observed in the whole modern world, in Europe, and in the post-transformation Poland. According to Henryk Skorowski (2006), Polish regionalism consists in getting back to au- thentic local communities and their self-governance. 122 Ewa Szadzińska References

Błaszczak-Wacławik, M., Błasiak, W., & Nawrocki, T. (1990). Górny Śląsk. Szczególny przypadek kulturowy. Kielce: Wyd. J. Szumacher. Brzezinka, W. (2005). Wychowanie i pedagogika w dobie przemian kulturowych. Kraków: Wyd. WAM. Brzezińska, A. (2005). Jak skutecznie wspomagać rozwój? In A.I. Brzezińska (Ed.), Psycho­ logiczne portrety człowieka. Praktyczna psychologia rozwojowa. Gdańsk: Gdańskie Wydaw­ nictwo Psychologiczne. Gołek, B. (2014). O potrzebie samokształcenia i samowychowania młodzieży (refleksje związane ze środowiskiem wiejskim). Problemy Drobnych Gospodarstw Rolnych 3. Łobos, A. (2009). Wprowadzenie do problematyki. In M. Knapik & A. Łobos (Eds.), Folklor — edukacja, sztuka, terapia. Bielsko-Biała: Wyższa Szkoła Administracji. Nikitorowicz, J. (2009). Edukacja regionalna i międzykulturowa. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne. Nowy słownik języka polskiego. (2003). Warszawa: PWN. Skworowski, H. (2006). Europa regionu: regionalizm jako kategoria aksjologiczna. Krosno: Krośnieńska Oficyna Wydawnicza. Synowiec, H. (1997). Gwara w edukacji regionalnej. In L. Gilowa, K. Heska-Kwaśniewicz, H. Sy­ nowiec (Opracowanie). Program Edukacji Regionalnej w zakresie języka polskiego dla klas IV — VIII szkoły podstawowej (projekt). Katowice. Szadzińska, E. (2009). Inspiracje edukacyjne — projekt „Wartości Śląska”. In M. Knapik & A. Łobos (Eds.), Folklor — edukacja, sztuka, terapia. Bielsko-Biała: Wyższa Szkoła Administracji.

We b s i t es Karwowski, K.: Jedność w różnorodności. Retrieved from http://www.eid.edu.pl/archiwum/ 2006,104/kwiecien,218. Accessed 22.01.2015. http://zspkobyla.kornowac.pl/. Accessed 24.01.2015. http://www.sp-srodaslaska.ogicom.pl/. Accessed 24.01.2015. http://www.zs6zory.pl/. Accessed 23.01.2015. Wśród śląskich tradycji — obyczaje, święta, stroje ludowe, język, legendy. Retrieved from http:// www.zso12.gliwice.pl/index.php/konkursy/. Accessed 23.01.2015. http://www.sp14.brojek.com/side/jasinska_kunas.pdf. Accessed 23.01.2015. http://www.znpchorzow.pl/publikacje/opracowania/48.pdf. Accessed 24.01.2015. http://www.sp14.brojek.com/side/jasinska_kunas.pdf. Accessed 23.01.2015. http://www.znpchorzow.pl/publikacje/opracowania/48.pdf. Accessed 24.01.2015. Anna Waligóra-Huk University of Silesia

Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions within the eTwinning framework of international collaboration of schools

Abstract: This article is a presentation of the author’s own research findings conducted on a study sample of N = 65 teachers of junior secondary schools and primary schools. The aim of the study was to answer the research problem referring the teachers’ views on the possibility of creating and cultivating regional traditions with the application of tools and methods offered by the eTwinning Portal for international school cooperation. Keywords: regional education, tradition cultivation, international collaboration of schools, eTwin- ning, project method

Introduction

Regional education has always been an important part of school curricula. Today, the knowledge of the region and culture includes the awareness of the local, national, and European heritage, as well as the importance of their place in the world. In the era of European integration, it is important to understand the cultural and linguistic diversity of individual countries, cultivating and nurturing both manifestations and forms of regional cultures. The in-depth understanding of one’s own culture and a sense of identity may be the basis for an open at- titude towards different cultures and respect for diversity (Gilleran & Kearney, 2014, p. 38) 124 Anna Waligóra-Huk

eTwinning is a European initiative that aims to provide support to teachers in terms of establishing contacts enabling them to get to know one another, as well as the exchange of ideas and extensive collaboration within the framework of a social networking site (Crawley, 2012). An important aspect of eTwinning is the fact that the projects always entail the exchange of traditions and values typical of particular cultures. The assumptions revolve around the idea that the greater the scale of information exchange, the more knowledgeable the students become about the cultural diversities of other societies, and thus become more European. It can therefore be claimed that eTwinning makes an important con- tribution to European education, especially in the field of foreign languages and cultures. eTwinning has proved that European education does exist, and has established itself for good in the school core curricula (Van de Craen, 2008). The action has already taken a permanent position in the projects under the Comenius program, and has been integrated in the Lifelong Learning Program. It is learning a foreign language with respect for different cultures which makes up Europe and constitutes the heart of all the Comenius actions. Languages and culture are at the root of the majority of eTwinning projects, regardless of whether it comes to subjects such as physics, history, music, or mathematics (Gilleran, 2008). The assumptions of the projects implemented within eTwin- ning focus on the perception of the future of Europe from the perspective of the younger generation which will shape the future (Crawley, 2008). The authors of the quoted reports come to the conclusion that teachers are in a possession of both tools and opportunities to form attitudes and skills which will help young people to shape this future reality in an open and unbiased way, with the application of the modern media, which are successfully and with satisfaction deployed by younger and younger pupils and students. eTwinning launched by the European Commission in 2005, includes a wide community of schools across Europe. The eTwinning project offers a platform for cooperation between school staff (teachers, school principals, librarians) from one of the European countries, who communicate, collaborate, develop projects, share information and ideas, as well as initiate creative and inspiring educational activities on this platform. The eTwinning action promotes school collaboration in Europe through information and communication technologies (ICT), offering support, tools and services, so that schools can easily create short-term and long-term partnerships in miscellaneous fields. The eTwin- ning Portal (www.etwinning.net) is in this action the main meeting place and workspace. It is available in 26 languages and brings together nearly 230,277 members and over 5,462 projects carried out by two or more schools across Europe. The website provides online tools to enable teachers to find partners for cooperation, to establish projects, to share ideas, to exchange the examples of the best practices and to start an immediate collaboration taking advantage of various tools specially tailored to particular needs (Danosh, 2015). Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions… 125

An extremely important role in the whole idea of eTwinning is performed by teachers. According to Stanisław Juszczyk, a contemporary teacher should be characterized by professionalism in terms of being prepared to work within the scope of pedagogical, psychological, and methodical areas (Juszczyk, 2013, p. 21). What seems to be extremely valuable with regard to the issue of my own research is the concept of Czesław Banach according to which the teacher should be a source of knowledge for learners, a source of ethical values, as well as life and social experience in the changing world, moreover, they should in- duce the activity of learners and enhance their development (Banach, 2004). The teacher is above all involved in the developmental changes of school and edu- cation, culture, and social life (Banach, 2000). The effectiveness of any action taken by the teacher depends largely on their personality, their competence and motivation for didactic and educational work (Juszczyk, 2016). One should also mention that the important factor here is the teacher’s openness to new technol- ogy and the ability to adapt to the changing conditions, educational challenges, as well as the flexibility to follow the interests and needs of the students, who are in every respect digital natives (Prensky, 2001). In the actions implemented within the eTwinning collaboration of schools, the teacher plays a key role as the initiator of the activities, the coordinator of children and youth’s work and the inspirer, constantly motivating the students to participate in various projects, including those dedicated to regional education and cultivation of traditions. In this paper, regional education is understood as a process of educating and upbringing as well as shaping human identity associated with their land and cul- ture. According to Łucja Staniczek, regional education can be referred to as an integrated process of shaping and stabilizing the attitudes towards the heritage of the past and the contemporary issues of one’s own region, which aims to contrib- ute to the preservation of cultural continuity and its inclusion into European cul- ture (Staniczek, 1996). Therefore, let us have a closer look at teachers’ opinions regarding the possibility to create and cultivate regional traditions using the tools and methods offered by the eTwinning platform for international collaboration.

Methodological assumptions of the research

The aim of the research was to answer the research questions on teachers’ opin- ions on the opportunities to create and cultivate regional traditions using the tools and methods offered by the eTwinning platform for international collabo- ration. In this study the specific research problems were formulated as follows: 1. Is the teacher able to cultivate regional traditions taking advantage of the eTwinning platform? If yes, in what way? 126 Anna Waligóra-Huk

2. What kind of projects in the field of regional education and cultivating tradi- tions are implemented in schools? 3. What are the competences the students acquire when working on the eTwin- ning international collaboration projects? 4. What are the advantages of implementing the themes of tradition and re- gionalism in the context of international collaboration of schools in the eTwinning project? 5. How does the teacher motivate the students to participate in the eTwinning projects? 6. Do any difficulties occur when implementing the eTwinning projects? If yes, what kind of difficulties? In order to find answers to the formulated research problems the diagnos- tic survey method was selected, within the frames of this method the research technique of an individual, public, categorized interview, based on the author’s interview questionnaire, was applied. The study sample consisted of N = 65 teachers, including 45 junior secondary schools teachers (69.2%), and 20 (30.8%) primary schools teachers working in the of Silesia. All the teachers constituting the research sample were actively involved in the tasks relating to the implementation of the projects within the eTwinning program as the coordinator or were co-operating with the teacher responsible for the coor- dination of eTwinning in their institution at various stages of the project. In the course of the quantitative analysis of the research findings, so as to illustrate the teachers’ opinions better, the authentic quotations were used, which will be cited in the subsequent part of the text.

Cultivating regional traditions in eTwinning — the teachers’ reflection

The teacher using the tools offered by the eTwinning platform in the course of their daily work or as a part of extra-curricular activities developing students’ interest can in a diverse and interesting way cultivate regional traditions. Among the possibilities offered by the platform perceived by the teachers, one can distinguish the ones focusing specifically on the development of cognitive func- tion — in terms of the acquisition of the knowledge of cultures and traditions. According to the teachers interviewed, the objective of many eTwinning projects is to get to know other cities of Europe and their cultures1 (the authors’ own

1 The quotations of the teachers’ opinions obtained in the authors’ own research will con- sistently be written in italics throughout the whole paper and followed by the information in brackets — the authors’ own research. Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions… 127 research). Thus, during the preparation of the projects on regional education, the teachers focus on the aspect of learning about and getting acquainted with the cultural diversity of the partner countries in Europe. The teachers emphasize that in the context of continuing the tradition with the application of the eTwinning tools, the emphasis is on the knowledge of their own culture and traditions, with simultaneous cognitive curiosity about the identification of the partner countries traditions. Each region has its own history, monuments, sights, and tradition. We want to boast about our city and get to know other European cities. It is a unique experience for children and teachers (the authors’ own research). The above quote highlights the work of the teach- ers and students in the preparation of the projects, as well as the experience of sharing the effects of the accomplished work. The teachers, especially foreign languages teachers, put a stress on the language competence development which is entailed by regional education, and remark that in the framework of collabo- ration with partner schools both: languages and cultures may differ, therefore the idea of eTwinning is to strive for teaching children different languages while learning about other cultures (the authors’ own research). In primary and junior secondary schools, teachers implement a number of different projects, and in the area of the interests arising from the research is- sues the most important are especially the ones devoted to regional themes and cultivation of traditions. Among the project themes mentioned by the surveyed teachers the following ones deserve special attention: —— “My City” — a project focused on the characteristics of the city/region in which the students live, with regard to the specific cult sites and regional traditions; —— “Kids Can Cook! European Cuisine Project”— a project addressing the is- sues of European cuisine, especially dishes specific to a particular country/ region. Students of Silesian schools presented the typical Silesian dishes (both daily and connected with various holidays) in the form of photos, posters and short films; —— “Christmas Traditions: Differences and Similarities” — a project focused on the description of the distinctive customs and traditions of Christmas cultivated in the region, including the aspect of the comparison in terms of the differences and similarities between their local traditions and the ones cultivated in the partner country; —— “Top 5 of My School” was, in turn, a project that focused on the descrip- tion and presentation of the five most important events in the life of the school, especially school traditions and local customs cultivated in the given institution. The scope of the projects quoted included mostly the content focused on the issues of regional traditions. The teachers emphasize, however, that even if the project is not entirely dedicated to the issues of regional education the 128 Anna Waligóra-Huk

content devoted to cultivating the traditions of the region is always interwoven with that. In the opinion of 97% of the interviewed teachers eTwinning in particular develops students’ cognitive competence oriented at getting to know the culture of both their own country and the partner. To visualize the data, it is worth quot- ing a selected citation acquired in the course of the research: curiosity about the world and contacts with peers make students rediscover what surrounds them (the authors’ own research). According to 77% of the teachers, the implemen- tation of the projects within this international cooperation develops students’ media competence, especially in terms of the desired use of technology in education. The statistical data are supported by the teachers’ quotes obtained in the study: eTwinning is an educational program of the European Union which promotes the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) in European schools. Students and teachers use the Internet in cross-border collaboration (the authors’ own research), and hence they learn of and get to know the cultural diversity through the use of the new media. As many as 75% of the teachers have also expressed the view that in the context of eTwinning students also develop social and language skills through the establishment of international relations with the students from partner schools and the continuous exchange of messages — to quote the respondents: the students primarily inter- act, exchange information and learning materials from a variety of disciplines (arts, geography and science) using communication skills in foreign languages (the authors’ own research). To comment upon the data obtained in this study, it can be concluded that in the framework of the eTwinning international col- laboration students acquire and improve a number of competences relevant both in the educational process, as well as in their personal development. The implemented themes of tradition and regionalism in the international collaboration of schools in the eTwinning project fulfills many positive roles and is characterized by an array of advantages. The teachers (68%) pay particu- lar attention to the possibility of the presentation and acquisition of the knowl- edge important due to the core curriculum in a creative and unconventional manner, which is different from the traditionally accepted model of conducting lessons: the students while working together in partnerships are aware that what they are doing is unique. Learning becomes creative, not imitative (the authors’ own research). Consequently, the respondents (59%) notice that eTwin- ning broadens the scope of educational opportunities offered to students, and motivates them for opening to Europe (the authors’ own research). This shows that besides the indicated values, the possibility of the project implementation is in itself a motivating incentive for students, reinforcing the behavior aimed at the process of learning of diversity. As many as 32% of the respondents expressed the opinion that the projects carried out by students develop in them a sense of diligence and responsibility for the work to be done: [students’ own Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions… 129 footnote] learn responsibility for their own work and commitments (the authors’ own research). With the implementation of the themes devoted to the issues of regional traditions, as noted by nearly 31% of the teachers: the students have an opportunity to learn about the cultural values of their region but also the culture and traditions of other European countries. A heart-warming summary of these analyses is the quote of one of the teachers, very actively involved in the idea of eTwinning, who, beyond the qualities of the project participation essential for students, also sees the ones relating to teachers themselves: eTwinning is an opportunity for teachers to promote the idea of regionalism and cultural herit- age while broadening their own horizons (the authors’ own research). Students’ motivation to learn has been a major concern of the Polish school. It seems, however, that the offer and the idea of education with the use of eTwinning is an effective solution to the educational problem areas. While preparing particular projects, teachers have a wide range of tools and opportu- nities that motivate students to participate in the work. In the opinion of 89% of the teachers the use of the new media itself, especially the Internet, evokes students’ activity: students and teachers use the Internet in a cross-border col- laboration (the authors’ own research). Moreover, in the opinion of 71% of the teachers, the opportunity to establish contacts and friendly relationships with other students from partner schools makes students enthusiastic about projects (the authors’ own research), thus, a subjectively perceived value which comes from the commitment, puts in operation the intrinsic motivation of students. In addition, as the teachers mention, students interact, exchange information and materials, which greatly motivates them to learn and open to Europe (the authors’own research). According to 62% of the teachers another motivat- ing factor is also a kind of flexibility in the project preparation, which is the possibility to modify and customize various elements to the students’ specific needs and interests. The teachers understand this category in the following way: the tasks are adapted to the abilities of each student. Taking advantage of the project method is especially important in junior secondary schools. The project flexibility or the possibility to customize the theme and the duration of the project to students’ needs, as well as the possibility to make modifications at any time, significantly affects the project implementation and motivates students to work (the authors’ own research). Undoubtedly, in the implementation of the eTwinning projects there also occur all sorts of difficulties. In the opinion of 34% of the teachers the greatest difficulty is the lack of a universal belief in the value of distant learning (the authors’ own research), in spite of the many activities and promotion, this form of education is still a niche when it comes to the Polish educational system (Hyla, 2007). The teachers surveyed (14%) also expressed the opinion that in the implementation of the eTwinning projects the greatest difficulty is the lack of students’ interest in cultural multidimensionality, fears and aversion to others 130 Anna Waligóra-Huk

and strangers due to the large ethnic homogeneity of our society (the authors’ own research). This obstacle can be offset by a variety of educational activities focused on changing the attitudes and oriented at the development of cognitive curiosity among children and adolescents.

Conclusions

The world wide web offers teachers an ever wider range of services which are useful in the educational process of students. They are a subject to a continuous improvement, and a variety of modifications (Siemieniecki, 2001). The mod- ern teacher directs the work of students, providing them with the conditions for self-study and individual knowledge acquisition, personality development and attitudes formation (Bednarek, 2002; Juszczyk, 2003). Modern technologies also allow of a direct contact in the real time between the teacher and the stu- dent regardless of the distance which separates them (Kubiak, 1997). As noted by Nagórski, distant learning can perfectly complement traditional education (integrate with it), hence supporting the learning process (Nagórski, 2000). Un- doubtedly, the implementation of the projects under the auspices of eTwinning European collaboration of schools fits perfectly in these postulates. The research findings show that the implemented projects are diverse in terms of difficulty — from the easy ones to the more advanced ones. Thus, both the beginners in eTwinning as well as the experienced teachers can find something on the plat- form which meets their needs. The projects are tailored to the level of primary and junior secondary schools. Yet, one needs to bear in mind that curricula are different in different parts of Europe, and that in each country there also ex- ist different educational contexts. Collaboration within eTwinning means open- ing up to the international dimension in teaching. In this context, the proposed project themes are an inspiration and can be adjusted to the needs of two or more schools. The primary role of the teacher is to adapt a variety of ideas and their synchronization with the ideas of the collaborating partner schools (Crawley, 2008). Thus, according to the research, teachers modify some content and basi- cally interweave the threads of the issues centred around regional education with, making children and youth realize the richness and multidimensionality of the cultural heritage of the region, as well as the need for its continuation and mul- tiplication (Szczepański, 1995). Therefore, undoubtedly, teachers working with the project method within the eTwinning platform support their students in the discovery of their cultural identity and their place in the world, enabling young people to explore their own cultural heritage, values, and regional content (Sta- niczek, 1996), which is directly in line with the demands of regional education. Teachers on the possibilities of cultivating regional traditions… 131 References

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Anna Brosch University of Silesia

The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition in early school education

Abstract: Multimedia is the multi dimensions of media, which can be an amalgamation of text, sound effects, light, animated figures, still images, videos and interactive content forms. Multimedia plays a very important role in assisting students in learning processes. The present contribution aims to identify the role of different types multimedia devices and their positive influence in the early education. Multimedia is present in children’s everyday life, thus its man- agement is considered as a necessity by the specialists. The relation of multimedia with education is very complex — from speaking about teaching with multimedia to multimedia education. This article analyzes the openness of primary school for use of multimedia in the learning process, especially in cultivating regional culture and tradition. The study was conducted in the January 2015 among 12 teachers at first level of education. Keywords: early education, culture and tradition, multimedia

Introduction

As the new information technologies are being transformed from expensive gadgets into standard classroom equipment, their extraordinary multimedia ca- pabilities are rapidly becoming a routine part of learning environments (Slaw- son, 1993). Interactive multimedia is one of the most promising technologies of the time and has the potential to revolutionize the way of working, learn- ing, and teaching (Staub & Wetherbe, 1989). With the continued development of knowledge societies, the influence of new technologies on the creation of knowledge is growing. Not only are the rate of production and the volume 134 Anna Brosch

of information continuing to grow exponentially, but information is also less and less dependent on text-based transmission and increasingly includes audio, graphic, and visual supports through a variety of media. Therefore, it plays an important role in making teaching and learning process more effective and suc- cessful (Strykowski, 2003, p. 116). Multimedia involves different media, which have all existed before, includ- ing text, video, sound, graphics, animation and may or may not involve comput- ers. Multimedia can be used in a range of formats from a simple PowerPoint slide show to a complex interactive simulation, therefore the combination of these simple elements makes it a powerful new educational tool (Bednarek, 2006, p. 46). The old text-based approach to learning is being superseded by an approach which combines audio and color video in a much more exciting way (Barker & Tucker, 1990). With the capability of creating a more realistic learning context multimedia has the potential to create high quality learning environments and thus should be more effective than traditional classroom lec- ture, and improves students’ attitudes toward the learning material. Multimedia may improve learning by allowing to use the most effective medium to present specific information. With formal education traditionally emphasizing teaching more than learn- ing, education system in Poland has focused on the transfer of information and knowledge from the teacher to the learner. Technology is one of the driv- ing forces removing teaching from “time dependent, location dependent, and situation dependent” settings (Lattas, 2009, p. 85). With the multiplication of digital media, sources of information, knowledge and values are becoming more diversified and accessible beyond the confines of formal education systems. Accordingly, the media have enormous potential for the transmission and cultivation culture and traditions in early school education. As it offers a unique possibilities in transmitting content and information, where direct participation of such small children is impossible. Irrespective of the community, location around the world and level of technological advancement, tradition is passed on to the successive generation as crucial element of culture, which is virtually indispensable for the community’s cultural survival. There is no doubt, that tradition is associated of belonging to a given community (Głowacka-Grajper, 2009, p. 36). Therefore, the purpose of educational institution is to ensure that the existing store of culture will be preserved by passing it onto the subsequent generations. All societies in order to attain socialization of their next generations have created their own cultural and social experience (Schultz, 1996, p. 168). Thus, multimedia should be a natural way of modern teaching that is me- thodically convenient for teachers and very attractive to the pupils. But to be able to perform teaching functions, multimedia should be correctly prepared and not only in terms of content, but visually as well. The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition… 135 Multimedia in early education

The global changes observed in the 21st century have created new needs, as well as a new concept of education and lifelong learning. Children who are now attending primary schools belong to the generation that was born in computer- ized world and have grown up surrounded by computers, video games, mobile phones, and the Internet. Therefore today’s children learn, work, write, and communicate in a different way from previous generations and prefer watching than reading, indirect than direct communication and are more likely to meet online than in person (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008). Some researchers argue that not only children’s behavior was changed, but their brains evolved as well, making them permanently and biologically different from their ancestors (Small & Vor- gan, 2011). On the other hand, civilization and technological progress inevitably changes the living standard, the value of life and methods of education. As a consequence, pedagogical responses to these new challenges in the institu- tions of primary education are being sought for. The current research indicates that it is necessary to educate a child from an early age, because self-motivated and active learning takes place exactly at that age (Fullan, 2005, pp. 13—29). There is no doubt, that primary level is an important stage in the child’s educational life. As many studies have emphasized that children in the first level of education is characterized by fast physical and social development. Due to the increasing activity, they learn new behavior patterns and skills very easily (Stefańska-Klar, 2004). In other words, whatever is being taught must engage the learner as an active agent for meaning to emerge. In the deeper process of learning, the learner moves from the known to the unknown, making the known explicit to themselves and then enlarging that knowledge and understanding which he or she already possesses (Bruner, 1987). In the case of young chil- dren coming into school, teachers in the foundation stage know that they have to work with the known and the given to help their pupils to make sense of the world (Rogoff, 1992). If a teacher succeeds in framing a sound base and making the entire concept clear to a child, then in future the student will be able to grasp difficult thing easily. There is evidence that nutrition and cognitive stimulation in first stage of child’s education is critical in forming the ability to future learning. This is particular relevant with regard to developing skills like creativity, flexibility and problems solving, skills that are coming more in demand in the knowledge economy. In our culture nearly all children have, from birth, extensive experience with film, television, and video (Kress, 1997; Bromley, 1996; Marsh & Hallet, 1999). The primary role of multimedia is learn- ing by doing — pupils firstly see the objects and then learn. Multimedia may have unique capabilities to facilitate learning because of the parallels between multimedia and natural way of children learn, that is, through visual information 136 Anna Brosch

and imagery. Using interactive multimedia in the teaching process is a growing phenomenon. Multimedia plays a very important role in assisting students in learning processes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the multimedia enhance and enable students to learn in a more effective way. Multimedia tools provide a wealth of new ways to encourage children, explore issues, records views and communication from others. There are two major approaches to using multime- dia in early education; first, pupils can learn “from” multimedia. Second, they can learn “with” multimedia.

Figure 1. Different types of learning activities vs. the residual knowledge of a learner S o u r c e: Edgar Dale. (1969). Audiovisual method of teaching. New York, p. 107.

Multimedia are necessary for an education in various ways, developing cross skills and competencies, efficient communication, solving problems, critical thinking, collaboration, and using technologies. Multimedia’s capacity to deliver real time simulations through the use of video is a feature that elevated it beyond traditional text-based learning, and therefore could be viewed as a means of sup- plementing or preparing a student for real experiences. Multimedia could provide a solution where direct participation is impossible. Moreover, in most cases is believed to enhance user experience and result in easier and faster understanding of the information presented. Many studies have emphasized that whatever is be- The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition… 137 ing taught must engage the learner as an active agent for meaning to emerge. In the deeper process of learning, the pupils move from the known to the unknown, and then enlarging already possessed knowledge (Okoń, 2003; Bruner, 1987). Recent researchers have shown that significant increases in learning can be ac- complished through the informed use of visual and verbal multimodal learning. Principles related to multimedia and modality are listed below: 1. Multimedia Principle: Retention is improved through words and pictures rather than through words alone. 2. Spatial Contiguity Principle: Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near each other rather than far from each other on the page or screen. 3. Temporal Contiguity Principle: Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively. 4. Coherence Principle: Students learn better when extraneous words, pic- tures, and sounds are excluded rather than included. 5. Modality Principle: Students learn better from animation and narration than from animation and on-screen text. 6. Redundancy Principle: Students learn better when information is not repre- sented in more than one modality — redundancy interferes with learning. 7(a). Individual Differences Principle: Design effects are higher for low-know­ ledge learners than for high-knowledge learners. 7(b). Individual Differences Principle: Design effects are higher for high-spatial learners rather than for low-spatial learners. 8. Direct Manipulation Principle: As the complexity of the materials increase, the impact of direct manipulation of the learning materials (animation, pacing) on transfer also increases (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Ginns, 2005). Specialists indicate five important media in education — direct human con- tact (face to face), text (including still graphics), audio, television and comput- ing. The use of media tools and products has to achieve the following objectives: —— individualization of learning, especially through the possible use of digital media tailored to particular student; —— deepening learning, for example by different ways of illustration/simulation of phenomena otherwise inaccessible for student; —— facilitate learning through the use of various records of work. Thereby, the media may make it possible to make progress in the learning process. —— increase motivation for learning because of the attractiveness of media products, such as, for example, the audio-visual products; —— developing key skills and competencies, such as efficient communication, solving problems, critical thinking, collaboration, and the use of technolo- gies; —— developing attitudes, including intellectual curiosity and responsibility; —— giving a background for a global perspective on the world (Bates, 1993). 138 Anna Brosch

In particular, education based on digital multimedia integrating graphics, text, audio and video software into a single unit is the most effective. Text has the most impact on the quality of the multimedia interaction, because it provides the important information and acts as the keystone tying all of the other media elements together. Sound is used to provide emphasis or to highlighting some information and enables teachers to present lots of information at once. Sound, if used creatively, becomes a stimulus to the imagination but used inappropri- ately may become a hindrance or cause annoyance. Video presents information by using the visualization capabilities. There is no doubt, that video provides new and exciting possibilities of transmission of information and knowledge. Moreover, it can stimulate interest and engagement of pupils. One of the most compelling justifications for video may be ability to elicit an emotional response from an individual. Animation is used to show changes in state over time, or to present information slowly to students so they have time to assimilate it in smaller chunks. Animations are primarily used to demonstrate an idea or illustrate a concept. Whereas video is usually taken from life, animations are based on drawings, pictures or graphics to provide the most creative possibilities for a learning session. Through animation in traditional stories provide a huge knowledge related to real context. Animations are highly engaging for young viewers and most students, even in the early years show a high level of media literacy and knowledge about animation. The computer-related literacy experi- ences of young children should involve a balance between open-ended activities and more closed learning activities (Segers, 2002). Computers do provide an environment in which children demonstrated more active interest and joy when using the computer programs. They also showed more concentration using the computer than watching. It was concluded that computers also appear to be highly motivating for children. They generally have very positive experiences on the computer and tend to stay on task for a long period of time (McCarrick & Li, 2007).

The use of multimedia in cultivating tradition in the light of the authors’ own research

Based on the above literature review, it was important to explore the way how teachers in primary schools use multimedia to cultivating culture and tradition. The following empirical results are gathered in a survey carried in January of 2015 at several primary schools in Silesia region. This was a survey based on interview questionnaire that was addressed to 12 teachers at first level of educa- tion. The questionnaire covered a broad range of topics. In addition to the basic The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition… 139 school equipment with multimedia devices, respondents were asked to describe the ways of using them in the context of curricula. As the study has shown, conveying cultural contents, and therefore teach- ing tradition by means of multimedia may assume the various forms — from simple text, sound, and animations, through the films to the use of computer programs. Transmission of tradition is based on two equal levels: action and speaking. The level of action is chiefly providing an example, practicing tradi- tion, demonstrating how things are done and active participation in the creation of cultural system. In turn, the level of speaking is associated with instruction, explanation, and telling others about tradition and their own culture. Therefore, in transmission of cultural­ contents, the best effects are achieved through com- bination of these two levels. According to the teachers surveyed multimedia are excellent means to convey content which most students find boring when taught traditionally. It must be emphasized that in Poland, great importance is attached to the symbols of tradition that representing a certain level of abstraction and may be difficult to understand to children. Therefore, multimedia is helpful to explain the roots of social phenomena, beliefs, rituals or superstitions, as well as providing them with a material dimension. It makes the assignment of symbolic meanings easier. The key to successful transmission is to make young listeners interested in the topic. It should be noted that the Silesia is a multicultural area formed by influence of populations including the Polish, German, Czech and Jewish with strong sense of ethnic identity. Despite the cultural variety, Silesian people are really fond of their little homeland. Film is recognized by teachers as a valuable tool that can be used to en- gage young people with topic of lesson and increase their overall motivation for learning. Film can help children to be more positive about the whole school experience. Showing films to children can help to broaden their pupils’ minds. Film or video is used usually to present students with a real-world context, for example local history and changes over time. It is also used to show traditional Silesian songs and dances. The Internet may offer a suitable site for publishing children’s work on the school website, for viewing by parents and collaborating schools. Informational websites available through the Internet provide opportunities for children to learn about the region beyond their classroom. An interesting example is the website of the Castle Museum in Pszczyna. In addition to historical information, visitors can take a virtual tour of the castle. The research has also shown that teachers have strong interest in multime- dia presentation, which allows children to display text, images, animation, video and sound together in the form of a digital slideshow. In an increasingly visually oriented world, children’s ability to use multimedia software may help them to make sense of the media that is a part of their daily lives. A data projector is an ideal way of ensuring that children and teachers can use the presentation 140 Anna Brosch

software in a whole-class situation. the teachers use a multimedia projector to show the children monuments and architecture of Silesia an therefore culti- vate regional culture. Teachers utilize pictures, words, shapes, motions, colors and sounds into appealing combination which stimulates students to begin the process of thinking and developing input and to produce output as a result. A meaningful appealing combination helps to set up the situation, and the situ- ation assists in digging up students’ sense. The combined range of multimedia tools enables the teacher and child to maintain a useful record of each child’s journey from the unknown to the known in the form of an electronic portfolio, which engages the child’s interest in his or her learning by increasing the transparency of progress records. An electronic or digital portfolio is a collection of the child’s work, selected to demonstrate achievement and progress in a given area. As children learn to develop and maintain their own portfolios, they can select a representative range of ma- terials reflecting their interests, their ongoing work and achievements, such examples of written work, photographs, projects related to regional culture and using drawing and paint software to create and edit designs. Multimedia tools and software may also provide opportunities for children to document, through audio or video or both, by recording significant classroom and life events, for example first day at school with the horn of plenty, celebrations and special days associated with Easter or Christmas traditions. However, the surveyed teachers emphasize that often the use of multimedia in learning is difficult due to the large number of pupils per classes and also insufficient schools equipment with multimedia devices, especially TVs, CD players, computers and multimedia projectors. Therefore, teachers are forced to use the equipment devices in the common room or in the computer room, which makes conducting lessons quite difficult.

Conclusions

In the age of information revolutions, students are equipped with cell phones, laptops with wireless Internet and probably some other high tech gadgets. It is sometimes boring and uninteresting to present to them the course material on a board or direct rehearsal. The educational system may need to utilize and compete with the new Information and communication technologies and ben- efit from them. There are lots of possibilities of such utilization such as using animation to present some of the complex boring problems in a more appealing format. Such techniques are particularly useful for teaching kids within primary schools at early ages. The role of multimedia in cultivating Polish culture and tradition… 141

Finally, it is worth reminding ourselves how important moving-image edu- cation is to children in the modern world. Moving-image media have a unique capacity for the development of cultural understanding and citizenship. Watch- ing programs and films made and set in regional culture can help develop an awareness of sameness that is essential to cultural understanding. Effective use of multimedia will become core elements of modern education. The multimedia elements will enable to students to understand the concepts being taught via au- dio and video. With traditional textbooks, what they could not comprehend via word and sentences are conveyed via multimedia. Tradition told with passion and in the way that is comprehensible for the young people may be something exceptionally interesting.

References

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Regional education as a significant area of preschool educational activities

Abstract: The article aims at presenting the role of regional education in teaching and upbring- ing of children at preschool age. The author not only points to significance of the transfer of values of the material and non-material culture to the youngest members of society, but she also puts emphasis on the need to prepare the future teachers to derive knowledge and values from wisdom, mentality, customs, and traditions of the region that they live in. Keywords: tradition, regional education, preschool education

Tradition is the reason of the whole nation, sieved from one age into the other. Ricarda Huch Introduction

Traditions passed from one generation to the other occupy a significant place in the lives of all human beings as they influence their cultural identity and patri- otic attitude. These are certain principles of conduct, views, beliefs, messages, and customs, which — when maintained with due care — are characterized by continuity. We are the ones who decide whether the cultivated traditions are passed to younger generations; otherwise, their message becomes neglected, which finally renders them devoid of their richness. Regional traditions are particularly valuable from the perspective of preserving the socio-cultural iden- tity. The regional consciousness is connected with the feeling of affiliation to a given society, as well as identification with that society, its culture, language, and territory (Kisiel, 2014, p. 258). 144 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer

The introduction of regionalism, conceived as a socio-cultural movement that is concentrated on taking care of and developing the cultural heritage in the region, into the educational system is not a new phenomenon. “Teaching based on regional foundations started to be incorporated in Polish schools as early as in the second half of the 20th century. It undoubtedly happened under the influence of the regional movement, developing in a number of European countries, but originating in France. It was supported by the fact that the Renais- sance ideals were still vivid there, especially those of the Napoleon era, when the bond between human beings and their family land comprising a part of the nationwide homeland, was noticeable” (Toboł, 2005, p. 23). Regionalism, as the ideology of sightseeing, was introduced into the reformed school within the interdisciplinary track, named regional education, already at the beginning of the 20th century. The sightseeing slogan: “From getting to know your region to becoming familiar with your country,” was spread by Aleksander Patkowski — the father of Polish regionalism, a traveler, pedagogue, and a social activist (Boczukowa, 2000, p. 61). Currently, interest in this problem is still alive and growing, despite the fact that the dynamic development of civilization, mainly in the period of the so-called social transformation, brought a hazard of pushing the tradition to the background of social life (Kisiel, 2014, p. 258).

Regional education in preschools

We have been observing an abiding interest in implementation of regionalism in education and upbringing for over ten years now. UNESCO have agreed that the years 1990—2000 were referred to as the Decade of Environmental Education. The concept of regionalism is applied creatively in Poland in teaching various subjects: Polish, history, geography, arts, as well as in elementary teaching and preschool education. The article proceeds to discuss the problems of regional education in the context of preschools, as a set of knowledge and experiences derived by a pupil from the preschool environment comes to lay the ground for protection and maintenance of national identity of the whole society. One of the aims of preschool education delineated in the preschool, kin- dergarten, primary school, and other forms of preschool education curricula is to “shape the feeling of social affiliation in children (towards the family, peer group, and national community) as well as the patriotic attitude.” Therefore, the idea of developing the sociocultural identity of children at the very begin- ning of their education, should delegate teachers with a fundamental task to be fulfilled in kindergartens. Regional education as a significant area… 145

The above aims of preschool education should be realized within all fields of educational activity of a preschool. The regional education is mentioned by field eight, regarding upbringing through art, within the scope of music, singing, hopping, and dancing, which suggests that children finishing kindergarten and continuing his or her education in a primary school, should sing child’s songs and easy folk songs. Children should also eagerly take part in group singing, dancing, and making music. Regional education is also included in field 9, which, similarly to the aforementioned field 8, refers to upbringing through art, however, in this case within the scope of various art forms. Point one in the scope of this field clearly suggests the need to get children interested in selected monuments and pieces of art, along with traditions and folk customs native to their region. Therefore, broadening knowledge about the region and acquisition of particular notions, should, first of all, take place through participation in folklore and direct relations with art and culture. In turn, the matter of passing various values underlying each society is em- phasized by field 15 which refers to family, citizenship, and patriotic upbring- ing. In this case, we may read that “children completing kindergarten education, starting to learn in the primary school shall: 1. list first and last names of persons close to them; know where they work and what they do; 2. know the name of the city/town they live in, most significant institutions, and they are aware of social roles played by important figures, for instance a policeman, a firefighter; 3. know their nationality, their country, and its ; 4. name the national emblem and flag, know the Polish anthem, and are aware that Poland belongs to the European Union; 5. know that all people have equal rights.”1 This field points to the necessity of preparing the child for identification with regional values and contents. Therefore, regional education ought to com- mence in the closest surrounding of the child. Development of family bonds connected with their own place of residence covers familiarization with cultural traditions of the region, and then with the whole country. Thus, we make the young generation realize that what is important for our “small homeland” we live in is also significant for the whole country. However, it needs to be borne in mind that the process of introducing children into regional traditions should not be forced upon them, but, rather, it should constitute a gradual, systematic, and multidimensional activity, adjusted

1 Core curriculum of preschool education for kindergartens, kindergarten units in primary schools and other forms of preschool education. Attachment No.1 to the Resolution of the Minister of National Education of 23 December 2008 (Journal of Laws 15 January 2009, No. 5, item 17). 146 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer

to their developmental possibilities, which is supported by properly selected forms and methods of didactic and educational work.

Forms and methods of realization of regional education in preschool education — practical actions

There are numerous methodological solutions in preschool education that sup- port the process of satisfying child’s cognitive curiosity, also within the scope of regional education. One form, which is worth paying attention to, is organiza- tion of walks and kindergarten trips, which are regarded as best way to fami­ liarize children with nature, monuments, architecture, and historical heritage of the closest surroundings. Here, it may turn out helpful to establish cooperation with museums, ethnographic museums, culture centers, as well as didactic fa- cilities of national and landscape parks, which support educational institutions through organization of various exhibitions, shows, workshops, contests, and folklore meetings. Furthermore, realization of the regional education’s aims should take place with participation of the local environment, represented among others by: po- ets, painters, social activists, representatives of local culture, creators, folklore artists, regionalists, historians, and other persons engaged in working for the benefit of the region. Meetings with interesting persons may take place both inside and outside the kindergarten, which additionally opens up the possibil- ity of active participation of children in culture, for example through learning songs, regional dances, playing instruments, preparing art and craft works. A significant aspect of preschool work is learning through play. Regional education contents offers varied and interesting materials designed for didactic games and plays. During games initiated by children, there is a frequent oppor- tunity to observe customs cultivated in family homes, regarding both everyday functioning and communicating, as well as those connected with celebrations and special family feasts. Such communication facilitates the process of un- veiling reality, engaging in emotional processes and practical activities. What is more, it displays excellent educational qualities (Szczurzewska, 2007, p. 9). Discovering family traditions in light of regional traditions, illustrates an- other significant aspect of supporting the cultural identity of a young person. It is the family, where children learn about customs of the region they live in, from the earliest period of their life. Children may not only listen to stories told by family members, but also witness the forms of cultivation of the regional Regional education as a significant area… 147 traditions. Therefore, it is worth making a room (for example adapting a corner of the room) in the kindergarten that would be devoted to the regional matters. Collecting souvenirs left by our predecessors, for example pictures, works of folk art, and other objects that regard specificity of the region, allow for passing everyday traditions from one generation to another. Another, equally valuable form of cooperation with children’s family en- vironment is organization of open classes and kindergarten feasts, all the more that they correspond with the subsequent seasons of the year, national or church feasts. Numerous facilities also celebrate traditions and customs of a given re- gion, where they operate, that is, the selection of the king and queen of “donuts” on the occasion of Fat Thursday, celebrating Shrove Tuesday, April Fool’s Day, Maypole, and others. Thanks to direct participation in the celebrations, children acquire more and more information about social life, they feel that they belong to the community, and in this way their patriotic feelings are shaped, like love towards homeland, joy with its achievements and beauty, or feelings of national bonds. Each feast celebrating significant events from the local environment of the country is a lesson in patriotism, respect for a close relative and one’s own nationality (Hetmańczyk-Bajer, 2014, pp. 128—129). The preschool activities may also offer a perfect occasion to integrate the academic environment with the kindergarten, and thus derive mutual benefits, which may include: expanding professional teacher-student contacts, mutual exchange of experiences, whereas students can acquire desired practice in the profession of a preschool teacher. The above-mentioned form of cooperation also engaged the students from the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology at the University of Silesia in Katowice, supervised by Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer, PhD, who prepared a celebration of St. Barbara feast, aimed at the children from the Private Kindergarten and Nursery with Integration Units “Misiowa Kraina” (Teddy Land) in Zabrze. Here, it is worth adding that the day of 4 December, that is the so-called Barbórka, is a highly significant feast within the Silesian lands, regarding their industrial character. This is the day of the patron saint of miners, among oth- ers, who have celebrated it with highest reverence for generations. There are numerous legends connected with St. Barbara, and miners believe that they can count on her help and rescue in case of emergency (Bazielich, 1988, pp. 341—371). This day’s celebration usually begins with a ceremonial march of the miners’ orchestra, through the housing situated around the mines, to wake up the workers. Afterwards, there is a procession formed on the mine square. All miners, dressed in their full-dress uniforms, take part in a procession through the city together with the orchestra and banners, leading to the church, where a ceremonial mass in their intention takes place. The feast is celebrated with special reverence, and the events are even more ceremonial as the most distinguished workers are decorated for their service (Kaczko, 2009, p. 185). 148 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer

Hence the aim of the jointly undertaken actions was to develop children’s interest, especially those regarding folk rituals, traditions and customs, and shaping pro-social attitudes and creating joyful atmosphere. The result of the undertaken cooperation is presented by a scenario of classes complemented with photographs, which are included in this article.

Regional education in view of the students of pedagogy majors — research results

A highly significant role in the life of every child in his or her preschool age is played by adults, parents or guardians in the main, and obviously by teachers. Their attitudes, engagement, and personal example will influence the manner of how children tend to think and behave. In the context of this article, it is worth paying attention to the views, opinions, and beliefs on the need to share regional education objectives, presented by people who will have an opportunity to model children’s attitude and behavior in the nearest future. It is also worth finding out whether the future elementary-education teachers are equipped with sufficient knowledge about the history, culture, tradition, and tourist and natural assets of their region, to be able to trigger patriotic feelings in their pupils. This was the reason for the research conducted with a method of diagnostic survey performed on the group of 35 students of full-time studies, and 35 students of extramural studies of the 2nd year of Pedagogy, the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology at the University of Silesia in Katowice. In the first question the students were requested to evaluate the curriculum of their studies in terms of regional education contents, whose results are il- lustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Does the curriculum include regional education contents? S o u r c e: author’s research. Regional education as a significant area… 149

While analyzing the data presented above, it may be noticed that the major- ity of students, of both full-time (26 persons — 74.3%) and extramural studies (28 persons — 80%) agree that there were no mention that would refer to the regional education program to be implemented in the studies. Not many sub- jects, however, pointed to particular modules, which included some elements from that scope. Table 1 includes a list of modules pointed by the students.

T a b l e 1 The modules which, according to the students, incorporate some of the regional education content Full-time students Extramural students Modules — students’ suggestions N percent N percent Stimulation of verbal activity of a child 0 0.0 2 5.7 Music classes 0 0.0 2 5.7 General didactics 0 0.0 1 2.9 Contemporary pedagogic directions 5 14.3 0 0.0 Middle-year specialization internship 3 8.6 0 0.0 S o u r c e: author’s research.

Table 1 suggests that the number of pointed modules is insignificant. What is more, choices made by the students are heterogeneous, which may prove that the regional education content influenced just a minor percentage of all assumed effects of education. In the second place, it seemed justifiable to ask the respondents to perform self-assessment within the scope of knowledge in history, culture, tradition, and tourist and natural assets of their regions. The collected data are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. To what extent do you consider yourself prepared to teach regional education, that is, the history, culture, traditions, as well as tourist and natural values of your region? S o u r c e: author’s research.

The analysis of the collected research material suggests that the majority of both full-time (25 persons — 71.4%) and extramural (28 persons — 80%) students acknowledge that their knowledge of the socio-cultural heritage of their region is rather average. Only individual participants evaluated their knowledge as high 150 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer

(full-time students, 1 person — 2.9%; extramural students, 1 person — 2.9%). The other participants maintain it is rather low (full-time students, 9 persons — 25.7%, extramural students, 6 persons — 17.1%). The above analysis entails a question whether the students expect some sup- port from the university in the field of regional education, which is illustrated by Figure 3.

Figure 3. Are you expected to support regional education program with your own ideas, extra materials, exercises, field trips, etc.? S o u r c e: author’s research.

The collected data allow to conclude that the majority of respondents, that is, 82.2% of the full-time students (29 persons), and 77.2% of the extramural students (27 persons), notice the need to broaden the knowledge of regional education, with due university support. Such status quo remains satisfactory as much depends on the future teachers, that is, their attitudes, engagement in search for the traces of their own region’s past. The process of shaping the socio-cultural identity of a child, as well as broadening his or her historical knowledge, depends both on teachers’ pedagogical abilities and their knowledge of the local environment. In the last question, the students who gave an affirmative answers, were asked to point to a form of support in the area of regional education, whose task would be to complement the deficiencies in knowledge from that scope. Data relating to this matter were collected in Table 2. While analyzing Table 2, it may be noticed that the majority of the re- searched full-time students, as much as 42.9% (15 persons), chose classes in a form of additional modules, as an element of support within the scope of regional education. In turn, the majority of extramural students (31.4% — 11 persons), chose field classes, which could take place in cultural and educational facilities. With reference to this group of students, the selection of classes which would be run outside of the university is not astonishing, because studing over the weekends does not encourage organization of such classes. Arguments provided by the respondents were as follows: “[…] lectures with elements of Regional education as a significant area… 151

T a b l e 2 Forms of students’ support in the area of regional education Full-time students Extramural students Students’ proposals N percent N percent Optional classes 1 2.9 7 20 An additional module in the form of lectures 2 5.7 3 8.6 An additional module in the form of classes 15 42.9 2 5.7 Trips 2 5.7 7 20 Field classes (e.g. in culture-educational 5 14.3 11 31.4 facilities, museums, etc.) Workshops 3 8.6 5 14.3 Meetings with interesting people from the 3 8.6 1 2.9 region Practical classes 2 5.7 2 5.7 Regional dance 0 0.0 2 5.7 S o u r c e: author’s research. regional history and field classes may turn out to be helpful, as they will allow to show the necessary knowledge to the children, and awaken their fondness towards their own region,” “a module with a theoretical and a practical part would be useful, thus we’d have a direct and an indirect contact with culture.” Hence it may be worth taking a closer look at the suggestions proposed by the students, and while responding to their needs, create an additional module devoted to regional education, which would not only be based on the theory, but which would also enable realization of educational effects outside of the university. For that purpose, it is necessary to establish wider cooperation with centers and institutions specializing in cultivating and passing on the cultural heritage, values, and regional history. It is therefore worth highlighting that such solutions have already been accomplished, also in the weekend mode, in relation to extramural students. An example of successful cooperation was the support provided to the museum Upper Silesian Ethnographic Park in Chorzów (Górnośląski Park Etnograficzny w Chorzowie) with development of an educational-didactic offer for preschool children. Students of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology of the University of Silesia, supervised by Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer, PhD, within the classes of Methodology of preschool edu- cation, had a chance to participate in museum classes. In the final phase of the classes, they could express their opinions, and propose other solutions and suggestions. Thanks to their involvements, the chosen museum classes were enriched with physical games and work sheets for preschoolers (Hetmańczyk- Bajer, 2014, pp. 180—181). 152 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer Conclusion

A short research in the history of Polish regionalism and studies conducted in the fields of preschool education with regard to regional education, as well as the familiarization with the future teachers’ opinion on regional education un- doubtedly accentuates the need to implement regional education into teaching and upbringing of children at a preschool level. Referring to regional traditions constitutes a significant message for the child, namely, it presents continuity of family traditions passed from one generation to the other. While building their sociocultural identity, young persons ought to be provided with the favorable support from well-qualified pedagogical staff. Therefore, what comes to the foreground is an urgent task to encourage and prepare future teachers to foster values lying in the direct natural, cultural, and social environment of the child. These activities should be interesting enough to trigger children’s respect to- wards what is traditional and unique, as well as the feeling of being proud of their city, town or village, and their region.

References

Bazielich, B. (1988). Święta Barbara — patronka górników. In D. Simonides (Ed.), Górniczy stan w wierzeniach, obrzędach, humorze i pieśniach (pp. 341—372). Katowice: Śląski Instytut Naukowy w Katowicach. Boczukowa, B. (2000). Aleksander Patkowski — twórca polskiego regionalizmu. Edukacja i Dialog 7, 61—63. Hetmańczyk-Bajer, H. (2014). Lekcja muzealna jako niedoceniona propozycja wycieczki dla dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym. In M. Mnich & M. Kisiel (Eds.), Praktyka czyni mistrza, czyli jak unowocześnić praktyki studenckie i warsztat pracy nauczycieli edukacji przedsz- kolnej i szkolnej (pp. 169—183). Katowice: Śląska Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania im. gen. Jerzego Ziętka w Katowicach. Hetmańczyk-Bajer, H. (2014). Uroczystości przedszkolne jako jedna z form działalności artystyczno-pedagogicznej przedszkola. In M. Kisiel & H. Hetmańczyk-Bajer (Eds.), Integrowanie działań pedagogiczno-artystycznych w edukacji elementarnej (pp. 127— 142). Katowice: Katedra Pedagogiki Wczesnoszkolnej i Pedagogiki Mediów Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w Katowicach. Kaczko, K. (2009). Doroczne zwyczaje i obrzędy In B. Bazielich (Ed.), Ludowe tradycje. Dziedzictwo kulturowe ludności rodzimej w granicach województwa śląskiego. Wrocław— Katowice: Polskie Towarzystwo Ludoznawcze (Polish Ethnological Society) and Muzeum Śląskie (The Silesian Museum). Kisiel, M. (2014). Tradycje i zwyczaje płaszczyzną integracji sztuki w edukacji i wychowaniu dziecka — w 200. rocznicę urodzin Oskara Kolberga. In M. Kisiel & H. Hetmańczyk-Bajer (Eds.), Integrowanie działań pedagogiczno-artystycznych w edukacji elementarnej (pp. 254— 273). Katowice: Katedra Pedagogiki Wczesnoszkolnej i Pedagogiki Mediów Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w Katowicach. Regional education as a significant area… 153

Core curriculum of preschool education for kindergartens, kindergarten units in primary schools and other forms of preschool education. Attachment No. 1 to the Resolution of the Minister of National Education of 23 December 2008 (Journal of Laws 15 January 2009, No. 5, item 17). Szczurzewska, T. (2007). Edukacja regionalna w przedszkolu. Aspekty, 3(36), 9—12. Toboł, S. (2005). Historia idei edukacji regionalnej. Edukacja i Dialog, 2, 23—29. 154 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer Appendix 1

Scenario of the kindergarten celebration of Barbórka in “Misiowa Kraina”2 Age group: 3—4-year-old children with participation of “seniors” from the “Misiowa Kraina” nursery. 1. General aims: —— familiarization with the profession of a miner, —— familiarization with the Silesian traditions, —— familiarization with the Silesian dialect, —— perception of the need to maintain the Silesian dialect, —— development of children’s vocal skills, —— development of children’s physical fitness, —— development of manual abilities (fine motor skills). 2. Detailed aims: •• Each child knows: —— what work of a miner consist in, —— how a full-dress uniform of a miner and Silesian female folk clothes look like, —— what the Silesian traditions that refer to 4 December are. •• The child can: —— color an image, —— prepare and glue shapes from blotting paper, —— reflect movements of the teacher according to a song or a game, —— sing a song entitled “My górnicy” (“We miners”), and “Idzie górnik drogą” (“A miner walks down the street”).

2 Lesson scenario of the kindergarten celebration, developed by the 2nd year students of full-time studies, 1st degree, major: pedagogy, specialization: elementary and preschool education, within the middle-year specialization internship, realized in the Private Kindergarten with Inte- gration units “Misiowa Kraina” in Zabrze, under the supervision of Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer, PhD. Persons responsible for the scenario: Anna Lysko, Alicja Nowak, Dominika Musioł, Anna Hamryszak, Agnieszka Polczyk, Karolina Miśkowiec, Ewa Kurka, Sylwia Miszak, Joanna Łosak, Natalia Majnusz, Justyna Mroczek, Karolina Zmarlak, Barbara Mularczyk, Karolina Sikora, Magdalena Skubisz.

Appendix 2 Regional education as a significant area… 155 - - T a b l e 3 didactic resources physical development, sic; mu - text of the song ers,” CD “We player min - and records. mental development; pieces of paper with illustra tions of mine work. development of fine skills and motor creativity; images that represent a with car coal, — black blotting paper, crayons. physical movement develop ment; red, green, yellow and blue scarves and rings; CD player and records. mental, verbal development; mine full-dress uniform; female folk clothes. verbal development; a teddy bear mine dressed uniform. in a Educational directions, teacher’s — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Forms of class organization group individual individual group group group - Methods a stimulat ing method, active active method active method active method, stimulating verbal method verbal method

Time of realization 10 minutes 8—10 min - utes 15 minutes 5 minutes 5 minutes 3 minutes

Presentation Presentation of didactic games Course of classes “We “We miners” a song with “showing.” “Find a pair” — a didactic game. The pieces teacher of distributes reversed paper with illustrations of counterparts mining work — — each on in the two cards, carpet. find the Children’s corresponding task ones, and is combine them to into reverse pairs. the “Cars with coal” — art work. Children receive an image representing a car with coal. it Their to task color the image and glue balls from are black to blotting symbolize paper coal. that “I go down The to children work are given through one blue one. the scarf The teacher each: locates shaft” four red, rings in — green, the carpet. same yellow, The physical colors children or on run, the a activity. march or verbal hop signal, to “we go the down music. to After work through every the in shaft” — four they sit rows, behind the The rings teacher matching changes the location of color the of rings their during the scarf. game. Visit Visit of the invited guests — a miner Description and his of wife. the clothes full-dress of uniform his of wife. nected a A with 4 discussion miner December. about and Silesian Silesian traditions con - Welcoming Welcoming a bear dressed game. in Each child, a while miner’s holding a uniform his bear — in or his her integration or name, her and hands, on tells then his passes or her the left. bear on to another person 156 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer - mental, physical ment. develop physical development, sic; mu - lyrics, CD player and ers. play - mental, verbal development. — verbal development; — commemorative certificates. — — — — group group group group - verbal method active method, stimulating a stimulat ing active method verbal method 3 minutes 5 minutes 10 minutes 5 minutes - Each piece of coal is round as a ball. (FALSE) The miner has a very difficult and dangerous work. (TRUE) The biggest amount of coal is extracted . in (TRUE) Poland, in Silesian The coal may be transformed (TRUE) into heat, light and medicines. A A miner extracts red coal. (FALSE) “See you in a Children tell about year!” their emotions, which accompanied — them during summing the up conducted and classes. ending Rewarding the certificates. children classes. with commemorative “In the mine” — physical activity. The and then teacher shows utters particular movements, a which sentence, are repeated by dren. chil We go the mine — marching in various to direction, the according drum’s rhythm; we dress and up up; we — go down with imitation an elevator of — coming dressing from the won standing position with two hands in front of to pavement a — the squat; teachers make we a walk tunnel by down holding hands, the children go through it; crushing the coal — children, while straddling, make exaggerated ahead movements — they imitate crushing the coal. “A “A miner goes down the road — children participation song. “True “True or false” — a didactic game. The teacher expresses nion her opi ­ about the miners’ work. The children’s whether task this is sentence to is determine, true or false. — Exemplary sentences: — — — — Regional education as a significant area… 157 Appendix 3

Phot. 1. Visitors in the kindergarten — a miner and his wife (Phot. Hewilla Hetmańczyk-Bajer)

Phot. 2. A commemorative photo (Phot. Hewilla Hetmańczyk-Bajer) 158 Hewilia Hetmańczyk-Bajer

Phot. 3. “Cars with coal” — art work (Phot. Hewilla Hetmańczyk-Bajer)

Phot. 4. “Find a pair” — a didactic game (Phot. Hewilla Hetmańczyk-Bajer) Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek University of Silesia

Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education

Abstract: The article attempts to determine the degree of cultivating regional traditions in education implemented by kindergarten teachers and primary school teachers (grades 1—3) with reference to some of the conditions associated with education and work experience of the respondents. The scaling method has been applied in the study. The Scale Sheet devised for the purpose of personal research contained 16 questions and addressed 81 preschool and early school education teachers. The respondents answered the questions by means of applying adjectives from a five-degree adjectival scale, where the value of one indicated the lowest degree, whereas the value of five — the highest one. The research findings have revealed that the interviewed teach- ers cultivate regional traditions in their own professional work to high and moderate degrees. Certain differences in the results have been observed, due to the variables such as education and work experience. Keywords: regional traditions, preschool education, early school education

Introduction

Schools function in a certain local environment. It is said that the main source of integration activity in the local community should be the educational system, particularly its main institution that is school (Jacher, 2001, pp. 17—21). In the approach presented in this paper, school is viewed as a place where actions are taken to preserve local traditions. Topics concerning microgeography, local history, literature, language (local dialects), local personalities, folklore, and customs are included in the educational content, which facilitates the process of passing on cultural heritage to the young by means of assimilation of val- ues found in direct, that is, natural and cultural environments. The axiological 160 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

dimension of local education is first and foremost to make the youth aware of multiple values pertaining to the human as well as patriotism underlying their own region (Sopot-Zembok & Nocoń, 2000, pp. 47—48). The renaissance of local traditions, known also as “return to the roots” or “roots in the local home- land” implies that as a process it invigorates the multiple facets of social life, the dynamic progress and enrichment of values surviving in local environment (Skoczylas-Krotla, 2001, p. 75). Cultural heritage ought to be bequeathed to the young within the frames of well-organized educational actions at all stages and levels of education, university education included. The paper deals with actions undertaken on the preschool and primary school education level. The answers given by the teach- ers questioned in the survey provided some clues on how to cultivate regional traditions in preschool and early school education. The main purpose of this paper is to present the results of empirical research rather than discuss varieties of meanings of the concepts of tradition, region and regionalism, which tend to be prevailing subjects of publications in the fields of ethnology, cultural anthro- pology, ethnolinguistics, museology, cultural science, sociology, and pedagogy. To highlight the variety of definitions, we refer the reader to the references on the subject (Damrosz, 1987; Handke (ed.), 1993; Theiss (ed.), 2001; Brzezińska, Hulewska & Słomska (eds.), 2006), maintaining the focus on the regional edu- cation as the key issue of this analysis. Without education about tradition, it is impossible to cultivate tradition. Education is a requirement sine qua non, yet not always sufficient, to maintain and develop traditions, customs, rituals and values of regional culture. The most accurate definition of regional education, in our opinion, is suggested by Piotr Kowolik:

A group of processes whose main goal is to change people, mainly children and adolescents, according to the ideals and goals of upbring- ing pursued in a given society, inform them about the culture of the region of origin and sensitize to cross-regional differences, and thus instill tolerance in children and reinforce patriotic feelings. Regional education involves schools’ intentional activities aimed at strengthening among children and adolescents the bonds with a given region. The goal of this kind of education is to deliberately create emotional bonds with the so-called private homeland, that is, the region where a person was born or lived most or entire his or her life. (1999, pp. 120—121)

Jerzy Nikitorowicz in his teleological analysis wrote that

Regional education should inform, sensitize, support, strengthen, and protect local values, encourage to cultivate them and make others Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 161

cherish them to deliberately create the bond with the so-called private homeland, the world that lies at roots. (2009, p. 218)

By stimulating the processes of cognition and self-understanding, regional education helps young people to perceive otherness and it also enables them to seek mutual understanding and cooperation, which is favorable to educational dialogue (Nikitorowicz, 2009, p. 219; 2011, pp. 26—27). Regional education should be considered as a system — “an ordered group of subsystems: familial upbringing, preschool education, school and extraschool education. Within these systems a variety of educational activities are under- taken to introduce an individual to the world of values and cultural heritage, which forms this individual’s personality. Advancing through the following stages of social experience, that is, family, regional, national, and global one, determines the logic of the individual’s development. Moreover, it builds self- awareness as much as enables this person to understand multiple, complex bonds between the human and the world of social and interpersonal relations (Dawid, 2002, p. 137). Regional education is part of core curriculum for preschool and primary school education, as one of the elements, means of instilling in children an in- tegrated picture of the world. Iwona Miłobędzka, in the introduction to her pro- gram of regional education — Jestem dziedzicem tej ziemi (I’m the heir to this land), prepared for the first stage of education at primary school, stresses that

Acquisition of the key competences by the child in early primary schooling is possible only thanks to “multidimensionality” of mutual educational content and space concerning the child’s place of residence and neighborhood. (Miłobędzka, 2000, p. 27)

As a pedagogical concept, regionalism is directly related by the above-cited author, to Wincenty Okoń’s understanding of learning/teaching, where beside presentation methods, there are also methods involving problem-solving, dem- onstrating and practical solutions (Bereźnicki, 2001, pp. 264—296). Edmund Rosner points that

It is not necessary to use separate methods dedicated to regional educa- tion. All the methods which refer to pupils’ experience are important. Familiarity of regional materials intensifies the bond with the nearby environment to a significant degree, and also creates a sense of satisfac- tion with achievements of people of the region in a natural and positive way. That is why materials pertaining to regional knowledge especially in early primary schooling are introduced by means of those methods 162 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

which facilitate creating an atmosphere appropriate for children’s ex- periences. (1995, p.75)

If we take into consideration practical forms of work used by preschool and primary school teachers and aimed to fulfill the goals of regional education, one can mention just a few, like organizing trips (to the open-air museum, historic mines, other museums), knowledge competitions about pupils’ region, teaching regional dances and songs, organizing regional festivities, meetings with regional personalities, telling local tales and legends, etc. It shows how elaborate and creative activities pupils can undertake by participation in one of the above-mentioned forms of classes. Comments in line with our remarks can be found in the paper by Bogusława Cholewa-Gałuszka and Antoni Gwizdak, who wrote that

Preparing celebrations, cultivating customs and rituals often requires combining various activities performed by pupils. During these activi- ties it is often necessary to combine elements of language with practical activities, with motor, artistic and musical expression. (2001, p. 462)

In this context, as they claim, it seems that it is worth raising the issues of cultivating traditions, customs, rituals and symbols in school education, as this can increase the role of school in children’s upbringing (Cholewa-Gałuszka & Gwizdak, 2001, p. 457). The meaning of regional education in educational and didactic school ac- tivities is possible first and foremost thanks to the work of competent educators and pupils’ community (Ogrodzka-Mazur, 2000, p. 99). Maintaining and culti- vating local traditions by pupils mostly depends on teachers’ knowledge, skills, competences and commitment as well. It is important to note that to achieve the expected and desired effects, separate classes are not necessary. Additional elements included in the curricula will suffice, whose main assumption is to broaden pupils’ knowledge of facts concerning a given region and knowledge about natural, social, and cultural reality; the source of the information is chil- dren’s direct contact with the local environment (Rosner, 1995, p. 75). Such a combination of the content knowledge coming from different sources creates a very good basis for the creation of an integrated image of the regional reality in pupils’ minds. In this paper we do not aim to carry out meticulous pedeutologic analyses. However, as Rosner claims, regional education is often marginalized in the context of academic investigations, it is important in teachers’ didactic work. As regionally-flavored educational texts and other works on regional topics are largely unavailable, the teacher who wants to regionalize his or her didactic work has to collect texts on regional topics by himself or herself. These are Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 163 usually private source materials, such as documents, source texts, for example, diaries, pictures, books, local newspapers, audiovisual aids, recordings of re- gional songs, music, movies, etc.; artefacts and the teacher’s research results — notes and observation reports. The necessary condition for successful didactic work is that classrooms should be equipped with some teaching aids related to the region. It is also important that pupils participate in collecting such region- specific items, as such activities can excite their interest in the surrounding world (Rosner, 1995, p. 74). The following part of this paper is a presentation of results of the research conducted among teachers who work in pre- and pri- mary schools in the selected cities of the Silesian Province.

Research methodology

The research had a diagnostic and descriptive character. This type of research involves searching for and identifying facts, phenomena (events, situations, personal features), frequency and intensity of their occurrence, as well as de- termining the causes of these phenomena and their significance for individuals and whole groups, by trying to predict which of them can be used in supportive, prophylactic, and therapeutic activities. In diagnostic research, apart from the description of the status quo, it is important to make an attempt at explaining the reasons and conditions of the status quo (explication) and then proceed to predict what can happen and how to improve the situation. The specific features of diagnostic research are exploratory reasoning and explanatory description, which are of utmost importance (Palka, 2006, pp. 97—102; Gnitecki, 1993, p. 178; Gnitecki, 2003, p. 40). The research thus aimed to examine the degree of cultivating regional traditions in education by teachers working in preschool and in I—III forms of primary school. In the light of the above, the following research problem was formulated: To what extent does cultivation of regional traditions in education by teachers in preschool and primary school (I—III forms) occur and what are its conditions? To solve the main research problem, we also formulated the following research questions: 1. To what extent does the responding group of teachers cherish regional values in their lives? 2. To what extent do they apply regional education content in their work? 3. To what extent do they make use of museums’ educational offer on regional education? 4. To what extent does the group of respondents consider regional education as a self-study area? 164 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

5. What is the relationship between the degree of cultivating regional traditions in education by teachers and their work experience and education? In order to particularize the research problems, it was necessary to identify variables and indicators. Because of the diagnostic and descriptive character of the research, there was no need to formulate dependent variables, independent variables, or intermediary variables. The research concerned the degree to which preschool and primary school teachers cultivated traditions, customs, rituals, and values of the regional culture in their professional work. Taking into considera- tion the fact that in diagnostic research, apart from the description of the status quo, it is important to explain the reasons and conditions of a given status quo (explication) and predict what can happen and how to improve the situation (Gnitecki, 2003, p. 40), the two variables were used, teachers’ education and work experience as differentiating the population in terms of the degree of cul- tivating regional traditions in education. This constituted an element of explora- tion and meticulous diagnosis, however, no verification. In order to describe the variables in a communicative way, one has to use descriptive values, indica- tors. In this research we used: (1) the indicator for the variable “cultivation of regional traditions in education” was its score on the 5-point scale constructed for this very research and included in the Scale Sheet; (2) the indicator for the variables “teachers’ education” and “work experience” was the questionnaire in the last part of the Scale Sheet in which respondents were asked for some information about themselves. The scaling method has been applied in the research (cf. Łobocki, 2005, p. 81; A. Brzezińska & J. Brzeziński, 2004, p. 233). It consists in evaluating an object with respect to particular categories (or continuum) to which the researcher assigns numerical values. Persons making the estimation have to present their observations concerning the object or what they know about it in descriptive and/or numerical categories. This also refers to members of the re- search group who evaluate their own features according to precisely determined points of the scale (cf. A. Brzezińska & J. Brzeziński, 2004, p. 234; Łobocki, 2005, p. 81; Pilch & Bauman, 2001, pp. 107—109). In the present research, the estimation method consisted in self-evaluation of the respondents, preschool and primary school teachers. The self-evaluation concerned the extent to which they cultivated regional traditions in their professional work, according to the points of scale. We used an adjectival scale1 whose points are expressed by

1 Due to the manner of their presentation, the following ones are distinguished: the categori- cal scales, the numerical scales, and the graphical scales. On the other hand, in terms of describ- ing the category, the scales with the described extreme points and the scales with all the points described are indicated. However, according to the criterion of character, the unipolar scales and the bipolar scales are mentioned (A. Brzezińska & J. Brzeziński, 2004, pp. 237—238). When identifying the scaling method with measuring and recognizing that the scale assumes the exist- ence of a particular phenomenon, Tadeusz Pilch and Teresa Bauman distinguished the nominal, Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 165 adjectival categories referring to the frequency of occurrence of particular type of behavior. Apart from the choice of the type of scale, an important element in the estimation method is the determination of the number of points. The teachers participating in the research differed in terms of education and work experience; however, it can be stated that they displayed a high level of intelligence and knowledge, and were able to evaluate the object by means of the scale. Aside from that, the respondents made a self-evaluation — that is, they evaluated their professional activities, so it was a topic they are familiar with, related to their own experience, which could motivate them in a positive way to answer the questions and cooperate with the researchers (J. Brzeziński, 1999, p. 296). Taking the above into consideration, we decided that it is possible to use an adjectival scale with a greater number of points.2 The 5-point scale was thus chosen. According to Mieczysław Łobocki, in pedagogic research such scales are generally the optimal choice (Łobocki, 2005, p. 94). Likewise, Edwin S. Conklin’s research results (quoted after: Guilford, 1954, p. 290) show that if evaluation is to be made by persons inexperienced in such tasks — and such were members of the research group — the maximal number of points which can be used is 5 on a one-pole scale.3 The research tool — the Scale Sheet — was first constructed as an intro- ductory version. It was then tested in a pilot study with respect to its accuracy and functionality, which refers to language communicativeness, the ranks’ struc- ture of the scale, their precision and unequivocal character. We carried out the pilot study in Sosnowiec, among 10 pre-school teachers and 7 primary school teachers, teaching I—III forms. In sum, 17 teachers took part in the pilot study. Thanks to the research, it turned out that the scale requires slight improvements. In the main part, changes involved the notation of some categories, for the clar- ity of the used formulations we got rid of longer descriptions. We also removed two categories referring to the role of regional values in human life, because the respondents signaled that they had a problem distinguishing between them. Finally, the scale consisted of three parts: the introductory part, the main part, and the final part. In the introductory part, there was a special instruction providing the research participants with some information concerning the way ordinal, interval, and quotient scales. In turn, Mieczysław Łobocki pointed to the possibility of applying the numerical, graphical, adjectival, and descriptive scales, as well as the continuous scale with an enforced choice, the standard scale, the anchored behavioral scale, and the name scale (Łobocki, 2005, pp. 84—90). 2 Jerzy Brzeziński enumerates the scales of a smaller number of points: 0—1; 0—1—2; 0—1—2—3 as well as the scales of a greater number of points: 0—1—2—3—4—5 and more (A. Brzezińska & J. Brzeziński, 2004, pp. 237—238). 3 Unipolar scales are applied to evaluate the degree of intensification of a particular di- mension or to evaluate the frequency of occurrence of a particular quality (J. Brzeziński, 1999, p. 238). 166 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

answers to the questions should be given. It was stressed that every answer was appropriate provided that it was honest. The main part had a form of a table in which there were 16 categories of statements referring to cultivating regional traditions in education. The respondents were to determine the degree of their own educational activity in this area by means of the 5-degree adjectival scale where 1 meant “very small,” 2 — “small,” 3 — “medium,” 4 — “large,” and 5 — “very large,” a very large degree of performing a particular activity. In the final part, the respondents were asked to give some information about themselves (gender, place of residence, education and work experience in the teaching profession). The research was carried out in December 2014 in several primary schools and preschools in Sosnowiec, Katowice, and Cieszyn. In the research — mainly due to time and financial restrictions — purposive sampling was used. Thus, the results do not provide basis for formulating any generalizations which would refer to the whole population of teachers. The research group consisted of 81 teachers of preschool and early primary education. The figures presented be- low show the research group characteristics with respect to place of residence, education, and work experience.

Figure 1. The respondents’ place of residence

As can be inferred from the data presented in Figure 1, the majority of the questioned teachers live in the city. Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 167

Figure 2. The respondents’ education

On the basis of the data presented in Figure 2, one can notice that the majority of the respondents hold an MA degree.

Figure 3. The respondents’ work experience

As regards their work experience, the research group turned out to be more diversified (Figure 3). The highest percentage constituted teachers with 21—30 years work experience and with 1—10 years. The least numerous group con- sisted of teachers with work experience longer than 31 years (12.3% of all the respondents). To conclude, 81 women who participated in the research work as profes- sional teachers in preschools and primary schools (forms I—III), which prob- ably results from the feminization of the teaching profession, especially in preschool and early primary school. The majority of the respondents live in the city, hold an MA degree, and usually have 21—30 or 1—10 years work experience. The paper will now proceed to the presentation of the research results. 168 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek Analysis of the research results

In order to gather information concerning the degree of cultivating regional traditions in education by the teachers questioned, they were asked to answer 16 questions concerning 4 problem areas, such as regional values in the respond- ents’ life; the realization of regional education content; the use of museums’ educational offer in regional education; and regional education as an area of the respondents’ self-education activity. The respondents answered the ques- tions with reference to the 5-point adjectival scale in which 1 meant the lowest degree, and 5 — the highest. The collected empirical data were presented in percentage values (with ref- erence to the whole group of respondents) in the figures that follow. The use of scale allowed us to calculate the arithmetic mean of the estimation points. To describe the degree to which teachers cultivate regional traditions in education (high, medium, low) two quantifying methods were applied, that is, classifica- tion by points and classification by order. The respondents answered 16 ques- tions included in the Scale Sheet, using a 5-point scale. The scale points in the 16 categories were added together with the use of one of the quantifying meth- ods, classification by points, consisting in subjective assignment of a particular number of points to a particular category. The teacher could get 80 points. The other quantifying method, classification by order, consists in putting the evalu- ated objects in the highest to lowest order of estimation. The point range for the three levels of regional traditions being cultivated in education was set in the following way: (1) high (54—80 points); (2) medium (27—53 points); (3) low (0—26 points). This allowed us to present diversity in the following degrees: regional tradition cultivation in education with respect to teachers’ education and their work experience. First, the respondents’ answers to particular questions, included in the Scale Sheet, were presented in percentage values.

Regional values in the respondents’ lives

Regional education is closely related to cultural heritage and values. Cultural values condition the existence of a regional community, bringing there what is specific for all human beings. Among the most central values, we can find re- spect for work, the land, both as a private and as a common property. The values cherished irrespective of social status are justice, work, truth, the demand for good law and freedom, as well as dignity. The axiological dimension of regional Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 169 education predominantly consists in presenting multiple values existing in the region in the context of nationwide and human values (Sopot-Zembok & Nocoń, 2000, p. 48). This can shape pupils’ attitude towards their land; the feeling of love to one’s own “private land” becomes an autotelic value, around which people want to organize their lives. In this context, the teachers’ task is to teach their pupils how to make a conscious choice of values and take responsibility for their decisions. Whether teachers perceive cognitive and educational aspects of the region depend largely on their personal attitude to the issue, which is why the Scale Sheet, addressed to teachers, four questions concerning cultural values were included. The first question was the following: To what extent do you cherish regional values at home? The percentage value of the respondents’ answers was presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. To what extent do you cherish regional values in your life?

As can be seen in Figure 4, the respondents highly or very highly cher- ish regional values in their life (respectively, 48.1% and 28.4% of the whole population). In the case of only 7.4% of all the respondents, regional values are not significant. In addition, in the answers to this question, the arithmetic mean indicator was relatively high — 3.54. The results show that the teachers questioned have a positive emotional attitude towards their region, which has an impact on the cultivation of regional traditions in their professional work. Figure 5 presents how the respondents cultivate regional values at home. 170 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

Figure 5. To what extent do you cultivate regional values at home?

Although majority of the respondents declared that regional values are lo- cated high in their hierarchy of values, the extent to which they cultivate the values at home is relatively diversified. Hence 51.8% of the respondents culti- vate regional values at home to a high degree, while only 8.6% to a very high degree. Some respondents declare cultivating regional values at home to a low or very low degree (respectively, 6.8% and 3.7% of all the teachers questioned). However, the value of arithmetic mean turned out to be similar to the value in the case of the previous question: 3.55. In the light of the results, the answers to the following question, concerning cultural heritage as a system of values necessary for educating young generations, seem to be interesting. The data are presented in Figure 6. To the majority of the teachers, cultural heritage seems to be a system of values necessary for educating the young generation to a high or very high extent (respectively, 58.0% and 25.9% of all the respondents). The opposite opinion is represented only by 4.9% of the respondents. In comparison with all the questions included in the Scale Sheet, in the case of this question there was the highest value of arithmetic mean: 4.00. Thus, it is probable that the questioned teachers appreciating the axiological value of cultural heritage would be interested in regional education in their work to a greater extent. However, parents as well, or mainly parents, are responsible for the upbringing of their children. So the teachers’ comments on parents’ commitment to regional edu- cation are also valuable. The data discussed above are presented in Figure 7. Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 171

Figure 6. To what extent does cultural heritage build a system of values necessary for educat- ing young generations

Figure 7. To what extent are parents interested in incorporating regional traditions in the up- bringing of their children? 172 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

Despite great significance of cultural heritage for axiological maturation of the young generation, parents, according to the teachers, are not too much interested in giving their children upbringing with respect to regional traditions. It is interesting to note that a similar percentage of the respondents expressed opinions concerning high and low level of parents’ interest in this issue (respec- tively, 29.6% and 25.9% of all the respondents). In the case of the question, answers were highly diversified, and the arithmetic mean had a relatively small value, 2.62. In the light of the opinions expressed, it is the teachers who take the greater responsibility for introducing the young generation to the world of regional values, using regional education content in their work. The following part of the paper presents further results of the research.

The extent to which the questioned teachers use regional education content

The second research question concerned the degree to which teachers use regional education content in their professional work. To solve the above prob- lem, the respondents were asked to answer seven questions, having the form of a 5-point scale. Our attention was focused on the problem of the institutional dimension of cultivating regional traditions. The first of the questions concerned the usefulness of the curriculum for introducing regional education. The answers to this question are presented in Figure 8.

Figure 8. To what extent does core curriculum create favorable conditions for introducing regional content knowledge to teaching? Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 173

The analysis of the subject literature shows that many authors stress the fact that it is sufficient to use the curriculum in the tasks related to cultivating regional tradition. According to Miłobędzka, “regional education is among the priorities mentioned in the current curriculum, formulated by the Ministry of National Education” (Miłobędzka, 2000, p. 26). Going through the respondents’ answers to the question: To what extent does the curriculum based education create favorable conditions for introducing regional content knowledge to edu- cation? One can ask, quoting Dariusz Wędzina (2009, p. 515), “why is it so bad, if it is so good?” Almost half of the respondents answered with “medium degree.” As in the case of the previous question, the majority chose the middle answer in the scale, while in the case of earlier questions the answer most fre- quently chosen was “high degree.” In addition, it is difficult not to notice a sig- nificant difference between the arithmetic means of the questions, illustrated in Figure 4 (3.54), Figure 5 (3.55) and Figure 6 (4.00), and the arithmetic means in the last two questions (7 and 8) (2.62 and 2.83). In the latter two, the respond- ents more often indicated “very low degree” and “low degree.” Answering the former questions the respondents had to evaluate themselves, while answering questions 7 and 8 they had to evaluate others (parents, the curriculum national curriculum and, indirectly, school). Thus, the answers may be interpreted as an indication that there are some limitations in cultivating knowledge about the region (i.e. regional socialization); the causes of the situation, however, are external to the respondents, partially institutional (core curriculum) (Figure 9).

Figure 9. To what extent do the syllabi you follow create favorable conditions for introducing regional content knowledge to teaching? 174 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

The impression that neither school nor parents constitute a strong link in regional socialization is reinforced by the answers to the above question. It is important, however, that the respondents in their subjective evaluation take some responsibility for this “malfunction” (although it seems to be done unconsciously), because they choose a syllabus. The answers may also be interpreted in terms of the evaluation of the curriculum as inadequate for the regional component. The results of the research may be commented on with Rosner’s words: reflections on the interface between region and school reduce the topic to the role of the teacher in schooling and education in general, and not to methodologists’ and curricula authors’ recommendations. It depends only on the teacher to what extent he or she values cognitive and educational aspects of the region in his for her other work (Rosner, 1995, p. 73).

Figure 10. To what extent does the realization of core curriculum teaching goals create favor­ able conditions for creating children’s regional identity?

The answers to the question concerning the extent to which the realization of the teaching goals stated in core curriculum creates favorable conditions for creating children’s regional identity (Figure 10) reinforce the impression that school (preschool) does not seem to be a strong link in preserving regional specificity and shaping regional identity (the arithmetic mean: 2.38). It can therefore be noticed that the teachers perceive themselves as a strong link in the process of preservation of the regional (local) culture continuity and appear to be aware of the dimension of sociocultural life, however, they rate real (not potential) significance of parents and school in the process rather poorly. Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 175

Figure 11. Did you receive professional knowledge in conducting regional education classes?

The assumption that educational institutions fail in the process of regional socialization seems to be confirmed by the answers given to the question wheth- er studies prepare them for carrying out professional tasks related to regional education (see Figure 11). The results show that low values dominated in the survey, and the arithmetic mean was slightly above 2. What is important, in the case of this question, the percentage of “low degree” answers was highest of all the questions in the Scale Sheet (32.1%). The quality of regional education at the university level was not the subject of analysis; here the respondents’ opinions are the source of information. The opinions give rise to concern, as they indicate indolence of higher education in regional education. Even if we assume that some answers include exaggerated criticism (in many cases many years had passed since their graduation), we cannot neglect them. Impressions can often lead to particular actions (or lack of them). For example, in linguistic education the teacher’s tasks are very complex and require a solid theoretical and methodological basis. As Hanna Synowiec claims, “only those teachers who are well prepared linguistically and ethnographically, and are sensitive to cultural uniqueness of the region and open to children’s problems can cope with linguistic education in regional communities. Curricula in elementary education studies at universities should be modified to include dialectology and ethnolinguistics. This would help future teachers, especially those who are not autochthons, to better understand their pupils’ linguistic behavior which re- sults from cultural specificity of their regional community, and also to prepare suitable didactic activities (Synowiec, 2000, p. 125). Such education subjects, 176 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

mentioned by Synowiec, are not taught during pedagogic studies. They are not offered even as subjects of choice. Taking into consideration the character of pedagogic education of pre-primary and early primary school teachers, it seems that Rosner’s suggestion as to teachers’ regional education organized in pedagogic universities seems to be realistic and possible to introduce. An experienced scholar from the University of Silesia wrote: “it is impossible to provide students of pedagogy with particular knowledge about the area of their future work. However, it is necessary to make students aware of the role of region and regionalism in school context and make them realize that to know the region where they work is one of their commitments” (Rosner, 1995, p. 76).

Figure 12. What aspects of regional education content do you implement in teaching?

The analysis of the answers depicted in Figure 12 shows the same regular- ity: parents, school and university fail, and the respondents, in spite of these external obstacles, stress great importance to training in regional education. The self-portrait emerging from our research seems to be based on the far-reaching criticism of external educational subjects and quite high respondents’ self-eval- uation as far as their commitment to cultivating regional traditions is concerned. Unfortunately, it is difficult to estimate whether the respondents’ answers were true and reflected facts, or rather referred to the respondents’ wishful thinking. Nonetheless, it goes without saying that the emphasis put on regional topics, roots, local homeland (heimat) and local identity became elements of political correctness. A person deprived of local roots and tradition seems to be deprived of a valuable source of his or her self-concept. Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 177

Figure 13. To what extent should preschools and primary schools be obliged to teach regional education?

The next question (see Figure 13) concerns the above-mentioned problem of two of facts and obligations, the real and the possible (desired) (Kojs, 2000). Eighty percent of the respondents perceive primary school and preschool as a significant link in providing the youngest with knowledge about their region. However, their answers show some inconsistencies. On the one hand, the questioned teachers see school and preschool as a significant link in regional socialization (how it should be), on the other, they point to some weaknesses of the institutions, restrictions of institutional character (core curriculum and syllabi) and family socialization barriers (how it really is). The respondents treat themselves as representatives of one of the two institutions, school or preschool, but, at the same time, they claim that they are able to overcome the above-mentioned barriers. It is hard to decide whether the respondents presented a real picture of the situation (how it really is) or an ideal picture (how it should be improved). The respondents seem to be alienated from the school environment, whose regional dimension completely fails; the teachers are an exception. Regional education, as they suggest, is realized at school and preschool only thanks to their own invention and effort, as if against the logic of the institutions (Figure 14). 178 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

Figure 14. To what extent does the preschool/school you work for participate in cultural life of the region?

The picture of the teachers’ activity in regional education is completed by their answers concerning the extent to which they are committed to the cultural life of the school/preschool region. Taking into consideration the arithmetic mean (3.46), their commitment was quite highly evaluated, although almost a half of the respondents characterized it as “medium degree” (however, almost 45.0% evaluated it as “high degree” or “very high degree”). Generally speaking, we can observe certain regularity; the respondents evaluate highly those aspects of regional education in which they are directly engaged. Their answers seem to confirm Rosner’s thesis that it is not curricula, but the teacher that plays the key role in regional culture cultivation. If the respondents positively evaluate their own commitment to regional education (see Figure 12), the high evalua- tion also refers to the school or preschool where the teachers work. As a con- sequence, according to the respondents’ subjective opinions, particular schools, in spite of obstacles, human (parents) and institutional (core curriculum and syllabi), participate in cultural life of the region to quite a large extent, being thus an important link in regional socialization. In other words, a shift from an abstract picture of the educational system supported by parents and created by teachers, limited by core curriculum and syllabi which fail in regional education towards a picture of a particular school or preschool (in which the respondents work), has an impact on the evaluation of their commitment to the process of regional socialization. Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 179 The extent to which teachers use museums’ educational offer on regional education

Polish museums have changed their educational offer in recent years. Museum websites are abundant with educational events for infants, mothers and fathers on parental leave, elderly people and people with disabilities.4 Cooperation be- tween schools and museums has been the basis of culture dissemination activity. School and preschool outings to museums have always improved museums’ visitor statistics in a significant way. Renata Pater, PhD, from the Institute of Pedagogy at the Jagiellonian University, an expert in museum education claims that

Most frequent museum visitors are pupils of preschool and early pri- mary school. It is not caused by “teachers’ laziness” who want others to do the schooling (perhaps it sometimes happens), but it results from better organizational and formal possibilities of realizing curricula outside school or preschool, and a possibility to correlate topics of museum lessons with the curriculum and an attractive museum offer. (2013, p. 71)

4 Cf.: the educational offer by the National Museum in Warsaw or the National Museum in Cracow: http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/rodzinne-niedziele-w-faras/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/warsztaty-familijne-na-wystawie-masoneria-pro- publico-bono/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/mamy-w-muzeum/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/mam-dwa-latka-dwa-i-pol/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/trzy-cztery-start/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/program-dla-rodzin/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/dzieci-rodziny/rodzinne-zwiedzanie/; http://www.mnw.art.pl/edukacja/seniorzy/; http://mnk.pl/artykul/konik-muzealny; http://mnk.pl/artykul/latajacy-dywan-opowiesci-przedmiotow; http://mnk.pl/artykul/paleta-debiutanta-warsztaty-dla-najmlodszych; http://mnk.pl/artykul/7-dzien-tworzenia; http://mnk.pl/dorosli-i-seniorzy. 180 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

Figure 15. To what extent do museums as repositories of regional traditions help you imple- ment regional education content in courses you teach?

It seems that the evaluation of the extent to which museums as repositories of regional tradition help to implement regional education content is positive. If we take into consideration the two extreme values, we can see that 6.2% of the respondents chose “very high degree,” while more than 3.7% choose “very low degree.”

Figure 16. To what extent are you familiar with museums’ educational offer on regional edu- cation addressed to children? Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 181

“A museum is good on condition that it can communicate with the society. If it fails to do so, it becomes only a static collection of exhibits rather than a dynamic element of social development,” as Piotr Czarnowski says a little too arbitrarily (2013, pp. 20—21). Undoubtedly, without advertising which provides us with good, thorough and attractively presented information about muse- ums’ educational offer, the number of visitors, especially young ones, would get significantly smaller. To attract teachers who have the authority to select educational means, methods and conditions in which classes are conducted, museums publish information leaflets; they also offer courses for teachers and send educational offers to schools via the Internet. It seems that museums and schools meet halfway (cf. Czetwertyńska, 2012, pp. 291—296), as the above results show. Twenty-one percent of the teachers questioned declare that they poorly know museums’ offers (“low degree”), 5% characterize their knowledge as very poor (“very low degree”), which indicates that there is much to do in the area of cooperation between schools and museums. Not to mention particu- lar activities, that is, the actual use of museums’ offers of regional education for children (see Figure 17). The evaluation of the extent to which teachers make use of museums’ educational offer addressed to children as part of their professional work is poor (“low degree” — 11%); nobody indicated “very high degree.” Nobody needs to be convinced of advantages of children’s visits to museums. It is obvious that “the museum space should be gradually brought into small children education, as a kind of specific enculturation. Reproductions and simulators will not substitute real meeting with an object, an original piece

Figure 17. To what extent do you make use of museums’ educational offers in your profes- sional life? 182 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

of art, in a museum. A contact with educators, museum workers, or experts is equally important; it provides an opportunity to talk to them, ask questions, and look together for answers (Pater, 2013, pp. 57—58). As has been already mentioned, the research did not include the question concerning the use of mu- seums’ educational offers in general, but only regional education offers. Sometimes teachers make use of the museum’s educational offer addressed to children, which is available on the museum’s website in education book- marks. A good example of such an offer is the educational project prepared by the education unit in Józef Piłsudski Museum in Sulejówek. The website “The residents of No. 11” was created for I—III form pupils of primary school and teachers who are interested in popularizing completely new qualities and patriotic themes in elementary education. The basic aims of this project were to bring the museum into the process of broadening the knowledge of such values as independence, respect, and patriotism, and to promote new methods of teaching in Polish schools. On the other hand, breaking geographical and time barriers in relations with future museum visitors became an equally important stimulus to start an educational website for children.

Regional education as a field of self-educating activity

School as an institution which exerts a considerable influence on children and adolescents5 is responsible for developing their aspirations to independent and creative self-improvement. According to Wincenty Okoń (2003, p. 169), the process of independent learning constitutes a higher level of education. Reaching this level is a confirmation of the value of education, while lack of independent learning in the individual’s life calls the value of school education into question. Thus, the ultimate goal of regional education should be pupils’ prepara- tion for self-education in this field, as regional education involves self-creation knowledge, helps to discover their self, identity, by referring to the past, present, and future of one’s own region perceived through the prism of their country, Europe, and finally the world. Self-education constitutes a chance for young people to authentically engage in enlivening social life and dynamic develop- ment of their environment. Acknowledging the importance of self-education

5 The strengths of the school as an educational institution, owing to which it becomes possible to effectively support students in their development, are more extensively described by Dzierżysław Jankowski (cf. Jankowski, 2002, pp. 61—62). Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 183 in the field in question, we asked the respondents two questions, included in the Scale Sheet. The first one concerned self-evaluation of their own activities aimed at preparing the pupils for self-education in the field of regional educa- tion. The percentage values of the respondents’ answers to this question are presented below (see Figure 18).

Figure 18. To what extent do you prepare children for self-education in the area of regional history and culture of their region?

On the basis of the data presented in Figure 18, one can conclude that the questioned teachers prepare their pupils for self-education in regional education mainly to a medium degree and to a high degree. However, one can worry about lack of declarations of very high degree of activity in this respect and a significant percentage of comments on small and very small interest in this type of activity. The answers to this question show that the arithmetic mean was 3.08. Similar values can be observed in answers to the question concern- ing the teachers’ self-educational activity in regional education (see Figure 19). The majority of the teachers questioned declared a medium and high de- gree of their self-educational activity related to regional education, which is rather optimistic. The teacher’s attitude to self-education and discussion about his other experience in this respect and values with pupils may inspire them to work on their development and show the right direction. Only 13.6% of the respondents engage in self-education to a small extent, and 4.9% seem to show little interest in these activities. The arithmetic mean for the answers to this question was 3.07, so its value, in comparison with the other arithmetic means, was average. 184 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

Figure 19. To what extent do you consider regional education as a self-study area?

The general degree of cultivating regional traditions in education

The procedure of measuring the general degree of cultivating regional traditions by teachers in education was presented in the introduction to the research part of the paper. Figure 20 shows the results of the estimation.

Figure 20. General degree of cultivating regional traditions in teaching Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 185

The data presented in Figure 20 show that the general degree of cultivating regional traditions by preschool and primary school (I—III forms) teachers in education is high, although the percentage of the respondents presenting a me- dium degree of commitment is slightly smaller. It is worth emphasizing that none of the respondents indicated a low degree of cultivating regional traditions in teaching.

The degree of cultivating regional traditions by teachers in education in the light of selected factors

In the presented analyses, we decided to investigate the relationship between the general degree of cultivating regional tradition by teachers in education and the two sociodemographic variables. However, as has been stressed in the methodology section, this relationship was not considered in terms of verifica- tion, but in terms of exploration. Figure 21 shows the relationship between the general degree of cultivating regional traditions by teachers in education and their education.

Figure 21. General degree of cultivating regional traditions by teachers in light of their education 186 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

The data shown in Figure 21 may be surprising, as they suggest that BA studies promote cultivating regional traditions in education to a larger extent than MA studies. Teachers holding an MA degree indicated a medium and high degree of engagement in the activity, while teachers holding a BA degree indicated mainly a high degree. Perhaps the results would be different if the numbers of respondents in the two groups were equal. The next figure shows the relationship between the degree of cultivating regional traditions by teachers in education and their work experience.

Figure 22. General degree of cultivating regional traditions by teachers in light of their profes- sional work

On the basis of the presented data, it may be concluded that the shorter work experience, the higher degree of commitment to cultivating regional tra- ditions (see Figure 22). Teachers with smallest work experience (1—10 years) turned out to be most active. This relationship can be interpreted in terms of age: younger respondents cultivate regional traditions to the higher extent. The respondents’ age might be considered as a more significant variable than work experience. This phenomenon can be explained with the already mentioned concept of localism in public discourse; it is possible that now we experience the revival of the local in the young generation, but it does not occur due to spontaneous home socialization, but, rather, it is an element of the larger process of discovering the cultural heritage of the region and local community. Cultivating regional traditions in preschool and early school education 187 Summary

Summing up the analysis of the research results presented above, one can come to the following conclusions: 1. The majority of the questioned teachers show a positive emotional attitude to the region, and they deeply cherish regional values in their life; however, they cultivate regional traditions with their own family at home to a slightly lesser extent. 2. They appreciate the importance of cultural heritage as a source of values necessary for the upbringing of the young generation. Besides they claim that parents are interested in introducing their children to regional culture to an average degree. Teachers bear greater responsibility in this respect. 3. According to the respondents, there are some restrictions on cultivating regional traditions in education, generally related to external factors, for example, the curriculum or syllabi which are inadequate for regional educa- tion. That is why preschool and primary school do not seem to constitute a strong link in creating and maintaining regional identity. 4. The respondents claim that studies barely prepare future teachers to realize the goals of regional education. It seems necessary to make students aware of regional issues and regionalism in schooling. 5. In spite of the obstacles mentioned in the paper, the questioned teachers declare that they clearly realize the content knowledge in regional education. They believe that preschool/primary school should serve as a fertile source of knowledge about the region. 6. The respondents appreciate the importance of museums in the realization of content knowledge in regional education, although they have insufficient knowledge of museums’ offer addressed to children, and little general knowl- edge concerning this type of education. Perhaps that is why the respondents make use of museums’ regional education offer for children in their work only in a lower degree. 7. They declared commitment to preparing children for regional self-education. However, there also was a significant percentage of answers showing their lack of interest in such activities. 8. To many teachers, regional education is an area of their own self-education, which can be an inspiration for their pupils to engage in similar activity. 9. It has been observed that the results differ with respect to the variables: education and work experience. Greater commitment to cultivating regional traditions in education appeared in the group of teachers who hold a BA degree. Moreover, teachers with smaller work experience were more ac- tive as far as regional education was concerned. Due to a small number of respondents, the results of the research can be treated as a valuable source 188 Agata Cabała, Violetta Rodek

of information about certain tendencies that still need to be confirmed by further empirical studies.

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Julia Ivanovičova, Anna Klimentova Constantine the Philosopher University, Nitra, the Slovak Republic

Regional education in kindergarten and the first grade of primary education

Abstract: The paper deals with regional education as a means of forming habits and skills to aquire the regional and cultural values, as well as to evoke the emotional involvement of students upon disseminating regional knowledge. The authors present the results of the project KEGA “Educational process with developmental-innovative aspect focusing on a new model of regional education in relation to globalization.” The project was realized by a research team from the Department of Education, Faculty of Education, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, headed by Associate Professor Julia Ivanovicova, PhD in cooperation with kindergartens and primary schools in the Cedron region — Nitra district, who provided the information concerning the cultural heritage of the region. Activities were also carried out in the municipal cultural center and, apart from pupils, there were the parents and grandparents involved in order to increase the emotional involvement into the project. The authors present the results of implemented activities and point out at the significance of regional education for emotional development of preschool and primary school children. Keywords: regional education, cultural values, experiential learning, public presentation, interior- izing knowledge, three-generation social relations, national awareness

Introduction

Nowadays, an individual becomes involved in the profound changes affecting all areas of social life. These changes, among others, relate to the educational issues, particulary in terms of value creation and shaping of children and youth lifestyle. Even the most recent events, like the terrorist attack in Paris, have an impact on our surroundings, region, or even a country we live in. 192 Julia Ivanovičova, Anna Klimentova Regional education in the project

In terms of education, one of the vital questions is the position of regional edu- cation in contemporary multicultural society in the era of globalization. In our opinion, the role of the regional education is to enrich and deepen the pupils’ knowledge of a particular region and thus contribute to the strengthening of the moral and cultural links to current and previous generations, to their material and spiritual heritage. Regional education offers the teacher a space for implementing the non- formal education aimed at development of social relations, emotions, will, aspirations, interests as well as the philosophy (lifestyle) of individuals. We do not understand regional education (Ivanovičova, 2009, p. 410) solely as an animation and preservation of folk traditions in order to mould national awareness. The importance of regional education is perceived in wider context, that is, as the capability leading to the creation of lifelong attitudes that can become a starting point of individual’s activities. Regional education helps to shape the attitudes towards oneself, other peo- ple, natural environment, as well as to one’s own nation and country: —— Attitude to oneself When we know our roots, where we belong, where we are at home, then it is easier to acquire the sense of identity and community. The social roles in surrounding environment, country, world and pride of their origin are acquired as well. —— Attitude to people When being familiar with particular culture of natives, their customs and traditions, a child is able to imagine and accept the fact that other peoples, nations and nationalities are characterized by particular otherness. He or she can be tolerant to racial, social or ethnic specificities of others. —— Attitude to one’s nation and country Positive attitude to one’s own folk traditions, personalities among fellow countrymen, positive emotions evoked by the beauty of the place, native village and region. These are the factors that create an individual who takes pride in one’s surroundings. Emotional involvement and deepened relationship with the ambient reality lead the pupil to their protection and development. —— Attitude to natural environment Nature is a part of the homeland. An individual who is fond of such natural phenomena as flowers, trees, meadows, forests, rivers, is usually willing to protect them and prevent their destruction and deterioration (Kosová, 2002, p. 6). Regional education in kindergarten and the first grade of primary education 193

There are multiple dimentions which can be acribed to regional education. One of the issues here is an additional educational value, a prerequisite for the integration of educational content of individual subjects into a meaningful and, for the pupil, understandable holistic system, as well as the development of projects, methods, forms of work and alternative learning concepts promoting experiences and active work of the pupil. The research team of the project KEGA “Educational process with devel- opmental-innovative aspect focusing on a new model of regional education in relation to globalization” worked at the Department of Education at the Fac- ulty of Education, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra. The team emphasized that the effectiveness of educational process with regional content, especially in terms of knowledge, attitudes, activities of students, as well as in the aspect of development of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills and also the formation of personality traits, are influenced by numerous factors. From the researchers’ point of view, these determinants can be described as follows: 1. The appropriate adjustment of teaching content, in the overall concept of thematic areas, but also in terms of each educational unit (the project “Get- ting to know the history and cultural traditions of the village”). 2. The appropriate forms, purposeful arrangement and organization of educa- tional procedures, methodological approaches on the level of —— factual content —— educational objectives and tasks —— teacher’s activities —— pupils’ activities, their mental maturity, readiness for learning and interest in knowledge and information offered by the content. 3. The appropriate choice of methods and purposeful use of educational prin- ciples (individual, in groups, cooperation). 4. The overall management plan of educational activities, focused on linking facts and knowledge acquisition, realting to both theoretical and practical skills, habits, practical activities of students (working with beams, production of baskets, working with corn husk, creating puppets, crochet, embroidery). Due to the overall orientation of the project, the focus of its research work was the development and validation of projects and programs involving regional contents, especially directed at the leisure time activities, multimedia programs for schools and school facilities, organization of seminars, courses and creative workshops (Ivanovičova, 2008, p. 38). During the implementation of the project the researchers in the field of non-formal education focused on the following activities which facilitated the students’ understanding of the normative school curriculum: —— expanding knowledge of subjects related to the current regional issues; 194 Julia Ivanovičova, Anna Klimentova

—— inspiring the students to searching, discovering, collecting and getting fa- miliar with documents of regional nature autonomous, that is, on their own; —— motivating pupils to raise their interest in the region and its closer explora- tion; —— increasing pupils’ activity in the classroom; —— providing balance and connection between school curricular as well as ex- tracurricular activities and regional incentives; —— uncovering hidden abilities and skills of pupils; —— shaping habits and skills to perceive and use regional cultural values; —— raising emotional involvement of pupils in the educational activities; —— facilitating connection with natural material; —— facilitating not only the acquisition of school knowledge, but also any other kind of knowledge (Ivanovičova, 2008, p. 35). As we have already mentioned, the research team at the department cooper- ated within the verification of projects with kindergartens and primary schools located in the Cedron region. Those were kindergarten and primary school in Cabaj, the Jan Domasta Primary School in Capor, kindergarten in Capor, kin- dergarten and primary school in Svätoplukovo, primary school in Mojmirovce, as well as schools with additional programs in regional education located in the Nitra region: kindergarten and primary school in Mana, primary school in Dvory nad Zitavou and in Tvrdosovce. Concerning the implementation of research projects, we established an in- ternational cooperaration with the Comenius Union in Prague, primary school in Brandys nad Orlici, the Faculty of Education in Szeged and the Pedagogical University in Kraków (all representing the Visegrad countries). The presented project was carried out in three stages: 1. Monitoring of the current state of presented issues, studying the available literature on the subject, school documents and interviews with teachers from selected educational institutions. These activities resulted in setting of tentative aims of the project. 2. Creation of individual projects of nonformal intensive teacher training such as: preparation of project on creating the school museum; the project aimed to discover the beauty of folk culture; the project focused on environmental protection in a particular region; the project aimed at the respect of human rights, tolerance and respect for other cultures. 3. Verification of the above-mentioned projects in practice based on their imple- mentation, processing of methodological materials and the organization of in- ternational scientific seminar aimed at the presentation of projects outcomes. KEGA research team carried out its research activities within the timeframe of three years. The following were the outcomes of their research activity: the results concerning the issues of the status of regional education in educational process and particularly in leisure time activities, 5 book publications, 89 out- Regional education in kindergarten and the first grade of primary education 195 comes, out of which 32 were published abroad. There were also 7 positive responses from the mass media concerning the project’s research findings. Lecturing activity of the project members played an important role within the project. The lectures covered the issues of regional and global education in the district of Nitra and Nove Zamky. In particular, we consider the projects on nonformal education carried out in extracurricular environment to be of a great importance: 1. Creation of the school museum exposition. We collected and catalogued more than 200 books. The collected textbooks and teaching aids were presented during the book exhibition encompassing the times from the first Czechoslovak Republic in the exhibition hall “Uni- verzum” at the Faculty of Education, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra. 2. “Comenius and we” Competitors from kindergartens and primary schools participated in the Slo- vak Art and Literature Competition. The winning works were exhibited in the exhibition hall “Univerzum.” 3. Environmental activities through experiential learning games in nature We created a nature trail “Gallows Hill” and organized discussions on envi- ronmental issues focused on the region, which was familiar to kindergarten and primary school pupils from Nitra-Klokočina. 4. Getting to know the history and cultural traditions of the village A long-term activity during the school year, which included 5 topics pre- sented at exhibitions and expositions. The topics were the following: —— Moments from the life of great-grandparents and grandparents (exhibition of contemporary photographs). —— From our grandmothers’ kitchen (exposition of old kitchen equipment and utensils and traditional recipes). —— On the farm (tools and machines used in the farmyard). —— Photographs of known and unknown places of the village (an exhibition). —— Become familiar with personalities from the village. 5. Songbook from the Treasury of our grandmothers — the music edition of folk songs from Cedron region. Concerning the outcomes of the carried out projects, we determined the following recommendations in respective educational fields: Field of educational theory: —— To develop a model of regional education for primary schools and university faculties of education; —— To develop the theory of regional education in the field of fundamental pedagogical science. Field of teaching practice: —— To prepare video files suitable for regional education; 196 Julia Ivanovičova, Anna Klimentova

—— To involve future teachers into the didactic issues of regional education — Bachelor’s and Master’s theses. Field of management: —— To develop the concept of further teacher training in the field of regional education.

Conclusions

After the finalization of the project, we have implemented the knowledge aquired in its course in the teacher training. Several bachelor’s and master’s theses were based on the project outcomes. The students are interested in topics concerning the project and they acquire and process the information relating to their region. We presntly continue to organize the Competition “Comenius and we.” Concerning the outcomes of our project, the participating primary schools included the subject Regional Education into their school curricula. We are aware of the fact that our activities in the field of regional education enable the establishment of the connections between cognitive, emotional, and volitional aspect of the pupils’ and students’ development.

References

Bujnová, E. (2004). Význam regionálnej výchovy v súčasnom vzdelávaní. In Zborník z konfer- encie: Aktuálne otázky výchovy a vzdelávania v období vstupovania do EU (pp. 470—473). Nitra: PF UKF. Čellárová, L. (2007). Kultúrne dedičstvo a etická výchova. In Zborník z konferencie: Etická výchova problémy teórie a praxe (pp. 184—189). Banská Bystrica: PF UMB. Ivanovičová, J. (2006). Edukačný proces s rozvojovým a inovatívnym aspektom so zreteľom na nový model regionálnej výchovy vo vzťahu ku globalizácii. In Úvodné štúdie k výskumnej úlohe KEGA 3/4233/06. Nitra: PF UKF. Ivanovičová, J. (Ed.) (2007). Rozvíjanie vzťahu ku kultúrnemu dedičstvu, zvykom a tradíciám regiónu. In Rozvojové a inovatívne programy edukácie so zameraním na regionálnu výchovu (pp. 27—36). Nitra: PF UKF. Ivanovičová, J. (2008). Regionálna výchova v praxi. Vychovávateľ, roč. LVI, 17—18. Ivanovičová, J., & Bujnová, E. (2002). Regionálna výchova — možnosti jej aplikácie vo vyučovacom predmete Vlastiveda. In Zborník príspevkov: Regionálna výchova a škola (pp. 66—68). Banská Bystrica: PF UKB. Regional education in kindergarten and the first grade of primary education 197

Ivanovičová, J. (2009). Regionálna výchova v školskej praxi, jej vplyv na rozvoj hodnotovej orientácie žiaka mladšieho školského veku. In Zborník: Dimenzie a perspektívy rozvoja os­ obnosti jednotlivca v súčasnej škole II (pp. 410—417). Levoča: PF KU Inštitút Juraja Páleša. Kosová, B. (2002). Úvodné slovo dekanky PF UMB. Zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie Regionálna výchova a škola (pp. 6—7). Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.

Mirosław Kisiel University of Silesia

Cultivation of regional traditions by members of child folklore song and dance ensembles

Abstract: The paper presents information that encompasses thoughts within the topic of cultiva- tion of regional traditions by members of child folklore song and dance ensembles. Keywords: regional traditions, folklore song and dance ensemble, teacher, child.

Introduction

The notion of tradition seems to be close to each man. It is mostly the message traditions and customs convey that decides about the system of values people prefer. First of all, it is about the enrichment of values that thrive in one’s own environment, and the strengthening of the feeling of identity and taking roots in a micro-region. The education of the young for the future, based on cultural values that arise from tradition, adopts high significance in the era of social transformations, and it should commence at the very young age, when basic personality traits and future dispositions are shaped.

Folk music in education and upbringing of a child

Common music education of the youngest begins and is grounded in a child’s family home, and later it undergoes verification and becomes influenced by 200 Mirosław Kisiel

peer environment, that is, school, mass media, and various cultural institu- tions (Kisiel, 2004). A little child is generally characterized by a high level of physical activity, and it is not easy for them to get familiar with music, as it produces invisible, elusive, and temporary sounds. If teachers are able to use this natural curiosity and high activity of a child in a directed fashion, they can successfully introduce them in the world of music, which proves to be a fertile source of cheerful experiences, creative attitudes, and advantageous educational influences. Even if these actions are not a prelude to further music education, they will teach a young man how to respect the musical culture and its creators, hence how to love the music. It is understandable that a family home, where music means as much as the air, food, and sun, will exert crea- tive influence on a child (Kowalczyk, 1998, p. 17). Making music, singing, and experiencing the works of great masters in favorable conditions, is an obvious and common matter. If family music interests are associated with the feeling of bonds, order, love, and security, the effects, especially in case of a talented child, will become visible very quickly. Children, while growing in such an environment, will start their adult life holding fondness towards creative participation in musical culture. What is especially important among numerous functions played by a family, is the transfer of cultural heritage val- ues. Family is a prime environment, where a young man develops and explores the whole richness of culture, and then modifies it and selects that which is dearest to him or her. Family has long been considered a point of reference, which an individual consciously identifies with, by adopting views, attitudes, customs, patterns of behavior, and conduct (Dymara, Korzeniowska & Ziem- ski, 2002). It seems that it is grandparents who have popularized traditional values and customs within families. They are like the so-called living family history, which means that they form an integral part of each family heritage (Brzezińska, Hulewska & Słomska, 2006). Children, while acquiring knowl- edge on their home, family, school, and natural-geographical environment in their earliest years, grow in their “small homeland,” and thus find roots that they will return to in their adult life, become consciously involved in the way their own environment functions. Folk music, thanks to its richness and variety, along with artistic values, plays a significant role in regional education of children as well as of the whole society. It is certainly worth learning about ancestors’ wisdom, their ability to coexist with nature and express their feelings artistically, to get to know deeper themselves and others, comprehend professional music and mother tongue, as well as to verify their attitude towards the world. Children at an early school age present a positive emotional inclination toward the Polish folk music. This fact should not be neglected, as contact with music folklore and encouragement to exploration, strengthens children’s activity within this field in their later period of life. Children who listen to folk music from their earliest years will not forget Cultivation of regional traditions… 201 it, whereas there is little probability that those who have had never experienced such music, will like it in the future. Bearing this in mind, such situation cre- ates the need to implement folklore in children’s education. Active contact with folklore provides natural support to continue folk traditions and culture. Music folklore is very often identified with folk songs, frequently syn- onymously treated. However, significant cultural phenomena of artistic folk creativity, handed down from one generation to another, also comprise music, dance, and folk products. The implementation of music folklore in education encourages to broaden the song, instrumental and dance repertoire. It is also a significant factor of comprehensive child activity, influencing their emotional and intellectual sphere. Variety and richness of this folklore may play a number of functions in educating and upbringing the new generation, and these include: aesthetics, general development, general cognition, music, play, integration, and expression-creation (Danel-Bobrzyk, 2003, p. 12). The basic and most palpable form of children’s encounter with music is singing. Folklore may be explored thanks to song repertoire, devoted to sing- ing, or instrumental compositions. Thus, folk songs may be successfully incor- porated into educational work, although it depends on children’s and youth’s performance possibilities, artistic values of music along with the text and theme of the song. A wide spectrum and richness of folk songs will certainly allow proper choice of repertoire. It is very often the case folk songs are in- dispensably connected with fun, which is crucial in children education, and it does not eliminate the introduction of cognitive or theoretical elements. On the contrary, it is rather supportive in this matter. The variety of themes included in folk songs may become a part of the integrated education, both in the scope of art and subject integration, that is, Polish, history, geography, and nature. Associating the gained knowledge with new cognitive contents will allow for better understanding of creative processes. What is more, folk songs guarantee familiarization with and preservation of local dialects, they enable identification with region and visualize individuality. Folk songs are very often connected with folk rites (Kisiel, 1999). A form of contact of children and youth with folk music is also by making music. Getting familiar with various music instruments and playing them, starting with simple instruments, to the more complex ones, and playing folk instruments, is integral with the process of education. Apart from musical advantages that arise from playing an instrument, they first of all encompass the skill of teamwork and generation of common experiences (i.e. joy, success, friendliness), which are crucial in the preservation of family, regional, and educational traditions (Kopoczek, 2000). It is worth heading for the incorporation of simple folk instruments lessons in children education both inside and outside of school. This idea brings impressive results, Folk instru- ments provide music made by children with a family character, allowing at the same time to introduce the folk music to schools. 202 Mirosław Kisiel

A synthetic manner of grasping elements of music folklore, that is a song, music, and dance, may exert some influence on the development of children’s interests. Regional music bands are of this character indeed. Maybe regional ed- ucation, which begins in a family home, and is then developed and enriched in a kindergarten and at school, will become an incentive to continue these inter- ests in the further lives, for example in regional bands. Folk ensembles cultivate folk art created and assimilated by people, who live in a certain cultural circle. Contact with folk music provides children and youth with satisfaction, aesthetic experiences, and joy, arising from intuitive beauty, not distorted by the chase for artistic fashions (Kisiel, 2002, p. 290). Participation in a team also plays significant creative, integrative, social and educational functions. An active part in amateur artistic movement offers a beneficial form of spending free time by children and youth. The aspect of aesthetic education needs to be emphasized, being realized thanks to close contacts of members of folk ensembles with home folklore. It serves exploration of traditional art in a given region, its history and customs, characteristic dances, songs and dialects. Content of folk compositions often present human feelings, love and beloved homeland. It shapes patriotic attitude of the young generation and visualizes identity with their own nation. Furthermore, membership in an artistic ensemble plays significant creative func- tions, triggering creative abilities and the attitude of continuous improvement, it shapes the character and such features as persistence and discipline. Dance improves motor fitness, serves physical and mental health, it triggers emotions during concerts, common trips, training camps, journeys, and social meetings. “Folk music encompasses values, for example, honesty of expressions, crea- tive character, the feeling of order and form, ethnic originality, which is why cultivation of tradition needs to be taken care of, and thus the atmosphere of folklore shapes music ideas and experiences” (Smuda, 2002, p. 105). A teacher of elementary education initiates contact of a child with premises of folk cul- ture on purpose or intuitively. Programs of kindergarten and primary education include contents of regional character, which familiarize a child with traditions, customs, rites, dances, and songs, characteristic of a given region (Journal of Laws, 2012, item 977). Studies conducted in 2012/2013, allowed to obtain an answer for the ques- tion regarding demonstration of the place of tradition and customs as a plain of integration of art into education and upbringing of a child, as well as the role of the teacher in this process. The performed fragmentary explorations demon- strated an image of traditions and customs applied in education of children from younger classes, together with their emotions and experiences that accompany contact with regional culture, forms and methods of work applied by the teach- ers, as well as reactions and opinions of children, generated while cultivating regional traditions, customs, and rites. The analysis of the studies’ results sug- gested that the teachers realize problems of classes that popularize customs and Cultivation of regional traditions… 203 traditions according to the individually developed didactic-educational plan, re- gional program and a calendar of kindergarten and school events. All subjects of the studies stated consistently that numerous elements of tradition and customs exert a positive influence on children, triggering strong feelings; however, the majority of those experiences are provided by music, movement, and dance. During the realization of separate didactic-educational events of a folk character, a number of spheres for integration of art and elements of polysensory cognition were identified. The researched teachers agreed that incorporation of traditions and customs into didactic-educational work provides the children with better knowledge about the region that they live in. At the same time, they noticed the merging of traditions coming from various areas of Poland and polarization of behavior presented by both children and parents. In a number of cases, the described actions of cultivation of customs and traditions became an impulse that triggered curiosity of children, and a course of emotions and feelings. On the following stage of studies, attention was drawn to means of influence from the scope of regional education, for example, music, literary texts, costumes, requisites, acting, movement, dance, decorations, singing, products of art, band concerts, being in a group of peers, and solo presentations, which could unveil a source of intense feelings and emotions toward the participants. Children’s encounters with traditions, customs, and rites taught within a sphere of regional education, triggered emotions and became a source of numerous sensations. Problems discussed in the paper, together with the conducted research and its results, supported articulation of conclusions, which stressed: 1. The existence of a need of shaping a certain manner of thinking in the youngest, to visualize them the significance of knowledge about the region they live in. 2. The need to spark and maintain children’s interest in tradition of the region, to shape patriotic feelings, teach how to perceive the beauty of their home- land, as basic tasks for teachers of elementary education; 3. The importance of cooperation with parents, who through participation in customs continued in and regions initiate and preserve the need to cultivate tradition, which bears special significance in didactic-educational work with children (Kisiel, 2014). Complementation of formal education, realized in education facilities like kindergarten and school is parallel education, realized in cultural-educational institutions. 204 Mirosław Kisiel Regional ensembles as an incubator for cultivation of customs and traditions

A regional dance and song ensemble constituted a folk group, which derives in- spirations from folk tradition. It faithfully reproduces dance, music, and singing through Polish dances, songs, and rites. Dancers present the program in recon- structed folk clothes, triggering interest, and fascination with their beauty and richness. A vocal group nurtures vocalist traditions through the performance of songs, which accompany folk rites and customs. An ensemble usually possesses its band that is comprised of musicians who play musical instruments, with a line-up characteristic for a given region. People who are enthusiastic about folk music and dance and willing to cultivate regional and national customs usu- ally become members. Band members are different with respect to the artistic advancement level, sex, and age. Adults, youth, as well as children perform during concerts. Bands are led by teachers with proper pedagogic qualifications and folklore-geographic preparation (Piotrowski, 1984; Baszta, 1985). The culture generating an educational role of child regional bands will be presented in this work from the perspective of four folk groups: Song and Dance Ensemble “Mały Śląsk” (from Bytom), Folklore Ensemble “Wrazidloki” (from Knurów), Folk Ensemble “Ślązaczek” (from Katowice) and the Song and Dance Ensemble “Czułowianie” (from Tychy). These groups may be incorporated into the second circle of regional bands, called bands with “developed folklore.” They were established by various educational institutions like kindergartens, school, culture centers, associations, and their members were characterized by only slight differences in age. The described regional ensembles exposed their distinct variety in their folk repertoires and creative performance. Some of them were almost authentic folk bands, while the others were characterized by a slightly different nature, close to the above-delineated one. Bands that are almost authentic, perform songs based on their region’s folklore for one voice, accompanied by their own folk group. The bands close to the said ones perform songs that refer to various regions, even other countries, accompanied by a larger group or orchestra, often playing from music. Their folklore pro- grams are adequately developed, adjusted by artistic managers to requirements of the scene. They are the ones to decide what the distance between the given program and the authentic composition is. The above-mentioned bands took part in various folklore events, popular among both members of the ensembles and the audience. For young amateur artists this was an opportunity for public presentation, to compare their skills and the artistic level of the performance, and to integrate with other dance ensembles. They provided the audience with knowledge about folklore, powerful emotions and experiences. These meetings Cultivation of regional traditions… 205 were usually organized by culture centers and especially created organizational committees. Folklore events, which were participated by the researched bands, were of regional, national, or even international reach. Regional performance reviews of folk ensembles covered presentation of groups that came from the same city or from the nearby towns. National events gathered a vast number of volunteers, or those, who met the requirement of participation without any territorial constraints. Participation in international festivals allowed the band members to get familiar with dances, music, songs, and plays, and also with the cuisine of the participating countries. The main purpose of the performed diagnostic-descriptive research was to obtain an answer to the following questions: What folklore values are noticed by the researched groups of young recipients and participants of regional culture? What regional traditions are most often cultivated by children — members of folklore ensembles? and how rich is the youth’s knowledge of broadly under- stood folklore? The organized exploration was realized between 2011—2013, conducted with the use of a categorized interview, conversations, document analysis, and free observation. The engagement of children into operation of a folk band is a unique op- portunity to derive advantages flowing from the heritage of one’s own culture, through the acquisition of knowledge, and interconnected skills. Thus, proper organization of classes is necessary for proper course of this specific educa- tional process. Adequate selection of educational contents and tasks, along with teacher’s relevant attitude, exerted a positive influence on young people, trig- gering fascination and willingness of constant exploration of their national and regional identity. The value they offer to an individual is all of that which is precious and worth being desired, which constituted the purpose of human ef- forts. Value is fostered by subjects and beliefs that determine relatively similar mental experiences and human actions. The presented research results allowed to determine which folklore values were noticed by the researched groups of young recipients and participants of regional culture, which traditions were cultivated, and how rich the knowledge of folklore was. Regarding the fact that members of chosen folklore bands come from the Silesian region, one of the questions regarded the scope in which participa- tion in classes familiarized the respondents with home folklore. The drawn conclusions suggested that the most common manner within this scope was to get familiar with folk songs and dances connected with their region (37.8%). A slightly smaller group (29.3%) answered that this manner is to get familiar with past customs and Silesian dialects, but also to contact persons or groups that cultivate the regional traditions on everyday basis (17.4%). The lowest percentage pointed to participation in contests and quizzes (6.8%), watching programs emitted on TV and on the Internet (4.4%), and studying literature and archives (4.3%). As it seems, dances and songs are closest to children, 206 Mirosław Kisiel

thanks to which they obtained such a significant asset of attractiveness in the responses. Through combining education with pleasant feelings, a young man gets an opportunity to obtain new skills and learn more about his or her region. A question asked to the children, “What do you understand by the notion of regional culture?” is a certain intellectual challenge. Answers given by the respondents surprise us with particular references to certain actions or events. The highest percentage of the surveyed (42.7%) suggested that regional culture “is implicit” in music and dance characteristic of a given region, whereas 18.3% responses referred to the rituals and customs connected with feasts, 17.6% — regarded products of local community, 16.3% − cuisine (Silesian meat roll with dumplings and red cabbage), and in 5.1% to rites and traditions connected with population within a given area. While answering, the respondents based, as it is visible through the form of classes on music and dance, known from their own experiences, which according to them was most closely connected with regional culture. This form of classes enabled the respondents to continuously get familiar with culture of their region. According to instructors-teachers, the most significant manner of broaden- ing children’s knowledge about regional culture was active participation in folk band classes, concerts, and direct experience of the customs and traditions cultivated in family surroundings. Permanent participation in work of a folk band and in its concerts enriched the life of a young man with new experiences, triggered emotions, engaged in life of the society, at the same time developing their knowledge about culture of a particular region. Continuation of family traditions allowed experiences involuntarily acquired by the children and price- less knowledge, handed from one generation to the other. Active participation of family members in a folklore band provided an opportunity and hope that their own regional tradition will not be forgotten, and thus will be continued by future generations. The majority of the respondents regarded the ensemble as a source of information about regional traditions. During trips connected with performances, the young people obtained a chance to get familiar with traditions cultivated in other Polish regions. The greatest number of respondents, that is 46.4% believed that for the band members the most significant value of folklore was the cultivation of family traditions, 23.8% responded that it was the pres- entation of their ancestors’ heritage, and 20.4% — the provision of knowledge about life and customs maintained in various regions of Poland. A significant group, as much as 10.6% did not provide any information in this scope. According to instructors, participation in folklore teams bears significant creative functions. While upgrading creative skills and the attitude of constant improvement, also the formation of character, and such features as persist- ence or discipline are developed. It is the participation in a band that teaches a number of things about closest surroundings, region, and culture of the whole country. Participation in a folklore ensemble certainly is the most effective and Cultivation of regional traditions… 207 direct manner of presenting children with the richness of their own region, hid- den not only in dancing and singing, but also in the dialect, rites, and customs. Young people obtain an impulse to continuously “enrich” their life thanks to regionalism. They derive plenty of advantages and pleasures, which are offered by folklore of the region they dwell in. Getting familiar with regional culture in the education and upbringing of a young generation, a part of the respondents signalized threats that Polish so- cial-cultural transformations bring to folklore bands. These threats were mainly sought for in the process of integration of Europe, and the perception of the world as a “global village.”

Conclusions

Facing the omnipresent multiculturalism, it is necessary to equip young per- sons with possibly broad knowledge about their own region, environment, and surroundings. The transfer of contents should take place mainly through educational environments (i.e. kindergarten and school), family and regional cultural-educational centers, which are significantly valuable. Teachers, peda- gogues should enrich their knowledge in the scope of regional education, and broaden as well as strengthen their fascination with music, singing, and dancing with proper folklore-choreographic skills.

References

Baszta, J. (1985). Chłopskie źródła kultury. Warszawa: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. Brzezińska, A.W., Hulewska A. & Słomska J. (Eds.). (2006). Edukacja regionalna. Warszawa: Wyd. Naukowe PWN. Danel-Bobrzyk, H. (2003). Folklor w edukacji muzycznej dzieci i młodzieży. In H. Danel-Bobrzyk & J. Uchyła-Zroski (Eds.), Folklor i folkloryzm w edukacji i wychowaniu. Katowice: Wyd. UŚ. Dymara, B., Korzeniowska, W., & Ziemski, F. (2002). Dziecko w świecie tradycji. Kraków: Impuls. Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland, 2012, item 977. Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dn. 27 sierpnia 2012 w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedsz- kolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół. Kisiel, M. (1999). Rola muzyki i poszczególnych jej form aktywności w realizacji założeń edu- kacji regionalnej na poziomie kształcenia wczesnoszkolnego. In M.T. Michalewska (Ed.), Edukacja regionalna. Z historii, teorii i praktyki. Kraków: Impuls. 208 Mirosław Kisiel

Kisiel, M. (2002). Elementy sztuki regionalnej w edukacji szkolnej a poczucie zakorzenienia w środowisku. In E. Zwolińska (Ed.), Muzyka w nauczaniu zintegrowanym. Bydgoszcz: Wyd. AB. Kisiel, M. (2004). Elementy sztuki regionalnej w pozaszkolnej edukacji muzycznej młodego pokolenia. Wychowanie Muzyczne w Szkole, 4. Kisiel, M. (2014). Tradycje i zwyczaje płaszczyzna integracji sztuki w edukacji i wychowaniu dziecka — w 200. rocznicę urodzin Oskara Kolberga. In M. Kisiel & H. Hetmańczyk-Bajer (Eds.), Integrowanie działań pedagogiczno-artystycznych w edukacji elementarnej. Katowice: Wyd. KPWiPM, UŚ. Kopoczek, A. (2000). Świat ludowych, dziecięcych narzędzi dźwiękowych. In B. Dymara (Ed.), Dziecko w świecie muzyki. Kraków: Impuls. Kowalczyk, J. (1998). Czynniki wpływające na kształtowanie kultury muzycznej uczniów. In L. Marzewski (Ed.), Edukacja muzyczna dzieci i młodzieży z uwzględnieniem specyfiki regionu. Olsztyn: Wyd. WSP. Piotrowski, M. (1984). Zespoły folklorystyczne jako forma aktywności kulturalnej mieszkańców wsi. Warszawa: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. Rusek, H. (1995). Rola kobiety w procesie transmisji kultury regionalnej. In D. Kadłubiec (Ed.), Kultura ludowa na pograniczu. Katowice: Wyd. UŚ. Smuda, B. (2002). Regionalna edukacja wczesnoszkolna. Życie Szkoły, 9. Natalia Stankowska University of Silesia

Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions (on the basis of the arts workshop conducted by Anna Donder)*

Abstract: The article is a kind of reportage and gives an account of the activities of the teacher implemented within the scope of art workshops designed to familiarize students with the native traditions of their region. The author focuses on the possibilities offered to teachers in terms of initiating and organizing students’ activities in order to cultivate regional traditions. Keywords: regional traditions, plastic workshops

Creating beautiful things involves many acts, that is, looking for something worth immortalizing, writing down something that we do not want to lose. Teachers are among people who are able to rescue from oblivion patterns of behavior, rituals and customs important for particular regions. If pedagogues are willing to make an attempt to work on both themselves and students, they are able to arouse interest among children and adolescents in the place they live. Properly stimulated interest paves the way for the formation of positive attitude towards one’s own tradition, generation change, heritage handed down by past generations, which in this way create an image of reality. Properly excited and maintained interest in days gone and days to come can ignite responsibility for

* All the information comes from the conversation with Anna Donder to whom I would like to give special thanks. Grateful thanks also go to Joanna Gacka who have taken and processed the photos. The photos were taken on 1 January 2015 and have been exhibited in the Educational Center in Bytom (Juliusz Słowacki SOW no. 2 in Bytom). 210 Natalia Stankowska

the way we think and act now, and thus make people treat other people and nature with due respect. The earlier children have the opportunity to treat the world as the common good, the better for the people who work hard to improve the quality of life. However, the role of the pedagogue cannot be overestimated, as he or she learns to recognize creative skills in every child in the classroom, both healthy children and those with disabilities. The teacher is the one who wholeheartedly supports pupils in their development and tries to attract their attention to the surrounding world, people, places, objects, and nature. The teacher makes them familiar with real life, by providing them with information about history, places and epochs, inhabitants and their occupations, as well as the atmosphere of the bygone eras. The arts, the plastic arts included, can significantly influence emotions, offering people esthetic experience and mak- ing them more sensitive to beauty. By esthetic education, the pedagogue who conducts art workshops, stimulates pupils’ work, activities and self-realization, and also excites their cognitive interest as well as willingness to transform their experience into an artistic work. An idea of the creator can be turned into a piece of art, which can be a source of joy, and, what is more, pieces of art can be presented on exhibitions, admired, and approved by the viewers. One’s own work can bring joy and delight, but words of approval provide satisfaction and build the artists’ self-esteem as they can even give them a deeper sense in life. Pictures, visual arts in general, evocatively appeal to young viewers and their imagination, they make them think and search for the sense in their life, humanity, and actions (Phot. 1).

Phot. 1. Mateusz Renka (aged 14): A gaggling treasure Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions… 211

Work with children and adolescents can abound in positive effects, for example in the creation of works of astonishingly good quality, freshness, and original approach to the topic. Aside from these, it always is excellent fun both for the participants and for their families. A project entitled “Customs and rituals in children’s interpretation,” prepared by a group of 28 children aged 12—18, realized in the years 2004 and 2005 can serve as a good example. Over the school year second-year primary school pupils, and second- and third-year junior high school students (both schools are within the School Complex no. 4 in Bytom) were asked to prepare an exhibition of artisitc works. Over several times, they visited the Upper Silesian Museum in Bytom to see the following exhibitions, “The life of the Silesian people in the 19th and 20th centuries” and “Christmas traditions of the Żywiec Country.” They went for an excursion to Mały Gościec in the Żywiec Beskids (Węgierska Górka), where they visited the Private Museum “Ocalenie” (Rescue) established by Jan Talik. Over the years, he has managed to collect many utilitarian articles from the past, musical instru- ments (e.g. heligonka “a musical instrument similar to the melodeon”), masks, folk clothing, pictures, sculptures, and cribs, which are valuable souvenirs of the past folk customs and rituals of the Żywiec Country. Participating in exhibitions and excursions, the pupils and students got prepared for the plastic workshop during which they created works illustrating old customs of the region. They gained the opportunity to learn about their own creative abilities; they developed their artistic skills, stirred their imagination and awoke their creative thinking skills; they exercised their perception, perse- verance, and discipline; they learned how to look around, perceive objects and people; they improved dexterity of their hands, discipline by repetition of some acts, and concentration required in such work. From a purely technical point of view, they learned selected plastic techniques, such as pencil, watercolor, gouache, acrylic, and learnt how to work with painting tools. This arduous work created the desired effects — that is, responsibility for one’s workplace, respect for other children’s works, willingness to participate in the activities and to come by to the meeting room, not only during regular school classes, but also in their free time. Owing to the fact that during these outings to the museum children could listen to museum guides who provided them with necessary information about traditions and customs of the region. In this way, the participants were able to describe the selected traditions and place them beside their works. The selection of relevant information was their own choice. In consequence, children created valuable teaching aids that presented a selection of Polish customs, including photos of the paintings accompanied by the texts. It was then handed out to guests (Polish teachers, plastic arts teachers and historians) during the vernis- sage of the exhibition. The leaflet is now available in some school libraries and libraries of culture centers in the district (Phot. 2). 212 Natalia Stankowska

Phot. 2. Andrzej Malinowski (aged 18): Cabbage pickling

Meetings of the Plastic Arts Group in the care of Anna Donder turned into an exhibition of children’s works that represented various folk customs and ritu- als, among others (1) the Lajkonik (a bearded man, resembling a Tatar, wearing a pointed hat and dress, with a wooden horse round his waist), also called the Zwierzyniec horse; (2) the drowning of Marzanna (burning and drowning an effigy of Marzanna to celebrate the end of winter); (3) Śmieciucha in the vil- lage; (4) the Dożynki procession (a procession during the harvest festival); (5) Kupala Night (midsummer night, the celebration of the summer ); (6) wreaths floating in water; (7) Ash Wednesday jokes; (8) Ash Wednesday with a ceremony of marking people’s foreheads with ash; (9) Maundy Thursday as the Day of the Passion; (10) blessing of green twigs; (11) going with the cockerel (an Easter Monday procession of boys); (12) Easter foods; (13) Winter festivals; (14) Christmas carols; (15) cutting down a Christmas tree; (16) old Christmas-tree decoration; (17) a group of men in hairy disguise; (18) going to the midnight Mass (on Christmas Eve); and (18) Angelus. Apart from the above-mentioned themes, the children’s works also depicted scenes of everyday life, under the following titles (1) cabbage pickling; (2) I will be a housewife; (3) a beggar; (4) kierpce (shoes traditionally worn by Polish highlanders), al- penstocks and strings of beads; (5) village fashion; (6) farmyard decoration; (7) autumn works on the farm; (8) here come the wedding guests; and (9) a grave. The exhibition was presented, among others, in Miasteczko Śląskie, Lu- bliniec, Radzionków, Boguszów, Gorce, Bytom, and Częstochowa. Thanks to the workshops on customs and rituals, the youth from many schools in the Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions… 213 towns where the picture exhibition was displayed, could learn about regional traditions and rites. The exhibition was attended by children and adolescents at different age groups, from primary, junior high, to high schools (Phot. 3).

Phot. 3. Andrzej Malinowski (aged 18): The beggar

Anna Donder, apart from customs, everyday routine activities, and celebra- tions, teaches her pupils how to look at the surrounding world, be perceptive, and notice beauty. That is how the 2004 exhibition “Bytom in children’s eyes” was created, which depicted Bytom and its architecture. However, it was pre- ceded by elaborate preparations, as the students were taught the history of By- tom. Anna Donder took them for walks along the old streets to see architectural monuments; moreover, they visited the Guido mine, the Upper Silesia Museum, necropoles, and cemeteries as well. They learned about old professions specific for Silesia, such as miner, steel worker, blacksmith, cooper, shoemaker, and clockmaker. The participants were given the opportunity to observe the work and see the tools at the shoemaker’s and the clockmaker’s. Also, they observed work of the furrier and the tailor, and visited an old post office. The children met with Marcin Hałaś, a member of the Society of Bytom Admirers, who was very helpful. During the plastic arts workshops, they found a favorable oppor- tunity to talk to Witold Prandzioch, a methodologist of plastic arts education. 214 Natalia Stankowska

Phot. 4. Łukasz Markiewicz (aged 16): The chemist’s “Under the Crown” on Gliwicka street

Getting to know Bytom and its sights, being able to see for themselves history preserved in architecture, learning about the historical context of the construction of buildings important for the city, its development and change, and later their own artistic interpretation of what they saw — these are the effects of the exhibition, which was part of the celebration of the 750th anniversary of Bytom. The vernissage and the exhibitions were the best reward for their hard work. Many places hosted the exhibition, for example, Silesia City Center in Katowice (during its official opening); the Culture Center in Miasteczko Śląskie; the art gallery “Na bruku” in Bytom; the Municipal Community Center in Lubliniec; the Bytom Promotion Bureau; and churches: the Holy Cross, St. Wojciech, the Holy Trinity, and the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The paintings were sold at auctions, among others, during Jarmark Cechu Rzemiosł Różnych (the Fair of Various Craft Guilds), thanks to which they collected money for purchasing plastic arts materials for the workshops (Phot. 5). Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions… 215

Phot. 5. Dawid Podstawny (aged 11): The building of the Municipal Council

Another city which became the topic of the workshop was Kraków, a city shrouded in legends. The former capital of Poland was a good topic to excite children’s interest in the country’s history and invoke national feelings. First, children of the 4th and 6th forms of the primary school and junior high school students were told some legends, afterwards they prepared plastic works which formed the thematic exhibition “The Kraków legends in the years 2006—2007.” The participants of the workshops made use of various plastic techniques — that is, clay, papier-mâché, self-hardening plasticine, glue, watercolor, egg tempera, oil pastels, crayons, and paints. The size of some of the low reliefs was impres- sive as it reached 70 × 110 cm (Phot. 6). Furthermore, children and adolescents can draw much of their inspiration from fairy tales and legends, due to the elements of folk wisdom as the lesson which can be drawn from fables can be seen as a warning, and thus provokes reflection. Colorful and incredible stories make both the listeners and readers arrive at the solutions to many questions. The workshops, apart from developing their esthetic sensitivity, formed their morale, encouraged to work, developed their self-confidence and excited their interest in culture, arts and also in the national heritage. Moreover, they created an opportunity to spend their time in a useful yet joyful way (Phot. 7). 216 Natalia Stankowska

Phot. 6. Paweł Górski: About Mr. Twardowski

Phot. 7. Jakub Koj, Anna Kopel, Zofia Klais, Klaudia and Agnieszka Sosnowska, Magdalena Hasek: About the Wawel dragon and a wise shoemaker Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions… 217

The work during the workshops, organization of the exhibitions, prepara- tory studies on the topics and organization of the artistic work certainly help create a bond between participants. Moreover, it teaches them respect for their work and the work of others; shows differences and similarities in the reception of the topic and problem solving; it renders possible individual interpretation of reality, free self-expression, as well as it makes favorable opportunities to exhibit the work to the general audience. The less skilled a student is, the more necessary it is to build his or her self-esteem. A vernissage or an exhibition is a situation in which students with disabilities may improve their self-esteem, feel appreciated, and their families may take pride in their children’s achievements and celebrate their success. Authors of exhibited works can feel like artists; their works may be provid- ed with passe-partout and then professionally framed, thanks to the befriended owner of the painters’ shop, Jan Gut, who appreciates their artistic efforts. Apart from the above-mentioned plastic workshops, Anna Donder also con- ducted other projects, namely, her students Aleksandra Walczak and Samanta Jeż got qualified for the International Art Competition, entitled “People brought this fate upon people,” which was organized in 2007, on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the State Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau in Oświęcim. The official partners of the Competition were the Society of Nazi Concentration Camp Child Prisoners and the Foundation for Polish-German Reconciliation. The winners visited the Camp and met persons who survived Auschwitz and those who saved them and helped. Children that attended the plastic arts studio in the School Complex no. 4 in Bytom were of different age and from different classes. By engaging in artistic activity they won prizes and distinctions for their work in many competitions. Their works were exhibited in Poland and abroad. The topics of the works were mainly related to the students’ region, its traditions and festivals. For example, Katarzyna Dunaj was awarded the 3rd prize in the 8th Competition organized by the Museum in Tarnowskie Góry for the most beautiful Nativity scene of the year 2006. The junior high school student, Monika Polak won the 2nd prize for her Christmas postcard of the year 2005, in the 12th District Plastic Com- petition organized by the Municipal Community Center in Lubliniec, and the Regional Cultural Center and Municipal Art Gallery in Częstochowa. Another student Małgorzata Korelli won the Grand Prix in 2002 and her Christmas postcard was professionally printed and sent to many galleries and community centers in the Silesian Province. Among the awarded for a Nativity scene, in the Competition “Small, smaller, the smallest,” organized by Pałac Młodzieży (the youth’s education center) in Katowice, were Przemek Krzyżak, Sebastian Kowalski, Marcin Gałuszka, Izabela Smarzyńska, Ewelina Gorel, and Damian Solarczyk. Prizes and distinctions won in several editions of the Nationwide Festival of Children’s Expression and the Silesian Review of the Works of 218 Natalia Stankowska

Children’s Plastic Arts Groups (e.g. the 1st prize in the 20th Review in 2007), or distinctions awarded in the 28th Nationwide Competition of Children and Adolescents’ Plastic Arts, entitled “Polish Landscape — Traditions, Modernity, Future” in 2005, show that plastic arts groups offer an attractive way of spend- ing free time for both children and adolescents. Searching for one’s roots and local traditions related with the place of birth has been continued, as the tutors Anna Donder and Katarzyna Krzymińska together with girl-students from The Young Offenders Institution no. 2 in Bytom took part in the program “Ethno- graphics” in 2013. About 70 children were able to participate in classes given by staff members of the Upper Silesia Museum, on Silesian dialect, cuisine, regional dresses, rituals, festivals, and customs related to seasons of the year and local traditions. Their discussions concerned customs and regionalisms. Thanks to the contract with the museum, the institution is an actively partici- pating partner in the “Ethnographics” project,. An interesting thing here is that children engaged in the program created a research tool — questionnaire, used later in interviews with Ormontowice inhabitants (Phot. 8).

Phot. 8. Andrzej Malinowski (aged 18): The Holly Family Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions… 219

Education involves introduction to history; showing places, times and people; socialization and telling how to live in the society, a community of people, who are similar yet different; developing a sense of affiliation; teaching respect for others and tolerance for otherness; and explaining that agreement is the best solution when people differ. Art is an ideal means of building one’s self-esteem and acquiring problem-solving skills in conflict situations, because it helps people deal with emotions, build bonds with oth- ers and develop a sense of relationship. It paves the way for one’s independ- ence and self-reliance, and aside from these, it makes people more sensitive and considerate towards others. It grants an opportunity to overcome their weaknesses and to find possible means of expression. In addition, it gives time for self-reflection and endows their life with meaning. Thanks to art, one can feel approved of and rewarded. A teacher who is aware of the art- related potential and is able to use it for the students’ benefit and for their psychosocial development is a good tutor. By his or her commitment to the work this person stimulates students’ activity and creativity, and makes the dialogue between generations possible (Phot. 9).

Phot. 9. Andrzej Malinowski: Maria Grzegorzewska among her pupils 220 Natalia Stankowska

Using drawing, painting, modeling, and sculpture as a children activation method, the teacher makes use of their natural predilection for play. These are activities which stimulate thinking, inspire imagination and communication as well as relax and provide children with positive encouragement. In this simple way children are encouraged to work and express their emotions, which enables them to achieve success that certainly leads to an increase of their self-esteem, as well as their peers’ acceptance. Trying to inspire young people, the teacher encourages them to experience esthetic values, express their emotions, look for beauty, search for authorities and topics which would allow them to broaden their knowledge. Furthermore, the teacher stimulates their development and helps them to become versatile human beings in a spirit of humanism. All of this leads to respect, tolerance, and a feeling of affiliation and communion. The better prepared and conducted introductory classes are, the greater achievements students gain. Apart from the topic, the students have to choose a plastic technique matching their tempera- ment. This increases their commitment to the work they are doing and makes them more open to emotions. Stimulation of children’s activity makes them more spontaneous, attracts their attention and helps discover innate talents and abilities. It certainly makes hyperactive children more tranquil, and for the anxious individuals it is a fresh experience. Art activities are to bring joy and tranquility, they encourage creativity and eliminate boredom, depression, and anxiety. An appropriate choice of topics can help cultivate traditions and introduce elements of local and national patriotism. It can help teach that one should not neglect native traditions and turn to foreign customs, such as for example St. Valentine’s Day, but perhaps should look deeper into our native customs, such as Kupala night and search for the . On St. John’s Day people spend time sitting and dancing by the fire, and requests addressed to St. John bring them luck in love. The custom of greeting spring with Marzanna (Morena, Marzaniok, Śmieciucha) is a way of bidding goodbye to winter and death, giving hope for a new beginning and a positive change. Christmas is Gody or Kolaska, the festive season from Christmas Eve to the Epiphany. It is the time when carol singers and boys in disguise (near Sierpiec, Płock, in Kujawy and Śląsk) walk from house to house and bring people abundance and good luck. It is worth encouraging students to get to know their own history as well as the history of others, show them differences resulting from living in a given region, Kaszuby, Silesia or the mountain region and similarities resulting from being born in one country, Poland (Phot. 10). Teachers’ participation in cultivating and forming regional traditions… 221

Phot. 10. Dawid Podstawny (aged 13): A group of men in hairy disguise

Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities

Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers from the Siedlce commune

Abstract: Cultivating cultural traditions in the era of globalization is of particular importance to the cultural heritage of the community. It seems also of the essence to educate children within the scope of their cultural identity and prepare them to understand and protect their cultural heritage. Cultural education fits well among teaching tasks of the preschool. This article presents a study investigating the knowledge of the preschool teachers from the Siedlce community. The authors analyze cultural traditions of the Southern Podlasie region and their use in working with young children. Keywords: traditions, Podlasie, folk, preschool

One of the objectives of the preschool education, set forth in the core curricu- lum, is to shape the feeling of social affiliation to the national community. To attain this goal, the preschool should contribute to the development of children, educate and mould them through arts, so that children who leave preschool and enter primary education are able to sing simple folk songs, show interest in selected historical buildings, works of art, folk traditions, and regional rites. A careful analysis of preschool’s organizational plans reveals great interest of teachers in cultivating all types of festivals and holidays: religious, family, public, national, and international. Furthermore, a list of preschool celebrations changes and new actions appear, some of which are a consequence of multi- culturalism. The following holidays deserve special attention due to their popularity in preschool events schedules: St Andrew’s Eve party, St Nicholas’ Day, Christmas 224 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

Eve, Christmas, New Year, Epiphany, Easter, the Constitution Day — May 3rd, All Saints’ Day, Fat Thursday (the last Thursday of carnival), the First Day of Spring, Grandmother’s Day, Grandfather’s Day, Women’s Day, Family Day, Mother’s Day, Children’s Day, Father’s Day, Teacher’s Day, Valentine’s Day. They have become an inherent part of Polish historical customs, rites and tradi- tions, and they date years and centuries back. St Andrew’s Eve party, for example, which dates back to 1557, is celebrated on the night of 29/30 November, and is the time of games and fortune-telling. Initially, telling fortunes was treated very seriously, even matrimonially; it re- ferred to single women and was performed individually and kept secret. With time, they began/become more communal in nature: single girls and women met in larger groups and in an atmosphere of joy sought names of their future husbands or established the order of getting married (pouring wax into a bowl of water, drawing objects, forming a queue of shoes, listening to dogs’ bark- ing, etc.). Nowadays, fortunes are told in mixed groups and while many rituals continue till this day, others have been made more up-to-date and new rites appeared (Ogrodowska, 2001). Another important holiday for children is St. Nicholas’ Day observed on 6 December. It is the feast day of grey-bearded Saint Nicholas who wears red robes, carries a sack on his back and brings gifts. In the old times, this festival was related to the notable Christmas tradition. At present, a modified version prevails where children receive gifts under their pillows, at a fireplace or in a special sock. In school (rarely in preschools) children draw lots with the names of their peers, set the minimum and maximum amount that is to be spent on a single gift, and act as Santa Clauses who bring gifts to friends they have drawn. Christmas season is associated with the period of Advent, Christmas Eve and Epiphany. Fasting was observed throughout the Advent season. No meat or fats of animal origin were eaten; on Wednesdays and Fridays even eggs and dairy products were avoided. However, children were not expected to observe those rules strictly; they were fed milk during the whole fasting season. Every- one managed without much trouble, though. Typical fasting period dishes from the Southern Podlasie region include potatoes with fried cabbage or pickled cucumbers or boiled peas seasoned with oil and fried onion. No dances, parties or weddings were organized past the first Sunday of Ad- vent. This rule was observed closely by all communities. Advent was a period of solemn silence, waiting, the time often spend with family and friends. In the evenings, rural girls and women would gather in one peasant cottage to crochet or knit together. Older women gathered to say the rosary in selected houses. Men played ligawka, that is an instrument similar to the alphorn. This cus- tom is still present in the Southern Podlasie region. Ligawka is an aerophone, a wind instrument, shaped similarly to a narrow, wooden trumpet. An average Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 225 length of the instrument is 1 metre 40 centimeters. It is typically made of pine or alder wood. It consists of two halves glued together with wax. It is a shep- herds’ instrument. It has been used from time immemorial, especially in the Advent season. Farmers came out in the yards in the pale dawn or after nightfall to “bugle Advent.” The sounds of ligawka were strong enough to be heard in another village, a few kilometres away. Ligawki were to symbolize the trumpets of Archangels, which we are to hear at the Last Judgment, that is when Jesus Christ is born. Analogically, ligawki announced the arrival of God, Christmas. Children, in turn, gathered at homes at common Christmas caroling rehears- als. Yet another task for children and adolescents was to prepare toys to decorate the Christmas tree. This was time-consuming and it had to be done well in advance. Well-trained young girls and housewives constructed spiders of straw and crêpe paper, which were hung under the chamber ceiling. Christmas Eve has not changed much since the old times. Women baked cakes (poppy-seed loaves, drop scones, etc.), cleaned and decorated the rooms. Children decorated the Christmas Tree with apples, home-baked cookies, and hand-made toys. All spared no effort to have twelve dishes on the Christmas Eve’s table. There are at least two explanations to the twelve-dish symbolism: first of all, it is the number of the Apostles, and secondly, it was done so that a life of abundance could be lived during all twelve months of the year. An important element found during Christmas Eve supper was a sheaf of corn and some straw. The sheaf was put in the corner of a chamber, and with time, it was replaced with a handful of splendid grains and referred to as caroling. Straw was placed underneath a tablecloth. At the table, just as at present, one always left an empty seat, which symbolizes not only readiness to welcome a lost stranger, but also spiritual presence of all those who passed away. After Christmas Eve supper, all crumbs from the table were shared with domestic animals. A large group of common and outstanding elements of traditional culture of the Southern Podlasie region is further identified at the spiritual level. A com- mon feature is the structure and form of the most popular caroling event based on an excerpt from the Gospel and known as herody. It featured boys dressed up as Herod the Great, the Jew, the Death, the field marshal, four soldiers, the devil and the angel, the Turk and the queen, etc. The performance took place at houses, starting on the second day of Christmas until the Feast of the Three Wise Men. Preparations commenced in the Advent, individual roles were learnt with the help of older carolers, and richly ornamented costumes were meticu- lously made. The underlying dramatic plot was the crime of Herod and his death. Carolers were offered snacks or money for their performance. Another caroling play in the Southern Podlasie region was the one called the “Cracow wedding.” It is a Christmas play presented by teenage girls. The main plot involves courtship of the young. Actresses are dressed in stylized Cracow costumes. The performance ends with nuptials/wedding. 226 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

Another example of Christmas caroling found in the Southern Podlasie region is a very archaic, even compared to the rest of Poland, tradition of carol- ling with a snake. Carollers had a snake that was made of wood or paper. They carried the attribute hidden in a sheepskin coat’s pocket. Upon entering a room, boys sang carols and tossed the folded snake into the air, which would unfold over the heads of the audience. One more caroling rite of the Southern Podlasie region was “walking a bear.” One of the carollers was dressed up as a bear, wrapped around with straw ropes or pea straw, and wore a leather mask on his face. He was led on a chain by the Jew or the Foreigner with a straw horsewhip in his hand. They were accompanied by music. The bear showed off to hosts, chased young girls and demanded food and drink. During the climax of the drama the bear fell down and then, following a proper treatment, revived, which symbolized rebirth. At the end, housewives tore the straw ropes off the bear and put them in the nests of hen and geese to lay eggs well. Other rites characteristic of the Southern Podlasie region were: hohoty — young girls’ caroling at the end of the old year; —— walking with a stork or crane — a red beak was fitted at the end of a long stick; the beak could open and close when a strong was pulled; a caroller imitated the stork’s clatter and accosted girls; all boys sang carols and gave wishes; —— New Year’s walking with a monkey — at New Year’s, sometimes at the Epiphany, girls would dress one of them up as a monkey; a long white apron was put on raised hands, which covered the whole silhouette; the hands were adorned with colorful beads and ribbons; next, they would enter a cottage, congratulated the hosts, and one of the girls would turn around with the monkey; —— walking with a star — caroling, the main attribute of which was a star; two, three or five boys singing popular carols walked with a star in exchange for money, eggs or cakes. Stars carried by the carolers varied in the method of construction or decoration; —— bearded men — this was the name given to people in fancy dresses, who strolled the streets and sang carols in the late December, playing with children, teenagers, and the elderly; boys wore sheepskin coats with the hair outside, masks made of dark, wrinkled leather, with linen hair, long moustache and beards glued to them; long beard was to symbolise great experience and dignity; on their heads they had hats (ca. 80 cm) decorated with colorful crepe paper flowers and ribbons, and the legs were wrapped around with straw and straw ropes. In their hands they held long sticks; they typically collected money for charity; —— Nativity play — a popular theater based on biblical scenes, composed of three parts: shepherds’, Herod’s, and adoration. It was performed in Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 227

churches, religious education rooms, and now, it is put on in community centers. In some adaptations of the nativity play, famous people from the Polish history are introduced, too. New Year’s Day is an international holiday observed on 1 January and preceded by New Year’s Eve. It is the time of all-night balls, with champagne popped at midnight. In preschool and schools this holiday is also associated with a traditional fancy-dress ball, where everyone can dress up as their favorite character or, in the case of teenagers, go to a disco. Easter is preceded by Palm Sunday, a festivity during which Easter palms, symbolizing the rebirth, are blessed in churches. Formerly, in some regions of Poland people hit each other with palm branches after the mass, confident that it would give them strength and health. Another important day of Easter is Holy Saturday on which people traditionally bring Easter baskets, filled with samples of cold meats, bread, and other delicacies, to be blessed in churches. They also include painted eggs, which have been and still are made in a variety of ways. One cannot eat anything until the blessed baskets are home again. One can be truly shocked when comparing today’s baskets with the traditional ones. “Of- ten a huge wicker basket proved too small to store all blessed victuals. Thus, kneading troughs were used instead — large vessels carved out from wood and used to fragment dough for bread. It happened because the most crucial in education was gigantic and wheat bread. The better off the host, the bigger the loaf of bread was. Sometimes even the bread oven had to be dismantled to take it out.” On Easter Sunday, traditionally every family starts their breakfast with a prayer, greetings and sharing the blessed food from the basket. Easter painted eggs (the symbol of longevity, purity and rebirth), catkins, a lamb, a yeast cake and mazurek (short crust tart baked at Easter) were, and still often are, indispensable elements of the Easter table. One characteristic feature of Shrove Tuesday was numerous groups of fancy dressed people. It was common to dress up as Gypsies, or an old man and an old woman; others wore costumes that imitated animals, such as a rooster, horse, donkey, stork, or a goat, whereas young men who accompanied them were dressed up as beggars, chimney sweeps, etc. They crossed a village with an accompaniment of musicians. If one of the hosts invited them into his house, they performed an improvized play there. Another custom was called chodzenie po racyjkach. In the morning of Easter Sunday, young boys walked from house to house and sang religious songs and the apocrypha (works of unknown origins, authorship, or authentic- ity), in return for which they were offered eggs or dumplings. On Easter Monday, in turn, little boys would walk with the Passion and sing Easter songs, accompanied by an old man with a basket, who collected eggs. Easter Monday is also the time of playing practical jokes: pulling vari- ous things on the roofs, spraying others with cold water (which, according to 228 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

tradition, purifies and heals), window pane painting, taking gates off hooks, or building green gates made of branches and decorated with ribbons in front of the houses of the girls that someone liked, etc. (Chwalba, Czekalski, Ferenc, Kałwa, & Korczak, 2008, pp. 44, 68, 80, 81, 176, 274, 177, 178, 294, 295). Another very important holiday is 3 May, Constitution Day. It has had its ups and downs, its celebration was prohibited on numerous occasions, in the aftermath of the partitions of Poland, for example, but it was reinstated in the Second Republic of Poland. Another restriction was introduced during the Second World War. After war, the holiday was observed until 1946, when due to riots it was banned again. In 1981, the holiday was officially approved. As of 1990, it is a solemn Polish holiday associated with a marching and celebra- tions organized in the streets. What is more, every year the Constitution Race is held in the streets of Warsaw, the honorary patron of which is the Institute of National Remembrance (IPN). All Saints’ Day is observed on 1 November and it is a day of visits to graves of our late family members and friends, decorating them, lighting can- dles, and praying for the souls of the dead. The following day is devoted to remembering the deceased and praying for them (Chwalba et al., 2008, pp. 48, 180, 385, 386). Amongst other popular customs there is also Fat Thursday, or the last Thursday of carnival, which dates back to antiquity. Already in the ancient times the feast was based primarily on eating fatty dishes, drinking wine, and having a pork fat doughnut for dessert. In Poland doughnuts were introduced around the 16th century but they differed from contemporary ones in filling. In the past, some of them had a hidden almond or a nut inside, and it was believed that he who found it would have good luck and live in the lap of luxury. Nowadays, doughnuts are accompanied by angel wings (deep-fried pastry ribbons). The First Day of Spring is celebrated on 21 March, which is the spring equinox. It is when we say farewell to winter and welcome spring. In the past, the observed the holiday with revelry, singing, dancing, and playing musi- cal instruments, believing that it was the most effective way to drive the winter away. The symbol of the passing winter was a hand-made effigy that was burnt and drowned in nearby rivers or other water reservoirs. The custom is still vivid and celebrated in schools and preschools. Amongst the remaining holidays and festivities found in preschool cal- endars are those observed to honor special people: grandmother, grandfather, child, mother, father, family, and the teacher. These are new holidays introduced in the 20th century. They typically involve meetings, plays, wishes, gifts, greet- ings cards and flowers. Another holiday which is gaining popularity is the Valentine’s Day, cel- ebrated every year on 14 February, commonly referred to as the Day of Those in Love. It comes in for criticism in Poland as it is perceived as an example of Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 229

Americanization. The traditional Slav Day of Those In Love is the Midsummer Night’s celebration (Kupala Night) held on the night of 21 to 22 June. Tradi- tions and customs of both holidays differ significantly. On Valentine’s Day one writes love poems, gives cards with greetings, gifts symbolizing love (typically red and in the shape of a heart), while couples in love go for walks or sit in cafes whispering endearments into each other’s ears. On the other hand, the Slav holiday began with building and plaiting garlands of herbs and flowers. Bonfires were associated with dancing, singing, and fortune-telling. Herbs were picked and threw into the to impart purifying powers on the fire and smoke. Girls put their garlands with burning candles into rivers and brooklets. According to the tradition, bachelors had to stand at a distance, next catch them and return to the girls in search of the owner of the garland one managed to catch. It was said that the girl whose garland was caught fast would get married. However, if a garland drowned, was burnt or lost, or fell into bulrush, its owner would remain a maiden. If a garland was carried away by waves, it meant that its owner should hurry up with getting married. During walks, young couples searched for a fern flower, the symbol of wealth, power, and wisdom. According to ancient Slav beliefs, no one could swim in water before that night as aquatic demons lied in wait. Moreover, people wanted to protect themselves from witches, who could freely harm people, by placing crossed brooms or besoms at the corners of buildings or by clogging gaps found in buildings with St John’s wort (Kalinowski, 1998, p. 74). In order to see what holidays and festivities are introduced by preschool teachers to their pupils and what traditions related thereto are celebrated, we have conducted an analysis in the territory of Siedlce commune (Pol. ).

Description of the analyzed area

Siedlce is a city with county (Pol. ) rights, located in the Eastern Poland in the Mazowieckie Province, between the Muchawka and Helenka Rivers, in the Southern Podlasie region. The Southern Podlasie region, referred to as Podlasie or, less frequently, the Lublin Podlasie, is an administrative region established in the 19th century in the South-Eastern part of Poland, between the Vistula, lower Wieprz and Tyśmienica Rivers and the central and lower Bug River, uniting lands diversified in terms of ethnography and history. The main city of the region is Siedlce. The Southern Podlasie Region is associated with wooden architecture, charming small churches, Orthodox churches, and roadside shrines, where one can hear May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary. 230 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

The Podlasie culture also involves a folk costume, which has three basic versions: the Bug River valley (nadbużański), the Włodawa region (włodawski), and the Radzyń region (radzyński) attires. There are three types of female cos- tumes: 1. Bug River valley folk attire — typical elements include multicolour striped skirts, linen blouses with perebory, floral headscarves and beads (perebory — a weaving ornament performed with the technique of selecting individual warp threads forming patterned strips, where the patterned parts are at the same time woven with plain linen, which makes them high and protruding. The technique is not applied throughout linen fabric but only to the strips of ornament.). 2. Włodawa region folk attire — female summer dress that is almost totally white, decorated with perebory; ornaments are composed of geometrical motifs. 3. Radzyń region folk attire — striped skirts and aprons in muted tones; domi- nant subdued reds with tiny green, yellow, and navy blue pinstripes. White lace-trimmed blouses. The male folk costume in the Podlasie region was plain. Men wore shirts, brown russet coats trimmed with blue and red string and colorful woven striped sashes made of wool. During the summer, men would wear soft shoes made of linden bast, the so-called postoły, and straw hats; whereas in the winter, leather calf-length boots and cloth caps. The Podlasie region folk costume could be supplemented with the fol- lowing: colorful woven sashes, belts, caps, mob caps, garlands, ribbons, head- scarves, authentic and plastic beads, which complemented the image. The Southern Podlasie region is also famous for its unique cuisine: millet groats, buckwheat groats and curd, and lentils dumplings (pierogi); •• stewed saltbush (a plant related to spinach), •• blini (potato cakes), •• hamza (regionally known as prażuchy, that is a dish made of boiled potatoes, mashed and mixed with flour poured with boiling water to form a homog- enous pulp, served hot in the form of dumplings formed with a spoon and served with an addition of pork scratchings or smoked bacon, or, alternatively, with some finely chopped fried onion; •• potato cake or babka ziemniaczana (a dish made of grated raw potatoes mixed with pork scratchings or fresh smoked bacon, made spicy, and stove- or oven-baked, served golden brown); •• tree cake or sękacz (a sponge/fat cake baked over an open fire on a rotating spit in the shape of a wooden pin or an elongated cone). The Southern Podlasie region culture comprises legends and beliefs, customs and rites, and literary work, that is, everything which makes up the Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 231 region’s spiritual culture. The Southern Podlasie region is rich in folk art col- lections, handicraft in particular.

Weaving

During the period of the biggest development of weaving in the Polish Pod- lasie region, that is in the 18th and 19th centuries, weaving was common in both numerous weaving manufactories and peasant cottages. Different types of fabric made comprised: linen, horizontally striped cloth (pasiak), colorful woven sashes, chequered cloths (kraciak), all used for clothes, underwear, ta- blecloths, bedclothes, sheets and sacks. Interwoven fabric appeared in the 19th century. The ornament was of a different colour than the base and was made by interweaving an additional weft in the plain-woven textile. Only a few hand weavers knew how to weave ornaments and compose patterns. The diversity of ornaments created on interwoven fabric depended on the number of loom shafts used. Patterns comprising various geometric figures, such as: squares, rectangles, rhombi, circles or ellipses were made on four-, six- or eight-shaft looms. An exceptional perebora with striped pattern parallel to the weft was a decorative element put on shirt sleeves, skirts, aprons, headgear and traditional towels made with the interweaving technique where four loom shafts, weaving boards and rods were needed. The type of material (linen, hemp, wool, and cotton) and the purpose of fabric (clothes, covers, ornaments) determined the choice of weave that the yarn was made with: plain weave, twill weave, basket weave, satin weave and various combinations of them. The purpose of fabric was also a deciding factor determining the choice of natural dye, which was usually oak bark, alder cone, onion skin, chestnuts, rowanberries, moss and ash. The colors possible to obtain with these ingredients were grey, brown, red, different shares of orange up to brown, navy blue and even black. Nowadays, only a few housewives in the Southern Podlasie region have looms and use them for manufacturing fabric or holding demonstration educational workshops.

Lacemaking

Openwork pattern and artistic values were the most characteristic features of lacemaking ware from the Southern Podlasie region. Material used for making lace was usually cotton or linen thread. There were a lot of lacemaking tech- niques that differed in terms of tools and material necessary to make the lace, and resulted in different look of the ware. The most popular types of lace were: tatting lace (made with a tatting shuttle, needle, and crochet hook for tatting), bobbin lace (made with thread rolled on bobbins and special roll-shaped pil- 232 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

low with the pattern attached to it), needle lace (made with a needle), filet lace (made with a gauge and netting needle) and crochet lace (made with a crochet). Despite the dominating machine lacemaking, its traditional manufacture is still found in many places in the Southern Podlasie region. The qualities of hand work, invention of rural creators, together with the tradition of the region con- tinue to be of interest and attract wide audience.

Pottery

Pottery is one of the oldest handicrafts. It consists in forming pots and every- day items from clay and next baking them. Potters improved the technologies of making their wares for years. Double-chamber kilns appeared with time and pedal potter’s wheels were invented, making it possible to fashion a pot from a single clay piece. Later the material for throwing was prepared mechani- cally and potter’s workshop was the wheel consisting of two discs placed on one vertical axis. After fashioning it on the wheel, the pot was smoothed and decorated. The most frequently used technique of decoration was painting or scribing. It was also possible to impress stamps or use texture rollers to obtain specific patterns. Then the ware was put aside to dry out slowly for about two weeks. The following stage was firing the dried pots in a kiln heated up to about 1,000 degrees Celsius, which lasted for a dozen or so hours. Clayware usually comprised everyday items, such as: pots, bowls, jugs, cans, and double pots; various ornamental elements: statuettes, stoups, and figurines; or toys, like rattles, toy birds and whistles.

Folk ornamentation

Folk ornamentation is a decoration technique that became especially important during holidays and special family celebrations. The desire to make the house and its inhabitants stand out thanks to hand-made decorations was an inspiration for craftsmen to make ornaments adjusted to different periods of the calendar year, various events and family-related occasions. Rural housewives made paper flowers, and crêpe paper and straw spiders that decorated the ceilings. At Easter they arranged palms and made batik painted eggs that served as a decoration on Easter tables, reviving them with all the colors of the rainbow and rich ornamentation. The eggs were prepared with various techniques. The simplest was used to make painted eggs called kraszanki. In order to obtain a uniform color, eggs were boiled in extracts made of herbs, vegetable leaves, and oak bark. They did not have any patterns. It was a common practice in a number of villages to make Easter eggs with the batik technique in which the orna- Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 233 ment was drawn with hot wax so that the dye did not cover the waxed space. They were usually bicolor. Patterns obtained with the use of a funnel resembled twigs, ladders, windmills, apples, bells, braces, and rakes. Later Easter eggs were characterized by symmetry of ornaments and colorfulness. Contemporary ornamentation is becoming less and less traditional, as it refers to the true folk traditions only slightly. Christmas tree decorations and wreaths for harvest fes- tivals were also handmade. Typically, their shape and type of materials used were dictated by rural artists’ imagination. Crêpe paper flowers adorned cottage interiors and also were components of a folk dress worn on special occasions. Sleighs, carriages, and horses were decorated for the time of celebrations, too. The ornaments usually were made of colourful crêpe paper, glossy paper, and cardboard.

The analysis of the authors’ own research

In order to see which of the traditions are cultivated by preschool teachers, we conducted a questionnaire survey amongst 214 teachers of the Siedlce com- mune. The study included preschool teachers from urban and rural areas and public (state-run) and private institutions. Table 1 represents data concerning the said field.

T a b l e 1 Teachers participating in the study Urban Rural Total N = 105 49.07% N = 109 50.93% N = 214 Type of preschool public private public private public private N = 75 35.05% N = 30 14.02% N = 95 44.39% N = 14 6.54% N = 170 79.44% N = 44 20.56%

The data presented in Table 1 show that the study involved 214 teachers, includ- ing 170 working in public (state-run) and 44 in private institutions. Teachers employed in urban preschools constituted 49.07% of respondents, while those working in rural preschools — 50.93%. Both teachers in urban and rural areas were dominated by those who had worked in public kindergartens (71.43% and 87.16% of teachers, respectively). Teachers working in private preschools in the city constituted 28.57% and in the countryside —12.84%. The study involved 213 women (99.53%) and 1 man (0.47%). The correla- tion between gender and age is presented in Table 2. 234 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 2 Age of the surveyed teachers Females Males Age (years) urban rural urban rural N [%] N [%] N [%] N [%] < 20 0 0.00 2 0.93 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 21—30 31 14.49 38 17.76 1 0.47 0.00 0.00 31—40 30 14.02 37 17.29 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 41—50 25 11.68 24 11.21 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 > 50 18 8.41 8 3.74 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 T o t a l 104 48.60 109 50.93 1 0.47 0.00 0.00

Table 2 shows that women aged 21—30 (32.25%) were the most populous group in the study. The second largest group was teachers aged 31—40 (31.31%). The third biggest group comprised teachers aged 41—50 (22.89%). A smaller group was composed of teachers aged 50 and older (12.15%). The smallest percentage of teachers was those under the age of 20 (1.83%). The same age trend was reported both in the case of teachers working in the city and in the case of those employed in the countryside. The only male teacher was between 21 and 30 years old and worked in the city. Teachers taking part in the study represented a variety of education levels.

T a b l e 3 Work experience

Work Female Male experience urban rural urban rural (years) N [%] N [%] N [%] N [%] < 1 2 0.93 3 1.40 0 0.00 0 0.00 1—5 27 12.62 33 15.42 1 0.47 0 0.00 6—10 24 11.22 29 13.55 0 0.00 0 0.00 11—15 10 4.67 12 5.61 0 0.00 0 0.00 16—20 7 3.27 13 6.07 0 0.00 0 0.00 21—25 6 2.80 10 4.67 0 0.00 0 0.00 26—30 14 6.54 4 1.87 0 0.00 0 0.00 31—35 12 5.61 4 1.87 0 0.00 0 0.00 36—40 2 0.93 1 0.47 0 0.00 0 0.00 > 40 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 T o t a l 104 48.60 109 50.93 1 0.47 0 0.00

The data presented in Table 3 demonstrates that teachers working in the teach- ing profession between 1 and 5 years (28.04%) and 6 and 10 years (24.77%) prevailed in the female teacher group. The next largest group was teachers with work experience of 11 to 15 years (10.28%), then 16 to 20 years (9.34%), 21 Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 235 to 25 years (7.47%), 26 to 30 years (8.41%), 31 to 35 (7.48%) and 21 to 25 years (7.47%). The smallest number of teachers working in the profession was those with less than one year of experience (2.33%) and of 36 to 40 years of experience (1.40%). The only man working in preschool had between 1 and 5 years of work experience. The analyzed group of teachers varied in terms of education. The data in this field are presented in Table 4.

T a b l e 4 Level of education Female Male Level of education urban rural urban rural N [%] N [%] N [%] N [%] Higher education (Master’s 88 41.12 93 43.46 0 0.00 0 0.00 degree) Higher education (Bachelor’s 15 7.01 12 5.61 1 0.47 0 0.00 degree) Preschool college 1 0.47 2 0.93 0 0.00 0 0.00 Secondary education 0 0.00 2 0.93 0 0.00 0 0.00 T o t al 104 48.60 109 50.93 1 0.47 0 0.00

The data presented in Table 4 indicate that the most populous group amongst women was teachers with higher education (Master’s degree) (84.58%). In the second place we reported female teachers with Bachelor’s degree (12.62%). The third place was occupied by teachers who completed a college for preschool teachers (1.40%). There were fewer teachers with secondary education level (0.93%) and these were teachers from rural areas only. The trends observed in the case of teachers working in the city and working in the countryside were similar. However, on the one hand, there were more teachers with Master’s degree and graduates of a college for preschool teachers working in the coun- tryside than in the city, while on the other – there were more teachers with Bachelor’s degrees working at preschools in the city than in rural areas. In ad- dition, only in the countryside we reported secondary-school graduates working as teachers. The only male teacher with Bachelor’s degree was employed in preschool as a trainee teacher. Surveyed teachers also varied with regards to their professional rank. The data in this field are displayed in Table 5. 236 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 5 Teacher’s professional rank (degree) Female Male Professional rank (degree) urban rural urban rural N [%] N [%] N [%] N [%] Trainee teacher 16 7.48 20 9.35 1 0.47 0.00 0.00 Contract teacher 28 13.08 40 18.69 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 Appointed teacher 22 10.28 24 11.21 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 Chartered teacher 38 17.76 25 11.68 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 T o t a l 104 48.60 109 50.93 1 0.47 0.00 0.00

The analysis of data presented in Table 5 indicates that the majority of the analyzed teachers (31.77%) were contract teachers. Chartered (or certified) teachers was the second most numerous group (29.44%). The third largest group was composed of appointed teachers (21.49%). The smallest group comprised trainee teachers (16.83%). The only man employed in preschool was a trainee teacher. The first stage of our research involved obtaining information from teach- ers about what holidays, festivities, customs and corresponding traditions and rituals are cultivated in their preschool groups. The results are presented in the Table 6.

T a b l e 6 Holidays, festivals, customs, traditions and rituals organized by surveyed teachers Teachers No. Name of a holiday, festival, or custom urban rural total N [%] N [%] N [%] Holidays and festivals 1 New Year’s Day 53 24.77 45 21.02 98 45.79 2 Epiphany 25 11.68 44 20.56 69 32.24 3 Grandmother’s Day 105 49.07 109 50.93 214 100 4 Grandfather’s Day 102 47.66 109 50.93 211 98.59 5 Valentine’s Day 65 30.37 67 31.31 132 61.68 6 Women’s Day 79 36.92 84 39.25 163 76.17 7 First Day of Spring 105 49.07 109 50.93 214 100 8 Palm Sunday — — 1 0.47 1 0.47 9 Easter 97 45.33 99 46.26 196 91.59 10 Health Service Day — — 3 1.40 3 1.40 11 1 May — Labor Day 19 8.88 34 15.89 53 24.77 12 3 May — Constitution Day 69 32.24 53 24.77 122 57.01 13 Fire-fighter’s Day — — 1 0.47 1 0.47 14 Family Day 67 31.31 61 28.50 128 59.81 15 Mother’s Day 105 49.07 109 50.93 214 100 Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 237

16 Children’s Day 105 49.07 109 50.93 214 100 17 Father’s Day 51 23.83 46 21.50 97 45.33 18 Bread Day — — 2 0.93 2 0.93 19 Kupala Night 1 0.47 6 2.80 7 3.27 20 Baked Potato Day 2 0.93 7 3.27 9 4.20 21 Preschooler’s Day 4 1.87 — — 4 1.87 22 Harvest Festival 3 1.40 13 6.07 16 7.47 23 Teacher’s Day 74 34.58 92 42.99 166 77.57 24 Papal Day 1 0.47 — — 1 0.47 25 Halloween 2 0.93 — — 2 0.93 26 All Saints’ Day 78 36.45 78 36.45 156 72.90 27 Remembrance Day 17 7.94 1 0.47 18 8.42 28 Boy’s Day 51 23.83 58 27.10 109 50.93 29 St. Andrew’s Eve party 90 42.06 94 43.93 184 85.99 30 Miner’s Day — — 1 0.47 1 0.47 31 St. Nicolas’ Day 101 47.20 108 50.47 209 97.67 32 Christmas Eve 95 44.39 109 50.93 204 95.32 33 Christmas 2 0.93 2 0.93 34 Pot Day — — 2 0.93 2 0.93 Customs and traditions 35 Fat Thursday 93 43.46 83 38.76 176 82.22 36 The end of Winter — — 1 0.47 1 0.47 Celebrations 37 Becoming a Preschooler 8 3.74 7 3.27 15 7.01 38 Carrot Day 2 0.93 — — 2 0.93 39 Earth Day 3 1.40 — — 3 1.40 40 Teddy Bear Day 6 2.80 2 0.93 8 3.73 41 End of school year ceremony 2 0.93 — — 2 0.93 42 Birthdays 5 2.34 — — 5 2.34 43 Christmas party — — 2 0.93 2 0.93 44 Preschool Patron’s Day — — 5 2.34 5 2.34 45 All of Poland Reads to Kids — — 2 0.93 2 0.93 campaign 46 Farewell to Preschool Graduates — — 2 0.93 2 0.93 47 Night at Preschool — — 4 1.87 4 1.87 48 Battle of Kałuszyn 1 0.47 — — 1 0.47 49 Regional Traditions 1 0.47 — — 1 0.47 50 Children’s Rights’ Day 1 0.47 — — 1 0.47 51 Tree Day 1 0.47 — 1 0.47 52 Senior Preschooler Appointment — — 1 0.47 1 0.47 Day 238 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

The surveyed teachers listed 53 holidays, customs and celebrations (actions or campaigns), which they observe and implement at work. Based on collected information, it is assumed that in preschool children get to know both the holi- days and festivals of our ancestors and the contemporary ones, and that teachers promote new events. All teachers (100.00%) celebrate the following holidays with children: Grandmother’s Day, First Day of Spring, Children’s Day, and Mother’s Day. Grandfather’s Day (98.59%), St Nicholas’ Day (97.67%), Christ- mas Eve (95.32%), Easter (91.59%), and St Andrew’s Eve party (85.99%), are also greatly popular with teachers. What is more, 82.22% of teachers cultivate festive celebration of Fat Thursday by doughnut (or angel wing) tasting and participating in winter balls and festivities. Amongst the less popular festivals are: Palm Sunday, Epiphany, 1 May Labor Day, Father’s Day, Kupala Night, Baked Potato Day, Harvest Festival, 11 November (Independence Day), Miner’s Day, Christmas. When asked about any other celebrated holiday, tradition or custom, the sur- veyed mentioned the following: Health Service Day, International Fire-fighter Day, Bread Day, Preschooler’s Day, Papal Day, Halloween, Pot Day, Becoming a Preschooler, Carrot Day, Earth Day, Teddy Bear’s Day, End of the School Year Ceremony, children’s birthdays, Christmas party, Preschool Patron’s Day, All of Poland Reads to Kids campaign, farewell to preschool graduates, Night at Preschool, Battle of Kałuszyn, regional traditions, Children’s Rights Day, Tree Day, Becoming a Senior-Year Preschooler. The majority of these celebra- tions are actions or campaigns organized with a specific purpose in mind. Their names indicate that these are either ideas of teachers or inspirations from other countries. Moreover, we can see that the names of different holidays are changed and shortened, that is, made more colloquial. Let us focus on these as an example: Children’s Rights Day, the full name should read as follows — All- Poland Children’s Rights Day, Fire-fighter’s Day, correct name — International Fire-fighter’s Day. Upon the analysis of the collected data we can conclude that these holidays are related to a particular preschool. Thus, we cannot really talk of cultivating traditions in this case. As already indicated in the theoretical part of the study, holidays and festi- vals are associated with traditions, customs and rituals, and the form in which they are implemented. In the tables presented below we can see various methods of implementation of traditions and rituals. Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 239

T a b l e 7 Methods of implementing the New Year’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 53 24.77% N = 45 21.02% Forms of open classes, concerts, competitions, exhibition of works, theater, story- implementation icebreakers/fun team-building, exhibi- telling, conversation, icebreakers/fun tion work, conversation, dances, cos- team-building, plays or performan­ tumes, theater, conversation, storytel­ ces, thematic activities, open classes, ling, thematic activities dances, fancy dress party

Data displayed in Table 7 demonstrate that the New Year’s Day was celebrated by 45.79% of teachers. The analysis of collected data indicates that the most fre- quently enumerated form of implementation of this holiday, both in the city and countryside, were: plays/performances (21.43%), icebreakers/fun team-building (25.52%), balls (23.47%), and exhibitions of works (12.24%). In the case of the holiday in question, it is hard to talk of cherishing traditions related to it because rituals are invented and perfected by teachers themselves, and subject to their creativity and initiative.

T a b l e 8 Methods of implementing the tradition connected with Epiphany Number Urban Rural of teachers N = 25 11.68% N = 44 20.56% Form of Nativity play, an exhibition of creat- dances, show, open classes, theme implementation ing art work, puppet show, followed competitions, participation in the by a discussion about the Three Holy Mass, workshop: Three Kings, Kings, participated in the Retinue art work, talk, icebreakers/fun team- of the Magi, ball, open classes, fun building, conversation, puppet show dance

Date displayed in Table 8 demonstrate that Epiphany was celebrated in pre- schools by 32.24% of teachers. Every one in seventeen respondents said that he or she prepared Nativity play for this festival, one in five — a theatrical play, and one in three teacher — icebreakers/fun team-building. The remaining forms of activity were mentioned sporadically. In comparison with traditions accounted for in subject literature, we can ob- serve that past traditions with regards to this festival continue. For instance, it is common to organize Nativity plays accompanied by a meeting with family and friends, sometimes carolling, participation in Mass or a procession. By reference to the above data, we can clearly notice that analyzed preschools used numer- ous other forms of communicating information about this festival to children. 240 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 9 Methods of implementing the Grandmother’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 105 49.07% N = 109 50.93% Form of open classes, plays or performances, plays or performances, ball, puppet implementation exhibition of works, puppet show, show, feasting, competitions, ice- competitions, ball, icebreakers/fun breakers/fun team-building, exhibition team-building, official gathering with of works, dance activities, children’s the grandmothers, ceremonial pre- performance, snack, making of greet- school jubilee/celebration, concerts, ing cards and gifts, preschool jubilee/ snack, a show of music and poetry, celebration making of greeting cards and gifts

On the basis of data presented in Table 9, we may say that Grandmother’s Day was organized by 100% of teachers. This holiday was started in the 20th cen- tury to honor all grandmas. In Poland, it is celebrated on 21 January. Because it has not been celebrated for long, there are no real traditions yet. New rituals appear, while the already existing ones are perfected. The majority of surveyed teachers (82.24%) are preparing plays or performances. In addition, some teachers (9.81%) organize open classes, whereas others — snacks (6.54%), and greeting cards and gifts (5.61%). The remainder of the forms were mentioned sporadically.

T a b l e 10 Methods of implementing the Grandfather’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 102 47.66% N = 109 50.93% Form of open classes, plays or performances, plays or performances, puppet show, implementation exhibition of works, puppet show, feasting, competitions, icebreakers/ competitions, ball, icebreakers/fun fun team-building, congratulatory team-building, ceremonial preschool cards, open classes, making gifts for jubilee/celebration, a show of music children, poems for grandfather and poetry, sweet snack

Data presented in Table 10 demonstrate that Grandfather’s Day was implement- ed in preschools by 98.59% of teachers. This is a special day to honor grand- fathers and give them one’s best wishes. It might have been borrowed from the USA in the 1980s; thus, it is related to newly created customs. In Poland it is celebrated on 22 January. Surveyed teachers most frequently prepared plays or performances (83.18%), open classes (8.88%), and sweet snacks (5.14%) during which they gave greetings cards or hand-made gifts and presented works of the grandchildren (exhibitions are organized by 4.67% of respondents). Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 241

T a b l e 11 Methods of implementing the Valentine’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 65 30.37% N = 67 31.31% Form of ball, icebreakers/fun team-building, ball, thematic activities, exhibition implementation plays or performances, disco, compe- of works, contest, children dress in titions, open activities, sending Val- something red, games/playing with entine’s cards, exhibition of works, others, an exhibition of creating art making Valentine’s Day gifts, the- work, open activities, making Valen- matic activities, concerts, making tine’s cards, making Valentine’s Day Valentine’s cards gifts, disco, preparation of Valentine’s Day decorations, sending cards, con- test for the most beautiful Valentine, giving Valentine’s card

Valentine’s Day was prepared by 61.68% of teachers (Table 11). Of various forms of celebrations, the most common included: icebreakers/fun team-build- ing (47.72%), exhibitions of works (26.52%), and preparation of Valentine cards or gifts (18.18%). In comparison with international customs, it is evident that the scope of activities is being extended.

T a b l e 12 Methods of implementing the Women’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 79 36.92% N = 84 39.25% Form of plays or performances, concerts, ice- thematic activities, preschool jubilee/ implementation breakers/fun team-building, congratu- celebration, exhibition of works, con- latory cards, exhibition of works, ball, certs, party, trip, gifts, icebreakers/ thematic activities, competitions, open fun team-building, making of greeting activities, wishes for girls cards, open activities, plays or per- formances, competitions, puppet show

As many as 76.17% of surveyed teachers prepared Women’s Day in their pre- school groups. This annual holiday is observed on 8 March, and on this day men offer flowers and gifts to their ladies. In analyzed preschools, the most frequent forms of celebration were: icebreakers/fun team-building (28.22%) and plays or performances (17.79%), and giving greetings cards, gifts and flowers at common meetings (16.67%) (Table 12). 242 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 13 Methods of implementing the First Day of Spring tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 105 49.07% N = 109 50.93% Form of trip, plays or performances, symboli- thematic activities, symbolical drown- implementation cal drowning of a straw figure (mar­ ing of a straw figure (marzanna), zanna), theater, competitions, exhi- plays or performances, theater, open bition of works, outdoor activities, activities, competitions, walking with icebreakers/fun team-building, con- marzanna, icebreakers/fun team- certs, parade, walk with marzanna, building, picnic, making of marzan­ open activities, dressing up in cos- na, children’s performance, exhibition tumes prepared by themselves, snack, of works, campfire, fun and games performances

The entire 100.00% of surveyed teachers celebrate the First Day of Spring to- gether with their pupils on 21 March. More than a half of respondents (50.47%) prefer organizing trips, 20.56% prepare plays or performances, and one in fifteen teachers favors icebreakers/fun team-building (Table 13). On the other hand, one in fifteen teachers organizes an exhibition of children’s works. During trips and walks, 11.21% of teachers prepares and drowns marzanna (a straw figure representing winter, an effigy). These forms have a lot in common with Slavic traditions involving sing- ing, music, and having fun. What is more, the making of the straw figure and throwing it into water continues to symbolize saying farewell to winter and welcoming the advent of spring.

T a b l e 14 Methods of implementing the Easter tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 97 45.33% N = 99 46.26% Form of open activities, plays or performanc- open activities, plays or perform- implementation es, exhibition of works, competitions, ances, exhibition of works, short sto- Easter dinner, icebreakers/fun team- ries, competitions, trip, puppet show, building, fair of Easter decorations, literature regarding tradition, painting exhibition of Easter eggs, thematic eggs, discussion about traditions and activities, painting eggs, puppet show customs, making of Easter decora- tions, participating in Palm Sunday

On the basis of data presented in Table 14, we can say that the Easter theme is undertaken by 91.59% of teachers. Amongst the most frequently conducted activities are exhibition of children’s works (46.43%), including hand-made painted eggs or Easter palms. One in seven teachers conducts a competition of children’s works. One in three respondents prepares an Easter-themed play or performance, while one in seventeen teachers arranges an open class with an active participation of parents. At times, an Easter table with traditional foods Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 243 is prepared. As we can see, some Easter traditions and rituals, such as painting eggs or making Easter palms, are safeguarded in surveyed preschools. But at the same time, traditional techniques are replaced with contemporary ones, for instance eggs are painted with standard watercolors now.

T a b l e 15 Methods of implementing the Labor Day (International Day of Solidarity of the People of Labor), commonly referred to as 1 May — Labor Day Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 19 8.88% N = 34 15.89% Form of open activities, exhibition of works, thematic activities, open activities, implementation conversation, thematic activities, plays creating art works, plays or perform- or performances, trip, creating art ances, conversation, exhibition of work, preschool jubilee/celebration, works puppet show

Data displayed in Table 15 show that the Labor Day was implemented by 24.77% of teachers. Amongst the popular forms of activities chosen by teachers in order to communicate national traditions are plays or performances (24.53%), open classes with participation of parents or an exhibition of children’s works (one in five teachers). It is rare for teachers to prepare formal dresses or meet- ings. In the times of the Polish People’s Republic, it was a tradition to take part in a formal May Day march in the streets of towns and cities. Nowadays, the celebration of this day is not quite as refined.

T a b l e 16 Methods of implementing the 3 May — Constitution Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 69 32.24% N = 53 24.77% Form of plays or performances, preschool ju- thematic activities, plays or per- implementation bilee/celebration, trip, open activities, formances, competitions, visit to exhibition of works, conversation, the monument, exhibition of works, puppet show, competitions, icebreak- children’s performance, flag parade, ers/fun team-building, historical ac- marching with flags, open activities, tivities, thematic activities, a show of conversation, icebreakers/fun team- music and poetry, concerts, making building, historical activities, concerts flags, decorating preschool

The Constitution Day on 3 May was observed by more than a half of re- spondents (57.01%), shaping in children the feeling of nationality and patriotic conduct. The forms of celebrating or preparing children to participate in of- ficial celebrations used by teachers included plays or performances (38.52%), exhibitions of works (20.49%), theme-based activities (11.48%), open classes 244 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

(8.20%) and trips to places of historical interest or monuments (8.20%) (Table 16). At some classes children prepared flags, sang appropriate songs, listened to poems and historical tales. Rituals upheld by surveyed teachers correlate with ceremonies organized by state authorities. Definitely, what is missing are sport competitions which would correspond to the Constitution Race.

T a b l e 17 Methods of implementing the International Family Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 67 31.31% N = 61 28.50% Form of Plays or performances, icebreakers/ Children’s performance, barbecue, implementation fun team-building, children’s perform- open activities, sports competitions ance, exhibition of works, trip, open with parents, campfire, picnic, pup- activities, family picnic, competitions, pet show, plays or performances, puppet show, fun and games with par- ball, trip, competitions, exhibition of ents, outdoor trip, concerts works entitled “My family,” playing and games with parents, icebreakers/ fun team-building

Family Day is a holiday celebrated by 59.81% of surveyed teachers (Table 17). One in three respondents claimed that he or she most often organized family picnics (fetes) including competitions, games, plays, a barbecue or a campfire. The same percentage of teachers used open classes. 22.66% of them favors a play or performance and only slightly less (21.09%) runs competitions. There are also family trips to the countryside (7.03%). In view of the results of the analysis, we can say that rituals related to Family Day have no constant nature and that they depend on teachers’ creativ- ity. The form does not matter here, obviously; what is important is to highlight the meaning of the family and to shape children’s attitudes and the feeling of being a member of the family.

T a b l e 18 Methods of implementing the Mother’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 105 49.07% N = 109 50.93% Form of plays or performances, making cards plays or performances, open activi- implementation and gifts, open activities, theater, ex- ties, exhibition of works, preparing hibition of works, concerts gifts, preschool jubilee/celebration, sweet snack Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 245

Mother’s Day is a holiday organized by all surveyed teachers. On this day 21.3% of teachers organizes plays or performances, and 12.62% — open classes and exhibitions of works. Moreover, 13.55% of respondents prepare gifts together with children (Table 18). It is a day to be cultivated because every child should show love and respect to the person who is near and dear to him or her. Simultaneously, teachers attain the goal of constructing the system of values in children.

T a b l e 19 Methods of implementing the Children’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 105 49.07% N = 109 50.93% Form of concerts, open activities, icebreakers/ open activities, icebreakers/fun team- implementation fun team-building, trip, family picnic, building, competitions, trip, outdoor ball, campfire, snack, plays or per- games and fun, campfire, party, ball, formances, competitions, children’s plays or performances, show, chil- performance, gifts, puppet show, par- dren, family picnic, puppet show, ents theater gifts, sports competitions

It was noted that Children’s Day was celebrated by all researched teachers (Table 19). A popular form of spending time with children mentioned by the respondents was a trip (32.24%) and icebreakers/fun team-building (30.37%), in which parents also participated. An important element of many celebrations is a competition, as indicated by 28.97% of the surveyed. As many as 9.35% of surveyed teachers favor picnics.

T a b l e 20 Methods of implementing the Father’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 51 23.83% N = 46 21.50% Form of plays or performances, open activi- plays or performances, open activities, implementation ties, theater, exhibition of works, con- theater, exhibition of works, preschool certs, making cards and gifts jubilee/celebration, making cards and gifts, sweet snack

The conducted analysis shows that less than a half of the respondents organizes Father’s Day (Table 20). On this day 21.50% of teachers organizes plays or performances, and 31.96% — open classes and exhibitions of works. Moreover, 27.84% of respondents prepare gifts together with children. This day is associ- ated with expressing respect towards the father and hence with the shaping of the feeling of being a part of a family. 246 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 21 Methods of implementing the Kupala Night tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 1 0.47% N = 6 2.80% Form of art works preschool jubilee/celebration and con- implementation certs, trip, art works, plays or per- formances, folk songs and dances, getting to know folk tradition

Data presented in Table 21 demonstrate that Kupala Night tradition was men- tioned in preschools only by 3.27% of teachers. Two respondents (28.57%) wove garlands with children and three respondents (42.86%) organized a “night in preschool.” On the basis of the analyzed statistical data we can conclude that imparting Kupala Night’s traditions is scarce.

T a b l e 22 Methods of implementing the Harvest Festival tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 3 1.40% N = 13 6.07% Form of art works, concerts, trip art works, children’s performance in implementation folk costumes, plays or performances, concerts, getting to know folk tradi- tion

The Harvest Festival was organized by 7.47% of preschool teachers. Tradition- ally, this holiday is celebrated on one of the Sundays in September following the end of the harvest time. Children participate in concerts (25.00%) and plays or performances (18.75%). Furthermore, three teachers (18.75%) prepare per- formances of children in folk costumes and three other teachers declare they prepare children to dance in folk costumes. Two of the surveyed (12.50%) acquaints children with the secrets of this holiday by reading stories about folk traditions (Table 22).

T a b l e 23 Methods of implementing the Teacher’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 74 34.58% N = 92 42.99% Form of plays or performances, preschool plays or performances, preschool jubi- implementation jubilee/celebration, theater, show lee/celebration, theatre, show children, children, art works, open activities, art works, open activities, ball, con- ball, concerts, icebreakers/fun team- certs, icebreakers/fun team-building, building, conversation, recitation of conversation poems, singing songs, performances, making of congratulatory cards Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 247

Teacher’s Day is a holiday celebrated by 77.57% of surveyed teachers (Table 23). As many as 61.54% of respondents take part in a play or performance on this day and 7.83% organizes an open class or school celebrations. Children sing songs, say poems, and give teachers gifts, greeting cards or flowers.

T a b l e 24 Methods of implementing the Baked Potato Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 2 0.93% N = 7 3.27% Form of open activities, field trip singing folk song, preparing potato implementation dishes, fan, competitions

Baked Potato Day is observed by 4.20% of teachers (Table 24). Teachers (55.56%) prepare potato dishes and organize games and plays, while children dress in folk costumes. In the past, potato baking in smouldering fire was a tra- dition that accompanied potato harvest and on many farms a bonfire was built in which freshly picked potatoes were baked.

T a b l e 25 Methods of implementing the All Saints’ Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 78 36.45% N = 78 36.45% Form of plays or performances, open activi- visit to the cemetery, thematic activi- implementation ties, visit to the cemetery, discussion ties, collecting grave candles, discus- about traditions and customs, exhibi- sion about traditions and customs tion of works

Data displayed in Table 25 reveal that All Saints’ Day was celebrated with children by 72.90% of teachers. As many as 73.08% of teachers choose nearby graveyards or cemeteries for a visit with children during which candles are lit, that is, at the tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sometimes children clean selected tombs. Apart from visiting cemeteries, 5.77% of teachers organize an art exhibi- tion regarding this Day and the same percentage talks about cultivated traditions and customs. As many as 7.69% conducts an open class and 8.33% prepares plays or performances.

T a b l e 26 Methods of implementing the National Independence Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 17 7.94% N = 1 0.47% Form of preschool jubilee/celebration, open lighting candles in memory of the implementation activities, a show of music and po- national etry, meeting with veterans, visit to the museum, visit to Piłsudski’s mon- ument 248 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

The analysis of results of the survey, presented in Table 26, indicates that Na- tional Independence Day observed on 11 November is celebrated by 18 teachers (8.41%). Two of those respondents (11.11%) prepare a preschool celebration and two — an assembly, five (27.78%) — an open class, three (16.67%) — a meeting with war veterans, and four (22.22%) — a trip to a Piłsudski monu- ment. One teacher (5.56%) lights candles in the sites of national remembrance and one organizes a trip to a museum.

T a b l e 27 Methods of implementing the Boy’s Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 51 23.83% N = 58 27.10% Form of art works, icebreakers/fun team-build- thematic activities, icebreakers/fun implementation ing, exhibition of works, show, ball, team-building, competitions, party, trip, competitions, thematic activities, making of gifts, giving best wishes, making of greeting cards, making making greeting cards, puppet show, gifts for boys, puppet show, concerts exhibition of works

Boy’s Day is celebrated by 50.93% of teachers. Respondents most often chose the following activities: icebreakers/fun team-building (42.20%), the making of and giving greeting cards, and gifts or greeting boys (31.19%), competitions (26.61%), plays or performances (10.09%), and theme-based classes (7.34%) (Table 27).

T a b l e 28 Methods of implementing the St. Andrew’s Eve party tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 90 42.06% N = 94 43.93% Form of icebreakers/fun team-building, compe- puppet show, ball, snack, telling for- implementation titions, ball, divinations, open activi- tunes, icebreakers/fun team-building, ties, party competitions, plays or performances, open activities, disco

St. Andrew’s Eve party is organized by 85.99% of the surveyed teachers (Ta- ble 28). The majority of the respondents said that they conduct competitions (26.63%), balls (21.20%), icebreakers/fun team-building (20.11%), and St. An- drew’s Eve activities (19.02%) or an open class (8.15%). Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 249

T a b l e 29 Methods of implementing the St. Nicholas’ Day tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 101 47.20% N = 108 50.47% Form of meeting with Saint Nicolas, ice- meeting with Saint Nicolas, open implementation breakers/fun team-building, plays or activities, trip, competitions, ice- performances, exhibition of works, breakers/fun team-building, plays or discussion, ball, gifts, competitions, performances, exhibition of works, concerts, sweet snack, trip, thematic puppet show, gifts, ball activities, puppet show, decorating the Christmas tree, recitation of poems, singing songs

St. Nicholas’ Day is a custom cultivated by 97.67% of the surveyed teachers (Table 29). As many as 83 of the respondents (39.71%) said that in their pre- schools there are meetings with Santa Claus, 42 teachers (20.10%) conduct ice- breakers/fun team-building, 23 (11.00%) organize competitions, and 19 (9.09%) give presents to children. Moreover, a few respondents (8.13%) prepare plays or performances, and 16 (7.66%) exhibitions of children’s works. Some choose games (7.18%), a party (4.78%) or a trip (3.83%). We can see that Old Polish traditions are truly safeguarded and enriched by new customs.

T a b l e 30 Methods of implementing the Christmas Eve tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 95 44.39% N = 109 50.93% Form of plays or performances, puppet show, plays or performances, Nativity play, implementation icebreakers/fun team-building, Nativ- Christmas Eve dinner, singing Christ- ity play, singing Christmas carols, mas carols, open activities, concerts, open activities, exhibition of works, snack, baking gingerbread, puppet discussion, Christmas Eve dinner, show, discussion, drama, decorating concerts, feasting the Christmas tree, making Christmas decorations, making the Christmas tree

Christmas Eve is a holiday celebrated with children by 95.32% of teachers (Table 30). In accordance with the Old Polish tradition, the teachers (44.12%) together with parents prepare Christmas Eve supper, exchange Christmas greet- ings, and sing carols, while others (27.45%) prepare an open class. Meetings are accompanied by an additional repertoire, that is Nativity plays (53.43%). Yet other forms popularized by preschools are: exhibitions of works (10.78%), concerts (4.41%), and little theater performances (3.43%). 250 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 31 Methods of implementing the Fat Thursday tradition Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 93 43.46% N = 83 38.76% Form of ball, disco, play, competitions, group ball, icebreakers/fun team-building, implementation activities, week of fancy dress party disco, play about the Fat Thursday, icebreakers/fun team-building, con- versation, snack

Fat Thursday, or the last Thursday of carnival, was implemented by 82.22% of teachers (Table 31). The majority of them (91.48%) organize balls, while a small percentage (3.41%) holds discos or parties (3.41%). Ten teachers (5.68%) prepared plays or performances, whereas four — competitions (2.27%). During common meetings children can taste doughnuts (pączki) or angel wings (faworki) or potato cakes. Five respondents (2.84%) conduct baking classes at which children bake cookies. The remaining forms of activities are implemented by few of the surveyed teachers.

T a b l e 32 Methods of implementing Teddy Bear’s Day Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 6 2.80% N = 2 0.93% Form of disco, icebreakers/fun team-building, open activities, exhibition of works implementation plays or performances, playing with teddy bear, theater

Teddy Bear’s Day is a contemporary holiday organized by 3.73% of teachers (Table 32). On this day, all children bring their teddy bears to preschool. Re- spondents prepare the following forms of activities for them: games (50.00%), little theater performances (50.00%), exhibitions of works (25.00%), open classes (25.00%).

T a b l e 33 Methods of implementing the Becoming a Preschooler event Number of Urban Rural teachers N = 8 3.74% N = 7 3.27% Form of meeting with parents, icebreakers/fun plays or performances, open activi- implementation team-building, plays or performances, ties, icebreakers/fun team-building verbal and musical performances

Becoming a Preschooler event was organized by 7.01% of teachers (Table 33). All respondents organize meetings with parents which abound in plays or per- formances (53.33%), shows (26.67%), icebreakers/fun team-building (33.33%), open classes (20.00%). Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 251

The surveyed teachers listed even more holidays or events they celebrate in their preschool groups. The collected data may be divided into three main groups: first, those held only in the city; second, those held only in the coun- tryside; and third, those organized by a few teachers. The choice of the form of implementation of a given tradition depends on teachers’ inventiveness. There are no pre-established rules which would apply to the above. Detailed informa- tion is set out in Tables 34, 35, and 36.

T a b l e 34 Festivals, holidays, and celebrations organized only in urban preschools Teachers Form Custom or holiday N [%] of implementation Carrot Day 2 0.93 plays or performances, discussion, dress- ing up in orange costumes, exhibition of works, making carrot juice, baking carrot cake Earth Day 3 1.40 cleaning forests, educational activities, re- search activities, discussion, puppet show, trip Preschooler’s Day 4 1.87 icebreakers/fun team-building, plays or performances, competitions, exhibition of works, open activities Official end of the school year 2 0.93 icebreakers/fun team-building, competi- tions, preparation souvenirs, plays or per- formances Birthdays 5 2.34 preparing snacks, preparing greeting cards Christmas 2 0.93 exhibition of works, open activities, fair, Nativity play, creating art works Halloween 2 0.93 fancy dress party, decorating preschool

T a b l e 35 Festivals, holidays, and celebrations organized only in rural preschools Teachers Custom or holiday Form of implementation N [%] Christmas Party 2 0.93 ball Preschool Patron’s Day 5 2.34 theatre, plays or performances, exhibition of works All of Poland Reads to Chil- 2 0.93 reading books by guests dren campaign Farewell to senior preschoolers 2 0.93 plays or performances, snack Preschool Night 4 1.87 icebreakers/fun team-building, plays or per- formances Health Care Professional Day 3 1.40 a trip to the health centre, gifts Bread Day 2 0,93 folk dancing, exhibition of works Pot Day 2 0,93 exhibition of works, making clay pots 252 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

T a b l e 36 Festivals, holidays, and celebrations organized only by a few teachers Urban Rural form form Custom/holiday custom/holiday of implementation of implementation Battle of Kałuszyn discussion about World The End of Winter icebreakers/fun team- War Two, exhibition of building photographs Regional Traditions legends, handicraft, Senior Preschooler plays or performances, exhibition of works, appointment Day icebreakers/fun team- trip building Papal Day discussion, visit to the Fire-fighter’s Day trips, gifts monument Children’s Rights Day open activities, art Miner’s Day meeting with a miner, works snack Tree Day a show of music and Palm Sunday participation in the poetry, meeting with mass an ecologist

Conclusions

Festivals, holidays, and related traditions are an inherent part of the national dialogue. It is thanks to these customs that we can get to know each other, be a part of our nation and able to identify ourselves. Patterns and norms of be- havior passed from one generation to another may be treated as a code. When preparing children for social communication, it is vital to implement them in their everyday lives marked with tradition. In the study outcomes presented in the empirical part of this research re- garding the cultivation of Old Polish traditions in the Siedlce commune; one can see some regularities, which may be summarized as follows: —— teachers cultivate mainly the following festivals and holidays: St. Andrew’s Eve party, St. Nicholas’ Day, Christmas Eve (Christmas), New Year’s Day, Epiphany, Fat Thursday, First Day of Spring, Easter, 3 May — Constitution Day, All Saints’ Day; —— when organizing celebrations or ceremonies associated with above holidays and festivals, teachers refer to some Old Polish traditions and implement new forms of activities; —— typically, preschools organize holiday theme-based plays/performances (lit- tle theater performances), icebreakers/fun team-building, open classes for parents, fortune-telling, exhibitions of children’s works (some of the works are related to traditional folk adornment, such as painted eggs, Easter palms, Cultivation of festivals, holidays, and cultural traditions by preschool teachers… 253

ornaments made for fairs), picnics and fetes with barbecues (or rarely bon- fires) —— children learn the tradition of giving presents, greeting cards, and flowers on certain occasions; —— children find out how to give somebody best wishes and how to use related forms of address; —— there is a growing tendency of cultivating holidays initiated in the 20th century, the majority of which came from across the ocean; —— both teachers in the city and in the countryside take part in the organiza- tion of celebrations which are not holidays but rather actions or campaigns; —— occasionally, children are introduced into the world of folk dances and tra- ditional costumes; more often, they learn Old Polish songs; —— no interest in teaching children weaving or lacemaking was observed; —— two rural teachers organize classes referring to the pottery tradition; —— teachers do not initiate children into the mysteries of herbalizm; —— holidays such as Health Care Day, International Fire-fighter’s Day, and Miner’s Day are vanishing; —— neither age nor seniority affects the choice of festivals and traditions to celebrate. All in all, it would be worthwhile to shape the feeling of national identity in the young generation. Despite their future place of living and accomplishing professional and personal goals, they should be aware of their identity. Cer- tainly, it is not possible without knowing the festivals of one’s ancestors and related traditions. Preschool age is a great moment to start this ritual, as children already have some knowledge about holidays imparted by their families. This may be used to introduce more extensive information. But it will prove impos- sible without well-prepared teachers, who should first acquire corresponding knowledge and skills themselves, and next develop a curriculum containing suitable contents.

References

Grabowski, I., Baruch, B., & Domański, R. (2013). Twórczość ludowa na Południowym Podlasiu. Tkactwo, koronkarstwo, garncarstwo, zdobnictwo ludowe. Warszawa: Fundacja Wspomagania Wsi. Kalinowski, P. (1998). „Hej, Jana, Jana bandziemy chwolić…,” czyli noc świętojańska. In K. Braun (Ed.), Zapisane w pamięci. Opowieści o polskiej kulturze ludowej (p. 74). War­ szawa: Wyd. Didasko. Księżopolska, W. (2012). „Herody” i „Krakowskie wesele” Gręzów, gm. Kotuń. Siedlce: CKiS- ST-MR. 254 Anna Klim-Klimaszewska, Ewa Jagiełło

Księżopolska, W. (2012). Tradycje wielkanocne w Karczach. Siedlce: CKiS-STMS-MR. Księżopolska, W. (2014). Tradycje wielkanocne w Trzcińcu. Siedlce: CKiS-STMS-MR. Ogrodowska, B. (2001). Zwyczaje, obrzędy i tradycje w Polsce. Mały słownik. Warszawa: Verbinum. Perzanowski, A. (1998). Wielkanoc. In K. Braun (Ed.), Zapisane w pamięci. Opowieści o polskiej kulturze ludowej. Warszawa: Wyd. Didasko. Zoltán Roszik The Museum of Szarvas, Hungary

Education in Szarvas

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to present the development of education in the region of Szarvas, Hungary. The article, therefore, attempts to outline the structure of the educational system and its evolution over the centuries from the historical perspective. It also focuses on the importance of providing young people with an opportunity to gain knowledge and to appreciate it as in the past it was a luxurious and rare “commodity.” Keywords: education, literacy, development of the system of education

Introduction

People have paid a lot of attention to education since very early times. Most of them learnt some kind of trade, however, only the privileged had the op- portunity to study sciences, the knowledge of which elevated them in their communities. In the beginning, the knowledge they acquired spread from one man to another, later it spread by means of the written records. The knowledge of the written word made literate people distinguish themselves from others. Writing was the means through which people were able to pass on their observations and knowledge to future generations. That is why for a long time they kept this knowledge in secret, however, when states emerged, administra- tion escalated, which increased a tendency to expand the capacity in reading and writing. First, literacy spread on a large scale among free citizens of the ancient Greek cities, thus it ceased to be the competence of the privileged ones. There were no constrains to education except for their financial situation, which rendered it possible that knowledge spread among wider circles of people and eventually it became available to anyone. 256 Zoltán Roszik

This made the development of the Greek cities and their surroundings pos- sible. This kind of methodology characterized the Roman Empire too, which let education become general in the colonized regions. The emergence of Christian- ity and the decline of the Roman Empire happened at the same time. Years from now this knowledge was only available to the clergy, however, in most cases they made use of it while interpreting religious texts. From the 11th century, the number of literate people started to rise. Crusades and com- merce resulted in the dissemination of knowledge. This paved the way for humanism and rationalism. At that time, Christianity was not only a religion but a cultural circle based on Judaism, Greek philosophy, and the state theory of the Roman Empire. With the dissemination of knowledge and sciences the number of those who considered the development of education important also increased, which made the leaders of the countries realize that through education stronger economies can be built and wealthier empires can be maintained. Education, which was previously the privilege of the elites, gradually became the most important undertaking of the state.

Development of education in Hungary

Education is one of the most important concerns related to our children’s future. For this reason, it is important for all parents to provide their children with excellent education, however, the state performs a fundamental role in it. The unified state education system in Hungary emerged in 1777 with the concomitant passing of the law Ratio Educationis formulated by Maria Theresa. Until that time, education was organized only within the framework of the church. Earlier, Protestantism — which initially spread among the liter- ate — served a prominent role. As a reaction to that, Catholics also put much effort into education. Universities came to be founded in many places, which somehow also unveiled the power of religion. These universities established fine reputation (and are still regarded as such), because they not only taught religion, but they also achieved significant accomplishments in sciences. In Hungary, first colleges were formed in Sárospatak, Debrecen, Nagyenyed, and the university in Nagyszombat was founded. The decree of Maria Theresa tried to unite dif- ferent educational methodologies in order to make them all serve the state. Ratio Educationis is a short name of the decree which was forwarded by Maria Theresa in 1777. The name of the printed version was: Ratio Educationis totiusque Rei Literariae per Regnum Hungariae et Provincias eidem adnexas. Tomus I. Vindobonae. Typis Joan. Thom. Nob. de Trattnern. MDCCLXXVII. Education in Szarvas 257

Historically, it was a prominent law, because the state could exert control over education, which earlier had belonged to the church. As long as schools served the state, the monarch was empowered to reform them and thus decided upon the whole system of education. The law had a centralizing goal; it defined the timetable for all the types of teaching. Ratio Educationis stated that the Crown had control over all the educational issues in Hungary, the Royal Council in the Slavic region, and the Hungar- ian chancellery in Croatia. Nine educational districts were established in 1776 which, form that time on, were responsible for controlling education. József Ürményi, advisor of chancellery, and Dániel Tersztyánszky, were the creators of the new educational system. The structure of the system of educa- tion was the following: elementary school (four years), lower high school (three years), upper high school (five years), academy (two years), and university (four years). Education was important for the local Lutheran Slovakian community in Szarvas in 1722. Ratio Educationis (the law 1790/1. XXVI) allowed protestants to establish schools.

History of education in Szarvas

In 1722 there were Lutheran Slovaks who settled down in Szarvas. The squire of the territory was János György Harruckern, who populated his territory with people of the same religion, because, in this way, they could live and work together with no religious arguments and earn money for him. In the begin- ning, the region was poor but after some time people grew in strength. In 1970, Mátyás Markovitz (Lutheran ministerial) brought a change to Szarvas. The knowledge and work of Samuel Tessedik changed the life of Szarvas to a great extent. Religion and reforms within social life were equally impor- tant for him. He thought that if people could go to church less frequently and work more, they could certainly improve their life. When he went to Germany he got to know the economic, healthcare, educational, and town structure sys- tems, and he transplanted these observations onto the Hungarian ground. Apart from Tessedik’s educational work, he changed the structure of the city and tried to change the citizens’ attitude toward health, and, what is more, wanted everybody to become familiar with the most up-to-date means of production. Tessedik is known to have established a school for people in order to teach them these new methods. Also, Tessedik changed the structure of the city into a kind of chess table pattern to make it more transparent, an example of which he could see when 258 Zoltán Roszik map of Szarvas, 1801 (courtesy of the Samuel Tessedik Museum in Szarvas)

Phot. 1. A Education in Szarvas 259 he was abroad earlier. Friedrich II established these types of cities after the seven-year war between 1756 and 1763 (Phot. 1). Samuel Tessedik was the person whose hard work and strong will brought about a high level of education in Szarvas. He established his first school in 1779, in which small trade, handicrafts, and agriculture were taught alongside with basic knowledge. The school Tessedik established was unique to this extent that education was provided not only to men, as it was customary at the time, but also to women, who could learn skills at weaving and spinning, taught by his wife. Women could also find teachings about marriage. In 1790, Tessedik built the Old Lutheran Church of Szarvas and in 1971 a school too, both still standing.

Phot. 2. The Museum of Szarvas (courtesy of the Samuel Tessedik Museum in Szarvas)

Tessedik made great efforts to manage his school; however, he was not able to complete his work due to financial difficulties and general disagree- ment. Although Tessedik was honored by the government and became a highly respected figure throughout the country, local people needed a Latin gram- mar school. Thus, his school had to be closed in 1806 and a Latin Secondary Grammar School was established in Mezőberény. Its first director was András Skolka, who started teaching with his two colleagues. There were twenty-two students at that time. 260 Zoltán Roszik The development of education

After Samuel Tessedik’s school was closed, education in folk schools developed on a large scale. In 1814 there were five teachers of the church who ran folk schools which then had 1329 students, thus one teacher had 265 students. In 1840 the number of such schools grew to seven. That year a compulsory six-year-long elementary education was introduced. During the first three years, the students had to learn Slovakian and Hungarian, maths, writing, singing, and natural sciences. During the consecutive three years, they also learnt history, healthcare, and the geography of Hungary. The next level, three-year long period of education was the following: dur- ing the first year of study students were offered classes in history, healthcare, and the geography of Hungary. The second-year students gained knowledge of ethics, the history of Hungary, geography, and economics, whereas the third- year students were educated in the history of church, geography, and law. At that time a total number of 1555 students continued their education in this type of school. Nonetheless, high school in Mezőberény constantly contended with finan- cial problems, which was the reason why the priests and citizens who supported the establishment of the same type of school in Szarvas appealed for help to earl József Bolza. In consequence, Józef Bolza, his sister Antónia Bolza, who was the wife to earl István Batthyány, Jozsefa Schröffl Mansberg, the wife to Vilmos Mittrovszky, donated 305 acres of land, two mills, and eight house estates to establish a school; however, on one and only condition — teaching had to be done in Hungarian language. In the autumn of 1834, the school founded by Samuel Tessedik was able to renew its activity and thus started educating students in Szarvas, which has continued till this day. In spite of financial problems, which prolonged for al- most ten years, the school became one of the best schools in Hungary within a few years. This changed in 1843, when Péter Vajda became the director. Initially, the institution educated between 130 and 160 students whose number decreased under 100 and started increasing after the year 1843. Its fame and popularity can be attributed to the teachers and the director of the school. The building where classes were held was the same one which had been established by Tessedik. However, it was rebuilt in 1872, and due to the increasing number of students, this building finally occurred too small, hence a new one was erected in 1905 and finished in October 1906. The Teacher Training Institution was situated in the older building, which operated there until 1959. The development of education in the city continued with the opening of the Teacher Training Institution in 1872. This institution, however, developed Education in Szarvas 261 from high school and established college education on its basis. The institution operates today as the Teacher and Kindergarten Teacher Training College. The heritage of Tessedik was retrieved in 1927 when the secondary level degree School of Economics was established. It provided courses of study between 1927 and 1944, and in the years 1945 and 1965 it functioned as an Agricultural Educational Institution. In 1960 it started to work with nearly the same courses but on a higher level. In 1970, the Agricultural University of Debrecen replaced the School of Economics, whose focus was on the methodology of plant production and ir- rigation. The number of the students was nearly the same until the year 1990. In 1992, environmental management was introduced to the course of studies, which in fact increased the number of students. Since the year 2000 the col- lege has been called Samuel Tessedik College, which is home to the Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Management. The year 2009 brought changes in the life of the college. It received funds from the Szent István University, thus it could work as the Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Management of the University of Gödöllö. In Szarvas, the teaching of the Slovakian language and culture started in the academic year of 1949/1950. The purpose was to spread and communicate the knowledge of the Slovakian culture and language to younger generations. Nowadays, owing to the efforts and faith of the citizens, Szarvas is home to four elementary schools, one vocational school, high school, and two colleges. Without its citizens, their strong will and cultivated traditions, education would possibly not have prevailed in Szarvas, bearing in mind the decreasing number of children and students at these institutions.

References

Ferenc, K., & Pécsváradi, A. (2002). A szarvasi Vajda Péter Gimnázium és Szakközépiskola Jubileumi Emlékkönyve 1802—2002. Szarvas: Megánkiadás. Gyula, B. (1985). A Szarvasi Főgymnázium története 1802—1895 8.o. Gyoma. Pál, M. (1962). Szarvas története. (unknown binding).

Wo b s i t e s http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio_Educationis2015.II.3. Accessed 5.02.2015. http://gfk.tsf.hu/docs/szervezet/135. Accessed 5.02.2015. http://www.szlovak-szarvas.sulinet.hu/.Accessed 6.02.2015.

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