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This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Aligners, Lovers and Deceptors: Aspirations and strategies of young urban hustlers in the Gambia Ismaila Ceesay PhD in African Studies University of Edinburgh 2016 i Declaration I declare that this thesis has been composed by me solely. It is based on results culminating from my own work except where I have explicitly indicated. It has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. ……………………………………………. Ismaila Ceesay ii Abstract This study investigates young Gambians’ social and economic aspirations. It considers how young Gambians’ aspirations are shaped and negotiated, and the strategies they employ to achieve their objectives. Whilst existing research tends to view young Gambians’ social and economic advancement through a lens of international migration, this study focuses on the aspirations and strategies of those who find themselves in a state of ‘involuntary immobility’ – that is, an aspiration to migrate but the inability to do so. The study looks at how two groups of young urban Gambians from low socio-economic backgrounds pursue local livelihoods. Known as ‘beach hustlers’ and ‘chanters’, these youths take advantage of the resources of the tourism sector and of opportunities provided by information and communication technologies (ICT) in an attempt to fulfil their aspirations. Drawing on data collected from multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork conducted between 2013 and 2014 in Kololi, the country’s main tourism hotspot on the shore of the Atlantic Ocean, and Brikama, where internet use in cybercafés has rapidly grown over the past two decades, I use the cases of ‘beach hustlers’ and ‘chanters’ (cyber hustlers) to shed light on the life-trajectories of young Gambians. I discuss how ‘beach hustlers’ take advantage of the Gambia’s booming tourism industry by engaging in diverse informal economic activities. I then consider how ‘chanters’ accumulate wealth by employing various methods and ruses in their interactions with toubabs (white westerners) through internet-mediated encounters. This study shows that the majority of young Gambians who find it increasingly difficult to migrate to the West pursue local livelihoods to fulfil their aspirations of social and economic advancement. The aspirations and strategies of the hustlers in this study are shaped and influenced by intervening social, cultural and religious obligations and expectations. The study argues that the formation of Gambian hustlers’ aspirations is the result of an interplay between familial and societal dynamics; such as generational and gender relations and reciprocal social exchange, and personal desires of upward social mobility. The study further shows that the strategies young Gambians employ are influenced by the structural constraints and opportunities that appear in specific space–time conditions. By doing so, this study contributes to the literature on the aspirations of urban youths in developing countries and the strategies they employ to achieve them, and how young people experience and respond to conditions of ‘involuntary immobility’. iii Acknowledgements Alhamdulillahi Rabbil Alameen, Alhamdulillahi Rabbil Alameen, Alhamdulillahi Rabbil Alameen. All Praise to ALLAH S.W.T, the Almighty, for giving me the strength, the chance, the good health and the endurance to complete this study. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Tom Molony and Dr. Jose Maria Munoz at the University of Edinburgh, for their time, generous and unflinching guidance and support, patience and encouragement throughout this long PhD journey that culminated into this thesis. Jose’s impeccable attention to detail and coherence of argument has been priceless, and Tom has not only enthused me to push the boundaries of my research and think about broader theoretical issues and to always consider my theoretical contributions, but also provided brotherly support, advice and confidence at a time of my PhD journey when I nearly gave up. This thesis would not have been possible without their enduring intellectual and moral support. I would also take the opportunity to thank a few people in the Centre of African Studies (CAS) for their support, both intellectual and moral. I thank Maggie Dwyer for proofreading drafts of my thesis and providing useful comments, Sam Spiegel for his advice and encouragement, Barbara Bompani for her empathy and for being a good listener and Mabutho Shangase for being a friend and a brother. Thanks also to Nikki Dunne, Martina Karels, Mor Kandlik Eltanani, Peter Yates, Megan canning and Khuloud Alsaba for sharing their views, books, teas, sweets, biscuits and office space with me. I am grateful to Mary Hanlon for always being willing to help me out with technical stuff. My intellectual and moral debts transcend the boundaries of Edinburgh University and I am indebted to Professor Pierre Gomez and other colleagues at the University of the Gambia for their constant belief in me. In Kololi and Brikama, the list of people I wish to thank seems endless. I am indebted to all the men and women along the beaches and in cybercafés who sacrificed their valuable time talking to me about their lives, aspirations and hustling strategies. It is unfortunate that my commitment to preserving your anonymity prevents me from mentioning any of you by name. However, be certain that I am deeply and sincerely grateful for all the support you rendered me when I was in the field. I can never be able to repay your generosity and kindness. I apologise and take full responsibility for any errors, misrepresentations and omissions this thesis may contain. Especially, I thank Lamin Fatty, Sait Matty Jaw, Zill Mendy, Alkali and all the cybercafé iv operators and customers for their patience and for putting up with my presence. I also thank the staff at GAMTEL, Gambia Tourism Board, Gambia Hotel Association, Operation No Back Way to Europe and the Tourism Security Unit for all the support, time and accommodation. In particular, I thank Mr. Max Jonga of PURA for always ready to share his knowledge despite his ill-health and Dr. Njogu Bah for his assistance during the early stages of my PhD. My family have been eternally supportive and must be thanked for their patience, understanding and support. A special dedication to my father, the late Mr. Ebou Ceesay for instilling in me the virtues of being a Gambian and an African, and my mother, Mrs Haddy Conteh Ceesay, whose wisdom and desire to share knowledge I have inherited. My sincere gratitude and appreciation also goes to my sisters Mai, Mama, Jarai, Sina, and my brother Pa Modou. My greatest debt, of course, is owed to Yassine, my wife, for allowing me to be away from home for longer periods and taking care of the children without complaining. Last, but by no means least, I would like to thank my friends outside academia for continually giving me their moral and spiritual support. This thesis is dedicated to all the women who sell fruits and other items along the beaches to feed their families. v Glossary1 Attaya – Chinese green tea served with lots of sugar (M) Babylon – The emic name for western countries like the UK, US and other European countries. Mostly used by young people. (E) Barako – Blessing (M, A) Bitique – local shop selling small items from behind a wire screen (F) Depaas – Daily food allowance (F) Duwa – Supplications (M) Gele Gele – Commercial minibus (W) Grand palace – Places where young people congregate to socialise and past time. (F) Haftaan – A full-dress, ankle-length, long-sleeve religious and traditional clothing worn by Gambian men (W) Haram – Sinful (A) Koriteh – Muslin celebration to mark the end of fasting or Ramadan (W) Mbalax – popular form of Senegambian music (W) Mbaran – Having multiple partners for financial and material gain (W) Mo Barakalingo – A blessed person (M) Mo barakatango – A person with no blessing (M) Morro – spiritual leader (M) 1 The use of an ‘M’ and ‘W’ indicates that the word is in Mandinka and/or Wollof. ‘E’ and ‘F’ indicates that the word has English and French origins, respectively. ‘A’ indicates that the word has Arab origins. vi Nawetaan – seasonal football tournament played during the rainy season (W) Nerves – The psycho-social condition of wanting to migrate without the ability to do so (E) Semester – A returning migrant (E) Tobaski – Islamic feast where a lamb is slaughtered (W) Toubab – A white westerner (W, M) vii List of Abbreviations ACE – Africa Coast to Europe AFPRC – Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council APRC – Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Reconstruction CFA – Communauté Financiére Africaine DOSCIIT – Department of State for Communications, Information and Information technology. ERP – Economic Recovery Programme GAMCEL – Gambia Cellular Company GAMTEL – Gambia Telecommunications Company GBOS – Gambia Bureau of Statistics GDP – Gross Domestic Product GNA – Gambian National Army GoG – Government of the Gambia GTA – Gambia Tourism Authority GTB – Gambia Tourism Board ICT – Information and Communication Technology IMF – International Monetary Fund ISP – Internet Service Provider ITO – International Tourism Organisation MOBSE – Ministry of Basic and Secondary Education viii NAWEC – National Water and Electricity Company NIA – National Intelligence Agency NICI – National Information and Communication Infrastructure.
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