The Transnational Experience Watch Out, is Back by Colin Bearup

ufism, once dismissed as doomed to fade away, is reviving and playing an increasing role in 21st century . The resurgence is particularly visible in the West, but it’s a global phenomenon changing the context Sin which Christian mission operates. Sufism in New Soil

“My spiritual guide is Siddiqui,” said Shabza. I was sitting at a com- munity event in a British talking to a young Muslim woman, aged about 30, smartly but conservatively dressed. She was there with fellow school teachers, half of whom, like her, were of Pakistani heritage. The others were white English. As a student of current developments among Sufis in the West, I knew exactly what she was talking about. Abdul Wahab Siddiqui, a member of the Hijazi order of the Naqshbandiya, arrived in the UK in 1972 from and built a following among the Asian settlers in Coventry.1 His movement built the very first Sufi tomb on British soil and he is now buried there.

Siddiqui’s plan was not simply to replicate the tomb cults of Pakistan. He was deeply aware that for Islam to really take root in the UK it would require a credibility beyond ethnic boundaries and with those who have passed through higher education. He had not only trained his four sons in Islam and Sufism, but he also put them through secular universities. While the mortal remains of other Muslim leaders had traditionally been repatriated to Pakistan, he intentionally prepared a tomb for himself in Nuneaton, , where he was eventually buried in 1994.2 His sons carry on his work today. This group therefore has the distinction of having the first Sufi tomb in the UK and the Colin Bearup has served with WEC in Chad since 1986. He led the firstsajjada nashin (saintly family) born and educated in Britain. translation of the first New Testa- ment in the Chadian dialect of Siddiqui’s vision was for a Muslim community in the UK led by university- and is author of Keys, Unlocking the educated Islamic scholars, fully instructed both in shari’a (Islamic law) and Gospel for Muslims. He is currently ministering in the UK among Mus- in Sufism. This would give them authority to address the challenges of life in lims of Pakistani background. Britain as authentically British Muslims. In 1982, he set up the first British

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 36:1 Spring 2019•11 12 Watch Out, Sufism is Back pro-Sufi Islamic theological seminary.3 Muslim thinkers such as Mawdudi, Knowing Islam Here, in contrast to many traditional al-Banna and had also described In some places, Islam is haemorrhaging institutions, the diversity of Muslim much of what came under the label and the disillusioned are seeking other beliefs and practices would be ex- of Sufism as decadent, dated and options. Violent jihadists discredit the 11 plored. He went on to found a college doomed. In Turkey, Ataturk saw the reformist/fundamentalist agenda again that combined secular academic sub- abolition of the Sufi orders as a neces- 4 and again. One result we see is Mus- jects with traditional Islamic subjects. sary step to enabling Turkey to take its lims turning to Christ, and another is 12 His vision was ultimately to found a place in the modern world. Muslims turning to atheism. Still an- university teaching both secular and For about 200 years now, anti-Sufi other is the revival of a more spiritual religious subjects. The university was Islam, Sufism. With all this turbu- 5 reformists have been a powerful voice opened after his death. The project lence, it might be argued that there is continues, and the first functioning in the Islamic world. Most Christian writings about Islam confine Sufism less need for Christians to possess a shari’a council started operations at detailed knowledge of Islam. In recent the college in the mid-2000s.6 to a sidebar, an anomaly, to be men- tioned in passing. However, Sufism years there has been a noticeable shift away from mastering Islamic thought The Significance for Today still pervades the . The most visible forms were at the populist with a view to refuting it. Much more emphasis has gone into better ways of and Tomorrow and decadent end of the spectrum, presenting Christ and returning to ba- What has all this to do with us? Prom- but the sincere, scholarly, and dynamic sic discipleship practices. While there inent Muslim scholar and thinker, Dr. is much to be said for these better Tariq Ramadan wrote: practices, Islam is not going away. It is Western Muslims will play a decisive role in the evolution of Islam world- adapting and a whole Sufi dimension wide because of the nature and com- In some places, is becoming prominent—a dimension plexity of the challenges they face.7 with which Christians have historically Islam is never engaged. In a day of extraordinary global com- It will always be the case that the more munication networks and the rise of haemorrhaging we understand where people are com- modern cities throughout the Muslim ing from, the better our communica- world, the pioneering developments and the disillusioned tion will be. It is essential that we are led by Muslims in the West are likely are seeking able to gauge how our message is inter- to have greater significance all around preted. Many of our workers base their the world. other options. understanding of Islam and Muslims Most Christian writers have little to on stereotypical models that are in- say about Sufism. That magnificent creasingly outdated. These days, with so tome, Encountering the World of Islam elements have always been present much more Islamic activity conducted (EWI), gives it only four pages and as well. Now the tide has turned. online and in English, we are able to a few passing references.8 “Sufism,” Sufi are holding conferences learn a great deal about how Muslims wrote Arberry in 1950, “has run its attended by thousands in Western understand the world they live in. course.”9 Trimingham concluded his universities. International conventions detailed survey of the Sufi orders around the world are bringing together Love and Assurance Sufi leaders from many different coun- through the ages by saying “the orders Consider this. There is a popular Sufi tries. Western converts of the highest are declining everywhere . . . less by song14 that is going around the world. level of scholarship are translating an- defection than because the young have The first verse runs, not been joining.”10 Western scholars cient Sufi texts into English and mak- The love of and his fam- ing them accessible through English to of the 19th and early 20th centuries ily/Is my true religion my reason to be/ regarded Sufism as a hopelessly out- Muslims around the world. The head And if when I die my sins are too many/ dated phenomenon doomed to wither of Islam’s most prestigious university, The love of Muhammad will rescue me. away, only temporarily sustained by the Egyptian Ahmed el-Tayeb, is a Sufi.13 superstitious illiterate masses and the I was recently in Turkey and asked a Among the first things I was told unscrupulous charlatans that exploited friend what a student-aged young man about Islam as a new worker is that them. The conviction that the day of would do if he decided to get seri- Muslims have a religion but no Sufism was well and truly over was not ous about Islam. The answer was, “He saviour, that there is no love in Islam exclusive to Western observers. Major would join a tariqat”—a Sufi order. and that Islam is a religion of works

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Colin Bearup 13 such that Muslims can have no as- surance. The reality is actually much or them Muhammad is no mere mortal, but more complex, and we do ourselves existed as a created light before creation and is no favour by dismissing the words of still present today. this hymn as some kind of obscure F anomaly. It actually reflects ancient and Occultism were rebut- across whole societies.22 There is really traditions now made accessible to us. ted with great effect in the mid-1990s no clean line of demarcation between Sufism has many expressions and all by the emergence in the public sphere Sufi and non-Sufi. At any one time are concerned with the interior life in of Sheikhs Nuh Keller, Tim Winter the number of recognised saints in addition to the exterior. Sufis assert and Hamza Yusuf. These three were all the inner circles is very small, but the that Islam consists of not only , white Western converts to Islam, fluent number of those committed to a Sufi the beliefs, and deen, the “Pillars,” the in classical Arabic, who had been study- understanding of the world is much outward religious obligations, but also ing ancient Islamic texts in the Middle greater. Furthermore, it is not possible ihsaan, the perfection of faith.15 They East and learning from Sufi masters in to quantify the number of people who assert it is possible to draw nearer places like Morocco, Syria and Ye- believe that Sufism is a valid world- to God through the application of men. While by no means affirming view but who at the same time may disciplines and the tutelage of a master. every local practice found in folk Islam, hold conflicting views. Anthropologist They believe that a few attain such an they confirmed the Sufi worldview as Katherine Ewing’s interaction with authentic and defensible from ancient highly educated secular Pakistanis is exalted status that they become awliya 19 (singular ) usually translated saints, Arabic sources. In the last twenty indicative. She documents how in both able to interact with the unseen world, years, a spectrum of leaders representing Pakistan and in the West, Muslims to communicate with departed saints different expressions of Sufism around who could speak in a cool and dismis- and with Muhammad himself. For the globe, upholding high standards of sive way about Sufism in their profes- them, Muhammad is not a mere scholarship and a conservative view of sional context would suddenly change mortal, dead and buried. Rather he shari’a, have been collaborating to raise their demeanour when encountering the credibility of Sufism under the ban- the suggestion of an authentic spiritual existed as a created light before the rest 20 23 of creation and is still present today. ner of “Traditional Islam.” Far from experience. All this is not to claim This makes for a living religion. While seeing themselves as some kind of aber- that Sufism is universally recognised affirming that revelation has ceased, ration, they see themselves as the truly as valid among Muslims; rather it is to they claim that the revelation opened orthodox. As Sheikh Hakim affirm that Sufism is present in most the door to live communication with Murad (birth name Tim Winter) puts contexts at least to some degree, and it it, “If all Muslims were Sufis, all people is not possible to divide people simply the divine. A living Yemeni Sufi master 21 24 with an international following, Sheikh would be Muslim.” into Sufi and non-Sufi. Umar bin puts it this way: Someone who does not know that How Big a Footprint? Sufism and the Secular World Muhammad is alive is dead. When How extensive is Sufism? Such a ques- Siddiqui is not alone in seeking to someone knows that Muhammad is tion usually expects a statistical answer, integrate Sufi spirituality with secular 16 alive his heart comes to life. but mere numbers will not help us. education. The preoccupation with edu- Secular academic Ron Geaves help- cation and the necessity of uniting both His colleague Habib al-Jifri fully describes Sufi Islam as a set of scholarly and mystical Islam is also declares: “The prophet is a means concentric circles with saints (both liv- found in movements like Minhaj-ul- through which we connect to and 17 ing and dead) at the centre; committed International (MQI), founded come to know .” disciples (mureeds) forming a small by Dr. ul-Qadri. Although Christian workers have inner circle; people who believe in a Now based in Canada, Qadri grew generally been taught to agree with saint but have not themselves set out up in Pakistan, trained in Islamic law the Islamic fundamentalist view that on the Sufi path forming a much wid- and became active in political life. He such expressions of Islam are deviant er circle; and, then, the general public adopted the call to revival espoused by and corrupt,18 there are serious Islamic who share this worldview but are not the reformist movements but retained scholars who see things quite differ- affiliated. This latter broad fringe of a commitment to Sufi spirituality.25 ently. In the UK, the relentless accusa- affiliates may come to the saint or Initially he preferred to be known by tions made by reformist Muslims that tomb in times of need or, nowadays, the title of doctor or professor rather the traditional Sufi-type Islam of South may consult Sufi sheikhs via online than the title maulvi traditionally ac- Asia is hopelessly contaminated with platforms. This outer circle can extend corded to Muslim clerics. This reflected

36:1 Spring 2019 14 Watch Out, Sufism is Back his zeal to embrace the modern world, Implications for Ministry It may be that the reason Evangeli- especially education, in order to be rel- Perry Pennington, writing of South cals have not developed the tools for evant to the present and the future. He Asian Muslims with a Sufi world- communicating with Sufis is that Sufis particularly saw the need for women to view,30 pointed out that, in contrast to usually avoid debate and so we fail to 26 participate in education at all levels. what we think of as orthodox Islam, hear their voice. The organisation he founded in La- these Muslims acknowledged their Those with a Sufi outlook prize peace hore in 1981, MQI, now has branches separation from God as being both and gentleness in speech. Qadri says, in ninety countries.27 Its structure real and needing to be addressed. “Allah likes those who are soft-spoken. bears no relation to a traditional Sufi Although their vocabulary is different Speaking in a soft tone has been to ours, their awareness that they are 31 order. It was set up as a modern-style termed the best donation.” They use in need of salvation is not in doubt. mass movement with committees and proverbs and parables. They feel no Furthermore, the belief that it is God membership fees. Rather than be- compulsion to make every statement who provides a way of salvation and ing focused exclusively on the inward explicit. In mission circles of late, there that it operates through holy human pursuit of godliness, it is also active has been a greater appreciation of the mediation is also explicitly taught. importance of narrative and indirect in welfare projects and education. Its Having identified how South Asian communication. We tend to attribute premises are designated as idaaras, Muslims perceived their need, Pen- that style of communication to culture, administrative centres, rather than Sufi nington examined the ways in which and maybe rightly so, but it is also lodges or , and the leaders are the scriptures speak to that need and something nurtured by Sufism. To called directors rather than . communicate effectively with Sufis, From the outset, MQI had special sec- surely we need to consider the com- tions for youth and women. munication style that they recognise as MQI is very modern in organisational being appropriate to spiritual people. After all, Jesus spoke in parables too. style but at the same time it supports Love for the traditional (with Sufis are used to being attacked by hierarchies of saints and Muhammad the messenger other Muslims who quote texts at as the physical manifestation of a pri- them. When Christians do it too, they mordial creative light, etc.) and seeks is the mark take it as an indication of a lack of true to promote it using modern imagery. of the true Muslim. knowledge. For Sufis, true knowl- For example, Qadri writes: edge comes through relationship not The source of spiritual bounties, kind- reasoning. Such an understanding is ness, compassion, love and affection not absent from the New Testament is the holy personality of the most (see for example Matt. 11:25–30, John revered and exalted Messenger of Al- found that strands of the Gospel on 17:3, 1 Cor. 8:1–3, 1 John 1:1–3), but lah. To relay these vast blessings to all which Westerners do not traditionally as Evangelicals we are accustomed to believers there are great conduits of focus do indeed speak their language. presenting the gospel as a formula, as a Allah’s friends who make up a spiri- solution to a problem, as a transaction. tual power distribution system which Sufi Islam sees God, humankind works in a very similar way to electric and the world differently to textbook Speaking to Sufis power supply system . . . The awlia of Islam. For Sufis, our declaration that Allah have vitalized and strengthened Jesus is alive and Muhammad is dead For most expressions of Sufism, love is this “conduit system” by their connec- central. Love for the messenger is the demonstrates our ignorance. They may tion with our beloved Prophet.28 mark of the true Muslim. Devotion to well hear us say such things but choose Muhammad is often so explicit and not to argue. Sufism has its own style This one movement, described here in intense that Christians can only see it of spirituality. To put it more starkly, some detail, is not unique but rather as idolatry and be repelled by it. We the manners associated with a person indicative of new trends. The Turkish wonder how they can love the man we of spiritual credibility are different movement headed by Fethullah Gülen, have read about. Part of the answer is to what we might expect. In general, for example, has much in common with that they have been told a very different those steeped in Sufism avoid disputes. MQI. Like MQI, it combines a focus story. However, our job is not to prove Western Christians have developed on education and the modern world them wrong so much as to point them many strategies for those Muslims who with Sufi-based Islamic values. It is said to something better and higher. For ex- use well organised verbal reasoning. to run 1000 schools worldwide.29 ample, I was talking to a local Sufi leader.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Colin Bearup 15

“Loving the messenger,” he said, “is the most important thing.” He phrased hey do the same sort of holistic discipleship that it that way to include me, a Christian. Jesus did; knowledge and life are not separated— I, too, should love “my messenger.” the disciple aspires to be like his teacher. “Very true,” I replied. “But is your love T Siddiqi (ra) ( 1942–1994) - Mujadid of the strong enough?” Much rethinking has gone on over the last couple of decades about what 20th Century: A Reformer of the Modern His face fell. “No, it is never enough. discipleship means in cross cultural Day,” accessed March 23, 2019, http://www. hijazcollege.com/history.php. He is worth so much more.” mission. One of the things about 6 Sunday Mercury, “Muslim college Sufism is that the basic paradigm of “You are right,” I replied. “We cannot in Midlands is running law court,” discipleship is already present. To grow love as we should. But I have some good BirminghamLive. Last modified October in faith, you need a teacher who directs news. It is written in the Injil, ‘This is 23, 2012, http://www.birminghammail. and instructs, who shares wisdom and co.uk/news/local-news/muslim-college-in- love. Not that we love God but that he models life. Although their founda- midlands-is-running-sharia-234317. has loved us.’ Knowing this love is the 7 tional truths are very different, they do Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and key. We love because he first loved us.” the Future of Islam (Oxford: OUP, 2004), 225. the same sort of holistic discipleship 8 He looked at me surprised and per- that Jesus did; knowledge and life are Ken Swartley, Encountering the World of Islam (Bottom Line Media, 2014), not separated—the disciple aspires to haps disturbed. “You are deep,” he said. 233–236. be like his teacher. It should be pos- 9 Before you ask, I did not go on to “and Arthur J. Arberry, Sufism (London: sible to tap into this underlying non- sent his Son to be the expiation of our George Allen & Unwin, 1950), 134. Western understanding as we seek to 10 sins.” If he had asked me a question J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi make disciples. Orders in Islam (Oxford: Oxford University about this love from God, that would Press, 1971), 250. have been the next step, but he did 11 Conclusion Jamal Malik, “Introduction,” in not. Next time I see him, I will look Sufism in the West,10. It is not our business to decide which 12 for the opportunity to ask if he has Trimingham, The Sufi Orders, 248. discovered how God has loved us. I form of Islam is more authentic than 13 32 Nadia Abou al Magd, “Mubarak now carry the verse I quoted around in the others. Our business is to bring Appoints a New Chief at Al-Azhar,” The my wallet ready to leave with someone them to the living Christ, that they National, March 21, 2010, https://www.the- when we have such a conversation. might know him, love him and serve national.ae/world/africa/mubarak-appoints- him, ever grateful for his death for them a-new-chief-of-al-azhar-1.593727. I was talking to another Sufi and he and his living presence with them. He 14 This Sufi song is performed and used said, “We love Jesus. Jesus was very, alone is the perfect mediator provided around the world. A quick search on Youtube very special.” by God. Such concepts are not unfamil- shows how widespread it is used. I first heard it in a small meeting in the UK. “Ali Elsayed” I replied, “That’s wonderful. I am glad iar to them, but they do not know him. (song writer), Bandcamp, accessed March Can we learn to introduce him to them that you love Jesus. And you know IJFM 23, 2019, https://alielsayed.bandcamp.com/ what he promised to those who love in ways they will welcome? track/the-love-of-muhammad-pbuh. 15 him?” And, of course, they don’t. “He , “The Place said those that love him would keep his Endnotes of Tasawwuf in Traditional Islamic Sci- 1 ences” (lecture given at Islamic Foundation, commandments and that he and his Ron Geaves, The Sufis of Britain Markfield Centre, Leicester, January 1995 father would come and dwell in their (Cardiff Academic Press, 2000), 126. and Croydon Mosque 30th January 1995), 2 hearts. That is such a precious promise.” For more details, see “Pir Abdul Wa- http://masud.co.uk/the-place-of-tasawwuf- hab Siddiqui,” Aulia-e-hind.com, accessed in-traditional-islamic-sciences/. I cite these examples simply to show March 23, 2019, http://www.aulia-e-hind. 16 Habib Umar bin Hafiz (@habi- how, if we have thought about it ahead com//Intl/UK.htm. bomar), “Someone who does not know that 3 of time, we can introduce the gospel in Ron Geaves, Sectarian Influences Muhammad is alive is dead. When someone a way that resonates with Sufi think- within Islam in Britain (Monograph Series, knows that Muhammad is alive his heart ing and does not depend on the sort Community Religions Project, University of comes to life.” Twitter, December 5, 2016, Leeds, 1996), 123. of approach that repels. The aim is to https://twitter.com/worldofsufis?lang=en 4 Ron Geaves, “Learning the Les- 5th December 2016. draw them to the person of Jesus. That sons” in Sufism in the West, ed. Jamal Malik 17 Habib Ali al-Jifri (@alhabibali), in turn leads to the amazing things and John Hinnells (Abingdon: Routledge, “The prophet is a means through which we God has done through him so that we 2006), 150. connect to and come to know Allah,” Twit- might have koinonia, fellowship, with 5 Hijaz College, About Us: History, ter, December 8, 2016, https://twitter.com/ him (1 John 1:3). “Shaykh Allama Muhammad Abdul Wahab worldofsufis?lang=en 8th December 2016.

36:1 Spring 2019 16 Watch Out, Sufism is Back

18 See for example, Swartley, Encoun- References Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim tering the World of Islam, 138. Arberry, Arthur J. 19 World. London: Vintage. Sadek Hamid, “The Rise of the 1950 Sufism, George Allen & Unwin. Malik, Jamal and John Hinnells, eds. Traditional Islamic Networks” in Sufism Bearup, Colin 2006 Sufism in the West.Abingdon: in Britain, eds. Ron Geaves and Theodore 2018 The Survival and Resurgence of Su- Routledge. Gabriel (London: Bloomsbury, 2015). fism in the UK. Unpublished pa- 20 Morgahi, Amer Ironically, Christians tend to use per, 2018 https://www.academia. 2015 “Reliving Classical Islam.” In Su- the term “Traditional Islam” to refer to that edu/35537398/The_survival_and_ resurgence_of_Sufism_in_the_UK fism in Britain, edited by Geaves of the text book in contrast to lived Islam. and Gabriel. What Salafi reformists are pursuing is origi- Bruinessen, Martin van and Julia Day Pennington, Perry nal Islam not traditional Islam. Howell, eds. 21 2013 Sufism and the Modern in Islam. 2014 “From Prophethood to the Abdal Hakim Murad (@Con- London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Gospel: Talking to Folk Muslims tentions), “If all Muslims were Sufis, Bruinessen, Martin van and Stefano Allievi, about Jesus.” International Journal all people would be Muslim.” Twitter, for Frontier Missiology 31:4 eds. November, 13, 2017, https://twitter.com/ (Winter 2014) 195–205. 2010 Producing Islamic Knowledge Trans- worldofsufis?lang=en 13th November 2017. mission and dissemination in Western ul-Qadri, Tahir 22 Geaves and Gabriel, Sufism in Europe. Abingdon: Routledge. 2015 Islamic Spirituality and Modern London: Minhaj-ul- Britain, 32. Ewing, Katherine Science. 23 Quran Publications. Katherine Ewing, Arguing Saint- 1997 Arguing Sainthood: Modernity, hood: Modernity, Psycho-analysis and Islam Psychoanalysis and Islam. Dur- Ramadan, Tariq (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997). ham: Duke University Press. 2004 Western Muslims and the Future of 24 Daniels, Gene and Warrick Farrah, eds. Islam. Oxford: Oxford University One is reminded of al-Ghazali Press. (c1061–1163) a great intellectual and jurist 2018 Margins of Islam: Ministry in Di- Swartley, Ken who shocked his world by abandoning his verse Muslim Contexts. Littleton: William Carey Publishing. 2014 Encountering the World of Islam. orthodox reputation to adopt the Sufi life. Geaves, Ron Bottomline Media. Sadakat Kadri, Heaven on Earth: A Journey Trimingham, J. Spencer through Shari’a Law from the Deserts of 1996 Sectarian Influences within Islam in Britain. Monograph Series, 1971 The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Community Religions Project, Oxford University Press. Muslim World (London: Vintage, 2013). . Werbner, Pnina 25 Sadek Hamid, Salafis and Islamists: Geaves, Ron 2004 Pilgrims of Love: The Anthropology The Contested Ground of British Islamic 2006 “Learning the Lessons from of a Global Sufi Cult. London C. Activism (London: I. B. Tauris, 2016), 65. the neo-revivalist and Wahhabi Hurst & Co. 26 Amer Morgahi, “Reliving Classical movements; the counterattack of Islam” in Sufism in Britain, 217. the new Sufi Movements in the 27 edited Standard introduction in all recent UK.” In Sufism in the West, by Jamal Malik and Mark Hin- English language publications. 28 nells, Abingdon: Routledge. Tahir ul-Qadri, Islamic Spirituality Geaves, Ron and Modern Science (London: Minhaj-ul- 2000 Sufis of Britain.Cardiff: Cardiff Quran Publications 2015), 113. Academic Press. 29 Ian G. Williams, “Ours is not a cara- Geaves, Ron and Theodore Gabriel, eds. van of despair. The influence and presence 2015 Sufism in Britain. London: of the Turkish Sunni Nurcu Movement of Bloomsbury. Hojaeffendi Fethullah Gulen in the UK” in Geaves, Ron, Markus Dressler and Gritt Sufism in Britain, 238. Also, Yakup Kork- Klinkhammer, eds. maz, “Biblical Approaches to the Nurcu 2009 Sufis in Western Society. Global Gulen Movement in Turkey” in Margins of networking and locality. Abing- Islam, 59. don: Routledge. 30 IJFM 31:4, 2014. Hamid, Sadek 31 Dr. Muhammad Tahir ul-Qadri (@ 2015 “The Rise of the Traditional Islamic Networks.” In Sufism in TahirulQadir), “Allah likes those who are Britain, edited by Geaves and soft-spoken. Speaking in a soft tone has Gabriel. London: Bloomsbury. been termed the best donation,” Twit- Hamid, Sadek ter, June 23, 2017, https://twitter.com/ 2016 Salafis and Islamists: The Contested worldofsufis?lang=en 23rd June 2017. Ground of British Islamic Activ- 32 See also discussion in Evelyne Reisa- ism, London: I. B. Tauris. cher, “Who represents Islam?” in Margins of Kadri, Sadakat Islam, eds. Gene Daniel and Warrick Farah. 2013 Heaven on Earth: A Journey Pasadena: William Carey Publishing 2018. through Shari’a Law from the

International Journal of Frontier Missiology