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T.C. Firat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tarih Anabilim Dali T.C. FIRAT ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ TARİH ANABİLİM DALI ORTA ÇAĞDA KARADENİZ TARİHİ VE COĞRAFYASI (8-13. YY) DOKTORA TEZİ DANIŞMAN HAZIRLAYAN Prof. Dr. Aydın ÇELİK Önder GÜLER ELAZIĞ-2018 T.C. FIRAT ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ TARİH ANABİLİM DALI ORTA ÇAĞ’DA KARADENİZ TARİHİ VE COĞRAFYASI (8-13. YY) DOKTORA TEZİ DANIŞMAN HAZIRLAYAN Prof. Dr. Aydın ÇELİK Önder GÜLER Jürimiz, ……….tarihinde yapılan tez savunma sınavı sonunda bu doktora tezini oy birliği / oy çokluğu ile başarılı saymıştır. Jüri Üyeleri: 1. 2. 3. F. Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yönetim Kurulunun …………tarih ve …. sayılı kararıyla bu tezin kabulü onaylanmıstır. Prof. Dr. Ömer Osman UMAR Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürü II ÖZET Doktora Tezi Orta Çağda Karadeniz Tarihi ve Coğrafyası (8-13. YY) Önder GÜLER Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Tarih Anabilim Dalı Ortaçağ Bilim Dalı Elazığ-2018; Sayfa: XV+282 En eski dönem tarihçileri Karadeniz’i bileşik bir yaya benzetiyorlardı. Bu yayın batı ucu, Karadeniz’in diğer denizlerle bağlantı kurduğu Boğaziçi’nde, doğu ucu ise Kafkas dağlarından gelen suyla beslenen Riyon ırmağındadır. Bunların arasında kuzeye doğru kıvrılan iki kavis vardı. Bunlardan biri Bulgaristan, Romanya ve Ukrayna kıyılarından, diğeri ise Gürcistan ve Rusya sahillerinden geçmekteydi. Birbirlerine doğru radikal bir eğim yapan bu kavisler, iki sığ körfezi oluşturmaktaydılar. Batıdaki kavis; Tuna ve Dinyeper ırmaklarının ağzından dolaşırken, doğudaki kavis ise; Karadeniz’i Azak denizine bağlayan ve Kimmerya Boğazı diye bilinen Kerç Boğazı’na doğru uzanmaktaydı. Ve bu iki kavis Kırım yarımadasında birleşmekteydi. Nitekim yay üzerinden bu tarife devam edersek, eski coğrafyacıların ifade ettiği kadar düz olmayan bu kiriş (yani yayın tutturulduğu ve çekildiği ip), modern Türkiye boyunca uzanmaktaydı. Bu bakımdan Karadeniz, kendisine kıyısı olan ülkelerce ve bu denize gelen ilk Yunan kolonileri sayesinde isimlendirilerek, farklı zaman dilimlerinde çeşitli adlandırmalara sahip olmuştu. Böylece Karadeniz; en eski Yunanca’da Pontos Axeinos yani Kasvetli ya da Kara olarak isimlendirilmişti. Özellikle Bulgarca ve Rusça’da Çerno More, Romence Marea Neagra, Ukraynaca Çorne More, Gürcüce Şavi Zğva gibi çeşitli dillerde de adlandırılmaları mevcuttur. III Diğer taraftan kuzeyde ve batıda geniş Tuna, Dinyeper, Dinyester ve Don nehirleriyle beslenen sulak alanlar, güneyde hızlı akan Kızılırmak, Yeşilırmak ve Fasis (Riyon) nehrinin oluşturduğu küçük deltalara zıtlık oluşturmaktaydı. Nitekim iklimlerde de farklılıklar vardı. Kuzeybatının step bölgelerinde soğuk kışlardan sonra sıcak ve kuru yazlar yaşanmaktaydı. Güneydoğu yaylalarında ise astropikal iklim sonucu kışlar ılık, yazlar nemli ve bol yağışa sahip bir iklim mevcuttu. Karadeniz’in bu coğrafi ve ekolojik yapısının yanı sıra Asya’nın iç kesimlerinden Hazar denizi’nin kuzeyinden Karadeniz’in kuzey ve çevrelerine kadar gelen bozkır Türkleri, buralarda hâkimiyetler kurarak, Karadeniz’in siyasi ve ticari yapısına etki etmişlerdi. Dolayısıyla Karadeniz havzası kıyı ve iç kesimlerinin tamamı göçebe Türk kavimleri olan; Kimmerler, İskitler, Sarmatlar, Hunlar, Sabirler, Avarlar, Ogurlar, Uzlar, Peçenekler, Hazarlar, Kumanlar ve Moğollar tarafından ele geçirilmişti. Ayrıca sonraki yüzyıllarda Karadeniz hâkimiyetinde önemli siyasi ve ticari etkilere sahip olan Karadeniz’in güneyindeki Anadolu Pontus Devleti, Roma ve onun devamı olan Bizans, Selçuklu Devleti, Anadolu Türk Beylikleri ve Trabzon Rum imparatorluğu Karadeniz’in siyasi ve ticari hayatında önemli gelişmelere sebep olmuşlardı. Özellikle bu göçebe Türk kavimleri dışında kuzeyden gelen Gotlar ve Ruslar Karadeniz ticaretinde söz sahibi olmuşlardı. Bu bakımdan M.Ö. 6 ve 5. Yüzyıllardan başlamak suretiyle Karadeniz’in güney ve kuzey bölgelerinde Grek ve Yunanlılar tarafından birçok koloniler kurulmuştu. Öyle ki, Batı Ege kıyılarında ve Kıta Yunanistan’da yaşayanlar çeşitli tahıl ve hububat ürünlerine ihtiyaç duymaktaydı. Fakat yaşadıkları bölge dağlık ve herhangi bir tahıl ya da hububat ürünlerinin yetiştirilmesine uygun bir coğrafya olmadığından, bu ürünleri elde etmek için önce Marmara kıyıları ve İstanbul’a, sonrasında ise Karadeniz’e gelerek, hem Anadolu hem de Kuzey Karadeniz kıyılarında birçok ticari koloniler kurarak buralarda ticaret yapmaya başladılar. Özellikle bu ticaretin yapılmasına yönelik olarak, Karadeniz’in Batı ve Kuzey kıyılarında iyi miktarda tahıl, et, balık ve diğer başka hayvan ürünlerinin üretimi yapılmaktaydı. Dolayısıyla Karadeniz’in kuzey ve güneyinde yetiştirilen ve üretilen ürünlere, Anadolu ve Ege bölgesinin yoğun nüfuslarından dolayı ihtiyaç duyulmaktaydı. Bir müddet sonrada bu bölgeler arasında yoğun ticari ilişkiler silsilesi başlayacaktı. Milattan sonraki yıllarda da Karadeniz üzerindeki bu ticari ilişkiler devam etmişti. Böylece Karadeniz liman kentlerinden alınan ürünler, hem Kuzey Anadolu kıyılarındaki limanlar ve İstanbul üzerinden güneydeki ve Avrupa ülkelerine hem de IV Tuna nehri ağzındaki limanlar aracılığıyla karayolu ve Doğu yolu üzerinden Avrupa ülkelerine ulaştırılmaktaydı. 11 ve 12. Yüzyıllara gelindiğinde ise Akdeniz’deki İslam devletlerinin üstünlüğü önce Normanların sonrasında ise İtalyan şehir devletlerinin hâkimiyetine geçti. Fakat bu durumun, Karadeniz ile pek bir alakasının olmadığı gibi gözükse de, aslında dönemin Bizans imparatoru Alexios Komnenos, 1082 yılında Karadeniz’de ortaya çıkabilecek Norman tehlikesini uzaklaştırdığı gerekçesiyle Venediklilerle anlaşma yaparak, onlara imparatorluğun bütün limanlarında her türlü gümrük ve sınırlamalardan muaf tutulduğu ticari bir imtiyaz vermişti. Bu imtiyazlar daha sonra Bizans imparatorluğu tarafından İtalya’nın Pisa ve Cenova şehir devletlerine verilmiştir. Fakat bu sefer de bu imtiyazlar, Bizans imparatorluğunu siyasi ve ekonomik olarak güçsüz düşürmüştür. İlerleyen zamanda gemicilikte iyi bir seviyeye ulaşan İtalyan şehir devletleri, Akdeniz ticaretini ele geçirdiler. Fakat Karadeniz ürünlerine de ihtiyaç duymaktaydılar. Nitekim sonraki yıllarda Bizans imparatorluğunun İtalyan şehir devletlerini Karadeniz’e sokmama mücadelesine rağmen, İtalyanlar Karadeniz’e girerek, Karadeniz havzasının çeşitli kıyılarında ticaret kolonileri kurmuşlardı. Özellikle Kuzey Anadolu ve Kırım kıyılarında önemli İtalyan ticaret limanları mevcuttu. Dolayısıyla Karadeniz ticaretinde önemli bir faktör olan İtalyanlarla birlikte bölge ticareti önemli bir yükselişe geçmişti. Tabi ki bu İtalyanların Karadeniz ticareti içerisinde Bizans İmparatorluğu, Selçuklu Devleti ve öncesinde Karadeniz’in kuzeyindeki Hazarlar gibi bazı göçebe Türk kavimlerinin de önemli bir katkısı vardı. Anahtar Kelimeler: Tuna, Hazarlar, Bizans, Selçuklu, İtalyan Ticareti. V ABSTRACT Doctoral Thesis The History and Geography of The Black Sea in Medieval (8-13. cent.) Önder GÜLER Fırat University Social Sciences Institute The Departments of History The Departments of Middle Ages History Elazıg-2018; Page: XV+282 The earliest period historians resemble the Black Sea as a compound spring of barbarians. This publication is located on the Bosphorus, where the Black Sea connects with other seas, and the eastern part of the Raion River, which is fed with water from the Caucasus Mountains. Among these were two curves that twisted to the north. One of them was from the coasts of Bulgaria, Romania and Ukraine, and the other was from the coasts of Georgia and Russia. These curves, which make a radical inclination towards each other, form two shallow gulfs. Curve in the west; The Danube and the Dinyeper are wandering through the mouths of the rivers; Reaching the Kerch Bosphorus, which connects the Black Sea to the sea of Azak and known as the Cimmerian Bosphorus. And these two curves were united under the Crimean peninsula. Indeed, if we continue on this tariff spring, mentioned by ancient geographers until this uneven beams (ie broadcast is attached and pulled the rope), it was extending throughout modern Turkey. In this respect, the Black Sea, due to its coastal country and the first Greek colonies that came to this sea, had various names in different time periods. Thus the Black Sea; and the oldest Greek was Pontos Axinos, so gloomy or black. Especially in Bulgarian and Russian, there were also names in various languages such as Cherno More, Romanian Marea Neagra, Ukrainian Corne More, Georgian Shavi Zugva. VI On the other side, the wetlands fed by the large Danube, Dinyeper, Dinyester and Don rivers in the north and west formed contrasts with the small deltas formed by the rapidly flowing Kızılırmak, Yeşilırmak and Fasis (Rion) rivers in the south. Indeed, there were differences in climates. Hot and dry summers were experienced in the steppes of the northern part after the cold winter. In the southeastern highlands, the climate of the subtropical climate is temperate, the summers are humid and there is plenty of rainfall. In addition to this geographical and ecological structure of the Black Sea, the steppe Turks from the inner parts of Asia to the northern part and the periphery of the Black Sea from the north of the Caspian Sea, influenced the political and commercial structure of the Black Sea by establishing dominions there. Therefore, all of the coastal and inland parts of the Black Sea basin are nomadic Turkish tribes; The Kimmers were captured by Scythians, Sarmats, Huns, Patience, Avar, Ogurlar, Uz, Pechenegs, Khazars, Smokes and Mongols. In addition, the Anatolian Pontus State in the south of the Black Sea, which had important political and commercial influences in the subsequent centuries
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