The Past As History

Home , Fennoman movement, Finnish nationalism, Turanism, Yugoslavism

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© Stefan Berger and Christoph Conrad 2015 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978–0–230–50009–9 hardback ISBN 978–1–137–41409–0 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Berger, Stefan. The past as history : national identity and historical consciousness in modern Europe / Stefan Berger, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany ; with Christoph Conrad, University of Geneva, Switzerland. pages cm. — (Writing the nation) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–230–50009–9 (alk. paper) 1. Historiography. 2. Nationalism and historiography. 3. National characteristics. 4. Historiography—Europe. 5. Nationalism and historiography—Europe. 6. National characteristics—Europe. I. Conrad, Christoph. II. Title. D13.B436 2014 940.072—dc23 2014022903

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Contents

List of Illustrations viii Preface ix List of Abbreviations xii

1 Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 1 2 National History Before the Nation State – from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment 28 3 The Invention of European National Traditions During the First Half of the Nineteenth Century 80 4 Scientificity and Historiographical Nationalism, 1850–1914 140 5 National Histories in and between the World Wars 226 6 National Histories from post-Second World War to post-Cold War 285 7 Conclusion – What Balance Sheet and What Future for National Histories? 358

Appendix: National Historians in Europe 380 References 484 Index 536

vii

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1 Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History

Some say that the past is a foreign country: they do things differently there.1 But normally it is our country, and they do familiar things there, such as the celebra- tion of national days and other historical events that the nation is supposed to be proud of and that historians have written about. This book is about the relationship between the writing of history and nation-building in Europe. The active and deliberate construction of national identities in a variety of small and large European countries has been based on the use of the past as a resource, and the historical disciplines have often been handmaidens to such constructions. But the relationship between history and politics has not been a one-way street. True, politics has made use of national history, but historians have also made a deliberate political commitment to the nation, for a variety of different reasons. Of course, historians have not been the only ones to have worked on the construction sites of national identity: linguists, philologists, archaeologists, folklorists, geographers and representatives of the arts have all been prominent in the construction of national identities. The press and other media, schools and popular culture have also been major vectors of national identification. Still, history writing as an art and a science, as well as history as an academic discipline and a corpus of representations, has been crucial to the forging of nationalities and nation-states in modern Europe.

The Meanings and Infrastructure of National History

But what is ‘national history’? Throughout this book we will use three connected meanings of ‘national history’ which constitute different layers of abstraction: First we will refer to the ‘great works’ on the national past of a territory, a state or a people. These tomes, which synthesise the knowledge of their time as well as the political and social world-views and expectations of their authors, are rather rare; they are not necessarily written either by professional historians or by native authors. They have often (but not always) been characterised by literary success and broad impact. Thomas Babington Macaulay’s (1800–1859) history of England,

1 David Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge, 1985) alludes to L.P. Hartley’s famous opening sentence in The Go-Between (1953).

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2 The Past as History the first two volumes of which were published in 1848 (with two more to follow in 1855 and the last one posthumously published in 1861) clearly set standards in this respect. A second, more abstract level is reached when we refer to a broad genre of historical representation in which the ‘national’ is regarded as the most important dimension of history writing and differentiated from other spatial (local, regional, European and global) and non-spatial (ethnic/racial, class, religious and gender) histories despite the fact that it invariably interacts with those other histories.2 It is at this level of methodological nationalism that nation-states are being privileged as the prime actors in history. It is interesting to note here that some prominent ‘national historians’ did research the history of countries other than their own. Leopold von Ranke’s (1795–1886) work on England, or Ernest Lavisse’s (1842–1922) scholarship on Prussia, stand out as prominent examples. And some of the best English literary histories were famously produced by French scholars.3 Thirdly, we understand ‘national history’ as the meta- or master narrative of historical writing, i.e. the underlying script of ‘historical culture’ at a given time in a given country. Such a narrative might retrace a remote past of foreign domination to a period when the nation allegedly struggled against such oppression and for independence. Ultimately this fight was supposed to end in the creation of an independent state with a modernising society. Such a nationalised view of history does not only take shape in the great works but also informs more limited writings and much more specialised monographs, biographies or essays. It is normally teleological and serves legitimatory functions. As we will discuss later in this introduction, the concept of ‘master narrative’ seems to fit best when it is actu- ally not spelt out in one work or completely explicit in public discourse; rather it formulates what is taken for granted and defines both what is said and silenced. The meta-narrative, moreover, constitutes the format of the hegemonic political discourse and informs attitudes toward the neighbouring countries, competitors and internal adversaries. Because of its hegemonic character this type of narrative is the most contested. Except in totalitarian societies, it is, therefore, unusual to find only one homogenous discourse. This volume is concerned with national history in the meaning of all three levels of abstraction discussed above. It also pays due attention to the political, social and institutional dimensions of the production of national histories. From the late eighteenth century the study and writing of history was increasingly supported by universities, academies, archives, museums, learned journals and societies, as well as source editions and publication series, all of which themselves became important means of representing national histories and framing national identities. In most European countries these academic infrastructures were public

2 It should, of course, be noted that spatial and non-spatial histories themselves interact in manifold ways. 3 See, for example, Hippolyte A. Taine, Histoire de la littérature anglaise, 4 vols (Paris, 1878); Emile Legouis and Louis Cazamian, A History of English Literature (London, 1927).

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 3 and their expansion was state-driven. However, private and civil-society actors played their role; publishing houses and the book market acted as a powerful cor- rective to the public infrastructure. In a nutshell, the focus of this book is, therefore, on the men and women who have been doing history. Even if their personal biographies, their motivations and engagements, their style of doing research and writing can only be illustrated in a limited way, using selected examples, it is these individuals, their backgrounds, trajectories and networks, which are of primary importance for a ‘shared history’ of national histories in Europe. Some of what we are concerned with in this volume has been inspired by what Karl Mannheim (1893–1947) called ‘the social conditioning of knowledge’,4 in our case, more specifically, of historical knowledge. We ask: how were national forms of historical knowledge shaped at specific times and places in modern Europe and how did they change over time? Drawing partially on Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002), we understand national history to be a ‘scientific field’ in which national historians as actors develop a specific habitus. Only by exploring the interactions of national historians over time and space can we hope to arrive at a better understanding of how this specific ‘scientific field’ operated. What strategies and stances did national historians adopt, what investments did they make and what alliances did they form – both within the field and with other actors outside the field – in order to maximise their chances to rise in the field – preferably to positions of dominance and authority?5

National History as a Project of European Modernity

If historical practice was rooted in wider social and intellectual developments which have contributed to the transformation of a bewilderingly multifaceted and multispatial past into highly organised and teleological narratives of nations, why was this endeavour so important to nation states – old and new – from the late eighteenth century to the present? One answer has been provided by the new nationalism studies as they have developed from the mid 1980s onwards. Influential books – and suggestive titles – like Imagined Communities or The Invention of Tradition have set the tone.6 Their arguments focus on the internal nationalisation of societies. According to their findings, and very much in tune with our approach, modern societies have used their anchorage in the often distant past to help create a sense of belonging to the national community and

4 Karl Mannheim, ‘The Sociology of Knowledge’, in: idem, Ideology and Utopia: an Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge (London, 1960), p. 237. 5 Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, 1991); idem, Practical Reason. On the Theory of Action (Cambridge, 1998); idem, Science of Science and Reflexivity (Chicago, 2004); for an application to history as discipline cf. Olaf Blaschke and Lutz Raphael, ‘Im Kampf um Positionen. Änderungen im Feld der französischen und deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft nach 1945’, in: Jan Eckel and Thomas Etzemueller (eds), Neue Zugänge zur Geschichte der Geschichtswissenschaft (Goettingen, 2007), pp. 69–109. 6 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities [1983], revised edition (London, 1991); Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1984).

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4 The Past as History a collective identity to overwrite ethnic, linguistic, religious or social cleavages. National history thus serves as justification for the existence, the particularity and often the greatness of the present nation state. For those intent on achieving statehood, history serves to legitimate that desire. The appeal to history as legitimation is particularly intense in times of rapid social change, of internal conflict, revolution, civil war or war, when we encounter the greatest concentration of attempts to ‘write the nation’ back into time, to create prehistories of the present and to construct traditions. Another line of thought focuses on the external function and the outreach of this intimate connection between a conception of history and the naturalisation of its national format. This approach has more recently been developed under the impact of postcolonial studies. Christopher L. Hill (*1964) firmly links the development of a specific ‘rhetoric’ of national history in Japan, France and the United States to the efforts of these countries to place their societies at the forefront of modernity and to mark their political, military and economic rank in a ‘world of nations’ during the last third of the long nineteenth century.7 Even if Hill tends to overstate the degree to which national historical communities act in concert and with one will, his analysis allows us to situate our theme in a much wider framework: the relationship between transnational processes and the emergence of ‘global modernity’ on the one hand and individual nation-building on the other. In the field of historical master narratives, Hill confirms what others have shown for the economy, for migrations or socio-political institutions. In these functional contexts we know already how deeply each specific nationalism is related to others but what can be seen much more clearly is that individual nations construct their institutions and their identities as a consequence of globalisation. They strengthen their national format in order to compete, cooperate and prosper in a global context. These two interpretations, the internal ‘nationalisation’ argument and the transnational self-localisation in the history of modernity, are not mutually exclusive. Seen together, they even help to explain the successful diffusion of national history as the gold standard of any history over the whole globe. Several authors have, therefore, pointed to the intellectual imperialism that the West successfully imposed on the rest of the world with its form of linear, scientific and nationally bounded history writing.8

7 Christopher L. Hill, National Histories and the World of Nations. Capital, State and the Rhetoric of History in Japan, France and the United States (Durham, NC, 2008). 8 For details of the debate surrounding the impact of Western national histories on the rest of the world see Eckhardt Fuchs and Benedikt Stuchtey (eds), Across Cultural Borders: Historiography in Global Perspective (Lanham, MD, 2002); Jack Goody, The Theft of History (Cambridge, 2006); Stefan Berger (ed.), Writing the Nation: a Global Perspective (Basingstoke, 2007); Georg G. Iggers and Q. Edward Wang with contributions from Supriya Mukherjee, A Global History of Modern Historiography (London, 2008); Daniel Woolf, A Global History of History (Cambridge, 2011); Markus Völkel, Geschichtsschreibung: eine Einführung in globaler Perspektive (Cologne, 2006).

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 5

Given the global dimensions of national history writing we have to state at the outset that this volume is concerned with Europe. Whilst we will occasionally consider how imperialism and imperial history interacted with national histories in Europe, the focus of the book is on European national histories. Whilst Europe is, of course, itself a notoriously slippery geographical concept, we have included all the nation states from Iceland and the British Isles in the west, Scandinavia in the north, Russia and Turkey in the East and the Balkans, Italy and the Iberian peninsula in the south. Apart from geographical limits, this study also has chronological boundaries. It starts with the rise of a professional historiography, which can be traced to the second half of the eighteenth century and the historiography of the Enlightenment. Following Reinhart Koselleck’s (1923–2006) concept of a Sattelzeit (‘saddle period’) around the turn of the nineteenth century,9 we start from the assumption that, around 1800, we witness a major transformation of the way in which people thought about time and history. The ‘regime of historicity’, in François Hartog’s (*1946) term,10 changed significantly. History became future-oriented: it was read backwards from a particular telos, which lay in the future. That telos tended to be the nation state for much historical writing in Europe during most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Before the nineteenth century, history was supposed to provide lessons: historia magistra vitae est (history is the teacher of life) meant that through the study of the past one could learn for the present. According to Hartog it was only with the rise of commemoration since the late 1970s and the end of the Cold War after 1989 that the modern regime of historicity was eroded by what he calls presentism, i.e. the notion that the past can only be read from a standpoint in the present. If we follow Koselleck and Hartog in postulating a major break in historical perception between 1750 and 1850, it also appears to us that national histories had a different function and quality after that break. It was only then that they appealed to a broader public seeking to mobilise (theoretically) entire populations or peoples in the name of the nation. National history now appealed to the masses, no longer only to small circles of educated elites. Before the middle of the eighteenth century the masses were not a political factor in Europe – that changed in the century between 1750 and 1850. Other arguments for a profound break during the Sattelzeit come from intellectual history and philosophy. As Michel Foucault (1926–1984) has argued, the Western episteme was transformed at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century through the rise of a strong historical consciousness.11 Moreover, a sense of historicity emerged

9 Reinhart Koselleck, ‘Einleitung’, in: idem, Otto Brunner and Werner Conze (eds), Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe; Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache (Stuttgart, 1979), vol. 1, p. xv. 10 François Hartog, Régimes d’historicité. Présentisme et expériences du temps (Paris, 2003). 11 Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (New York, 1971); Wolf Lepenies, Das Ende der Naturgeschichte. Wandel kultureller Selbstverständlichkeiten in den Wissenschaften des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts (München, 1976).

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6 The Past as History out of a feeling of dispossession and disorientation following the dual impact of the industrial and political revolutions in the United States, France and Haiti. The intellectual discourse at the beginning of the nineteenth century formulated a deeply felt sense of loss, producing sentiments of melancholy and nostalgia.12 Historians wrote history as a drama offering, perhaps at times consolation but, above all, explanation for the contingency, provisionality and malleability of the historical process. History, they showed, had been made in the past; historical development was subject-centred, and, as such, history could also be made in the present. The nation was arguably the central axis in this construction of a sense of historicity. However justified it is to put the beginnings of this study somewhere in the second half of the eighteenth century (because of the impact of the triple break in the understanding of historical time, in the understanding of history writing and in the understanding of national identity), we do not mean to argue in favour of a complete rupture. Of course, national histories were written much earlier and in some parts of Europe can indeed be traced back to the Middle Ages. Many of the tropes, images and storylines which came to characterise modern national histories can equally be found in their early modern variants. An important debate in historical linguistics, literary and cultural history has foregrounded such ‘nationalism before nationalism’ in the early modern period.13 Therefore it would not make sense to insist on impenetrable borders dividing early modern from modern national histories, and it is for this reason that at the beginning of the next chapter we start off with a section tracing their long history from the middle ages to the advent of modernity.

Key Concepts in the Study of National Historiographies

Before we can move to a discussion of the earliest national histories, it is appropriate to take a step back and reflect briefly on some of the key concepts that we will be using in this book. The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), whose critiques of contemporary German historiography and trium- phant nationalism (especially in the 1860s and 1870s) were as fundamental as they were marginal, once noted that only those concepts which have no history can be defined.14 Yet, all the terms which are at the heart of this book – e.g. nation, nationalism, state, history – were historically formed and transformed during the period under discussion. The evolution of their meaning and usage are part and parcel of the history of history writing. But we still need some guidance as to how

12 Peter Fritzsche, Stranded in the Present. Modern Time and the Melancholy of History (Cambridge, MA, 2004). 13 Eckhart Helmuth and Reinhard Stauber (eds.), Nationalismus vor dem Nationalismus? (Hamburg, 1998). 14 Friedrich Nietzsche, ‘Zur Genealogie der Moral. Zweite Abhandlung: “Schuld”, “schlech- tes Gewissen”, Verwandtes’, chapter 13, in: idem, Sämtliche Werke, vol. 5, 3rd edition (Munich, 1993), p. 317.

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 7 the authors (and readers) of this book (should) use these concepts for their own purpose. Ideally, such definitions are flexible enough to point to the central meanings without excluding or obscuring the historical changes in their respective semantic field. Many of the terms are the result of what Quentin Skinner (*1940) termed ‘rhetorical re-descriptions’,15 and therefore they have a complex and idio- syncratic history, which makes it all the more necessary to clarify their usage here. To start, throughout the book we are centrally concerned with histories of the nation. In ancient Rome commitment to the nation (patria) came before every- thing else. The Roman cult surrounding the patria was enshrined in Roman law, and the revival of the discourse of patria in Europe during the eleventh century coincided with the revival of the traditions of Roman law. As early as the eighth century, the venerable Bede (673–735) in his Historia gentis Anglorum ecclesia (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), wrote about the ‘historia … nostrae nationis’.16 In twelfth-century France the idea of the nation was connected to the notion that humanity was divided into nations which occupied the earth and went back to the sons of Noah. Notions of genealogy, culture (especially language), geography and religion were all important components of nation. Thirteenth-century legal thought started from the assumption that Europe was made up of sovereign nation states.17 By the second half of the fifteenth century the University of Paris classified its students by nation, defined, by and large, by language. In sixteenth-century absolutist Europe, monarchy became a central ingredient of nation – with nation and king becoming virtually synonymous. During the second half of the eighteenth century ‘nation’ acquired a diametri- cally opposed meaning: it now described the aim of civil society to participate politically in the affairs of the state. It was the French revolution which put forward the nation based on a ‘social contract’ and equated it with the ‘demos’. In this sense the nation constituted a universal regulatory idea with a timeless existence a priori. The revolutionary and Napoleonic wars propagated the idea all over Europe and motivated the people of occupied countries to appropriate and subvert this norm against its protagonists. Defining the geographical space of the nation became of utmost importance in the nineteenth century, which explains the obsession of modern national histories with national territory. The rise of nationalism in nineteenth-century Europe meant that nation states sought to nationalise the masses effectively, and national movements attempted to bring about nation states in areas of Europe, where empires or multinational states held sway. In response, empires that had existed for centuries tried to nationalise their core areas. Imperial histories were in fact more likely to be incorporated by national histories rather than overwriting them. The current study is mainly interested in the way in which histories contributed to the construction of national

15 Quentin Skinner, Visions of Politics (Cambridge, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 182 ff. 16 F.W. Garforth, Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica: Introduction, Text, Notes, Vocabulary (London, 1967), p. 25. 17 Gaines Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought. Public Law and the State, 1100–1322 (Princeton, NJ, 1964).

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8 The Past as History identity across Europe in a post-1789 context. Histories producing national master narratives were frequently, but by no means invariably, nationalist, if we understand by nationalism the tendency to valorise one’s own nation positively vis-à-vis other nations, which are often referred to in derogatory terms. However, even where histories avoided nationalism, it was, as we shall see, a slippery slope from national to nationalist history.18 National identity is just one of a range of collective identities, which are always relational, i.e. one can only define one type of group identity vis-à-vis other types. Hence collective identities have no essence, although this does not prevent collective identities being essentialised. We are centrally concerned in this book with establishing the ‘codes of difference’19 of national identity and its potential spatial and non-spatial ‘others’.20 All of these identities are employed in a politics of recognition. In other words, they have been and continue to be part of political movements and struggles, which leads us to highlight the close associations between historical science and politics. As Frank Ankersmit (*1945) has written: ‘… politics has been the domain where modern historical writing and historical consciousness originated and, furthermore, … it is politics to which we must turn in order to understand the major evolutions that historical writing has gone through in the course of its history.’21 National history has been one of the main instruments with which to construct collective national identity. Because the concept of ‘collective identity’ has been a weapon in political-ideological conflicts, its usage as an analytical concept is extremely limited, as Lutz Niethammer (*1939) has argued persuasively.22 It is important in our discussions of collective national identity to remain aware of the political functionalisation of this idea in historical writing and beyond. This brings us to ‘history’. History writing accompanies human history from the time when humans first began to develop written languages. Indeed, narrating histories has been part and parcel of human sociability since time immemorial. Social groups constituted forms of collective memory through the telling and retelling of stories. However, it is only in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that the many histories turn into the one ‘history’. This ‘History’ with a capital ‘H’ was then increasingly understood as a necessary process or development

18 On the development of national thought in Europe see the excellent overview by Joep Leerssen, National Thought in Europe. A Cultural History (Amsterdam, 2006). 19 Riva Kastoryano et al. (eds), Les Codes de la différence. Race, origine, religion. France, Allemagne, États-Unis (Paris, 2005). 20 On the non-spatial others, see Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz (eds), The Contested Nation: Ethnicity, Class, Religion, and Gender in National Histories (Basingstoke, 2008). On the spatial others, compare Matthias Middell and Lluis Roura y Aulinas (eds), Transnational Challenges to National History Writing (Basingstoke, 2012). 21 Frank R. Ankersmit, Historical Representation (Stanford, 2001), p. 265. See also idem, ‘Representation: History and Politics’, in: Horst Walter Blanke, Friedrich Jaeger and Thomas Sandkühler (eds), Dimensionen der Historik. Geschichtstheorie, Wissenschaftsgeschichte und Geschichtskultur heute. Jörn Rüsen zum 60. Geburtstag (Cologne, 1998), p. 29. 22 Lutz Niethammer, Kollektive Identität. Heimliche Quellen einer unheimlichen Konjunktur (Reinbek, 2000).

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 9 or progress, which turned History into the benchmark against which individuals and collectives had to be judged. As Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775– 1854) famously put it: ‘What is not progressive is no object of history.’23 From this moment on, History has been judging people in a way that only God did previously, and to act or be in line with History has become one of the most important arguments for political programmes and actions. Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–1694) was arguably the first to describe History in this sense as ‘the most useful science’.24 It became vital for social groups and collectives to depict themselves and their aims as being in line with History. The past had a firm grip over the present, and anything in the present that was not in line with the past could not possibly succeed. Invariably, history writing was connected to attempts to account for one’s past; it was thus related to explaining who humans were and how they got where they were; it was, in short, related to identity formation, both individual and collective identity. As Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) put it: ‘It is only through history that a people becomes fully conscious of itself.’25 Historians, usually in the prefaces to their larger synthetic works, argued that they wished to contribute to strengthening national historical consciousness through their historical writing. As collective memory everywhere is based on a sense of history, the importance of history for collective identities becomes even greater. National histories were part and parcel of a broader historical culture which found expression in diverse cultural institutions that were all engaged in acts of collective remembrance. Such collective remembrance via history was closely linked to narration. If the understanding of history changed significantly around 1800, its narrative character did not. In this volume we shall pay special attention to the way nation was narrated and communicated to the people through history in an attempt to offer them identification and a means of making sense of their lives.26 History writing as a means of identity formation entered a new stage with the idea of scientificity. Scientific or wissenschaftlich forms of history writing can be traced back to humanist and early modern forms of history writing, but they were transformed into a coherent set of rules, a methodological credo, only with the professionalisation and institutionalisation of historical writing which we will trace in the pages of this book from the second half of the eighteenth century

23 F.W.J. Schelling, ‘Aus der “Allgemeinen Übersicht der neuesten philosophischen Literatur”’, in: Werke, vol. 1 (Frankfurt/Main, 1958), p. 394. 24 Cited in Reinhart Koselleck‚ ‘Geschichte, Historie’, in: Otto Brunner, Werner Conze and Reinhart Koselleck (eds), Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland, vol. 2 (Stuttgart, 1975), p. 656. 25 Arthur Schopenhauer, ‘Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung’ (1819), in: Sämtliche Werke, vol. 2 (Munich, 1911), p. 507. 26 Homi Bhabha, Nation and Narration (London, 1990); Geoffrey Roberts (ed.), The History and Narrative Reader (London, 2001); Aleida Assmann, Der lange Schatten der Vergangenheit. Erinnerungskultur und Geschichtspolitik (Munich, 2006); Jörn Rüsen, Historische Orientierung: über die Arbeit des Geschichtsbewusstseins, sich in der Zeit zurechtzufinden (Cologne, 1994).

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10 The Past as History onwards. By the 1820s and 1830s historians in some European countries began to refer to the ‘science of history’, the ‘science historique’ or ‘Geschichtswissenschaft’. The new type of self-consciously scientific historian, typically working at a university history department, did engage in forms of collective identity-formation with the full force of his professional status. Having science, i.e. truth, on their side, who could deny them their status as foremost prophets of the nation? But how could they combine their scientificity with their partisanship for their particular nation? In the middle of the eighteenth century Martin Chladenius (1710–1759) had argued in favour of recognising that all historical interpretation was always written from a particular point of view and that all historical events could be interpreted from such different viewpoints.27 However, perspectivity was not identical with partisanship. Ranke also understood the importance of historical science for political orientation, but he denied that the historian should start his enquiry from a particular stance in the present:

it is impossible to take one’s standpoint in the present and convey this to science: in that case life impacts on science and not science on life … We can only have a true impact on the present, if we start off by disregarding the present and move to the higher grounds of free and objective science.28

Hence it was through its scientificity that the new wissenschaftlich history managed to validate its claims to academic recognition and public authority. One of the hallmarks of the new scientific history writing was that it understood itself, more than ever before, as a myth-busting activity. Debunking myths and fighting against the teachings of teleological philosophies of history became one of the foremost tasks of the scientific historian. And yet, myth and history cannot easily be juxtaposed. After all, both create meaning and give orientation. Both have an integrating, legitimating and emancipating function.29 As Chris Lorenz (*1950) has shown, theoretical assumptions about clear-cut demarca- tions between history writing and myth making, as they were perhaps most paradigmatically formulated by William McNeill (*1917), are difficult to sustain.30 Lorenz demonstrates that myths and histories fulfil very similar functions when it comes to providing guidance for actions in the present and in particular when it comes to attempts to construct national identities and solidarities. Lorenz in fact

27 Martin Chladenius, Allgemeine Geschichtswissenschaft [1752] (Vienna, 1985). 28 Leopold von Ranke, ‘‘Georg Gottfried Gervinus. Rede zur Eröffnung der zwölf- ten Plenarversammlung der historischen Commision’, Historische Zeitschrift 27 (1872), p. 142 f. 29 Yves Bizeul, ‘Theorien der politischen Mythen und Rituale’, in: idem (ed.), Politische Mythen und Rituale in Deutschland, Frankreich und Polen (Berlin, 2000), p. 21. 30 Chris Lorenz, ‘Drawing the Line: “Scientific History” Between Myth-Making and Myth- Breaking’, in: Stefan Berger, Linas Eriksonas and Andrew Mycock (eds), Narrating the Nation: Representations in History, Media and the Arts (Oxford, 2008), 35–55; William McNeill, ‘Mythistory, or Truth, Myth, History and Historians’, in: idem, Mythistory and Other Essays (Chicago, 1985).

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 11 shows that historians played a major role in making the nation into one of the ‘self-validating’ types of myths at the centre of McNeill’s analysis. Drawing on Georg Iggers’ (*1926) and Konrad von Moltke’s (1941–2005) analysis of Ranke’s and Wilhelm von Humboldt’s (1767–1835) theoretical writings on history, Lorenz holds that religious motifs are inscribed into the very beginnings of German ‘scientific’ writing on history.31 Myths are, Lorenz concludes, part and parcel of ‘scientific’ history writing from its inception, and they have also invariably infused national master narratives. Master narratives, sometimes also grand narratives or meta-narratives, are buzz words of today’s humanities. The range of meanings stretches from overarching ideas about a direction of historical evolution, like the idea of progress or of secularisation, to concrete paradigmatic ways of framing a historical or political process. Even single influential books are sometimes called Meistererzählungen, masterly stories or narratives that provide a ‘master key’.32 Tony Judt (1948–2010) usefully reminded us that this type of talk emerged at a particular historical moment: at the end of the 1970s when especially French intellectuals moved away from official Marxism. They characterised historical materialism, the Marxist philosophy of history, as a ‘grand narrative’ or, better, as the only surviving meta-narrative of modern societies.33 It is in generalising this ‘end of an illusion’ (François Furet, 1927–1997) that Jean-François Lyotard (1924–1998), in 1979, posited the inability of ‘grand narratives’ (enlightenment, rationalisation, progress) to serve as frameworks for the organisation of knowledge in contemporary society. Although this disillusionment with Marxism had direct historiographical consequences, as can be seen in Furet’s obituary on the classic accounts of the French Revolution,34 current references to ‘master narratives’ mostly do not aim to be overall philosophies of histories. Rather, the term designates a hegemonic framing of accounts which foreground central tendencies in a nation’s evolution and define their significance for the present. Such a middle-range operationali- sation of the term allows for an empirical study of different narrative strategies inside an overall master narrative, for example, nation formation.35 The Whig interpretation of British history as a process of growing institutionalisation of

31 Georg G. Iggers and Konrad von Moltke (eds), Leopold von Ranke: the Theory and Practice of History (Indianapolis, 1973). A second edition of this very useful volume was published under the editorship of Georg G. Iggers by Longman, London, in 2011. 32 Krijn Thijs, ‘The Metaphor of the Master: “Narrative Hierarchy” in National Historical Cultures of Europe’, in Berger and Lorenz (eds), The Contested Nation, pp. 60–74. 33 Tony Judt, Postwar. A History of Europe since 1945 (London 2007), pp. 563–4; Thijs, Metaphor, p. 66. 34 François Furet, Penser la Révolution française (Paris, 1978). 35 For an exemplary study of narratives of US nation-building, see Dorothy Ross, ‘Grand Narrative in American Historical Writing’, American Historical Review 100 (1995), pp. 651–77; for an analysis referring to individual German syntheses, see: Paul Nolte, ‘Darstellungsweisen deutscher Geschichte. Erzählstrukturen und “master narratives” bei Nipperdey und Wehler’, in: Christoph Conrad and Sebastian Conrad (eds), Die Nation schreiben: Geschichtswissenschaft im internationalen Vergleich (Göttingen, 2002), pp. 236–68.

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12 The Past as History individual liberty, or the German ‘Sonderweg’, as a – positively or, later, negatively valued – deviation from Western democratic development, can be seen as such frames that guide individual works of history but do not completely determine them.36 An important advantage of assuming such ‘frames’ behind individual ‘emplotments’ is the introduction of the possibility of asking about systematic ‘blind spots’, silences and roads not taken in nationalising accounts of the past. Processes of inclusion and exclusion are also at work in two key concepts for the historical understanding of human societies as they have developed from the late eighteenth century onwards: civilisation and culture. In the Enlightenment, civilisation stood for the overarching aim of the historical process, whereas culture could either be understood in the singular as Bildung, i.e. the self-perfection of capacities and virtues of the educated individual, or in the plural, ‘cultures’, as entities acting in the realm of universal histories. The pluralisation of culture – in parallel to that of people or language – opened a horizon of world or ‘universal’ history. Among early-nineteenth-century historians these definitions stayed important. The French statesman and historian François Guizot (1787–1874), for example, published his lectures Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (1828–1830), where he meant ‘civilisation’ to include the economy, society, institutions, and the moral and intellectual life of nations, especially of France. Equally, in the tradition of the Enlightenment, British historians from David Hume (1711–1776) to Macaulay could inscribe their national histories in an overarching ‘Whig’ interpretation of civilisational progress.37 However, the two terms also contributed to the ‘othering’ of non-European peoples and histories. With the institutionalisation of university disciplines for the study of foreign languages and ‘cultures’, a new demarcation line emerged in all Western countries in the late nineteenth century: while history, theology and philosophy were exclusively to be found in the writer’s own nation and, perhaps, in the neighbouring European countries, the ‘civilisations’ of the Ancient World or of the precolonial Middle East or Asia became the domain of area studies and archaeology while the ‘people without history’, mostly in Africa, the Pacific and the South American jungle became the objects of an altogether different discipline: ethnology. At the same time, the imperial powers engaged in their ‘civilising mission’ toward the colonised succes- sors of those ancient or ‘primitive’ cultures. With the critical concept of ‘orientalism’, Edward Said (1935–2003) has analysed this profound attitude change of

36 For applications of such a middle-range definition of ‘master narratives’ see Konrad H. Jarausch and Martin Sabrow (eds), Die historische Meistererzählung (Göttingen 2002); Frank Rexroth (ed.), Meistererzählungen vom Mittelalter (Historische Zeitschrift, Beihefte 46) (München 2007). See also Arnd Bauerkämper, ‘Geschichtsschreibung als Projektion. Die Revision der “Whig interpretation of history” und die Kritik am Paradigma vom “deutschen Sonderweg” seit den 1970er Jahren’, in: Stefan Berger, Peter Lambert and Peter Schumann (eds), Historikerdialoge. Geschichte, Mythos und Gedächtnis im deutsch-britischen kulturellen Austausch, 1750–2000 (Göttingen, 2003), pp. 383–438. 37 Jürgen Osterhammel, ‘Nation und Zivilisation in der britischen Historiographie von Hume bis Macaulay’, in: idem, Geschichtswissenschaft jenseits des Nationalstaats: Studien zu Beziehungsgeschichte und Zivilisationsvergleich (Göttingen, 2001), pp. 103–50.

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 13 the Western metropoles to the rest of the world. Although his polemical stance has met with much criticism and revisionism, the fundamental mechanism that consists in a kind of hegemonic culturalisation of the other has proven an important key to the understanding of colonial mindsets.38 While the meaning of terms such as ‘culture’ and ‘civilisation’ changed over time, their semantic content also varied in different languages. The difference between ‘Kultur’ in German and ‘civilisation’ in French and English became more and more pronounced during the nineteenth century. Where German authors saw their ‘Kultur’ intimately related to language, history and the Volk, French intellectuals would defend the view of French civilisation as bearer of universal values. Early twentieth-century German intellectuals interpreted the split between the two national discourses as a rupture between a profound, individualised and pure essence of values and ideas in the German universe as opposed to a superficial, collectivised and materialistic phenomenon in the Western, especially French and Anglo-American societies. During the First World War, these opposing world-views manifested themselves in the public engagement of historians, among other intellectuals, for the defence of ‘cultural values’ in Germany and Austria or for the universal norms of civilisation on the French and British side. Large world- historical interpretations like Oswald Spengler’s (1880–1936) work, published in 1918, or Arnold Toynbee’s (1889–1975) vast fresco of world civilisations in his Study of History (1934–61) did much to increase the scepticism of empirical historians toward such ‘big history’.39 Still, some of the conceptual heritage of the two terms has been preserved in the composite term Kulturgeschichte (cultural history) or in the longstanding subtitle of the Annales, namely: Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations (from 1945 to 1994).40 As we have seen above, historians became closely entangled with notions of civilisation and culture. National history also positioned itself via a variety of other ‘essentially contested concepts’,41 such as ethnicity, race, class and people. As Etienne Balibar (*1942) has argued, ethnic homogeneity was, above all, a construction of nation states which attempted to nationalise their populations.42

38 Edward Said, Orientalism (London, 1978); A.L. Macfie, Orientalism (London, 2002); Ulrike Freitag, ‘The Critique of Orientalism’, in: Michael Bentley (ed.), Companion to Historiography (London, 1997), pp. 620–38; Jürgen Osterhammel, Die Entzauberung Asiens. Europa und die asiatischen Reiche im 18. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1998). 39 Patrick Manning, Navigating World History: Historians Create a Global Past (Basingstoke, 2003), pp. 37 ff. 40 On the sociogenesis of the difference between ‘Kultur’ and ‘civilisation’ see Jörg Fisch, ‘Zivilisation, Kultur’, in: Otto Brunner, Werner Conze and Reinhart Koselleck (eds), Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland (Stuttgart, 1992), vol. 7, pp. 679–774; also Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process, vol. 2: The History of Manners (New York, 1978), pp. 3 ff. 41 W.B. Gallie, ‘Essentially Contested Concepts’, in: idem, Philosophy and Historical Understanding (New York, 1964), pp. 157–91. According to Gallie, essentially contested concepts are concepts on which there cannot be any consensus as rival interpretations are of equal validity. 42 Etienne Balibar, ‘Fictive Ethnicity and Ideal Nations’, in: John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith (eds), Ethnicity (Oxford, 1996), pp. 162–8.

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14 The Past as History

Notions of common ancestry, shared historical memories, elements of a common culture (religion, customs, language), ideas of homeland and a sense of solidar- ity all went into the construction of ethno-national identities. In the nineteenth century, ethnicity and nation were frequently used as synonyms, expressing very similar sentiments. And yet the scientific discourse of ethnicity is really a phenomenon of the period after the Second World War, when it started to replace the older discourse of race, discredited by National Socialism. In fifteenth-century Spain, at the height of the Reconquista, racial hierarchies were emphasised. Notions of ‘pure’ and ‘impure blood’ had a wide currency, the latter referring to converts to Christianity from Judaism and Islam. Seventeenth-century travel writing and Enlightenment philosophy of the eighteenth century also dealt with the concept of race and tended to confirm the notion of a hierarchy of races. But it was only in the second half of the nineteenth century that Social Darwinism argued that race was the determining factor behind all social and cultural developments. Joseph Gobineau (1816–1882) and Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927) were the two most successful popularisers of the idea that historical development could not be understood properly without taking recourse to the category of race.43 Innumerable British national histories spoke about Saxon ‘blood ties’. In France, historians such as Augustin (1795–1856) and Amédée Thierry (1797–1873) popu- larised the notion of the ‘Gallic race’ well before the advent of Social Darwinism. Whilst there was no biological connotation in the Thierrys’ concept of race, racialist French national histories in the 1930s and 1940s, most of which were, to their credit, not written by professional historians, attempted to build on the Thierrys’ work, wilfully misinterpreting their use of the term ‘race’. In Germany Otto Hintze (1861–1940) used race synonymously with national character and emphasised, sometimes in Social Darwinist vein, the importance of ‘healthy racial stock’ for positive national development. After 1945, with the horrors of National Socialist race policies tainting Europe, race could only be used in conjunction with the notion that it was socially and culturally constructed.44 The rise of the concept of class and its use in national histories is, by and large, a phenomenon which started in the second half of the eighteenth century, when economists such as the French physiocrats and later Adam Smith (1723–1790) and David Ricardo (1772–1823) introduced economic models of society which divided populations into classes. This was picked up prominently by Karl Marx’s (1818–1883) theory of class. The ‘social question’ of the nineteenth century exacerbated the thinking about classes and the desire to make class a prominent feature in national history. The problem was that class highlighted divisions in the nation, whereas national histories tended to stress the unity of the nation.

43 Joseph Arthur de Gobineau, Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaine, 4 vols (Paris, 1853–1855); Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Die Grundlagen des 19. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1899). 44 On the career of the concepts of race, ethnicity and class see Chris Lorenz, ‘Representations of Identity: Ethnicity, Race, Class, Gender and Religion. An Introduction to Conceptual History’, in: Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz (eds), The Contested Nation: Ethnicity, Class, Religion and Gender in National Histories (Basingstoke, 2008), pp. 24–59.

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 15

This could lead to the exclusion of class analysis from national history or the claim that particular classes represented the nation above everyone else. The latter idea was prominent in socialist and, later, Communist national histories. National histories have often been about kings, queens, political leaders and the powerful more generally, but it is equally true to say that in the modern period, few national histories lacked references to ‘the people’. Feudal societies in Europe knew the term ‘people’ as referring to socio-economic groups at the lower end of the spectrum. In an age of universal suffrage, citizenship and civil society, it was virtually impossible to imagine the nation without the people. It now became a political and legal term, signifying rights and duties vis-à-vis states and national collectives. It had been Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), standing, as we will show in Chapter 2, between the Enlightenment and Romantic traditions of history writing, who tied the term ‘people’ firmly to the term ‘nation’ – both terms were in fact used interchangeably by Herder. And yet, even in a post-Herderian world ‘the people’ remained a concept so ambiguous and multifaceted that it meant very different things in different spatial and temporal contexts. It never really lost its early pejorative overtones, but could also be used positively as reference point for justifying particular political projects. As Volk it gained widespread racial connotations in interwar German Volksgeschichte, whereas in Marxist national histories ‘the people’ was used almost synonymously with the working classes and the idea of ‘progressive forces’ in history. And in liberal discourse, references to the people became references to the political sovereign, which were connected to notions of parliamentary democracy and the rule of law. In what follows we will have to be aware of the very different contexts in which the idea of the people was used in national histories.45 Representations of history and memory as expressions of collective national identities have been subsumed, in German-language scholarship, under the rubric of ‘historical culture’ (Geschichtskultur).46 The advantage of such an overarching concept is that it takes images, myths, symbols and affective investments as seriously as the political use of commemoration or the scientific study of the past. Furthermore, it can explore the interactions and the intertextuality of different commemorative practices, genres and disciplines in a way that is impossible by focusing narrowly on just one discipline. However, the disadvantage is, simply put, that it is too complex to be described and studied over a longer period in more than one or two societies. The kind of long-term and comparative perspective on national histories that is put forward in our book, in contrast

45 Reinhart Koselleck, ‘Volk, Nation’ in: Otto Brunner, Werner Conze and Reinhart Koselleck (eds), Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland, vol. 7 (Stuttgart, 1992), pp. 141–431; for the manifold uses of the discourse of ‘the people’ in nineteenth-century British politics see Patrick Joyce, Visions of the People: Industrial England and the Question of Class, 1848–1914 (Cambridge, 1991). 46 Jörn Rüsen, ‘Was ist Geschichtskultur? Überlegungen zu einer neuen Art, über Geschichte nachzudenken’, in: idem, Klaus Füssmann and Heinrich Theodor Grütter (eds), Historische Faszination: Geschichtskultur heute (Cologne, 1994), pp. 2–26.

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16 The Past as History to broader ‘historical culture’ analyses, chooses both a strict focus, that is on historiography, as well as a wide angle, that is on many countries and on a long time period of more than two centuries. If we refer occasionally below to the interstices between historiography and a much broader ‘historical culture’ it is to indicate the fruitfulness of intertextual and interdisciplinary perspectives, but it will be for someone else to systematise and categorically interpret such relations between the two.

National Histories in Comparative and Transnational Perspective

Here it might be appropriate to say a few words about methodology. We clearly aim to compare and build on a long and distinguished tradition of comparative history writing that is connected with names such as Marc Bloch (1886–1944), Otto Hintze (1861–1940), Charles Tilly (1929–2008), and Eric Hobsbawm (1917–2012). But we also, in an eclectic fashion take on board the important interventions made by the history of cultural transfers, histoire croisée and transnational history. All of these approaches have been attempting to overcome national tunnel visions, and all of them were deeply influenced by other disciplines, including the social sciences, languages, literature, law, cultural studies and education. Despite a number of hostile exchanges between representatives of these different types of transnational history writing, these approaches seem to us to be mutually reinforcing rather than exclusive or contradictory. It is true that all of them have been struggling to escape the trap of national moulds, often comparing nation states or observing instances of cultural transfer between them. Even in transnational studies it can be hard to escape the pull of the logic of the nation state which has come to domi- nate modern and contemporary forms of stateness. Having said this, first of all, there is no need to abandon the nation state as framework for historical studies altogether. At least from the seventeenth century onwards, nation states played an important role as historical actors in Europe and therefore the historian’s attention needs to take this frame into consideration. Secondly, what strikes us as important is not to abandon the nation state as object of analysis but to do away with the methodological nationalism which has come to shape the historical and many neighbouring professions as a result of the predominance of the national framework. It is here that comparison, transnationalism and histoire croisée can play a useful role, for they allow us to look at instances of the reception, transformation and adaptation of cultural and social phenomena across borders, to emphasise circulation, networks and hybridity, to look at the relationships between centres and peripheries, to take the historical reality of globalisation seriously and explore the interconnectedness of hegemony and domination with acts of subversion, resistance and appropriation. Once again, transnational approaches are fraught with difficulties of their own: concepts have different meanings in different national contexts and a transnation- ally aware conceptual history stands only at the very beginning of its attempts to historicise the translation of such concepts from one national context to another. Transnationalism also requires familiarity with more than one national context.

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 17

Here we are dealing with the whole of Europe, consisting at present of well over thirty nation states. The more national contexts one considers, the greater the linguistic pitfalls that one might encounter, especially as the linguistic abilities of even the best historians rarely include more than the mastery of five or six languages. With big comparisons, reliance on the existing secondary literature is inevitable, which means the comparative historian depends on different research traditions. Nationalised historiographies have asked different questions and pur- sued diverse lines of enquiries, and the comparative historian needs to be aware of these historiographical pitfalls. Furthermore, whilst any comparison needs firm and justifiable boundaries in time and space, the comparative historian needs to remain alert to the possibility that similar developments occurred in nationally constituted societies at different times. Hence, both synchronic and diachronic perspectives on the object of the comparison are necessary. Nevertheless, despite all the possible pitfalls, the combined methodological toolkits of transnational approaches have allowed historians to distance themselves successfully from positions of uniqueness that were constructed by methodological nationalisms and instead get a clearer view of the many entanglements that connected national histories in Europe and beyond. The aim must be to arrive at polycentric and polyperspectival understandings of the many interconnected histories that form the sum total of human experience. Instead of naturalising nations, transnational approaches have allowed historians to think about the constructedness of national story-lines as well as to consider the history of individual national histo- riograpies in their interaction with others while at the same time highlighting the parallel processes of the transnationalisation of historiographies.47 The present volume provides a predominantly European perspective and can therefore be accused of Eurocentrism. However, whilst the object of investigation here is undoubtedly Europe, we do not think that historians necessarily have to apologise for investigating such a diverse historical landscape as Europe over more than two centuries. Indeed, it seems an ambitious enough project to undertake in the first place. However, we have been acutely aware that history formed the backbone of national identity formation in many parts of the world and that national history, for better or worse, can be viewed as one of the most successful

47 For introductions to comparative history, transnational history and histoire croisée, see Stefan Berger, ‘Comparative History’, in: Stefan Berger, Heiko Feldner and Kevin Passmore (eds), Writing History: Theory and Practice, 2nd edition (Basingstoke, 2010), pp. 192–210; Christoph Conrad, ‘Vergleich und Transnationalität in der Geschichte’, in: Andreas Wirsching (ed.), Oldenbourg Geschichte Lehrbuch Neueste Zeit, 2nd edition (Munich, 2008), pp. 317–32; Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Jürgen Kocka (eds), Comparative and Transnational History: Central European Approaches and New Perspectives (Oxford, 2009); Deborah Cohen and Maura O’Connor (eds), Comparison and History: Europe in Cross-National Perspective (London, 2004); Michel Espagne, Les Transferts Culturels Franco-Allemands (Paris, 1999); Michael Werner and Benedict Zimmermann, ‘Beyond Comparison: “Histoire Croisé” and the Challenge of Reflexivity’, History and Theory 45:1 (2006), pp. 30–50; Johannes Paulmann, ‘Internationaler Vergleich und interkultureller Transfer: zwei Forschungsansätze zur europäischen Geschichte des 18. bis 20. Jahrhunderts’, Historische Zeitschrift 267:3 (1998), pp. 649–85; Charles Tilly, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (New York, 1985).

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18 The Past as History export articles of Europe to all four corners of the world.48 Studies of the global interconnections of historiography have confirmed the widespread transfer of ideas about history from Europe to other parts of the world, where these ideas were received as part and parcel of Europe’s modernity. Hence, Romantic national narratives seeking to establish the unique character of nations were emulated in places like China, Japan, South Africa, Australia and India. The ideology of scientificity came to permeate national historiographies everywhere, and the greatest proponents of scientific history writing were arguably Marxist historians. Particularly during the 1960s and 1970s Marxist approaches to national history writing provided a common reference frame for historians across different continents. Overall, the comparison of European national histories with their counterparts elsewhere showed clearly how salient the relationship between national history writing and national identity formation has been across the globe. Non-European national discourses were never wholly derivative of European models, but ‘scientific’ national history has been setting the parameters for academic history writing everywhere. This is even true for places like China or India, where it met with, rejected and adapted indigenous forms of history writing and concepts of nation. The national paradigm in history writing rose to prominence in the anti-colonial struggles of the colonised against European colonisers. Anti-colonialist historians used the emancipatory potential of national history and turned it against its European propagators only to find out that national history was as Janus-faced outside Europe as it was within it. After all, the contiguous empires of East-Central and Eastern Europe left a lasting legacy in the national histories of these regions.49 Given the existence of three mighty empires in Eastern and East-Central Europe until the end of the First World War, nation-state formation and national history writing followed to some extent different trajectories, although in others, the historians in East-Central and Eastern Europe, such as Joachim Lelewel (1786–1861), František Palacký (1798–1876), Mihály Horváth (1809–1878), Mihail Koga˘lniceanu (1817–1891) or Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864), followed a recognisably European pattern of national history writing and, indeed, in their attempts to construct and promote historical writing that sought to provide the foundations of unified national cultures were as innovative and original as their Western European counterparts.50

48 For details, see Berger (ed.), Writing National History: a Global Perspective, as well as the Oxford History of Historical Writing, in five volumes, under the general editorship of Daniel Woolf and Ian Hesketh, which provides major global perspectives on the history of historiography: vol. 1: Andrew Feldherr and Grant Hardy (eds), Beginnings to AD 600 (Oxford, 2011); vol. 2: Sarah Foot et al. (eds), Historical Writing, 400–1400 (Oxford, 2012); vol. 3: José Rabasa, Masayuki Sato and Edoardo Tortarolo (eds), Historical Writing, 1400–1800 (Oxford, 2012); vol. 4: Stuart Macintyre, Juan Maiguashka and Attila Pok (eds), Historical Writing, 1800–1945 (Oxford, 2011); vol. 5: Axel Schneider and Daniel Woolf (eds), Historical Writing since 1945 (Oxford, 2011). 49 Frank Hadler and Mathias Mesenhöller (eds), Lost Greatness and Past Oppression in East Central Europe: Representations of the Imperial Experience in Historiography since 1918 (Leipzig, 2007). 50 Monika Baár, Historians and Nationalism. East-Central Europe in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 2010).

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 19

If the Romanov, Habsburg and Ottoman empires provided very different frameworks for the writing of national histories in comparison to the composite multinational or national states of Western Europe, both Western and Eastern European historiography need to be discussed together in an attempt to analyse the power of national paradigms over European history writing from the nineteenth century to the present. This is one of the central aims of our book. We can build in this endeavour on a range of comparative works dealing with national histories and their links both to wider historiographical developments and to the history of nationalism, and in particular on the results of the NHIST programme mentioned in the preface.51 The current volume is, on balance, based on a top-down perspective on the history of historiography – we are dealing with institutions, states, leading historians and master narratives. It synthesises a substantial amount of secondary literature and primary sources available in different European languages and it aims to give an overview of the development of national histories over the longue durée. This is not to deny the value of bottom-up perspectives on the interrelationship between national history and national identity formation. Case studies of individual historians and their impact on the diverse ways in which the national master narratives took shape across Europe have proven their value.52 In future it will be important to provide more close readings of key national histories and analyse their particular political interventions and the everyday historical practices which helped produce these narratives. They raise the question how the construction of such histories was related to the practices and lives of professional

51 Apart from the many NHIST volumes, we would like to mention in particular: Karl Lönnroth, Karl Molin, and Ragnar Björk (eds), Conceptions of National History (Berlin, 1994); Stefan Berger, Mark Donovan and Kevin Passmore (eds), Writing National Histories. Western Europe Since 1800 (London 1999); Christoph Conrad and Sebastian Conrad (eds), Die Nation schreiben: Geschichtswissenschaft im internationalen Vergleich (Göttingen 2002); Ann-Marie Thiesse, La création des identités nationales: Europe XVIIIe–XXe siècle (Paris, 2001); Miroslav Hroch, Das Europa der Nationen: die moderne Nationsbildung im europäischen Vergleich (Göttingen, 2005), especially pp. 145–70; Miroslav Hroch and Jitka Malecˇkova, ‘Historical Heritage: Continuity and Discontinuity in the Construction of National Histories’, Studia Historica 53 (2000), pp. 15–36, reprinted in: Miroslav Hroch, Comparative Studies in Modern European History: Nation, Nationalism and Social Change (Aldershot, 2007); Hans-Peter Hye, Brigitte Mazohl, Jan Paul Niederkorn (eds), Nationalgeschichte als Artefakt. Zum Paradigma ‘Nationalstaat’ in den Historiographien Deutschlands, Italiens und Östereichs (Vienna, 2009); Frank Meyer and Jan Eivind Myhre (eds), Nordic Historiography in the Twentieth Century (Oslo, 2000); Eckhardt Fuchs and Benedikt Stuchtey (eds), Across Cultural Borders: Historiography in Global Perspective (Oxford, 2002); Daniel Woolf (ed.), The Oxford History of Historical Writing, 5 vols (Oxford, 2011 ff.); Baár, Historians and Nationalism. There are also a range of bilateral comparisons which have been extremely helpful for us. They include: Krzysztof Baczkowski and Christian Simon (eds), Historiographie in Polen und in der Schweiz (Krakow 1994); Christian Simon, Staat und Geschichtswissenschaft in Deutschland und Frankreich, 1871–1914 (Bern, 1988); P. Wende and B. Stuchtey (eds), British and German Historiography 1750–1950 (Oxford 2000), and S. Berger, P. Lambert and P. Schumann (eds), Dialog der Schwerhörigen? Geschichte, Mythos und Gedächtnis im deutsch-englischen kulturellen Austausch 1750–2000 (Göttingen 2002), as well as many others which are mentioned on subsequent pages. 52 Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz (eds), Nationalizing the Past. Historians as Nation Builders in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe (Basingstoke, 2010).

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20 The Past as History historians. A history of historiography paying due attention to these practices, personal emotions, working habits, rhetorical strategies, ethical dispositions and beliefs as well as family matters and political engagements is still in its infancy, but promising to deliver important results in the future.53 We will refer to them where appropriate, but again cannot deliver a full-scale analysis of this material as it would go beyond the more limited remit of this volume. Since professional history writing clearly never was the sole agency constructing national history, other genres and disciplines need to be investigated to get a fuller and more rounded picture of the ways in which national master narratives came about and gained popularity in different contexts.54 The range of possible objects – from war monuments to patriotic lyrics, from historical novels to operas, from movies to TV series, or even to computer games and internet sites in our very present – is vast, and the methodological effort required for their study sometimes discouraging for historians, but their impact on the public is often more direct than that of scholarly texts. In our view, inter-textual, inter-medial, and trans-disciplinary approaches will be of huge benefit to the study of national ‘historical cultures’ in the future. The transgression of the often permeable boundaries of ‘scientific’ history writing will recur constantly in the following chapters: the switching of roles (politicians turned historians and vice versa), the priority taken by novels or non-professional writings over works of academic history, the engagement of professors as public intellectuals or the recycling of historical research in museums, all such interchanges happened in the past and are common today. They would certainly deserve more attention and dedicated study. If one were to map the place of historiography among the actors and media of national identity formation one would have to relativise the importance of the historians’ craft. Theirs was only one of the disciplines and genres contributing to the development of national master narratives. Apart from history, language and literature have played major roles.55 The collective work of scholars who created

53 For examples of such a history of historiography from below see Jo Tollebeek, Fredericq & Zonen. Een Antropologie van de Moderne Geschiedwetenschap (Amsterdam, 2008); Henning Trüper and Niklas Olsen (eds), Cultural Sites of Historical Writing: Perspectives on Rhetoric, Practice and Politics, special issue of Storia della Storiografia 53 (2008), pp. 43–144; Philip Müller (ed.), special issue of Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 18:2 (2007); idem, ‘Ranke in the Lobby of the Archive: Metaphors and Conditions of Historical Research’, in: Sebastian Jobs and Alf Lüdtke (eds), Unsettling History. Archiving and Narrating in Historiography (Frankfurt/Main, 2010), pp. 109–26. 54 Stefan Berger, Linas Eriksonas and Andrew Mycock (eds), Narrating the Nation: Representations in History, Media and the Arts (Oxford, 2008); Sylvia Paletschek (ed.), Popular Historiographies in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Cultural Meanings, Social Practices (Oxford, 2011); Stefan Berger, Chris Lorenz and Billie Melman (eds), Popularizing National Pasts, 1800 to the Present (London, 2012); Barbara Korte and Sylvia Paletschek (eds), Popular Histories 1800–1900–2000 (Bielefeld, 2012). 55 Annemarie Thiesse, La création des identités nationales. Europe XVIIIe–XXe siècle (Paris, 1999). It should be remembered that these endeavours belonged to the individual protagonists in phase A of Miroslav Hroch’s social-historical model of nationalist movements; only subsequently did they become the object of civil society and state action, see most recently Miroslav Hroch, Das Europa der Nationen (Göttingen, 2005).

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 21 the first grammars and dictionaries, who unearthed (or invented) ancient poets and texts and who then collected and canonised national literatures is a huge field.56 It would lend itself to a European comparative and transnational recon- struction along the model explored for national histories. Equally close to history but more concerned with the material uncovering of the origins of nations were archaeology, ethnography and prehistory. Directly involved in building up the knowledge basis and normative matrix of nation states were the disciplines of public law, political economy (called Nationalökonomie in the German speaking countries), geography, and, finally, the social sciences. Whilst this volume will include the occasional nod towards the case study approach and the historical anthropology of historiography, and whilst it will also sometimes refer briefly to other genres, the full exploitation of these rich fields of study would go far beyond the remit of this (relatively) short attempt to provide the reader with some kind of synthesis on the interrelationship between history writing and national identity formation.

Some Remarks on the Structure and Main Themes of the Book

After introducing some of the key concepts of this study and reflecting on its methods and its geographical and time limits, let us finally familiarise the reader with the structure of the book’s argument. The first substantive chapter following this introduction starts off with a brief survey of national histories from the middle ages to the middle of the eighteenth century and then deals, in the main, with Enlightenment national history during the second half of the eighteenth century. It looks at the ways in which national histories in this period provided a challenge to both the dynastic and the religious/confessional histories which had domi- nated the field in earlier centuries – notwithstanding the humanist scholarship in the Renaissance which often formed an important point of reference for Enlightenment historians. Geographically, the chapter focuses on the centres of Enlightenment historiography: Scotland, France and the German lands, although other, less well-known places in both Western and Eastern Europe also come into view. As ours is a history of historiography which asks about the production of historical knowledge – under which conditions, by whom and how – the chapter also pays attention to the political, societal, institutional and material conditions under which historical knowledge about the nation was produced. It is notice- able that, even during the highpoint of Enlightenment history, we already find national history as patriotic history, as the debates surrounding the free peasantry in Danish national history, or the debates between Normanists and Varangianists in Russian national history, amply demonstrate. In some parts of Europe, such as Finland, writing national history was deeply embedded in the promotion of

56 See, for example, Marcel Cornis-Pope and John Neubauer (eds), History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe: Junctures and Disjunctures in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 4 vols (Amsterdam, 2004–2010); Christoph Koenig (ed.), Das Potential europäischer Philologien. Geschichte, Leistung, Funktion (Göttingen, 2009).

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22 The Past as History the vernacular language against a dominant other language – Swedish in the case of Finland. It was also already an important political weapon, as demonstrated by the debates surrounding the Dacian–Roman continuities in Transylvania and their impact on the status of Romanians in Transylvania and in other parts of the Habsburg empire, such as the Banat. The third chapter covers the first half of the nineteenth century. We emphasise not so much the harsh break between Enlightenment and Romantic national history as the gliding transitions and overlaps between the two. Whilst Romantic historians undoubtedly moved away from the universalising aspirations of their Enlightenment counterparts, the insights of most Romantic historians would be entirely unthinkable without the intellectual achievements of the Enlightenment. The chapter highlights the limits of the professionalisation of history writing during this period and its close association with literature, music, the fine arts, archaeology and theology. The spread of ‘scientificity’ in historical writing is described as a specifically German mission which coincided with the spread of Herderian ideas about nation, Hegelian links between nation and étatisme and Fichtean sacralisations of nation right across the European continent. As Franco Moretti (*1950) wrote with respect to the European novel in this period: ‘all of Europe [was] reading the same books, with the same enthusiasm, and roughly in the same years.’57 This is true also for historians such as Ranke or Jules Michelet (1798–1874), or theorists of nation, such as Herder. Their writings had a Europe-wide purchase and influenced national historiographies right across the continent, albeit in diverse ways. In response to the universalism of the Enlightenment which seemed to find expression in the French revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic conquest of Europe, national historians employed history to defend their particular nations against such universalist ambitions. In a review of the basic elements which went into the construction of modern national histories in Europe, we highlight their many commonalities but also point out some significant differences. The chapter concludes with a reflection on alternative historiographical traditions, such as regional, empire, pan- and class-histories and their nationalisation in the nineteenth century. The fourth chapter outlines the take-off of the institutionalisation and professionalisation of historical writing during the second half of the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth centuries. The rise of historism58 permeated university departments of history, national academies, archives, libraries, dictionaries, museums as well as the setting up of historical associations, commissions, journals and source editions. Communities and networks of historians prolifer-

57 Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900 (London, 1998), p. 176. 58 Ever since 1995 Stefan Berger has deliberately used the term “historism” rather than “historicism”. Whereas “historism” (in German Historismus), as associated with Leopold von Ranke, can be seen as an evolutionary, reformist concept which understands all political order as historically developed and grown, “historicism” (in German Historizismus), as defined and rejected by Karl Popper, is based on the notion that history develops according to predetermined laws towards a particular end. We would plead to follow the German language and introduce two separate terms in the English language as well, in order to avoid confusion.

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 23 ated throughout Europe.59 The chapter will comment in particular on the close interrelationship between transnational scientific practice and the nationalising agenda of history writing. Throughout the book we will pay attention to the permeability of nationally constituted historical cultures and ask how much they looked outside their borders. Michael Bentley has taken a somewhat dim view of English historiography: ‘We readily overstress the permeability of the English intelligentsia in general and historians in particular to ideas from outside the culture in which they had been brought up.’60 The current volume will attempt to shed more light on the willingness of different European intellectual cultures to open themselves up to outside influence. Undoubtedly the nationalising bias of historical writing could make transnationalism deeply problematical. Rival ethnic claims on one and the same territory often led to the setting up of rival national historiographies on the same territory, e.g. Bohemia, Belgium and Finland. The chapter will go on to discuss the huge impact of the state on history writing in Europe, especially its mediation of various attempts from within civil society bodies to promote particular variants of historical national master narratives. Increased scientificity in the second half of the nineteenth century led to the drawing of more pronounced boundaries between history and amateurism and between history and other genres/ disciplines. However, an increase in the professional ethos of historians did not necessarily mean a withdrawal from the political project of nation-building. Quite the reverse: their enhanced ‘scientific’ status meant that historians could now claim a particular authenticity and increased ability to speak on behalf of the nation – either as official state- sanctioned historians or oppositional ones. Historians promoted historiographical nationalism in a wide range of scenarios, ranging from long-established states to new ones and from aspiring stateless nations to nationalising empires. They were also among the most effective popularisers of their more scholarly work following an alleged vocation as pedagogues or even prophets of the nation. Sceptics of such nationalisation of the historical discipline found themselves increasingly marginalised before 1914. Border conflicts came to shape national master narratives to a considerable extent,61 and national narratives everywhere negotiated the demands of confessional, racial and class identities with their desire to present a unified national history. As the final section of this chapter will demonstrate, the thorough nationalisation of historical writing did not end history’s transnational orientation. European history, world history, empire history and pan-histories were still being written, but ever more rarely as counter-histories to the national paradigm. Instead they became part and parcel of national master narratives.

59 See in particular Ilaria Porciani and Jo Tollebeek (eds), Setting the Standards: Institutions, Networks and Communities of National Historiography (Basingstoke, 2012). 60 Michael Bentley, Modernizing England’s Past. English Historiography in the Age of Modernism, 1870–1970 (Cambridge, 2005), p. 179. 61 This is explored in great depth by Tibor Frank and Frank Hadler (eds), Disputed Territories and Shared Pasts: Overlapping National Histories in Modern Europe (Basingstoke, 2011), on which we shall draw extensively in the following chapters.

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24 The Past as History

The fifth chapter explores the fate of national histories between the outbreak of the First World War and the end of the Second World War. It describes the First World War as the high point of historiographical nationalism in Europe and reviews the attempts of historians to support the war efforts of their respective countries, whilst also giving some examples of a continued adherence to transnationalism within the historical profession. The debate over responsibility for the outbreak of war continued the historiographical nationalism of the war years into the post-war era. The new nation states that came into existence in East-Central and Eastern Europe after the end of the war quickly embarked on a state-promoted historiographical nationalism of their own in attempts to stabilise their ‘young’ nation states. The chapter also reviews the situation of older liberal-democratic national histories in a number of European nation states that increasingly looked beleaguered and defensive in the interwar period, as they were challenged by fascist and right- wing authoritarian, including religious, national histories on the one hand and Communist ones on the other. The rise of racist Volksgeschichte in interwar Europe is considered in comparative perspective, and the chapter will ask what German occupation in the Second World War did to the historical national master narratives of the occupied countries, especially where nations achieved ‘independence’ under fascism, as was the case, for example, in Slovakia and Croatia. Communist national history was institutionalised in the Soviet Union after the Bol’ševik victory of 1917, but the merger of class and national history had a much longer tradition, which will be briefly reviewed. Under Stalin the nationalisation of Soviet historiography saw the repression of other histories in the Soviet Union, e.g. those of Ukraine or Byelorussia. The chapter ends with a review of the impact of exile from both fascism and communism on historical national master narratives and of attempts to maintain transnational and internationalist perspectives in historical writing in the midst of the hypernationalist zeitgeist of the interwar period. The final substantive chapter of this book will explore the development of national history writing from the end of the Second World War to the present day. It will start with a survey of attempts across Europe to stabilise national historical narratives amidst the chaos of the end of the Second World War. Those attempts can be found in both Communist and capitalist countries in East and Western Europe. They were common in perpetrator, victim and neutral countries. It was only during the long 1960s that a delayed break with the positively accentuated national tradition of history writing took place in a number of European countries. The chapter comments on the deconstruction of heroic resistance stories in various countries occupied during the Second World War and highlights the importance of the expansion of higher education systems in Western Europe as well as the rise of social history for the emergence of more critical attitudes to national history during the 1960s and 1970s. The Cold War divided European historiographies but it also provided transnational platforms in both Eastern and Western Europe. And with the emergence of détente from the late 1960s onwards the possibilities for dialogue between the power blocks also increased among historians. In relation to Communist East European historiographies the chapter explores the impact of exile

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 25 historiographies which developed and maintained their own national histories. In the West, anti-communism and the notion of a Western community of values contributed to the opening up of national tunnel visions and the tentative beginnings of more transnational orientations of historians. However, there was no linear move away from national master narratives. The chapter comments on their revival in both Western and Eastern Europe, which started in Eastern Europe in the 1960s and 1970s (with a variety of national communisms) and in Western Europe in the 1980s (with the victory of neo-conservative and neo-liberal ideologies) and in many cases accelerated after the end of the Cold War. The fall of communism and the processes of Europeanisation strengthened such nationalising tendencies. The chapter assesses to what extent the strengthening of national history was a return to the 1950s or, rather, something different, and it also traces a variety of alternative efforts to keep clear of national history. As the conclusion to this volume underlines, the contemporary history of historiography is characterised by two seemingly contradictory tendencies. On the one hand the end of the Cold War has seen a revival of national histories in many formerly Communist nations in Eastern Europe. But such renationalisation also accelerated in Germany (with reunification) and in many parts of Western Europe, where regionalisms transformed themselves into full-fledged nationalisms (e.g. Catalonia, Scotland, Flanders). On the other hand, professional history writing has discovered transnational history and investigates the entanglements pointing beyond the borders of the nation states which appear as artificial and constructed. Hence, we shall ask where history writing will and should be going in the twenty-first century and attempt to draw some lessons from the history of national historiographies which has been examined here. However, all of this is done only after an attempt to systematise some of the findings of this volume, making use of the general themes which are analysed throughout. As will be clear from this brief introduction to the following chapters, we have adopted a chronological approach and yet we are pursuing throughout the volume some interrelated thematic strands which can be translated into seven sets of questions:

1. Where were national histories being written and by whom? Which factors promoted national history writing and which held it back? Throughout the book we are keen to stress agency and location and their importance in shaping historiographies in Europe. What motivated diverse historians to produce national history? How did the nationalisation of historiographies interact with the development of a transnational ethos among historians? 2. How was professional historical practice linked to institutions such as archives, museums and university departments that were established by European states and societies? National historiographies positioned themselves within civil society and vis-à-vis the state and they did so by excluding forms of amateurism and endorsing the idea of scientificity. How were processes of institutionalisation and professionalisation tied to disciplinary closures? How open did history remain towards other genres and disciplines? As Ann Rigney (*1957) reminds us,

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26 The Past as History

‘professional historical practice, far from floating serenely in some eternal space, reflected the hierarchies within the society in which it was rooted.’62 3. How were national histories gendered? How were women excluded from professional history writing and how were they eventually integrated into the profession? What role did they play in shaping historiographies? Did their ‘emplotment’ of history differ from that of their male colleagues? How were notions of gender and gender order inscribed into the structure of national histories? 4. What were key ingredients of national master narratives? How did they develop over time? What major similarities and differences can be perceived between them? How did ideas about national history circulate within Europe and which standards were adopted as ‘best practice’ throughout Europe? How did processes of cultural transfer work? 5. How did political caesuras, wars and regime changes impact on historians and their writings? It has been part and parcel of the scientific ethos of the profession to claim a high degree of autonomy from political processes. Professional historians liked to link their ethos of impartiality to an idea of political neutrality. How much did this correspond to the actual involvement of historians with politics and the powers that were? From which position of power was national history being written? How marginal or dominant was it in different contexts? How easily was historiography instrumentalised by governments or political groups? What causes did historians serve? 6. All attempts to stabilise territorial orders produce borders. They and the scar tis- sue they produced on the map of Europe have played a major role in national histories. How did the nation define itself at and through the border and to what degree have border histories been infused with an acute sense of territo- riality? How have themes like in- and out-migration, exile, ethnic minorities and transterritoriality been integrated in the national master narrative? 7. Finally, we also want to highlight that national history has never been the only show in town. Throughout the period under discussion here there have been a number of alternatives. What linkages and hierarchies existed between national histories and other forms of history writing? These alternatives were framed on different spatial levels, such as regional, European, universal or global history, and they were focused on other cleavages within and between societies, such as communities of ethnicity/race, religion/confession and class. To what extent were those real alternatives? Or, asked differently: to what extent has national history been capable of subsuming these alternatives under its seemingly all-pervasive paradigm?

National history writing resembles a performative act. Writing the nation has meant performing it in a range of different institutional and political contexts.

62 Ann Rigney, ‘The Two Bodies of Mrs. Oliphant’, History and Theory 40:1 (2001), pp. 74–89, quote on p. 78.

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Introduction – Constructing the Nation through History 27

We seek to assess in particular national history’s emancipatory and destructive potential. Such a balance sheet will allow us to ask what future there might be for identity constructions based on history in the context of ongoing Europeanisation and globalisation. At a time of further EU enlargement and of ‘ever closer political union’, the EU has become interested in promoting European historical consciousness. Our reading of national histories should allow us to comment and provide some tentative conclusions as to how advisable it would be for Europe to seek to copy the development of national historical consciousness through history.

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Index

Page numbers in bold and italics refer to appendix entries and photographs respectively. Names that begin St or Mc. are arranged as if ‘Saint’ or ‘Mac’ respectively. Entries with initial numbers are arranged before alphabetic entries. 1848 revolutions 112, 122–3, 152, 249 Acts of the Saints (Acta Sanctorum) 38, 72 Akçura, Yusuf 240, 380 Aaron, Florian 129, 380 Albania/Albanians 176, 293, 309, 326, Abbt, Thomas 47–8, 380 329, 337 Abecedarskii, Lavrentii 309 Alighieri, Dante 48, 118, 380 Abrégé chronologique de l’histoire et du Allen, Carl Ferdinand 119, 191, 381 droit public d’Allemagne (Abridged Alphonsine Chronicles 30 Chronology of the History and Public Alsace and Lorraine 44–5, 104, 186, 189, Law of Germany) (Pfeffel) 45 368 abstraction, three layers in national Altamira, Rafael 262, 381 history 1–2 Aly, Götz 260, 381 Abusch, Alexander 287, 380 amateur traditions academic infrastructures see class history 224–5 institutionalisation Enlightenment period 2, 74–6, 79 Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles and European diversity in history Lettres (Academy of Inscriptions and writing 371–2 Literature) 71, 133, 233 history workshop movement 339 academies and institutionalisation/professionalisation early nineteenth century 86, 98, 133–4, 22–3, 25, 175–81, 359 138 interwar Luxembourg 245 eighteenth century development 22, 38, mid 1960s trend 306 51, 61, 69, 70, 71–2, 133–4 and Romantic period universities 83, internationality 159, 160, 233 86–7, 136, 138 interwar period 233, 242 state influence 170 late nineteenth/early twentieth Turkish foyers 141 century 141, 150–1, 155, 159, 160, Western Marxism 206, 224, 274 163 and women 74–6, 181, 359, 360 post-Communist nationalism 326, 328, see also civil society actors 331, 332, 333 anarchism 274 under Communism 269, 270–1, 273, ancient history 290, 308 Enlightenment historiography 65 under fascism/right wing European origins 13, 31–2, 33, 34 dictatorships 262, 267, 278 interwar Turkey 240 women 181 late nineteenth/early twentieth Academy of Inscriptions and Literature century 187, 200, 204 (Académie des Inscriptions et des notions of nation 7, 29–30 Belles Lettres) 71, 133, 233 Romantic period historiography 101, achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte, 108, 109 Der (Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Anderson, Benedict 193 Bonaparte, The) (Marx) 205 Andics, Erzsébet 297 Acsády, Ignác 147, 380 Andronikos, Manolis 202, 381 Acta Sanctorum (Acts of the Saints) 38, 72 Angliacae Historicae (English History) Acton, John Emerich Edward (Vergil) 32 Dalberg 107–9, 380 Anglo Saxon Chronicle, The 29

536

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Index 537

Ankersmit, Frank 8, 381 Aufruf an die Kulturwelt (Appeal to the Annales Rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicorum Cultural World) 226 Regnante Elizabethae (Annals of English Aufseβ, Hans von 93–4, 382 and Irish History During the Reign of Augustin of Hippo 382 Elizabeth) (Camden) 32 Aulard, François-Alphonse 275, 382 Annales School 175, 240, 252, 308, 309–11, Austria 314, 356, 364 1960s higher education expansion 304 Annals of English and Irish History During borderlands 264, 368 the Reign of Elizabeth (Annales Rerum Cold-War historiography 313 Anglicarum et Hibernicorum Regnante imperial narratives 163 Elizabethae) (Camden) 32 institutionalisation 134, 147, 169 Anquetil, Louis Pierre 53, 381 and pan-Germanism 222 anti-Semitism 118, 141, 164, 195, 249, post-war historiography 289, 299, 303, 252, 288 345, 354 antiquarianism 49, 51, 74, 79, 94–5, 129, professional women historians 283 132, 178, 246 socialism/social history 306 Antonescu, Ion 332 Austro-Hungary 210, 211, 243, 264–5 Appeal to the Cultural World (Aufruf an die Kulturwelt) 226 Babington, Churchill 95, 383 Arbusov, Leonid 241, 381 Bachem, Karl 256, 383 archaeology 20, 94–5, 178, 202, 267 Bagwell, Richard 162, 383 archives Bailly, Jean Sylvain 49, 383 accessibility of 132–3, 153–4, 171 Bainville, Jacques 266, 383 and defence of colonialism 46, 131, balance of power theory (Enlightenment 215 historiography) 48–9, 56 IISG transnationality 274–5 balance sheet 373–9 and the institutionalisation of history 2, Bălcescu, Nicolae 129, 383 22, 25, 61–2, 110, 131–3, 152–3 Balibar, Étienne 13, 383 Italian ‘doctoring’ 182 Balzer, Oswald 244, 383 professional practice/habitus 25, 73, Barante, Amable Guillaume Prosper 180 Brugière Baron de 59, 383 Soviet centralisation 271 Barbagallo, Corrado 233, 384 and the war guilt debate 234–6 Barnes, Harry Elmer 238, 384 Ariès, Philippe 52n, 381 Barnett, Corelli 323, 384 aristocracy 33, 52, 119, 124–5 Barraclough, Geoffrey 314, 315–16, 384 Aristotle 48, 381 Bartels, Adolf 201, 384 Arminius’ (Hermann) victory over the Barthou, Louis 236 Romans 41, 101, 109, 118, 204 Basque Country 335, 342, 362 Arndt, Ernst Moritz 80, 381 Batak massacre (1876) 351 Arnold, Matthew 160, 382 Bauman, Zygmunt 291, 384 Arnold, Thomas 87, 382 Bayer, Gottlieb Siegfried 62, 384 Arouet, François-Marie see Voltaire Bebel, Heinrich 37, 384 art 92 Becher, Johannes Robert 282, 384–5 Arup, Erik 382 Bede 7, 29, 31, 38, 385 Aryan myths 202, 203, 240 Békefi, Remig 174, 385 Ashley, William James 174, 382 Bél, Mátyás 41, 385 Assmann, Aleida 346–7, 382 Belarus see Byelorussia Atabinen, Reşid Saffet 240, 382 Belgiojoso, Cristina Trivulzio di 126, 385 Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal 141, 240 Belgique couronnant ses énfants illustres, La ‘Atlantic civilisation’/Western values 25, (de Caisne) 92 313–14, 315, 316, 317, 341, 356 Belgium Aubin, Hermann 259–60, 288, 298, 1960s higher education expansion 304 382 competing ethnic groups 23, 67, 366 audiences 5, 33, 42, 73–4, 164, 214 see also Flemish identity/nationalism

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538 Index

Belgium – continued Blok, Petrus Johannes 174, 197, 209, 387 as a cultural bridge 120, 192, 231, 253, Blos, Wilhelm 206, 207, 387 368 Blum, Martin 165, 387 empire history 350 Bobrzyński, Michał 179, 387 First World War historiographies 230–1 Bod, Péter 38, 387 and German occupation 266, 300, 303 Bodin, Jean 39, 387 institutionalisation 110, 131, 135, 150, Bodmer, Johann Jacob 58–9, 387 155, 169, 178 Boece, Hector 54, 387 labour movement history 306 Boer, Pim den 197, 387 liberalism 372 Bohemia meso-regional historiography 341 competing German/Czech ethnic nineteenth century historiography 110, groups 23, 68, 111, 161, 264, 366 118, 150, 155, 162, 169, 174, 178, exile historiography 307 199 institutionalisation and patriotics arts 90, 92 professionalisation 141, 147, 159, professional appointments for 161, 163, 179 women 298 Královédsky Manuscript 115 Below, Georg von 227, 248–9, 385 monastic/priest historians 87, 124 Benczédi-Székely, István 37, 385 patriotic arts 91, 92 Beneš decrees 296 premodern histories 31, 40 Bentley, Michael 23 see also Czechoslovakia: Czech Republic Bergier Commission 345 Böhmer, Johann Friedrich 114, 387–8 Berlin Academy 72, 233 Boia, Lucian 336, 388 Berlin, University of 67, 84, 86, 144, 159 Boileau-Despréaux, Nicolas 34, 388 Berlin Wall 286, 357 Bolingbroke, Henry St John, Lord Berliner Antisemitismusstreit (Berlin Viscount 50, 388 Anti-Semitism Dispute) 195 Bolland, Jean 38, 388 Bernhardi, Friedrich von 143, 229, 385 Bollandists 72, 74, 124 Bernstein, Eduard 206, 208, 385 Bol’ševik historiography 24, 268–73 Berr, Henri 254, 385–6 Boltin, Ivan Nikitič 63, 388 Berry, Mary 126, 209, 386 Bonfini, Antonio 31, 388 Bertram, Charles 115, 386 book market/publishing industry 3, 47, Bibó, István 292, 386 73–4, 155, 359 Bielefeld School 305, 308, 315 Booth, Charles 207, 388 bilateral commissions/projects 312, 328, borderlands 337 Cold War narratives of neutrality 313 Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit as cultural bridges 120, 192, 231, 253, (Snapshots from the German Past) 368 (Freytag) 179, 203 emergence as a theme (early nineteenth Bilderdijk, Willem 100, 386 century) 104–5, 119 Bildung 12, 84, 180, 187 in Enlightenment transnational Bilmark, Johan 60, 386 debates 44–5 biographical dictionaries 155–6 interwar history wars 263–5, 284 biologicalisation of culture 166, see also late nineteenth/early twentieth century Social Darwinism politics 23, 144, 185, 188–97, 224 Biondo, Flavio 33, 386 postwar ethnic cleansing 296–7 Bismarck, Otto Von 142, 214, 248, 249, as a recurring theme 362, 368–9 288, 291 and territorial definitions of nation 26 Black Legend, The (Leyenda Negra, La) borderless nations 118, 194–7, 368 (Juderías) 256 Bornhöhe, Eduard 176, 388 Blackbourn, David 364, 386 Bosch Gimpera, Pere 262, 388–9 Blanc, Louis 122, 205, 367, 386 Bosnia-Herzegovina 328 Bloch, Marc 16, 212, 251, 267, 275, 352, 386 Bosniaks 328

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Index 539

Botta, Carlo 97, 389 Bruni, Leonardo 33, 390 Botto, Július 123, 389 Brunner, Otto 316, 390 Bourdieu, Pierre 3, 389 Bryant, Arthur 247, 323, 390 bourgeois historians, Soviet Union 270, Bryce, James 212, 390 271, 274 Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. 316, 390 Brailsford, Henry Noel 216, 389 Buchanan, George 37, 54, 390 Brandenburg, Erich 227, 389 Buckle, Henry Thomas 148, 390 Brătianu, Gheorghe 238, 389 Buda, Aleks 293, 391 Braudel, Fernand 310, 320, 321, 389 Budai-Deleanu, Ion 195, 391 Breysig, Kurt 227, 252, 390 Bulgaria Bright, Charles 348 anti-Islamic sentiments 351 Britain Communist historiography 291, 294–5 1960s higher education expansion 304 Enlightenment national histories 64 Acton’s model of multinationality 109 Euroclio school initiative 337 amateur traditions 83, 170, 178, 359, forged historical documents 116 371–2 and Greater Macedonia 320 Anglo-Irish relations 116–17, 137, 162–3, Holocaust historiography 345 303, 336 national revival 116 archive reform (Romantic period) 132–3 nineteenth century gendered Britishness 184, 215–16, 323–4 semantics 211 empire history 184, 193, 215–16, 349, post-Cold War analysis of 350 Communism 326 First World War legitimation 228–9, Romanticism 81 233, 236 victimhood/Turkish yoke narratives 92, gendered history 211 117, 119, 121 and German scientificity (Romantic Bull, Edvard sr. 238, 391 period) 83 Bullinger, Heinrich 37, 391 institutionalisation and Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal professionalisation 83, 148–9, 151, Republic of Germany, FRG) see West 154, 155, 165, 176–7, 222–3, 245–6 Germany interdisciplinarity/intertextuality 378 Bunge, Friedrich G. von 169, 391 interwar diplomatic relationship with Burckhardt, Jacob 87, 185, 391 America 238 Burke, Edmund 58, 78, 97, 98, 127, 391 liberalism 247, 372 Burke, Peter 48, 391 Marxist and labour historiography 207, Burrow, George 391–2 276, 313, 334 Bury, John Bagnell 149, 392 model for Irish Free State Butterfield, Herbert 247, 392 professionalisation 242 Buzatu, Gheorge 332, 392 patriotic art 92 Byelorussia popular history 73, 165, 376 Hyrharovič, I.I. 88 Protestant narratives 197–8 institutionalisation 155, 156–7, 273 renationalisation 322–5 medievalism 114 school curricula 351 patriotic music 91 social and economic history 174, 207, in Polish historiography 105, 189 276 post-war resistance narratives 294 Wales 103, 184, 215, 324, 362 and the Tsarist/Soviet master narrative 24, women historians 126, 209–10, 282, 103, 119, 170–1, 273–4, 309, 329–30 297–8 upper class Polonisation 125 see also England; Scotland Byvanck, W. G. C. (Willem) 154, 392 British Library 154 Byzantium 31, 116, 141, 200, 213 British Museum 156 Broglie, Albertine de 82, 390 Cam, Helen 282, 392 broken mirror metaphor 376 Cambridge University 148, 149, 282

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540 Index

Camden, William 32, 41, 129, 392 Cervantes, Miguel de 256 Campion, Edmund 41, 392 CEU see Central European University Cannadine, David 323, 392–3 Chabod, Federico 289, 316, 394 Cannes film festival 338 Chaloupecký, Václav 255 Cantemir, Dimitrie 31, 393 Chamberlain, Austen 236 Cantimori, Delio 261, 393 Chamberlain, Houston Stewart 14, 202, Cantú, Cesare 254, 393 394 capitalism 43, 207, 228, 237, 268, 269, Charles Albert (of Sardinia) 182 286, 294, 356 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) 36 Carcopino, Jérôme 267, 393 Charles XII (of Sweden) 50 Carlson, Frederik Ferdinand 86, 393 Chladenius, Martin 10, 394 Carlyle, Thomas 97, 393 Chmielowski, Piotr 93, 394 Carolsfeld, Jukius Schorr von 92 Christianity see religion cartography 193–4 church history 37, 38, 53, 72, 123–4, 157, Carty, James 243, 393 258 Castro, Américo 262, 393–4 see also religion Catalonia 25, 69, 158, 311, 335, 342, 362, Čičerin, Boris Nikolaevič 192, 394 364 citizenship 42, 55, 58, 70, 99, 106, 124, Catherine II (of Russia)/ Catherine the 374 Great 63, 210 civil society actors Catholicism Enlightenment period rise of 3, 57, Belgian historiography 199 69–70, 71, 74–6, 79 Counter-Reformation and étatisme 173–4 historiography 37–8 and European diversity in history European balance of power 49 writng 372 and French identity 123, 182 historical societies/associations 69–70, German historiography 36–7, 123, 71, 129–31, 164–7 198–9, 208, 256–7, 288 independent writers 88 Hungarian cult of St Stephen 114, 198, interwar period 244 257–8 and the meaning of ‘nation’ 7, 15 Irish historiography 38, 116, 123, 162–3, role in national history 3 170, 255–6 shaping historiological tradition 371 monastic historians 29, 31, 35–6, 38, state mediation 23, 130–1, 143, 167, 74, 123–4, 174, 358 169–70, 223 and Polish identity 104 see also amateur traditions Portuguese historiography 158, 216–17, civilisation 219, 262, 372 Byzantian 141, 213 Spanish historiography 256, 367 eighteenth century comparative Ceauşescu, Ilie 293, 394 history 28, 45, 50 Ceauşescu, Nicolae 293 Enlightenment Eurocentricity 45, 46–7, Celtic Society 129 49, 97 censorship feminine personification 34, 210 Eastern European de-Stalinisation 311 French Enlightenment narratives 49–50, European history writing diversity 372 52, 79, 97 late nineteenth century 163, 170–1, 223 in German Enlightenment narratives 55 National Socialism 249, 257, 266 Herder’s Enlightenment critique 77–8 in post-Communist Soviet Union 325 humanist Italian-German debate 33–4 Salazarist Portugal 262 in Italian Enlightenment narratives 57 to protect Switzerland’s neutrality meanings 12–13, 111 narrative 300 medieval narratives 41 and the war guilt debate 234, 235–6 as a mission of empire/multinational Central European University (CEU, states 105, 108–9, 152, 183–4, 217, Budapest, Hungary) 333, 344 272

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Index 541

narrative structure of civilisation Comisia Istorica˘ a României (Historical history 55, 254 Commission of Romania) 141 national orientation of Enlightenment commemorations 186–7, 258, 335, 339, universalism 58, 78–9, 366 344 in Scottish Enlightenment narratives 53, Communism 75 Cold War dialogue with neutral in Spanish Enlightenment countries 313 institutionalisation 69 Eastern European Cold War Swedish Enlightenment narratives 60 narratives 285, 287, 288, 290–7, in Swiss Enlightenment narratives 58 301, 307–12, 354, 355 three pillars of European European macro-region narratives civilisation 137 (twentieth century) 340, 344 Clapham, John 174, 394 exile historiography 186, 277, 280–2, Clark, Grahame 202, 394–5 284, 286, 307, 372 Clark, Jonathan Charles Douglas 323, and the ICHS 253, 254, 318 395 Italian civil war (1943–1945) 321 Class, Heinrich 143, 201, 395 post-Cold War renationalisation class historiography narratives 325–34, 356, 370 British post-war narratives 300 Soviet master narrative 258, 268–75, East German historiography 312 311 Eastern European post-war Western European Cold War anti- narratives 292 narratives 286, 312–13, 314, 316, and historical societies 130 317, 355 late nineteenth/early twentieth century see also Marxist history socialism 204–8, 224–5 comparative history Marxist social history in interwar 1990s trend 306, 352–3, 357 Britain 276 analysis of 16–21 meanings and usage 14–15 Central European University 333, 344 relationship to social history 175 demonstrating history’s role for new Romantic period history 119, 120, 121, nation states 326 124–5 early championing by Iorga 213 self-reflexivity 306 Enlightenment universalism 28, 45, 50, 52 Soviet historiography 270, 272 Europeanisation of history 340–1 subsumed by national history 144, 363, interwar France 252 367, 377 of interwar Hungary 249–50 see also aristocracy; peasants meso-regions 339 Coimbra, University of 68 Soviet Russia 269 Cold War to combat methodological Eastern European narratives 307–12, 355 nationalism 252, 357, 375–6 entrenched dominance of national typological arrangement 372 history 356 world congress promotion 212 German question 291 competitions 151, 223 Western European narratives 312–18 composite national states see empire/ see also post-Cold War historiography multinational states Cole, George Douglas Howard 207, 276, 395 Comte, Auguste 148, 395 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 93, 395 Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de 49, 395 collective identities 9–10, 374–5, 377–8 Condorcet, Nicolas de 49, 369, 395 collective memory 9–10, 275, 344–7, Conscience, Hendrik 90, 396 353–4, 357, 374 Consejo Superior de Investigaciones see also commemorations Científicas (CSIC, National Research Colley, Linda 247, 323, 395 Council) 262 colonialism/imperialism 12–13, 18, 43, constitutional history 106–7, 122, 173, 46, 140–2, 158, 215–17 177, 182, 184, 247, 362

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542 Index

Constitutional History of England German occupation 265 (Stubbs) 177, 182 institutionalisation 243–4 constructivism 374 liberalism 251, 255 Conze, Werner 259, 298, 396 persecution of historians following the Copyright Act (1757, England) 154 Prague Spring 308 Ćorović, Vladimir 263 post-war ethnic German expulsion 295–6, Corvin, Otto von 207, 208, 396 309, 327–8 Cosmas of Prague 31, 396 women historians 283 cosmopolitanism, and the Enlightenment 45–6, 54, 58, 68, 366 Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph 97, 192, Costa, Joaquin 185, 396 397–8 Costin, Miron 31, 396 Dahn, Felix 203, 367, 398 Counter-Reformation historiography 38 Dalin, Olof von 60, 398 Cours d’histoire moderne (Lectures on Modern Dalmatia 173 History) (Guizot) 97 D’Alton, Edward Alfred 243, 397 court/royal historiographers 29–30, 33, Danebrog falder ned fra himlen under 37, 38, 59, 69, 74 Volmerslaget ved Lyndanis 15. juni Cowley, Charlotte 75 1219 (Lorentzen) 92 Cowling, Maurice 323, 396 Danewerk 114 Crane, Susan 374, 396 Danielson, John Richard 191 Creighton, Mandell 176, 397 Danilevič, V. 183 critical history see self criticism/reflexivity Danmarks Riges Historie (History of the Critical History of Spain and of Spanish Danish Reich) (Erslev) 180 Culture (Historia crítica de España, y de Darnton, Robert 44, 398 la cultura española) (Masdeu) 69 Darwinism, Social see Social Darwinism Croatia 24, 38, 64, 150, 267, 297, 326, Daskalov, Roumen 64 328, 329, 332 Daukantas, Simonas 18, 190, 398 Croce, Benedetto 207, 233, 261, 278, 279, Davies, Norman 324, 334, 364, 398 363, 397 Dawson, Christopher 316, 398 CSIC see Consejo Superior de Dawson, Geoffrey 254, 398 Investigaciones Científicas Dawson, William Harbutt 399 cultural transfer 16, 26, 352–3, 363 de Caisne, Henri 92 culture de Felice, Renzo 321, 325, 403 borderland bridges 120, 192, 231, 253, de Lettenhove, Kervyn 111, 430 368 de Maistre, Joseph 78, 98, 122, 434 cultural transfer 16, 26, 352–3, 363 De re diplomatica (On Diplomatics) and ethnicity 200, 204, 362, 366 (Mabillon) 72 in Herder’s theory of national de Staël, Germaine 125, 466 character 77 de Wette, Wilhelm Leberecht 87, 479 meanings 12–13, 13–14 de Wever, Bart 343 Romantic period people’s histories 111 de Witte, Ludo 350, 481 see also folk culture Death of Lord Nelson, The (West) 92 Cunningham, William 174, 397 ‘decline and rise’ narratives 116–17, 254, Curtis, Edmund 256, 397 362 Cusack, Mary Frances 125–6, 397 Deeds of the Danes, The (Gesta Danorum) Cvijič, Jovan 176, 397 (Grammaticus) 32 Cyprus 319 Deeds of the Hungarians, The (Gesta Czech Republic 326, 327–8, 331, 332, 337 Hungarorum) (Anon.) 30 Czechoslovakia Deeds of the Huns and the Hungarians (Gesta and the cult of Communist [Hunnorum et] Hungarorum) (Simon of Resistance 294 Kéza) 30 emigré historiography 280–1 Deeds of the Kings of the English (William of exile historiography 307 Malmsbury) 41

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Index 543 defeat, historiography of 234–5, 238 Dobb, Maurice 276, 400 Dehio, Ludwig 288, 399 Dobiaš-Roždestvenskaja, Ol’ga Delbrück, Hans 143, 233, 363, 399 Antonovna 208–9 denationalisation of history Döllinger, Ignaz 107, 400 Annales School 310 Domanovszky, Sándor 255 and the critical turn 304, 369–70 Don Quijote (Cervantes) 256 cultural transfer 352–3 Donation of Constantine 73, 115 Europeanisation 286, 340–7, 357 Dorpat University (later Tartu) 84, 147, global history 28, 347–8, 350 326 as a national crisis post Second World Dorso, Guido 289, 400 War 285 Draginov, Metodi 351, 400 Denina, Carlo 44, 57, 399 drama/theatre 90, 325 Denmark Droysen, Johann Gustav 145, 187, 192, 1960s higher education expansion 304 210, 211 archaeology 95 du Châtelet, Émilie, 75, 402 critical social history 305, 306 Dubnow, Simon (Dubnov, Semën) 194, Danish Folk High Schools 141 400 emnity narratives 119 Dudo of Saint-Quentin 29, 400 Enlightenment national histories dynastic history 59–60 patriotic arts 92 free peasantry 59–60, 179, 183 premodern notions of nation 29–30, 32, Holocaust hisoriography 345 33, 35, 42 and the institutionalisation of Romantic period 99, 106, 109, 111, 131 history 70, 132, 134, 167 Voltaire 50 national heroes 118 patriotic arts 90, 92 East Germany 287, 288, 291, 312, 317–18, premodern histories 32–3 325 Romantic period medievalism 114 Eastern Europe Scandinavianism 219 Cold War historiography 285, 290–7, Schleswig-Holstein question 191–2 301, 307–12, 354, 355, 357 state intervention in regional historical critical development 333–4 societies 167 detente/dialogue with Western twentieth/twenty first century Europe 24–5, 313, 315, 317–18, 344 renationalisation 376 empire history (twentieth century) 349 women historians 208, 283, 298 and ethnic German immigrants 259–60, Der Tod Friedrich Barbarossa (Carolsfeld) 92 295–6, 309, 327–8 Deslisle de Sales, Jean-Baptiste-Claude 49, European history 340, 344 399 extent of 217 Deutsche Demokratische Republik (German First World War historiography 231–2 Democratic Republic, GDR) East inclusion in Rome Congress (1955) 318 Germany 287, 288, 291, 312, interwar historiography 250–1, 255, 317–18, 325 263–4 Deutsche Katastrophe, Die (German late nineteenth/early twentieth century Catastrophe, The) (Meinecke) 288 transnational history 213 D’Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiry Baron 45–6, legacy of empire 18 397 and National Socialism 260, 265, 267, dictionaries of national biography 155–6 294 Diderot, Denis 45, 399 nineteenth century western Dierauer, Johannes 107, 399 orientation 365 Ðilas, Milovan 292, 400 post-Cold war renationalisation 25, 319, Dilthey, Wilhelm 180, 399 325–34, 336, 347, 356, 370, 376 Dirlik, Arif 347, 399 premodern histories 30–1, 35 Długosz, Jan 31, 61, 400 Roma people 118, 195–7, 368

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544 Index

Eastern Europe – continued empire; pan-histories; Romanov Romantic period oppositional empire; Soviet Union history 111–12 Engels, Friedrich 205, 367, 402 women historians 297, 360 England see also Bulgaria; Byelorussia; county history 166 Czechoslovakia; Czech Republic; Enlightenment institutionalisation 69 Hungary; Moldova; Poland; Folklore Society 158 Romania; Romanov empire; Slovakia; future of English history 285 Soviet Union; Ukraine interdisciplinarity - theology and Eastern and Western Europe in the Middle history 176–7 Ages (Barraclough) 315 liberties 40, 58, 106, 122, 184, 201, 247, Ecclesiastical History of the English People 300, 373 (Bede) 7, 31, 38 Medieval documents 114, 135 Eckert, Georg 337, 400–1 pre/protomodern histories 7, 29, 31–2, École des Chartes 133, 160 36, 38, 39–40, 41 economic history 167, 174, 269, 275, Romanticism 93, 101 348 in Scottish Union narratives 55 Edinburgh Review 84, 106 source collections 135 Edwards, Robert Dudley 242, 401 see also Britain: Whig histories/narrative EHR see English Historical Review English 364 Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried 71, 401 English Historical Review (EHR) 85, 160, Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, 169 The (achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis English History (Angliacae Historicae) Bonaparte, Der) (Marx) 205 (Vergil) 32 eighteenth century see Enlightenment Enlightenment Eisner, Kurt 235, 401 Balkan national histories 63, 64 Eley, Geoff 334, 364, 401 Danish national histories 59–60 Elias, Hendrix Josef 266, 401 Finnish national histories 60–1 Elizabeth (Empress of Austria) 127 French national histories 52 Elizabeth I (of England) 32 German national histories 55–7 Elkins, Caroline 349, 401 humanist roots 39 Elton, Geoffrey 323, 401 institutionlisation of history 28, 68–76, Émilie, Marquise du Châtelet 75, 402 79 emnity narratives 118, 119–20, 219, 362 Irish national histories 58 see also victim narratives Italian national histories 57 empire histories 23, 144, 184, 193–4, key general characteristics 43–51 215–17, 224, 348–52, 366, 377 lasting influence of 371 empire/multinational states notion of civilisation and culture 12 an Acton’s theory of nationality 107–9 Polish national histories 61 Byzantium 31, 116, 141, 200, 213 projects of emancipation 373 as a civilising mission 105, 108–9, 183–4, Romanian national histories 65–7 187, 217, 272 Russian national histories 61–4 colonialism 12–13, 18–19, 43, 46, 140–2, Sattelzeit 5 158, 215–17 Scottish national histories 53–5 ethnicity 105, 161–4, 184, 362 search for ethnic origins 64–7 see also Flemish identity/nationalism Spanish national histories 57–8 member state institutionalisation 68–9, Swedish national histories 60 136–7, 324 Swiss national histories 58–9 as transnational history 23, 144, 215–17, transnational networks 32, 44, 51, 53, 348–52 79, 364 see also Britain; Catalonia; censorship; universalism 12, 46–50, 52, 53, 58–9, dynastic history; Habsburg empire; 68, 77–8, 78–9, 366, 369 oppositional histories; Ottoman women historians 75–6

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Index 545

Erasmus of Rotterdam 32, 36, 402 contemporary question of Hungary’s Erkel, Ferenc 91 ethnic minorities 327 Erslev, Kristian 179–80, 402 contested borderlands 189, 193 Espagne, Michel 53, 352, 402 early nineteenth century people’s Essay in the Manners and the Spirit of Nations histories 111 (Essai sur les moeurs et l’esprit des evolution of the term 13–14 nations) (Voltaire) 46–7, 50 exclusion of the other 362 Estonia Finnish nationalism 21–2, 60–1, 111, amateur tradition 131, 176 366 folk culture 158 Hruševs’kyj’s theory of nation 141 interwar historiography 241–2, 283 in multinational states/empire 105, memorialised imperial past 349 161–4, 184, 362 nineteenth century national see also Flemish identity/nationalism narratives 190 pan-histories 218–22 post-Cold War independence search for origins of nation 32, 60–1, movement 326 62, 64–7, 200–4 source collections 135, 169 subsumed by national history 144, 176, étatisme 181–2, 363, 366–7, 377 accounting for European diversity in to support fascism/right wing history writing 372 dictatorship 259, 260, 263, Bol’ševic historiography 269–73 264 constitutional history 106–9, 173, 182, Volksgeschichte 15, 24, 188, 248, 254, 184, 362 260, 263 controlled archive access 132–3, 153–4, Wagner’s racism 91 171 Yugoslavia 328–9, 346, 350, 370 German nineteenth century see also ethnic cleansing nationalism 99, 141–2, 145 ethnology 12–13 institutionalisation 23, 145–6, 152–3, EU see European Union 156–7, 167, 222–3 Eurasianism 280 interwar Poland 250 Eurocentrism 17, 45, 46–7, 49, 92, 213, nineteenth century master 347, 366 narratives 112–13, 182–5, 224 Euroclio initiatives 337, 347 as a recurring narrative frame 362 Europe, scope of 5, 192–3 and right wing/fascist regimes 259–63, ‘Europe’, use of the term 48–9 264, 267, 277–8, 372 European blueprint, diversity 371–2 Romantic period German model 22, European histories 26, 48–9, 144, 214, 86, 99 225, 340–7, 357, 365, 367, 377 in Seventeenth century Germany 32 see also pan-histories and social/civil society history 25, European Union (EU) 130–1, 134–5, 143, 170, 172, 173–4, in British narratives (1980) 323 175, 223, 372 and the Europeanisation of history 340, stabilisation of young states 24, 83, 110, 341, 343, 377 172, 224, 240–5, 263–5, 356–7 Holocaust history and membership 345, Sweden 99 346 see also censorship; dynastic history; institutionalisation/promotion of state European historiography 27, 343–4, ethnic cleansing 260, 266, 284, 296, 299, 357 309, 327–8, 329, 367 for transnational memory 346 ethnicity European University Institute and archaeology 202 (Florence) 344 borderless nations (Sami, Jews and Roma Europeanisation 25, 27, 104, 286, 340–1, people) 118, 194–7, 368 341, 343, 369, 370, 377–8 Braudel’s theory of 321 exhibitions 158

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546 Index exiled historians Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 22, 98, 404 Blanc 205 fine art/history disciplinary Communist exile historiography 186, relationship 92 277, 280–2, 284, 286, 307, 372 Finland on ethnic German expulsions 296 Cold War Soviet dialogue 313 and Fascism/right-wing dictatorships 261, critical post-war perspective 303, 304, 277–80, 284, 372 305 institutionalisation 112, 223, 280–1, ethnic nationalism 21–2, 60–1, 111, 307 175, 366 interwar period, exiled historians 253, institutionalisation 149, 151, 162, 164 277–82 interwar historiography 241 Kovalevskij 171 National Archive 220 Staël, de 125 National Library 157 Expansion of England, The (Seeley) 215, nineteenth century social history 174 216 politician historians 177 Eyck, Erich 278, 402 Scandinavianism 219 and the shadow of empire 111, 190–1, Fabre-Luce, Alfred 238, 402 212, 368 Falklands War 323 twenty-first century national Fallmerayer, Jakob 200, 366, 402–3 historiography 331 family, metaphor for nation 67, 77, 126 Firsov, Nikolaj Nikolaevič 147, 404 Fanon, Frantz 349, 403 First World War 226–7, 228–34, 344, 363 Fascism/right-wing dictatorships see also war guilt debate Communist narratives 290, 294, 354 Fischer, Fritz 301, 302, 315, 404–5 critical perspectives 301–6 Flanders 25, 103, 111, 342–3, 344 and exiled historians 261, 277–80, 284, Flemish identity/nationalism 103, 111, 372 162, 192, 204, 230, 253, 266, 342–3 interwar rise of 253, 254, 259–63, 284, Fleury, abbey of 29 372 folk culture 60, 66, 93, 111, 115, 157–8, late twentieth century renationalising 172–3, 175, 267 narratives 321 Fontana, Josep 335, 405 perpetrator narratives 287–9, 294–5, forests see Germanic forests 299, 312–13, 354, 355–6 Forgách, Ferenc 128, 405 Totalitarianism theories 316, 331–2 forged historical documents 73, 115–16, Vichy collaboration 321 351 victim narratives 295–6, 299–301 Forsman, Georg Zacharias 149, 405 see also Holocaust historiography; see also Koskinen, Yrjö National Socialism Forty Tales of the History of the Fatherland Fawcett, Millicent 209, 403 (Fyrretyve Fortællinger af Fædrelandets Fay, Sidney Bradshaw 238, 403 Historie ) (Jørgensen) 118 Febvre, Lucien 251, 403 Foucault, Michel 5, 405 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) see Four Empires, theory of 34 West Germany foyers, Turkish 172 Fejér, György 115, 403 Fragments of Ancient Poetry Collected in the Fejérpataky, László 147, 403 Scottish Highlands and Translated Felice, Renzo de 321, 325, 403 from the Gaelic or Ersic Tongue feminisation 34, 210–11 (Macpherson) 115 Fennoman movement 111, 149, 191 Fraknói, Vilmos 147, 405 Feraois, Rigas 63, 404 France Ferguson, Adam 404 Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Ferguson, Niall 350, 376, 404 Lettres 71, 133, 233 Fessler, Ignatius Aurelius 100, 109, 404 archives/source collection 132, 135, Fester, Richard 227, 404 152, 153

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Index 547

Catholicism 123, 182 Friedrich, Carl Joachim 316, 406 Cold War Marxist historiography 313 Fries, Ellen 208, 407 contested borderlands/Alsace and Fritzsche, Peter 373, 407 Lorraine 44–5, 104, 186, 189, 368 Froude, James Anthony 162, 215, 407 critical turn/history 303, 306, 336, 349 Furet, François 11, 334, 407 empire narratives 217 Fyrretyve Fortællinger af Fædrelandets Historie Enlightenment historiography 21–2, 52, (Forty Tales of the History of the 57, 65 Fatherland ) (Jørgensen) 118 First World War historiography 229–30 Franco-German textbook 337 Galicia (Eastern Europe) 141, 150, 166, Franco-Prussian war source 172, 251 collection 234–5 Gallo, Max 359, 407 in German expansionist narratives 259 Gallus Anonymus 31, 407 institutionalisation 145–6, 152, 153, Garampi, Giuseppe 132, 407 154, 156, 234–5 Gartenlaube, Die (Gardenhouse, The) 186 international schools 223 Gasiorowska-Grabowska, Natalia 282, interwar Marxist historiography 275 407–8 interwar project 236–7 Gatterer, Johann Christoph 47, 57, 70, liberalism 96, 120–3, 153, 372 71, 408 premodern historiography 29, 33–4, Gattinara, Mercurino 36 34, 36 Gaxotte, Pierre 266, 408 regional history 167 GDR (Deutsche Demokratische Republik/ Romantic period historiography 80, 82, German Democratic Republic) 287, 85, 98, 99, 103, 112 288, 291, 312, 317–18, 325 twelfth century notions of nation 7 Gefter, Michail 308, 408 under German occupation 266–7 GEI see Georg-Eckert-Institute for as venue for international study 150, 160 International Research into School Vichy regime 267, 299–300, 303, 321, Textbooks 364 Geijer, Erik Gustaf 99, 191, 408 women historians 126 gender see also Annales School; French narrations of national history 26, 34, Revolution 127, 144, 210–11, 363 Franck, Sebastian 36, 405 see also women Francoist Spain 256, 262, 281, 313, 336, gender history 283, 298 345, 357 General History of Spain in Twenty Volumes, Frank, Walter 259, 405–6 A (Historiae de rebus Hispaniae libri XX) Fredericq, Paul 211, 230, 406 (Mariana) 32 Freeman, Edward Augustus 201, 367, 406 Gentile, Giovanni 254, 260–1, 408 French Revolution (1789) Gentlemen Societies 69–70 bicentenary 320 Geoffrey of Monmouth 29, 408 as birth of modern nationalism 7, 82, Georg-Eckert-Institute for International 95–100, 108, 132, 138 Research into School Textbooks class narratives 124, 205 (GEI) 337 embodiment of Enlightenment Gerald of Wales (Giraldus Cambrensis) 30, universalism 22, 81 32, 408–9 French liberalism 121–2, 251 German Catastrophe, The (Deutsche histories about 87, 120–3, 127, 205, 207 Katastrophe, Die) (Meinecke) 288 in Macaulay’s History of England 106 German Democratic Republic (GDR) see Fréret, Nicolas 49, 406 East Germany Freytag, Gustav 179, 203, 367, 406 Germania (Tacitus) 34 FRG (Federal Republic of Germany) see Germanic forests 40, 54, 101, 201 West Germany Germanisches National museum Fridericia, Julius A. 179, 406 (Nuremburg) 94

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548 Index

Germany Geschichten schweizerischer Eidgenossenschaft class histories 206, 208 ( Swiss Histories) (Müller) 59 contemporary contexts 336, 337 Gesta Danorum (Deeds of the Danes, The) contested borderlands/Alsace and (Grammaticus) 32 Lorraine 44–5, 104, 186, 189, 368 Gesta Hungarorum (Deeds of the Hungarians, critical perspectives/history 301, 304, The) (Anon.) 30 305, 336 Gesta [Hunnorum et] Hungarorum (Deeds of East Germany 287, 288, 291, 312, the Huns and the Hungarians) (Simon 317–18, 325 of Kéza) 30 Enlightenment historiography 55–7, 67, Geyer, Michael 348, 376, 409 70–1, 73–4, 79 Geyl, Pieter 265, 318, 409 First World War historiography 13, Ghent University 162, 230, 253 226–7 Gibbon, Edward 54–5, 409 Hermann/Arminius myth 41, 101, 109, Giesebrecht, Wilhelm 80, 409 118, 204 Gilbert, Felix 279, 409 historians as politicians 177 Gilbert, John T. 169, 410 humanist themes 34–5 Gindely, Anton 161, 410 as international model 82–6, 145–6, Ginzburg, Carlo 339, 410 148–9, 150, 160, 168, 364 Giraldus Cambrensis see Gerald of Wales interwar contested borders 263–4 Giurescu, Constantin C. 238, 293, 410 Jewish narratives 194–5 Gizel, Innokentiji 35, 410 literature-history link 175–6 Gladstone, William 177 natural enemies (Erasmus’ quote) 36 Glinka, Michail 91 nineteenth century global modernity 3–6 institutionalisation 144–5, 146, global/world history 18, 25, 28, 214–15, 147, 155, 156, 165, 168 254, 347–8, 350, 365, 366 nineteenth century nationalism 13, 78, see also universalism 91, 92, 97–8, 99, 112, 141–2, 142–3, globalisation 4–5, 27, 286, 370 187–8, 203–4, 214 Glorious Revolution (England) 106 pan-Germanism 218, 221–2, 366 Gobetti, Piero 289, 410 regional history 56, 67, 103, 130, 136, Gobineau, Joseph 14, 410 166–7 Godechot, Jacques 313, 410 Reichsgeschichte 32, 56 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 93, 187, 411 religious historiography 36–7, 38, 123, Goetz, Walter 248, 411 198–9, 208, 256–7, 288, 367 Goll, Ivan 159 reunification 25, 286, 322, 357 Goll, Jaroslav 251, 411 Revolution (1918–1919) 248 Gooch, George Peabody 236, 411 Romantic period scientificity and Gosses, Izaak Hendrix 204, 411 institutionalisation 22, 80, 82–6, Göttingen, University of 56, 60, 70–1, 72, 134–5 73, 83, 86, 358, 364 Schleswig-Holstein question 192 Gottsched, Johann Christoph 51, 411 as venue for international study 159–60 Graetz, Heinrich 195, 411 war guilt debate 234–6, 368–9 Grafton, Anthony 39, 411 women as post-war historians 298 Grand Chronique de France (Great Chronicle of see also National Socialism; West France) (abbey of St Denis) 29 Germany Great and Good Deeds by Danes, Norwegians and Gerretson, Frederik Carel 265, 409 Holsteinians (Store och gode handlinger af Gervinus, Georg Gottfried 92, 214, 365, Danske, Norske og Holstenere kunde därför 409 utges redan) (Malling) 59 Geschichte des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts seit Greater Moravia 117 den Wiener Verträgen (History of the Greater Romania 264 Nineteenth Century from the Vienna Greece 63–4, 110, 116, 167, 187, 200–1, Treaties) (Gervinus) 214 222, 313, 366

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Index 549

Green, Alice Stopford 210, 412 Halbwachs, Maurice 353, 414 Green, John Richard 102, 174, 178, 210, Halecki, Oskar 250, 307, 316, 414 412 Halévy, Elie 233, 414 Grellmann, Heinrich Moritz Gottlieb 195, Hall, Catherine 127, 414 412 Hamann, Johann Georg 128, 414 Grimm brothers 66, 93, 412 Hammond, Barbara 207, 414 Grimm, Jacob 93, 412 Hammond, John Lawrence 207, 414 Grimm, Robert 206, 412 Hanák, Péter 333, 414–15 Grimm, Wilhelm 93, 412 Handbook of the History of the Fatherland Gross, Jan 345, 412 with special attention to the inner grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, development of people and state 1871–191, Die (High Politics of (Haandbog i Fædrelandets Historie European Governments, 1871–1914, med stadigt Henblik på Folkets og The) (Thimme) 235 Statens indre Udvikling) (Allen) 119 Grundtvig, N. F. S. 172, 412 Hanka, Václav 115, 415 Grünwald, Béla 180, 413 Hanotaux, Gabriel 217, 415 Guignes, Joseph de 47, 413 Hantsch, Hugo 222, 415 Guizot, François 12, 97, 122, 123, 135, Hardenberg, Karl August von 152 137, 167, 171, 205, 366, 413 Hartog, François 5, 415 Gurevich, Aaron 325, 413 Häusser, Ludwig 102, 415 Guthrie, William 53, 413 Hayden, Mary 181, 242, 255, 415 Gypsiad (Ţiganiada) 195 Heder Institute 307 Heeren, Arnold Herrmann Ludwig 55–6, Haandbog i Fædrelandets Historie med stadigt 70, 136, 415–16 Henblik på Folkets og Statens indre Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 97, 99, Udvikling (Handbook of the History of 416 the Fatherland with special attention Heim, Susanne 260, 416 to the inner development of people and Heimats 67, 103 state) (Allen) 119 Held, Friedrich Wilhelm Alexander 207, Habermas, Jürgen 322, 413 416 Habsburg empire Helmers, Jan Frederik 90, 416 Counter Reformation historiography 37 Helvetische Gesellschaft (Helvetian and the cult of St Stephen 257–8 Society) 70 dissolution 264 Henry of Huntingdon see Huntingdon, education reforms 68 Henry of ethnic Romanians in Transylvania 66 Herder, Johann Gottfried 15, 22, 40, 54, feminine personification 210 64, 76–8, 81, 416 First World War historiographies 231–2 Hermann/Arminius myth 41, 101, 109, Goll School 251 118, 204 historical atlases 193 hero narratives 118, 127, 219, 257–8, 262, ICHS listings 212 267, 272, 293, 336, 362 imperial narrative 163 Herwig, Holger 235–6, 416 institutionalisation 51, 86, 131, 147, heurmeneutical-philological method 72 150, 243 Hexter, Jack 310, 416 oppositional Bohemian Heyne, Christoph Gottlob 53, 71, 416–17 historiography 111, 161, 163 hierarchy of nations 98 and pan-Germanism 222 High Politics of European Governments, in post-war historiography 289 1871–1914, The (Die grosse Politik der Prussian historiography 192 europäischen Kabinette, 1871–191) source collection/publication 169 (Thimme) 235 West Ukraine 166, 171 higher education see universities Haffner, Sebastian 359, 413 Higuera, Jerónimo Román de la 115, 417 Hajnik, Imre 147, 413 Hildebrand, Klaus 325, 417

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550 Index

Hilendar, Paissi of see Paissi of Hilendar Romantic period 129–31 Hill, Christopher (1912–2003) 276, 417 and source publication 135 Hill, Christopher L. 4, 369, 417 see also journals Hillgruber, Andreas 322, 325, 417 Historikerstreit/Historians’ Hilton, Rodney 276, 417 Controversy 321–2 Himmler, Heinrich 202 historiography, history of 19 Hintze, Otto 14, 16, 143, 227, 252, Historische Zeitschrift (Historical Journal) 417–18 (HZ) 80, 168 Hippo, Augustin of see Augustin of Hippo historism 22, 54, 84, 86, 87, 96, 134, 138, Histoire d’Angleterre, l’ (Rapin-Thoyras) 62 252 Histoire de Belgique (History of Belgium) History of Belgium (Histoire de Belgique) (Pirenne) 231 (Pirenne) 231 Histoire de France (History of France) History of the Conquest of England by the (Michelet) 81, 100, 103 Normans (Histoire de la conquête Histoire de la conquête de l’Angleterre par les de l’Angleterre par les Normands) Normands (History of the Conquest of (Thierry) 111 England by the Normans) (Thierry) 111 History of the Danish Language in the Duchy Histoire philosophique et politique des of Schlesvig or Southern Jutland, établissements et du commerce A (Allen) 191 des Européens dans les deux Indes History of the Danish Reich (Danmarks Riges (Philosophical and Political History Historie) (Erslev) 180 of the Settlements and Trade of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Europeans in the East and West Indies, Empire (Gibbon) 54–5 A.) (Raynal) 45–6 history, defined 8–9 Historia crítica de España, y de la cultura History of the Eighteenth Century española (Critical History of Spain and (Schlosser) 97 of Spanish Culture) (Masdeu) 69 History of England, from the Earliest Records, História da Civilizaçâo Ibérica (Martins) 219 to the Peace of Amiens in a Series Historia del Nuevo Mundo (History of the New of Letters to a Young Lady at School World) (Muñoz) 131 (Smith) 126 Historia gentis Anglorum ecclesia History of England (Hume) 54 (Ecclesiastical History of the English History of England (Macaulay) 1, 106 People) (Bede) 7, 31, 38 History of France (Histoire de France) Historia Normannorum (Norman History) (Michelet) 81, 100, 103 (Dudo) 29 History of the Greek Nation from the Most Historiae de rebus Hispaniae libri XX (General Ancient Times until the Present History of Spain in Twenty Volumes, A) (Istoria tou ellinikou ethnous apo ton (Mariana) 32 archaiotaton chronon mehri tis simeron) Historians’ Controversy/ (Paparrigopoulos) 200 Historikerstreit 321–2 History of Italy from 1871 to 1915 Historical Association (Britain) 165, 245 (Storia d’Italia dal 1871 al 1915) Historical Commission of Romania (Croce) 261 (Comisia Istorica a României) 172 History of the Kingdom of Norway, Historical Journal (Historische Zeitschrift) The (Norges Riiges Historie) (HZ) 168 (Schøning) 110 historical materialism 11, 292, 301, 311 History of Mankind (Über die Geschichte der historical societies/associations Menschheit) (Iselin) 58 Enlightenment 51, 69–70, 79 History of the New World (Historia del Nuevo and exile historiography 282 Mundo) (Muñoz) 131 interwar institutionalisation (new History of the Nineteenth Century from states) 241 the Vienna Treaties (Geschichte des nineteenth century institutionalisation Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts seit den 147, 157, 164–7, 170, 171, 172, 223 Wiener Verträgen) (Gervinus) 214

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Index 551

History of the Origins of the Romanians in Hungary Dacia (Istoria Pentru Începuturile artistic nationalism 91, 92 Românilor în Dachia) (Maior) 66 cartography 194 History of Osnabrück (Osnabrückische Catholicism/cult of St Stephen 114, Geschichte) (Moeser) 67 198, 257–8 History of the Russian Empire (Istorija Central European University (Budapest, Gosundarstva Rossijskovo) Hungary) 333 (Karamzin) 109 class histories 206 History of Scotland (Robertson) 54 dynastic history 109 History of the Ukrainian Rus (Istorija ethnic origins 204 Ukrajiny-Rusy) (Hruševs’kyj) 140 First World War historiographies 232 History of Various Slavic Peoples, especially of historians turned politician 177–8 Bulgars, Croats and Serbs, The (Istorija institutionalisation 147–8, 150, 154, raznih slovenskih narodov, najpače 156, 158, 164, 168, 172 Bolgar, Horvatov i Serbov) (Rajić) 64 interwar historiography 249–50, 255 History Workshop Movement 323, 324–5, literature 93 338–9 military history 110 History of the World (Raleigh) 39 National History Museum 220 Hitler, Adolf 288 pan-Turanism 218 Hjärne, Harald 149, 177, 418 popularity of Annales School 309 Hobsbawm, Eric 16, 276, 300, 317, 418 post-Cold War historiography 326, 327, Hobson, John A. 216, 418 332 Hoetzsch, Otto 237–8, 418 post-war historiography 290, 295, 297 Hogan, James 255, 418 premodern historiography 30, 31–2, 37 Holban, Maria 283, 418–19 Rákóczi controversy 180 Holberg, Ludvig 59, 419 Romantic period medievalism 114–15 Holborn, Hajo 278, 419 social/cultural history 172, 174 Holocaust historiography 196, 321, 344–6, source-collecting schools 38 357, 377 and Transylvania 189 Holy Roman Empire 32, 34–5, 36, 56, and Whig historiography 106–7 198 Huntingdon, Henry of 29, 420 see also Germany Hurmuzaki collection 172 Hóman, Bálint 177–8, 332, 419 Hutchinson, Lucy 126, 420 Home and Foreign Review, The, Acton’s Hutten, Ulrich von 36, 421 criticism of nationalism 107–9 Hyrharovič, I.I. 88 Hooker, John 41, 419 Horthy regime 250, 257–8 Iberianism 218, 219, 366 Horvát, István 114–15, 419 Iceland 33, 150, 176, 219, 306, 365 Horváth, Mihály 18, 106–7, 419 ICHS see International Committee of Hruševs’kyj, Mykhailo/Mychajlo 114, Historial Sciences 140–1, 143, 273, 419 Iggers, Georg 11, 317, 421 Hrušovský, František 267, 420 Iggers, Wilma 317, 421 Hude, Anna 208, 420 IHCS see Irish Committee for Historical Huitfeldt, Arild 32, 420 Sciences Huizinga, Johan 266, 420 IHR see Institute of Historical Research humanist tradition 31–5, 36, 39, 41, 43–4, Illustrated History of Ireland (Cusack) 125–6 45, 54, 213 Illustrated History of Italy (Italia Illustrata) ‘Humboldt myth’ 83 (Biondo) 33 Humboldt, Wilhelm von 83, 84, 187, 420 Illyrian Congregation of St Jerome 38 Hume, David 43, 51, 54, 56–7, 75, 420 Illyrism 38, 172 Hungarian Centuries (Magyar Szdzadok) Imago antiquae et novae Hungariae (Pictures of (Virág) 114 Old and New Hungary) (Timon) 117 Hungarian Millenial exhibition 158 immigrants 370

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552 Index imperial history see empire/multinational Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale states Geschiedenis (International Institute Imperialism: a Study (Hobson) 216 for Social History, IISG) 274–5 independent writers 86–7 International Committee of Historial Sciences Institut krasnoj professury (IKP, Institute of (ICHS) 212, 253–4, 310, 318, 356 Red Professors) 270 International Institute for Social History Institut Marksa-Engelsa-Lenina (Institute of (Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Marx, Engels and Lenin) 269 Geschiedenis ,IISG) 274–5 Institute of Historical Research (IHR) 242, international schools 222–3 245 interwar period Institute of Marx, Engels and Lenin borderlands 263–5, 284 (Institut Marksa-Engelsa- Communist historiography 268–76 Lenina) 269 exiled historians 253, 277–82 Institute of Red Professors (Institut krasnoj historians as politicians 238–40 professury, IKP) 270 institutionalisation 240–5, 269–71, 273, institutionalisation 358 1960s higher education expansion 304, liberalism 228, 239, 245–55, 256, 257, 355, 356 261, 284 Communist 24, 269–71, 274–5, 290, 292 religion 255–9 Enlightenment period 51, 68–76, 79 right-wing dictatorships/Fascism 259–63 European Union 343–4, 357 war guilt debate 234–8, 283–4, 363, 368–9 and exiled historians 112, 223, 280–1, 307 women historians 282–3 Francoist 262 Introduction aux études historiques history workshop movement 339 (Introduction to the Study of History) impact in composite states 161–4 (Langlois and Seignobos) 160 instrumentalisation by Tudjman 329 Iorga, Nicolae 160, 161, 174, 186, 213, interwar nascent nations 240–5, 263–5, 222, 238, 254, 358, 421 358 Ireland and nineteenth century (1850-1914) 1960s trend for critical revisionism 306 professionalism 22, 143, 144–59, Anglo-Irish relations 110, 116–17, 137, 164–70, 223, 358 162–3, 303, 336 post Cold-War Eastern Europe 327, 332–3 antiquarianism 51, 129 professional practice/habitus 3, 25, 70, Britishness 184 72–3, 90, 180, 359 Catholicism 38, 116, 123, 162–3, 170, professionalism and disciplinary 255–6 closure 25, 359–60 English narratives of civilising 32–3 Romantic period 82–4, 128–36, 138 Enlightenment national histories 58 state and civil society actors 3 nineteenth century and transnational practices 159–61 institutionalisation 149, 168 Tsarist Russia 61–2 overseas research 364 interdisciplinarity regional historical societies 166 during the Romantic period 22, 82, source collection/publication 135, 169 87–95 women historians 181, 298, 360 French liberal tradition 251 Irish Committee for Historical Sciences German interwar Volksgeschichte 260 (ICHS) 242 Heeren’s Enlightenment writings 55 Irish Free State 242–3, 255–6 and institutionalisation/ Iselin, Isaak 58, 421 professionalisation 23, 25, 145, 166, Isidore of Seville 29, 421 167, 175–6, 178–9, 224, 359–60 Islam 48, 104, 328, 350, 351, 370, 373 and national identity 1 Israel 245, 336 to counter nationalising narratives 20, Istoria Pentru Începuturile Românilor în 379 Dachia (History of the Origins of the Ukrainian historical societies 166 Romanians in Dacia) (Maior) 66

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Index 553

Istoria tou ellinikou ethnous apo ton Jaakkola, Jalmari 241, 313, 422 archaiotaton chronon mehri tis simeron Jakobson, Carl Robert 176, 190, 422 (History of the Greek Nation from the Jankuhn, Herbert 202, 422 Most Ancient Times until the Present) Janssen, Johannes 198, 422 (Paparrigopoulos) 200 Jarausch, Konrad 376, 422 Istorija Gosundarstva Rossijskovo (History of Jászi, Oscar 250, 422 the Russian Empire) (Karamzin) 109 Jaurès, Jean 206, 275, 423 Istorija raznih slovenskih narodov, najpače Jebb, Richard 222, 423 Bolgar, Horvatov i Serbov (The History Jewish historiography 194–6, 277, 283, 368 of Various Slavic Peoples, especially see also Holocaust historiography of Bulgars, Croats and Serbs), Jones, Gareth Stedman 339, 423 (Rajić) 64 Jørgensen, Adolf Ditlev 118, 423 Istorija Ukrajiny-Rusy (History of the Jørgensen, Ellen 283, 423 Ukrainian Rus) (Hruševs’kyj) 140 journals Istvánffy, Miklós 128, 421–2 Enlightenment development/ Italia in cammino , L’ (Italy on the Move) introduction of 59, 70, 71, 79 (Volpe) 261 and Italian Fascism 260 Italia Illustrata (Illustrated History of Italy) nineteenth century amateur (Biondo) 33 tradition 135–6 Italy post-First World War new nation anti-Communism 313 states 241–2, 243, 244 bilateral reconciliation commissions 338 and professionalisation 168–9, 176, 223, class histories 206 246, 262, 263, 339 contested borders 264, 368 provincial Russian archives 152 critical history 321, 325 Soviet censorship 311 Enlightenment historiography 51, 57, Soviet institutionalisation 270 67 Juderías, Julián 256, 423 European wide research on 364 Judt, Tony 11, 340, 423 exile historiography 277–8, 279–80 Julian March 297 and fascism 239, 253, 260–1, 277–8, Jullian, Camille 185, 424 289, 299, 302, 321, 372 Jung, Jaan 176, 424 fifteenth century humanists 33 Juslenius, Daniel 60, 424 First World War historiographies 233 Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de 45, 424 humanist tradition 33–4 Juste, Théodore 100, 424 internationals schools 223 Julian March 297 Kalevala (Lönnrott) 111, 175 literature/literary histories 90, 93 Kalmar Union 32, 191 Marxist historiography 206, 207, 313 Kampffmeyer, Paul 208, 424 music and nationality 91 Kant, Immanuel 54, 424 nineteenth century Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović 93, 424 professionalisation 130, 156, 167, Karamzin, Nikolaj M. 90, 105, 109, 184, 425 169 Kardelj, Edvard 292, 425 regional history 103, 167 Károlyi, Árpád 147 restricted archival access 154 Karski, Jafim M. 171, 425 state-constructed historiography 182, Kastriota, Georg 293 372 Kautsky, Karl 235, 425 transnationality 160, 212, 364 Kearney, Hugh 324, 425 Venetian historiography 167 Kehr, Eckhard 278, 425 women historians 126 Kennedy, Paul 304, 425 World Congresses 212, 310, 318 key concepts 6–16 see also Roman empire Kievan Rus 31, 35, 114, 330 Italy on the Move (L’Italia in cammino) Kirkor, Adam 171, 425 (Volpe) 261 Klaustińš, Roberts 178, 425

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554 Index

Ključevskij, Vasilij Osipovič 147, 174–5, ethnic origin debates in Translyvania 66 274, 425 European origins 48 Klopp, Onno 198, 426 French as eighteenth century lingua Knopp, Guido 376, 426 franca 57 Knowles, Lilian 174, 210, 282, 426 in Herder’s theory of national Kogălniceanu, Mihail 18, 129, 135–6, 426 character 77 Kohn, Hans 68, 426 Latin 33, 66 Koht, Halvdan 238, 426 linguistics/history disciplinary Kolakowski, Leszek 308, 426 relationship 92–3 Kongelige Danske Selskab for Fædrelandets in Russian imperial narratives 183 Historie og Sprog (Royal Danish Scandinavianism 219 Society for National History and source publication in Gaelic 169 Language, The) 70 and territorial borders 189, 193–4 Köprülü, Mehmed[t] Fuad[t] 240, 426–7 and transnationality 17 Korais, Adamantios 63, 64, 427 Ugrian 60 Koselleck, Reinhart 5, 427 vernacular 21–2, 29, 32, 33, 60 Kosik, Karel 308, 427 Welsh 184 Koskinen, Yrjö 177, 190, 427 see also philology see also Forsman, Georg Zacharias Lanzmann, Claude 346, 429 Kosovo 329 Lapedatu, Alexandru 238, 429 Kossinna, Gustaf 201–2, 366, 427 Lastoŭski, Vatslaŭ 170, 273, 429 Kováč, Dušan 337, 427 Latvia 156, 165, 169, 178, 241, 307, 349, Kovalevskii, M. M. 171, 427 362 Kraków University 149–50, 244, 282 ‘laudes Germaniae’ 34 Královédsky Manuscript 115 Lavisse, Ernest 2, 159, 182, 229–30, 429 Križko, Pavol 157, 427–8 Le Clerc, Nicolas-Gabriel 63, 430 Krodznieks-Krīgers, Jānis 178, 428 League of Nations, Swiss origins 252 Kruus, Hans 190, 428 Leavis, F.R. 246 Kühnl, Reinhard 317, 428 Lecky, William Edward Hartpole 162, 430 Kukuljević Sakcinski, Ivan 218, 428 Lectures on Modern History (Cours d’histoire Kweik, Jozef 196 moderne) (Guizot) 97 Kweik, Rudolph 196 Lederer, Emma 297, 430 Lefebvre, Georges 275, 430 labour history see class historiography Lega Nord 321 Ladies’ History of England from the Descent Leggewie, Claus 346, 430 of Julius Caesar to the Summer of 1780 Leipzig University 84, 86, 159, 161, 174 (Cowley) 75 Leland, Thomas 41, 58, 430 Lafuente, Modesto 58, 428 Lelewel, Joachim 18, 61, 105, 113, 127, Lamartine, Alphonse de 122, 428 179, 430 Lambros, Spyridon 185, 361, 428 Lenin, Vladimir 268 Lamennais, Hugues-Félicité Robert de 122, Lennox, Charlotte 126, 430 428–9 Lenz, Max 143, 227, 431 Lamprecht, Karl Gotthard 174, 221–2, Lettenhove, Kervyn de 111, 431 226, 227, 230, 231, 364, 429 Lettis, Henricus de 176, 431 Landesgeschichte 56, 136, 167 Levesque, Pierre-Charles 63, 431 landscape, and national Leyenda Negra, La (Black Legend, The) characteristics 101–2 (Juderías) 256 Lang, Karl Heinrich Ritter von 136, 429 liberalism Langlois, Charles-Victor 152, 160, 429 balance sheet 373–5 language Cold War Eastern European of education in multinational states/ narratives 308–9, 355 empires 162 French Revolution histories 96, 120–3 English 364 and German exile historiography 280

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Index 555

in the interwar period 228, 239, 245–55, Luxembourg 131, 165, 245, 306, 341, 343, 256, 257, 261, 284, 372 365 nineteenth century constitutional Lyotard, Jean-François 11, 433 nationalism 107 and nineteenth century Marxism Mabillon, Jean 72 204–5 Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de 49, 52, 433 oppositional histories in the Romantic Mac Neill, Eoin 255, 433 period 112 Macaulay, Catherine 75–6, 433–4 terminology, ‘people’ 15 Macaulay, Thomas Babington 1–2, 83, 88, libraries 69, 136, 146, 154, 207, 209, 215, 106, 127, 215, 434 223, 243, 283, 353 Macedonia 187, 196, 320, 326, 337, 350 Lieux de mémoire (Realms of memory) Mack Smith, Dennis 364, 434 (Nora) 353 McNeill, William Hardy 10, 436 Life for the Tsar, A (Glinka) 91 Macpherson, James 115, 434 Linden, Marcel van der 339n, 431 MacRitchie, David 196, 434 Lindqvist, Sven 339, 431 Magdeburg Centuriators 37 Lingard, John 100, 431 Magna Carta 114, 276 linguistics, disciplinary relationship to Magnus, Johannes 32, 434 history 92–3 Magyar Szdzadok (Hungarian Centuries) Linna, Väinö 303, 432 (Virág) 114 Lipsius, Justus 32, 432 Maior, Petru 31, 435 literary histories 92–3 Mair, John 54, 434 literature Maistre, Joseph de 78, 98, 122, 434 disciplinary relationship to history 73, Malling, Ove 59, 435 74–5, 79, 88–90, 92–3, 175–6, 178–9, Malta 352 360 Manchester University 149, 174, 246 national master narratives in novels 20–1, Mannheim, Karl 3, 435 22, 88, 90, 175, 203, 360 Manzoni, Alessandro 90, 435 theory/history 92–3, 175–6 maps 193–4 Lithuania 105, 125, 190, 264, 307, 329, Marczali, Henrik 147, 159, 435 330, 349 Margerie, Pierre de 236 see also Polish-Lithuanian Margueritte, Victor 238, 435 Commonwealth Mariana, Juan de 32, 57, 435 Lloyd, John Edward 184, 432 Marie Antoinette 127 Lomonosov, Michail. V. 62, 432 Martin, Henri 202, 435–6 London Congress (1913) 212 Martins, Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira 219, London School of Economics 174, 209 436 Lönnrott, Elias 61, 432 Marx, Karl 14, 205, 292, 367, 436 Lorentzen, Christian August 92 Marxist history Lorenz, Chris 10, 11, 432 and the critical turn in Denmark 305 Lorraine and Alsace 44–5, 104, 186, 189, and exile historiography 277, 282 368 late nineteenth/early twentieth century Louis XIV (of France) 34, 50, 52, 79 class history 205–6, 224–5 Luden, Heinrich 102, 432 post-war GDR 291 Lüdtke, Alf 339, 433 and scientificity 18 Ludwig, Emil 249, 359, 433 Soviet/Eastern Europe Lukács, György 282, 291, 308, 433 developments 268–74, 277, 290–3, Lukašenka, Alijaksandr 330 308, 354, 355, 368 Lumières 44 Western Europe historiography 275–6, see also Enlightenment 300, 317, 334–5, 356, 367 Lusitania Sacra 38 Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue 115, 223, 251, 436 Luther, Martin 37, 198 masculinity 34, 210, 210–11, 363 Lutheran Church 74, 87, 189, 198 Masdeu, Juan Francisco 69, 436

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556 Index master narrative, defined 2, 11 Michelet, Athénaïs 128, 438 Matejko, Jan 92, 110, 436 Michelet, Jules 81, 85, 96, 98, 100, 103, Mathiez, Albert 275, 436 112, 120–1, 122, 127, 128, 171, 200, Matica česká (Czech Cultural Society) 172 361, 438 Matice 163, 172 Michelsen, Andreas Ludwig Jacob 192, Mátyás király életérõl való elmélkedések 438–9 (Reflections on the life of King Michnik, Adam 292, 439 Matthias) (Zrinyi) 40 Mickiewicz, Adam 329, 439 Maurists 72, 74 Micu, Samuil 365, 439 Maximilian I (Holy Roman Emperor) 35 Mika, Sándor 147–8, 439 Maximilian II (Of Bavaria) 98 military history 48, 88, 106, 109–10, 158 Mayans, Gregorio 57, 436 Mill, John Stuart 84, 200, 439 Mazzini, Giuseppe 108, 437 Millot, Claude-François-Xavier 49, 439 media history 1, 20, 304, 325, 328, 350, Milyukov, Pavel Nikolayevich 177, 359, 376, 378 439–40 medieval histories 6, 29–31, 41, 371 Mitchell, John 163, 440 see also Renaissance historiography Mitteleuropa/Middle Europe 232 medievalism 58–9, 94, 113–14, 187, 362 Mod, Aládar 440 Megill, Allan 375n, 437 modernisation Mehring, Franz 208, 437 and higher education 83–4 Meinecke, Friedrich 143, 226–7, 287–8, and Russian backwardness 175, 193, 437 212–13, 268, 369 Meiners, Christoph 49, 71, 437 Spain 57–8, 185, 199 Melanchton, Philip 37, 437 transnationality 24, 212–13, 225, 363, Melman, Billie 125, 437–8 370 memory 9–10, 344–7, 353–4, 370–1, 374 modernity collective, see also commemorations and Capitalism 43, 228 Menéndez Pelayo, Marcelino 263, 438 global 3–6, 18, 46, 369, 370 Menshevism 269 Western 192–3, 214, 365 meso-regions 339 Möeser, Justus 67, 102, 365, 441 meta/master narrative, defined 2, 11 Moldova 31, 129, 171, 326–7 Method for the Easy Comprehension of History Moltke, Konrad von 11, 440 (Methodus ad facilem historiarum Mommsen, Theodor 195, 204, 440 cognitionem) (Bodin) 39 monastic historians 29, 31, 35–6, 38, 74, methodological nationalism 2, 16, 17, 123–4, 174, 358 250, 252, 275, 286, 352, 363, 375–6 Moniuszko, Stanislaw 91 methodology Monmouth, Geoffrey of see Geoffrey of and medieval notions of truth 41 Monmouth philology 1, 39, 48, 72–3, 115, 133, 145, Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley 126, 440 147, 166, 178 Montandon, George 266, 440 seminars 71, 84, 144, 145, 147, 148, Montenegro 328, 350 149–50, 180, 245 Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de 49, 50, 52, source criticism 60, 62, 72–3, 74, 160, 56–7, 65, 440 360 Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Monuments see also comparative history of German History) 114, 134, 135, Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem 169 (Method for the Easy Comprehension of Moody, Theodore William 242, 441 History) (Bodin) 39 Moonan, George Aloysius 441 Mexico 281 Moravia 51, 117, 162, 172, 212, 243, 264, Meyer, Arnold Oskar 227, 438 307 Meyer, Eduard 227, 438 Morel, Edmund 238, 441 Michaelis, Johann David 71, 438 Moretti, Franco 22, 441 Michel, Giustina Renier 126, 438 Morton, Arthur Leslie 207, 276, 368, 441

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Index 557

Möser, Justus 67, 365, 441 and museums 157–8 Moskovskoe obščestvo istorii i drevnostei Palacký’s characterisation of Czechs and rossiiskich (Society of History and Germans in Bohemia 161 Russian Antiquity at the University pan/empire histories 183–4, 218–19, of Moscow) 130 265 Muir, Ramsay 193, 229, 441 political functionalisation 9 Müller, Gerhard Friedrich 62, 441–2 post-Cold War Eastern Europe 319 Müller, Johannes von 59, 101, 442 and religion 36–7, 104, 123, 172, 197–8, Müller, Karl Alexander von 248, 259, 442 367 multinational states see empire/ Roma people 195–6 multinational states Schleswig-Holstein question 191 Munich Treaty 295 Slav 78 Muñoz, Juan Bautista 46, 131, 442 Swiss 300–1 Muratori, Ludovico Antonio 51, 67, 365, Ukraine 183, 330 371, 442 National Democrats museums 95, 156–7, 220, 241, 293, 327, Poland 239, 250 331, 342, 343, 344–5 Romania 238 music/history disciplinary National Research Council (Consejo relationship 90–1 Superior de Investigaciones Muslims 48, 104, 328, 350, 351, 370, 373 Científicas) 262 Mussolini, Benito 233 National Socialism border narratives 263–4, 265 Naber, Johanna 208, 442 and Catholic historiography 257 Nabholz, Hans 254, 442 censorship 249, 257, 266, 278–9 Namier, Lewis 233, 247, 443 ethnic cleansing 260, 266, 284 Nanni, Giovanni 115, 443 exiles 278–9, 280 Napiersky, Karl Eduard 443 Flemish collaboration/resistance 266, Napoleon 82, 95 342 narrative frames, recurring elements 362–3 interwar rise 254, 259 Naruszewicz, Adam 61, 443 Italian historiography 321 nation, defined 7, 15, 51 oppositional/resistance narratives 265–7, national character/identity 278–9, 299 1980s crises 321, 324 and post-war neutral country artistic representation 92 narratives 300–1 Belgium as a self-constructed post-war reassessment 287–9, 288, 296, borderland 120, 192, 231, 253, 368 299, 354 Britishness 184, 215–16, 323–4 racial discourse 14, 202, 259, 263, 366 collective identities 9–10, 374–5, 377–8 see also Volksgeschichte in the critical turn 301 rehabilitation narratives 332 Dutch multiculturalism 331 and women historians 282, 283 early nineteenth century Nauclerus, Johannes 34, 443 preoccupation 80 Naumann, Friedrich 232, 443 and European diversity of national Nazi historiography 298–9 history writing 371 see also National Socialism existence of 77 Neem, Johann 373, 374, 443 formation through Romantic period neoliberalism 25, 335 history 18, 80–1, 98 Neovius, Arvid 174, 444 geographical basis 101–2 Netherlands German 34, 41, 78, 101, 161, 187, 203–4, and the critical turn 306 221, 226, 230, 322 economic union with Belgium and humanist traditions 33 Luxembourg 341 and interwar radicalisation 250 ethnic origins in nineteenth century Luxembourg 306, 343 history 204

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558 Index

Netherlands – continued Nolte, Ernst 322, 325, 444 historical novelists 90 Non-European histories 17–18, 46–7, 48, humanists 35 49, 56, 92, 104 IISG 274–5 Noonan, G.A. 243 multiculturalism 331 Nora, Pierre 182, 353, 444–5 nineteenth century Norges Riiges Historie (History of the Kingdom institutionalisation 155, 168 of Norway, The) (Schøning) 110 post-war resistance narratives 300 Norman History (Historia Normannorum) school curricula 351, 370 (Dudo of Saint-Quentin) 29 social history 174 Norman theory 62 under German occupation 265–6 Northern Europe, defined 217–18 women as historians 208 Northern Ireland 324 Neubauer, John 93, 444 Norway neutral countries, post-war narratives 287, commemoration of dissolution of union 300–1, 313, 355 with Sweden 339–40 New Historical Review (Nuova Rivista Storica) geography and national character 101 (Barbagallo) 233 historians with political careers 238 New Left 306 independence historiography 83, 164, New Science, The (Scienza Nuova) 183, 339–40 (Vico) 51–2 nationalistic art 92 Nicolai, Friedrich 43, 444 nineteenth century Niebuhr, Barthold Georg 72, 84, 444 institutionalisation 83, 110, 131, Niethammer, Lutz 8, 378, 444 134, 135, 157–8, 164, 168 Nietzsche, Friedrich 6, 229, 444 post-war women historians 298 nineteenth century see nineteenth century regional history 158, 338 (1850–1914); Romanticism/Romantic Scandinavianism 191, 219 period state-orientation of history 110 nineteenth century (1850–1914) status of historians 88 borderland narratives 144, 188–97, 224 victimhood narratives 116 class history 204–8, 224–5 women historians 298 disciplinary boundaries 23, 145, 166, novels 20–1, 22, 88, 90, 175, 203, 360, 367 175–7, 178–9, 224, 359–60 nuclear threat 317 European history 214 Nuova Rivista Storica (New Historical Review) gender 208–11 (Barbagallo) 233 institutionalisation 22, 143, 144–59, Nuremburg, Germanisches National 161–2, 164–70, 212, 222–3, 358 museum 94 in multinational nations/empire 161–4, 183–4, 215–17 Observations sur l’histoire de France myth debunking 178–9 (Observations on the History of France) national historical spectrum 140–3 (Mably) 52 pan-histories 217–22, 225, 366 occidental narratives see Western Europe professional habitus 180, 359 O’Dowd, Mary 181 professional/amateur boundary- Oehlenschlager, Adam Gottlob 90, 445 drawing 23, 175–81, 224, 359 Olavs, Vilis 178, 445 racialised nationality 200–4 On the Czech State (Res publica Boema) religion 197–200, 224 (Stránský) 32 social history 174–5, 224 On Diplomatics (De re diplomatica) Spanish modernisation 185 (Mabillon) 72 state impact 170–3, 223 Onciul, Dimitrie 161, 445 transnationality 23, 159–61, 183, 194, opera 90–1 211–23, 225 oppositional histories and the wider politics of borderlands 119, 189 nationalism 23, 185–8, 224 exile historiography 261, 277–82

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Index 559

Fascist/Communist regimes 261, 262, Palacký, František 18, 100, 111, 115, 161–2, 267, 269, 274–5 171, 172, 179, 446 and nationalising strategies of empire/ Palestine 244 state 8, 103, 140–1, 183–4 Palmer, Robert 313, 446 regionalisms becoming nationalisms 25, Pan-Germanism 218, 221–2, 265, 366 158, 286, 342, 362 pan-histories 217–22, 225, 339, 366 and restricted archival access 153–4 pan-Slavism 218, 366 state tolerance/censorship 24, 112, pan-Turanism 218 170–1, 361 Pánek, Jaroslav 337, 446 see also resistance narratives Pankratova, Anna 311, 446 Oresme, Nicolas 48, 445 Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos 200–1, 447 orientalism 12, 49 Paris Congress (1950) 318 origins of nation Pascu, Ştefan 293, 447 Balkans (late nineteenth/early twentieth Past and Present (Cannadine) 323 century) 188 Pastor, Ludwig von 198–9, 447 Bohemia 162 pastors/protestant ministers as Enlightenment national histories 60–1, historians 36, 56, 74, 87, 197 62, 64–7, 69, 79 Patzelt, Erna 283, 447 German interwar Volksgeschichte 260 Pauler, Gyula 147, 447 and hero narratives 118 Paulová, Milada 283, 447 interwar Turkey 240 Pavone, Claudio 325, 447 Latvia 241 Paxton, Robert 303, 364, 447–8 National Socialists and Catholicism in peace see reconciliation interwar Germany 257 peasants 59–60, 119, 120, 179, 183, 188, premodern national histories 32, 34 206 racialisation 200–4 Pekař, Josef 179, 251, 255, 448 as a recurring narrative frame 362 Pember Reeves, Maud 209, 448 Romantic period medievalism 113–14 Penson, Lillian 282, 448 Ukraine 330 people’s histories Ortega y Gasset, José 214, 254, 446 French liberalist historiography 120–1 Orthodoxy 35, 38, 87, 105, 157, 192, 255, people as historical subjects 15, 46–7, 319, 351, 367 119 Oslo Congress (1928) 253 as recurring narrative frame 362 Osnabrückische Geschichte (History of see also culture; popular history; social Osnabrück) (Moeser) 67 history Ossian 115 perfectability of humanity, Enlightenment Ossianic Society 129 trope 50, 54, 55–6, 58 O’Sullivan, John Marcus 255, 445 periodisation see ‘rise and decline O’Sullivan, Mary Donovan 181, 255, 445 narratives’ Ottoman Empire ‘perpetrator countries’ 286–9, 293, 294–5, medieval historiography 31 299, 346 Muslim tradition 350, 351 Pertz, Georg Heinrich 135, 448 and national empire narratives 188, Peter I (Tsar of Russia)/Peter the Great 50, 232, 273, 349, 350 61, 63, 171, 193, 272 pan-history 219 petit Lavisse 182, 186 scholarship on the Triplex Confinium 339 Petrarca, Francesco 33, 448 Sinti and Roma people 196 Petri, Franz 259, 265, 298, 448 and Turkish EU membership 346 Pez, Hieronymus 51, 449 Oxford University 148–9, 176, 198, 215, Pfeffel, Christian Friedrich 45, 449 228, 246 Phelan, William Reverend 116, 449 Philippides, Daniel 63, 449 paintings 92 philology 1, 39, 48, 72, 115, 133, 145, Paissi of Hilendar 81, 446 147, 166, 178

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560 Index

Philosophical and Political History of the as Whig historiography variant 107 Settlements and Trade of the Europeans see also Polish-Lithuanian in the East and West Indies, Commonwealth A. (Histoire philosophique et politique Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 70, 91, des établissements et du commerce 105, 117, 119, 250–1, 273, 274, 329, des Européens dans les deux Indes) 330, 349 (Raynal) 45–6 Political Intelligence Department (Britain, philosophy, interdisciplinarity 145, 178, PID) 233, 236 360 politicians, historians as 122, 141, 146, Pictures of Old and New Hungary (Imago 177–8, 192, 238–40, 304, 360–1 antiquae et novae Hungariae) Pollard, Albert 245, 450–1 (Timon) 117 Pollo, Stefanaq 293, 451 Piedmont 103, 109, 182 Polonisation 125 Pilati, Carloantonio 57, 449 Pomeranz, Kenneth 348 Piłsudski, Jósef 240, 251 Pop, Ioan-Aurel 337, 451 Pirenne, Henri 120, 159, 174, 192, 204, popular history 230–1, 252, 253, 342, 364, 449–50 arts and music 90–2 Platonov, Sergej Fëdorovič 147, 450 folk culture 60, 66, 93, 111, 115, 158, Plechanov, Georgij 268, 450 172, 175, 267 plomos de Sacromonte 115 media history 1, 304, 325, 328, 350, Pocock, John Greville Agard 28, 450 359, 376, 378 Pogodin, Michail Petrovič 114, 193, 450 see also literature; museums Pokrovskii/j, Michail Nikolaevič 237, Porthan, Henrik Gabriel 60–1, 451 268–9, 270, 271, 272, 367–8, 450 Portugal 38, 68, 158, 216–17, 219, 262, Polack 88, 114, 274, 329 372 Poland see Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth positivism 148, 175 Poland post-Cold War historiography 286 art and literature 91, 92, 93, 109, 175 East-West dichotomies 344 contested borderlands 105, 188, 189 Eastern Europe nationalism 325–34, 356 and East German bilateral renationalised narratives 25, 318–25, commission 312, 328 370, 376 Enlightenment national histories 61 and Western Marxist history 334–5, 357 exile historiography 307 post-colonial historiographies 286, 335, German occupation 265 349 institutionalisation 70, 149–50, 151, post-war Europe 164, 168, 244, 274 1960s higher education expansion 24, interwar historiography 239–40, 244, 304, 355, 356 250–1, 263–4, 282 contemporary memory boom 353 memorialised rzeczpospolita 349 East and West as spatial categories 312–18, military history 109–10 355–6 partition 107–8 Eastern Europe historiographical popularity of Annales School 309 restructuring 285, 290–7, 354, 357 post 1848 revolutionary exiles 112–13 empire historiography 348–52 post-Cold War analysis of European historiography 340–7, 367 Communism 325, 326, 331 exile historiography 307 post-Communist historiography 327–8 global historiographyy 347–8 post-war historiography 290, 295, late twentieth century 296–7, 308 renationalisation 25, 285, 318–25, premodern histories 31 351, 356, 369–70 religious identity 104, 367 Low Countries’ economic union 341 Roma people 196 National Socialism in German self-criticism 345 narratives 287–8, 299, 354, 355 Ukrainian emigré historians 281–2 neutral country narratives 300–1

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Index 561

‘perpetrator countries’ 286–9, 354 Protestantism 36–7, 49, 71, 123, 172, regional historiography 26, 338–40, 197–8, 257, 258, 367 377 see also pastors/protestant ministers as revisionism 296, 301–6, 307–9 historians self-reflexivity/critical turn 333, 336–7, Prothero, George 160, 452 355 protomodern historiography 29–43, 72, transnational networks/influences 309, 115, 371 310, 337–8, 356, 364 Prussia trend to comparative transnational archives 152–3 history 352–3, 357 borderlands 263 ‘victim countries’ 287, 299–300 see also Alsace and Lorraine women historians 297–9 critical history 214 see also Cold War, post-Cold War dynastic historiography 109, 111 historiography Enlightenment institutionalisation 72 Postan, Michael Moïssey 451 First World War historiography 229, 230 Postgate, Raymond 207 German unification 112, 141–2, 145, Postumus, Nicolaas Wilhelmus 274, 451 187, 192, 221 Power, Eileen 282, 451 impact on French historiography (Post Powicke, Frederick Maurice 246, 451–2 Franco-Prussian War) 159, 186 Prague, Cosmas of 31, 396 Jewish/female historigraphy 283 Prague Spring (1968) 308 masculine personification 210 Prague, University of 68 post 1848 revolutions 112 premodern historiography 29–43, 72, 115, post-War Prussianist discourse 288, 291 371 region of special significance 103 presentism 5, 10 religion 197, 198–9, 256, 288 professionalisation Romantic period étatisme 99 and ethnic minority histories 163 Schleswig-Holstein question 192 German scientific model 82–6, 145–6, Sonderweg 214 148–9, 150, 160, 168, 364 Weimar Republic historiography 248 and historian authority/as prophets 10, publishing industry/book market 3, 47, 23, 72–3, 90, 97–8, 140, 143, 179–80, 73–4, 155 224, 266, 359 Pufendorf, Samuel von 9, 40, 452 history workshop movement 339 Puškin, Aleksandr 90, 272, 452 institutionalisation 10, 23, 69, 73–4, 79, Pütter, Johann Stephan 57, 452 128–36, 138, 144–59, 164–70, 223, 358 queens 127, 210 and interdisciplinarity 23, 25, 87–95, Quidde, Ludwig 227 143, 178–9, 359–60 Quinet, Edgar 85, 112, 123, 452 in nascent states following First World War 240–5, 358 race 13–14, 49 and national myth debunking 179 see also ethnicity post Cold-War Moldova 327 racial purity 14, 31 professional practice/habitus 3, 25, 70, Racine, Jean 34, 452 72–4, 90, 180, 359 Rada, Rodrigo Ximénez de 30, 453 and religion 197 Rajić, Jovan 64, 453 separation with amateur tradition 175–81, Rákóczi controversy 180 359 Raleigh, Walter 39, 453 state drive/control 170–1 Ranke, Leopold von 2, 10, 83, 84, 85, 86, transnationality 159–61, 212, 363–5 90, 93, 97, 98, 100, 153, 198, 453 and women 74–6, 126, 181, 182, 208–9, Rapant, Daniel 243, 453 224, 359, 360 Raphael, Lutz 310, 453–4 see also amateur traditions Rapin-Thoyras, Paul de 62, 454 project-based identity 375 Ratzel, Friedrich 221, 454

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562 Index

Raynal, Guillaume-Thomas 45–6, 49, 369, and the old feudal order 120 454 Orthodoxy 35, 38, 105, 157, 192, 255, Realms of memory (Lieux de mémoire) 367 (Nora) 353 Reformation and Counter-Reformation reconciliation historiographies 36–8, 198–9, 371 changing contexts for national and regional history museums in histories 336–8 Russia 157 England, post Wars of the Roses 39 and Romantic medievalism 114 Enlightenment thought on 54, 60 Romantic period confessionalised and self criticism/reflexivity 370, 376–7, historiography 116, 123–4 379 subsumed by national history 144, 363, war guilt debate 234–8 367, 377 Redlich, Josef 127, 454 theological understanding of universal Reflections on the life of King Matthias history 31, 41–2, 77–8 (Mátyás király életérõl való typological usefulness 372 elmélkedések)(Zrinyi) 32 see also Islam; monastic historians; Reflections on the Revolution in France pastors/protestant ministers as (Burke) 127 historians; secularisation Reformation historiographies 36–7, 198, Renaissance historiography 21, 31–4, 42, 371 73, 115 ‘Regeneracionismo’ 185 ‘république des lettres’ 45 regional historiography Res publica Boema (On the Czech State) as alternative to national paradigm 26, (Stránský) 40 338–40, 377 resistance narratives 24, 267, 288, 289, areas of special significance 103 292, 294, 299, 303, 321, 355 becoming fully fledged nationalism 25, restabilising national histories, post- 286, 342, 362 war 285, 286–9 in Enlightenment histories 56, 67 restitution commissions 345 Flemish/Walloon in Belgium 162, 204, Révai, József 282, 454 342–3 Revue Historique 168, 186, 361 and Herder’s theory of national Rhenanus, Beatus 73, 455 character 77 Ricardo, David 14, 455 institutionalisation 130–1, 136, 157–8, Rieber, Alfred 333, 455 166–7, 293 Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich 101, 455 and national historiography 158, 167, right-wing dictatorships see Fascism/ 225, 363, 365 right-wing dictatorships premodern histories 34 Rigney, Ann 25–6, 90, 122, 455 recurring elements 362 Ripka, Ferenc 258 Romantic period local history 102–4 ‘rise and decline narratives’ 116–17, 254, Russian provincial archives 152 362 Reichsgeschichte 32, 40, 56 Risorgimento 91, 93, 126, 154, 239, 260–1, Reill, Peter Hanns 57, 454 279, 289, 302, 321, 364 religion Risorgimento e Fascismo/ Risorgimento and Danish national identity 172 Fascism (Gentile) 260–1 Enlightenment historiography 53, 74, 123 Ritter, Gerhard 288, 310, 314–15, 318, European balance of power 48–9 455 European identity 104, 350, 365, 378 Robertson, William 54, 369, 455–6 German historiography 36–7, 71, 123, Rocker, Rudolf 274, 456 198–9, 208, 257, 288 Rodríguez, Pedro Sainz 256, 456 illyrism 38 Roller, Mihail 292, 456 interwar politics 255–9 Roma people 118, 195–7, 368 late nineteenth/early twentieth century Roman empire 7, 33, 34, 65, 66, 101, 108, historiography 198–9, 224 109

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Index 563

Romania Romanticism/Romantic period Enlightenment historiography 65–7 cult of heroes 118, 127, 129 étatisme 171–2, 372 and the Enlightenment 43, 56, 78, 81–2 German occupation 265 ethnic histories 111 interwar women historians 283 and forged historical documents 115–16 journals 135–6 French Revolution, European reaction Lamprecht’s influence 174 to 96–7 narratives of self-liberation 295 gendering of national histories 125–8 Orthadoxy 367 German pre-eminence/influence 82–6 post First World War 264 and Herder 76–8 post-Cold war historiography 325, 326, and historism 84, 96 332, 336 institutionalisation of history 22, 128–36, post-war reorganisation of historical 138 sciences 292–3 liberty/liberalism 120–3 premodern histories 31 and medievialism 59, 113–14 Romantic period historians 129 narratives of territory 101–5 transnationality 161, 213, 222, 358 neighbourhood emnity 116–17, 119–20 Western orientation 365 particularism/universalism 22, 82, 97, Romanian Academy (Societatea Academică 99, 136–7 Română) 172 and the personification of national Romanov empire (and Russia under) identity 80–1, 97–8, 100 art and literature 90, 91, 176 religious and class ‘others’ 123–5 attitude to the West 63, 105, 175, 192–3, ‘rise and decline narratives’ 116–17 212–13, 365 state-orientation/étatisme 99, 106–10 borderlands 105, 189–91 transdisciplinarity 87–95 in Communist historiography 237, 269, Rome Congress (1903) 212 270, 271, 272, 273, 281 Rome Congress (1955) 310, 318 Enlightenment national histories 61–4, 364 Romein, Jan Marius 368, 456 exile historiography 155, 281 Roosbroeck, Robert van 248, 266, 456–7 Fist World War narratives 231 Rosenberg, Arthur 248, 457 imperial nationalising Rosenberg, Hans 279, 302, 317, 457 historiography 158, 163, 166, 171, Roshwald, Aviel 373, 374, 375, 457 183–4, 186–7 Rosselli, Carlo 239, 261, 361, 457 modernisation 193, 212–13 Rosselli, Nello 239, 261, 361, 457 nineteenth century Rothe, Tyge 60, 134, 457–8 institutionalisation 86, 130, 133–4, Rothfels, Hans 260, 288, 458 135, 147, 152, 157, 167–8, 176 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 45, 49, 81, 101, oppositional nationalism 24, 103, 119, 458 140–1, 171, 183, 362 Royal Danish Society for National History pan-Slavism 218 and Language, The (Kongelige politics of commemoration 186–7 Danske Selskab for Fædrelandets publishing industry 155 Historie og Sprog) 70 regional history 158, 166, 167 Royal Historical Society (London) 160, Russian First World War 164, 165 historiographies 231 Royal Society (London) 71, 151 Russian historians as politician 177 royal/court historiographers 29–30, 33, Russian Orthodoxy 35, 87, 105, 157, 37, 38, 59, 69, 74 192, 367 Rožkov, Nikolaj Aleksandrovič 269 Russian social history 174–5 Rudé, George 276, 458 seventeenth century legitimation Rumjancev Circle 88 historiography 35 Rumjancev, Nikolaj Petrovič 88, 458 transnationality 212–13, 218, 363 Runeberg, Johan Ludvig 61, 458 women historians 208 runes 33

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564 Index

Rupnik, Jacques 308, 458–9 schools 351–2, 370 Russell, Bertrand 228, 459 see also textbooks Russia see Romanov empire; Soviet Union schools of Historians of the Reich 40 Rusu, Florenţa 297 Schopenhauer, Arthur 9, 464 scientificity Saal, Andres 176, 459 and amateur/popular history 23, 25, 79, Said, Edward 12, 459 169, 177, 178, 179, 359 St Albans, abbey of 29 and the exclusion of women 182, 224, St Bonifaz 198 360 St Denis, abbey of 29 Finnish Enlightenment history 60 St Stephen, cult of 114, 198, 257–8 in German expulsion narratives 328 Saint-Simonians 124 German model 82–6, 145–6, 148–9, Salazar dictatorship (Portugal) 262 150, 160, 168, 364 Salvemini, Gaetano 232, 261, 279, 289, and historian authority/as prophets 10, 459 23, 72–3, 90, 140, 143, 179–80, 224, Samarin, Juri 189, 190, 192, 460 266, 359 Samis 118 ICHS 212, 253, 254 Samuel, Raphael 276, 339, 460 and interdisciplinarity 23, 25, 87–95, Sánchez Albornoz, Claudio 262, 460 143, 178–9, 359–60 Sars, Ernst 183, 191, 460 interwar Eastern Europe 243–4 Sasinek, František Vít[v]azoslav 123, 163, and Irish nationalism 170, 242 460 Marxist historians 18, 271 Sattelzeit 5 myth debunking 10, 178–9, 336 Savigny, Friedrich Carl von 86, 460 in premodern methodology 39 Saxo Grammaticus 32, 460 professional practice/habitus 3, 25, 70, Scandinavia 32–3, 59–60, 303 72–4, 90, 180, 359 see also Denmark; Norway; Sweden as Romantic period German mission 22, Scandinavianism 191, 218, 219, 339, 366 82–6 Scarin, Algot 60, 460–1 and Russian Enlightenment Ščerbatov, Michail M. 63, 461 history 61–2 Schäfer, Dietrich 221, 222, 227, 461 and Scottish empiricism 53 Schama, Simon 376, 461 and seminars 71, 84, 144–5, 147, 148, Schedel, Hartmann 34, 461 180, 245 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph 9, to support Francoism 262 218, 461 Weimar Republic’s War Guilt Schieder, Theodor 259, 298, 461 narratives 235–6 Schieder, Wolfgang 287n, 461–2 Scienza Nuova (The New Science) (Vico) Schiller, Friedrich 48, 73, 138, 462 51–2 Schirren, Carl 189–90, 462 Scoala Ardeleana/Transylvanian School 66 Schlegel, August Wilhelm 93, 462 Scotland Schlegel, Friedrich 93, 99, 462 Britishness 184, 215, 324 Schleswig-Holstein question 191–2 English hostility 36 Schlichtegroll, Friedrich von 80, 462–3 Enlightenment national Schlosser, Friedrich Christoph 84, 97, 136, historiography 53–5, 79, 366 463 forged historical documents 115 Schlözer, August Ludwig von 47, 62, 64, institutionalisation 69, 132, 149 71, 463 national identity/Scottishness 25, 55, Schlözer, Dorothea 75, 463 88, 343, 362 Schmidt, Mária 327, 463 Protestantism 37 Schmidt, Michael Ignaz 463 Scott, Walter 88, 89, 464 Schmiedehelm, Martha 283, 463 Scurtă cunoştiinta a istoriei românilor Schnabel, Franz 233, 257, 314, 463 (Short Account of the History of the Schøning, Gerhard 110, 463–4 Romanians) (Micu) 365

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Index 565 secessionism 60, 140–1, 167, 183, 190–1, Short History of the English People, 274–5, 326, 329 A (Green) 174 Second World War 24, 265–7, 286, 327–8, Sickel, Theodor 147, 465 340, 344, 350, 355, 357 Sienkiewicz, Henryk 110, 465 secularisation 31–2, 34, 44, 46, 57, 68–9, Silvio, Enea 33, 465 182, 200 Simmel, Georg 188, 465 Seeberg Address 227 Şincai, Gheorghe 465 Seeley, John Robert 148, 184, 215, 216, Sinopsis/Synopsis (Gizel) 35 366, 464 Sinti 195–6 Seignobos, Charles 159, 160, 229, 464 Skanderbeg 293 self criticism/reflexivity Skinner, Quentin 7, 465 1980s renationalisation 318–25, 336–7, Slav-Bulgarian History (Paissi of 356 Hilendar) 81 an the rise of social history 305–6 Sleiday, Johannes 37 bi-national historical commissions 337 Slovakia 24, 120, 173, 267, 290, 326, 332, Cold War détente 317 337 in Eastern Europe 301, 307–12, 333 see also Czechoslovakia generational factors 355 Slovenia 38, 164, 168, 173, 332 and the memory boom 353 Smalcaldic League 37 post-war Europe 333, 336–7, 355 Smetana, Bedřich 91 and prevalence of national history Smith, Adam 14, 465–6 writing 306, 357, 369, 376–7 Smith, Arthur Lionel 229, 466 scope for reconciliation 370, 376–7, Smith, Bonnie 126, 466 379 Smith, Charlotte 126, 466 university expansion of the 1960s 286, Smith, Dennis Mack 302 304, 355 Snapshots from the German Past (Bilder Western European revisionism 301–6, aus der deutschen Vergangenheit) 321, 336, 355 (Freytag) 179, 203 and Western Marxism 317, 335 Snellman, Johan Wilhelm 177, 466 seminars 71, 84, 144–5, 147, 148, 149–50, Sobieski, Wacław 239, 240, 466 180, 245 Soboul, Albert 275, 317, 466 Sepp, Johann Nepomuk 198, 464 Social Darwinism 14, 200, 201, 221, 224, Serbia 264, 366 Enlightenment historiography 64 social democracy 119, 207, 214, 239, 249, folklore 93 275, 288, 306 historical liberation narratives 188 social history 15, 119, 143, 173–5, 224, institutionalisation 151, 172 276, 305–6, 338, 372 interdisciplinarity 176 see also folk culture and Macedonian history 320 Societas eruditorum incognitorum in terris military history 110 austriacis 51 and Orthodox tradition 38 Societatea Academică Română (Romanian post-Cold War analysis of Academy) 172 Communism 326 Society of Antiquaries (England) 69 Yugoslav civil war 328–9, 346 Society of History and Russian Antiquity Šestakov, Andrej Vasil’evič 272, 464 at the University of Moscow Shevchenko (Scientific) Society 141, 166, (Moskovskoe obščestvo istorii i 282 drevnostei rossiiskich) 130 Shipka Memorial 121 Solf, Wilhelm 234 Short Account of the History of the Romanians solidarities 10–11, 14, 145, 214, 301, (Scurtă cunoştiinta a istoriei românilor) 373–5 (Micu) 365 Solov’ëv, Sergej Michajilovič 171, 184, Short Course in the History of the USSR 188, 192, 274, 466–7 (Šestakov) 272 Sombart, Werner 226, 467

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566 Index

Sonderweg 12, 214, 248, 279, 301, 305, Stalin, Joseph 24, 268, 271, 272, 276, 277, 314, 315, 364, 365 292, 368 source criticism 60, 62, 72–3, 74, 160, 360 Stanislaw August (Of Poland) 61 source editions Starkey, David 285, 376, 467–8 interwar period 241, 244, 363 state nineteenth/early twentieth century 38, educational reforms 68, 79, 84, 304 110, 114, 138, 169–70, 182, 223 eighteenth century statistics 71 post-war 290 as family 127 see also Monumenta Germaniae Historica Herder’s theory of nation 77 source-collecting schools 38 Prussian master narrative of 288 South Tyrol 264 see also censorship; étatisme; statelessness Soviet Union statelessness 103–4, 105, 170, 194 Baltic state historiography 307 see also borderless nations Bol’ševlik historiography 24, 268–73 Stephen, St (Hungarian cult) 114, 198 bourgeois historians 270, 271 Stern, Selma 283, 468 exile from 277, 280–2 Stone, Elizabeth (née Wheeler) 209, 468 First World War historiography 237 Stone, Norman 323, 468 host for exiled historians 282 Stora, Benjamin 349, 468 interwar historiography 24, 237, 258–9, Store och gode handlinger af Danske, Norske 268–74 og Holstenere kunde därför utges post-Cold War 326, 330 redan (Great and Good Deeds by post-war resistance narratives 294 Danes, Norwegians and Holsteinians) reform Communism 301, 308, 311–12 (Malling) 59 Rome Congress (1955) 318 Storia d’Italia dal 1871 al 1915 (History of Russian backwardness/ Italy from 1871 to 1915) (Croce) 261 modernisation 268, 369 Stránský, Pavel 40, 468 Russian historians as politician 177 Stubbs, William 85, 106, 148, 177, 178, Spahn, Martin 227, 232, 467 182, 468 Spain Study of History (Toynbee) 13, 255 backwardness/modernisation 57–8, 69, Stürmer, Michael 321–322, 468–9 185, 199, 262, 369 Suhm, Peter Frederik 60, 469 border features 101 Sundhaussen, Holm 64, 469 Catalonia 25, 69, 158, 311, 335, 342, Suolahti, Gunnar 174, 469 362, 364 Sutherland, Lucy 282 civil war (1936–1939) 262, 369 Sweden and the collapse of Communism 335 ancestry myths 32 colonialist defence 46, 58, 216 antiquities’ legislation 95 dynastic histories 30, 32 étatisme of Romantic history 99 fascism/Francoism 256, 262, 281, 313, ‘fatherland’ 67 336, 345, 357 and Finnish separatism 60, 191 influence of Annales School and German influence 86, 149 Braudelism 311 historians turned politician 177 Jewish refugees 345 institutionalisation 149, 151, 154, 158, military history 109 164, 168 national archives 46, 131 ‘Levande Historia’/Holocaust natural enemies (Erasmus’ quote) 36 education 345 religious historiography 199, 216, 256 medievalism 114 Romantic period medievalism 114 nationalist drama 90 specialism/functional differentiation 145 and Norwegian independence 164, Spengler, Oswald 13, 254, 467 339–40 Spittler, Ludwig Timotheus 71, 467 as the ‘people’s home’ 119, 301, 349 Srbik, Heinrich von 222, 265, 299, 467 premodern dynastic histories 32–3 Staël, Germaine de 125, 467 Protestantism 87, 199, 367

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Index 567

Sami representation 118 Thompson, Edward Palmer 276, 300, 334, Scandinavianism 33, 219 472 self-reflection 306, 336 Tieck, Ludwig 101, 472 women as historians 208, 298 Ţiganiada (Gypsiad) 195 Swiss Histories (Geschichten schweizerischer Tilly, Charles 16, 472 Eidgenossenschaft) (Müller) 59 Timon, Samuel 117, 472 Switzerland Tirpitz, Alfred von 143 anti-Semitism 249, 252 Tito, Josip Broz 295 Bergier Commission 345 Tocilescu, Grigore 161, 472 Enlightenment histories 58–9 Tőkéczki, László 327, 472 and Europeanisation/globalisation 376 Tőkei, Ferenc 291, 472–3 historical societies 70, 130 Topelius, Zacharias 149, 473 interwar liberalism 252–3 Torr, Dona 276, 473 military history 109 totalitarianism 316, 318, 331–2, 340, 361, national identity 58–9, 101, 300–1 372 nineteenth century class histories 206 Tout, Thomas Frederick 149, 245–6, 473 Protestantism 37, 367 Towarzystwo Warszawskie Przyjaciół Nauk statehood 109 (Warsaw Society of Friends of the and Whig historiography 107 Sciences) 70 women historians 298 Toynbee, Arnold J. 13, 233, 254, 255, Sybel, Heinrich von 127, 152–3, 177, 188, 473 469 transnationality Szabó, Ervin 206 bilateral commissions/projects 312, 328, Szamosközi, István 128, 469 337 Széchényi, Ferenc 154 East-West dialogue 24–5, 313, 315, Szekfü, Gyula 180, 255, 469 317–18, 344 Szilágyi, Sándor 148, 469 and empire history 23, 144, 215–17, 348–52, 377 Tacitus, Cornelius 34, 470 Enlightenment period networks 44, 51, Tagányi, Karoly 175, 470 79 Taine, Hippolyte 148, 470 and EU funding 343 Tamir, Yael 373, 470 German scientific model 82–6, 145–6, Tartu University (formerly Dorpat) 84, 148–9, 150, 160, 168, 364 147, 326 global history 348 Tasca, Angelo 279, 470 in a globalised world 4 Tatiščev, Vasilij Nikitič 62–3, 470 history workshop movement 339 Tawney, Richard Henry 207, 275, 470 international schools 222–3 Taylor, Alan John Percivale 246, 287, international study 150, 159–61, 174, 470–1 333, 344 Tegel, Erik Jöransson 32, 471 interwar historiography 24, 233, 252, Tegnér, Esaias 90, 471 255, 274–5 Temperley, Harold 254, 471 Jewish historiography 194 textbooks 151, 172, 182, 242, 337, 347, meso-regions 339–40 352 professional ethos 363–5 Thatcher, Margaret 323 and professional reputation 183, 211 theatre/drama 90, 325 Romantic period theatre 90 theology 82, 87–8, 176–7 and self-reflexivity 305, 306, 370, 377 Thierry, Amédée 14, 113, 471 to overcome backwardness/ Thierry, Augustin 14, 88, 99, 111, 120, modernisation 212–13, 225, 363, 121, 128, 202–3, 471 370 Thiers, Adolphe 120, 122–3, 471 and typology-building 372 Thimme, Friedrich 235, 471 war guilt debate 227, 237–8, 363 Thirsk, Joan 282, 298, 471–2 world exhibitions 158

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568 Index transnationality – continued war guilt debate 234–8 world historical congresses 212, 253–4, see also Cold War; interwar period; post- 310, 318, 356, 363 Cold War historiography; post-war see also comparative history; European Europe histories; Europeanisation; exiled typology-building 372 historians; global/world history; pan-histories; universalism Über die Geschichte der Menschheit (History of Transylvania 22, 66, 129, 189, 264 Mankind) (Iselin) 58 Treaty of Trianon see Trianon, Treaty of Ugrian language 60 Treaty of Versailles see Versailles Treaty Uhlirz, Mathilde 283, 474 Treitschke, Heinrich von 140, 141–3, 195, Ukraine 210–11, 229, 473 Church history 258 Trevelyan, George M. 247, 473 Cold War historiography 309 Trevor-Roper, Hugh 246 exile historiography 280–1, 281–2 Trianon, Treaty of 218, 249–50, 258, 327 institutionalisation 86, 131, 152, 165–6, Triplex Confinium 339 176 Trockij, Leon 268 interest in Byelorussia 189 Troebst, Stefan 325, 473 and Poland 105, 274, 281–2 truth, as historical purpose 10, 41, 72, 76, post-Cold War 326, 330 143, 179, 224, 236 Resistance narratives 294 Tsarist Russia see Romanov empire Romantic period medievalism 114 Tschudi, Aegidius 59, 474 and Russian imperialism 35, 103, 140–1, Tschudi, Clara 127, 474 163, 171, 183, 362 Tudjman, Franjo 329, 474 and Soviet Russia 24, 258, 273, 274 tunnel vision 16, 25, 286, 315, 338, 339 UNESCO 327, 337 Turanism 218 United States of America 237, 278, 279, Turati, Filippo 206, 474 280, 313, 315, 317, 364 Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques 49, 474 Universal History, from the Earliest Accounts to ‘Turk’, vilification of 104 the Present Time, A 47–8, 364 Turkey universalism amateur/professional traditions 372 Communist historiography 369 and Bulgaria 117, 119, 121 Enlightenment historiography 12, 46–50, and Cyprus 319 52, 53, 58, 59, 68, 77–9, 366, 369 empire history 349 and the French Revolution 95 EU membership 346, 351 and liberalism 369 historians as politicians 240 in nineteenth century Russian institutionalisation 172 universities 213 modernity 214 in the premodern Christian-theological and pan-history 218–19 understanding of history 31, 38 Tussaud, Madame Marie 96, 474 and Romantic particularism 22, 82, 97, twentieth (and twenty-first) century 99, 136–7 changing contexts for national Saint-Simonians 124 histories 25, 336–8 see also global/world history cultural transfer methodology 352–3 universities empire histories 348–52 1960s expansion 24, 304, 355, 356 Europeanisation 286, 340–7, 357 British institutionalisation (interwar First World War historiography 226–7, period) 245–6 228–34, 283–4 British social history 174 global history 347–8 Enlightenment 68, 70–1, 72, 79 memory boom 344–7, 353–4 and Estonian oppositional professional/amateur boundary 359 narratives 326 regional/local alternatives to national and ethnicity in interwar Germany 259, history 338–40 260

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Index 569

Ghent 162, 230, 253 Vilkuna, Kustaa 313, 476 Göttingen, University of 56, 60, 70–1, Villari, Pasquale 212, 476 72, 73, 83, 86, 358, 364 Villeneuve-Bargemont, Alban de 124, international study 159–61, 174, 333, 477 344 Vinogradov, Pavel Gavrilovič 277, 477 interwar exile 281–2 Virág, Benedek 100, 114, 477 Irish nationalism 242, 255–6 Viriato 219 in newly independent states 241, 243, Viterbo, Annio da 115, 477 244 Voionmaa, Kaarle Väinö 174, 477 nineteenth century völkisch history 176, 201, 248 institutionalisation 144–50, 172 Volksgeschichte 15, 24, 188, 248, 254, Oxford University 148–9, 176, 215, 228, 260, 263 246 Volney, Constantin-François Chasseboeuf post-war Poland 297 de 49, 477 Romantic period 68, 82–4, 83, 84, 86, Volpe, Giaocchino 233, 261, 477–8 128–9, 137, 138 Voltaire (pen name for François-Marie seminars 71, 84, 144, 145, 147, 148, Arouet) 43, 46, 49, 50, 52, 54, 57, 149–50, 180, 245 79, 364, 366, 369, 478 and women 74, 174, 182, 208, 209–10, 224, 245–6, 282–3, 298 Wagenaar, Jan 44, 478 Unwin, George 246, 474 Wagner, Richard 91 Ustrjalov, Nikolaj Gerasimovič 184, 475 Wahlström, Lydia 208, 478 utopian socialists 124 Waitz, Georg 159, 192, 478 Uvarov, Sergej 183–4 waldeinsamkeit 101 Wales 103, 184, 215, 324, 362 Valentin, Veit 227, 278, 475 Wallachia 129, 171, 188 Valla, Lorenzo 73, 115, 475 Walloon histories 162, 204, 342 Vatican archive 132, 133 Walter, Jean-François 101–2, 478 Velly, Paul François 53, 475 Wandycz, Piotr S. 307, 478–9 Velschow, Hans Mathias 191, 475 war guilt debate 227, 234–8, 283–4, 363, Venelin, Jurij Ivanovič 117, 475 368–9 Venerable Bede 7, 29, 31, 38, 385 War of Steel and Gold, The (Brailsford) 216 Venetian identity 167 Ward, Adolphus William 149, 210, 479 Venice 167 Warland, Geneviève 197, 479 Venturi, Franco 279–80, 475 Wars of the Roses 39 Verdi, Giuseppe 91 Warsaw Society of Friends of the Sciences Vergil, Polydore 32, 476 (Towarzystwo Warszawskie Przyjaciół Verković, Stefan 116, 476 Nauk) 70 Versailles Treaty 235, 238, 248, 263, 284 Was heiβt und zu welchem Ende studiert man Vicens Vives, Jaume 311, 364, 476 Universalgeschichte? (What do we call Vichy regime 267, 299–300, 303, 321, 364 and to which end do we study universal Vico, Giambattista 51–2, 64, 476 history?) (Schiller) 48 ‘victim countries’, post war narratives 287, Waterloo, Battle of 89 293, 295–6 Webb, William Henry 165 victim narratives 92, 116–17, 235–6, 289, Weber, Max 352, 479 295–6, 299–301, 328, 336, 354 Weibull, Lauritz 479 Victoria (of England) 211 Weimar Republic 41, 229, 235–6, 248–9, Vienna 134, 147, 265, 304 257, 315 View of the Progress of Society in Europe, from see also Volksgeschichte the Subversion of the Roman Empire, to Weitgeist 99, 171 the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century, Wells, Herbert George 254, 479 A (Robertson) 54 Werner, Michael 352, 479–80 Vilar, Pierre 308, 476 West, Benjamin 92

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570 Index

West Germany Wilser, Ludwig 202, 480 anti-Communism 313 Wimpfeling, Jakob 34, 480 and the ‘Atlantic civilisation’ 314–15, Winckelmann, Johann Joachim 187, 317 480–1 dialogue with East Germany 317–18 Windele, John 129–30, 481 and Eastern European exile Winkel, Jan te 481 historiography 307 Winkler, Heinrich August 322, 481 growth of social history (1960s) 305, Winter, Ernst Karl 265, 481 306 Wissenschaft 9–10, 84, 90, 140, 141, 180 Historikerstreit/Historians’ Witte, Ludo de 350, 481 Controversy 321–2, 325 Wojciechowski, Zygmunt 296, 481 post-war historiography 288–9, 298–9 Wolf, Friedrich August 72, 481–2 self-reflexivity 301 Wolf, Heinrich 201, 482 Western Europe Wolff, Larry 49, 482 Cold War historiography 24, 307, Woltmann, Ludwig 202, 482 312–18, 355–6 women dialogue with Eastern Europe 333–4, amateur traditions 74–6, 181, 359, 360 344 Cold War period 297–9 Enlightenment Eurocentricity 49 interwar period 245–6, 282–3 European history 340, 341 late nineteenth century 144, 182, First World War narratives 228–31 208–10, 224 German occidental narratives 288 as readers of history 179 German occupation 265–7 suitabilty for history writing 125–8 late twentieth century see also gender renationalisation 25, 320–5, 351, women’s rights 126, 209 356, 369, 370, 376 Woolf, Daniel 39, 482 Marxism 275–6, 300, 317, 334–5, 356, Woolf, Stuart 341 357, 368 working-classes 15, 205–7, 224–5, 270, re-orientation of anti-fascist and anti- 272, 292, 300, 306 Communist exiles 280 World Exhibitions 158 revisionist historiography world historical congresses 212, 253, (1960s–1970s) 296, 301–6, 355–6 253–4, 310, 318, 356, 363 Western values/‘Atlantic civilisation’ 25, world history see global/world history 313–14, 315, 316, 317, 341, 356 World War I see First World War Westphalian state model 40, 42, 361 World War II see Second World War Wette, Wilhelm Leberecht de 87, 480 Wever, Bart de 343 Xenopol, Alexandru Demetrius 161, 482 What do we call and to which end do we study universal history? (Was heiβt Ypres 344 und zu welchem Ende studiert man Yugoslavia 263, 295, 297, 309, 319–20, Universalgeschichte?) (Schiller) 48 328–9, 346, 350, 370, 379 Wheeler, Elizabeth see Stone, Elizabeth Yugoslavism 218 Whig histories/narrative 11–12, 39, 106, 184, 215, 247, 300, 373 Zimmermann, Wilhelm 207, 482 Wildt, Michael 339, 480 Zimmern, Alfred 233, 482–3 William of Malmesbury 29, 41, 480 Zionist historiography 195, 244–5, 336 William of Newburgh 29, 480 Zrinyi, Miklós 40, 483 William of Poitiers 29, 480 Zurich Congress (1938) 254