The Organization and Fragmentation of Armed Groups in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
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Richards, J 2016 Implementing DDR in Settings of Ongoing Conflict: stability The Organization and Fragmentation of Armed Groups in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Stability: International Journal of Security & Development, 5(1): 11, pp. 1–10, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/sta.467 PRACTICE NOTE Implementing DDR in Settings of Ongoing Conflict: The Organization and Fragmentation of Armed Groups in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) Joanne Richards Although it is common for armed groups to splinter (or “fragment”) during con- texts of multi-party civil war, current guidance on Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) does not address the challenges that arise when recalci- trant fighters, unwilling to report to DDR, break ranks and form new armed groups. This Practice Note addresses this issue, drawing lessons from the multi-party context of the DRC and from the experiences of former members of three armed groups: the Rally for Congolese Democracy-Goma (RCD-Goma), the National Con- gress for the Defense of the People (CNDP), and the DRC national army (FARDC). While the findings indicate that the fragmentation of armed groups may encourage desertion and subsequent participation in DDR, they also show that active armed groups may monitor DDR programs and track those who demobilize. Remobilization may follow, either as active armed groups target ex-combatants for forced re- recruitment or as ex-combatants remobilize in armed groups of their own choice. Given these dynamics, practitioners in settings of partial peace may find it useful to consider non-traditional methods of DDR such as the use of mobile patrols and mobile disarmament units. The temporary relocation of ex-combatants to safe areas free from armed groups, or to protected transitional assistance camps, may also help to minimize remobilization during the reintegration phase. Introduction 2015). The fragmentation of non-state Disarmament, Demobilization, and Re- armed groups is a common feature of these integration (DDR) programs are today often contexts, sometimes occurring as hardline implemented in contexts of multi-party civil or opportunistic factions break away from war, where more than two armed groups those willing to keep faith with a peace pro- are engaged in armed violence (Cockayne cess (Christia 2012: 9, Greenhill and Major and O’Neil 2015; Muggah and O’Donnell 2006/7; Stedman 1997). The DDR process in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) SALW/DDR, Bonn International Center for Con- exemplifies this pattern, as numerous non- version (BICC), Pfarrer-Byns-Strasse 1, 53121 Bonn, Germany state armed groups in the DRC have frag- [email protected] mented, with some recalcitrant factions Art. 11, page 2 of 10 Richards: Implementing DDR in Settings of Ongoing Conflict forming new groups and fighting on even and demobilization. The concluding section as others demobilized their troops or inte- provides policy guidance for practitioners grated into the national army. tasked with implementing DDR in settings Although the fragmentation of armed of partial peace. groups has occurred in almost 45 per cent of civil wars taking place since 1989 (Findley Scope and Methodology and Rudloff 2012), little operational guid- In its traditional sense, DDR refers to a pro- ance has been given to practitioners on cess in which fighters disarm by handing the specificities of implementing DDR pro- over their weapons and/or ammunition. grams in settings where some groups opt Demobilization follows and occurs when in to an ongoing peace process and others combatants delink themselves from military opt out. Indeed, neither the United Nations command structures through a process of Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS) nor the “formal and controlled discharge from armed African Union’s Operational Guidance Notes forces or other armed groups” (UN 2014, on DDR provide instruction on this issue (UN 4.20: 25). Unlike desertion, which occurs 2014; AU 2014). Ongoing conflict associated when fighters run away from their armed with the fragmentation of armed groups, groups without the permission of a superior however, creates specific challenges for DDR. military officer, demobilization is authorized As this Practice Note indicates, fragmenta- by senior armed group members. It is also tion may prompt desertion among com- followed by reintegration, which is the “pro- batants who do not wish to fight on within cess by which ex-combatants acquire civilian new breakaway groups. These deserters may status and gain sustainable employment and subsequently report to DDR programs that, income” (UN 2014, 4.30: 2). Although a set- in settings of ongoing conflict, are likely to ting of partial peace is likely to affect all three be monitored by groups outside of the peace components of a DDR program, this Practice process. The remobilization of ex-combat- Note concentrates on the impact of ongoing ants may follow, either as former fighters are conflict on demobilization and reintegration, targeted for forced re-recruitment by active and does not fully address disarmament. armed groups, or as they try to escape this Information is taken from interviews with fate by choosing a new armed group to join 32 former members of RCD-Goma and 14 for protection. former members of CNDP.1 A further 42 The Practice Note begins with definitions interviews were also conducted with former of relevant concepts and a brief explanation members of the Armed Forces of the DRC of the research methodology. The follow- (FARDC), many of whom had previously ing section introduces two non-state armed served in various non-state armed groups. groups previously active in eastern DRC – the The interviews were conducted in 2011 and Rally for Congolese Democracy-Goma (RCD- 2012, and interviewees were accessed using Goma) and the National Congress for the a chain-referral “snowball” sampling tech- Defense of the People (CNDP). These groups nique (Cohen and Arieli 2011). Snowball were selected for analysis due to the fact sampling can sometimes generate a collec- that CNDP formed and remained active even tion of interview responses that are relatively as RCD-Goma’s fighters integrated into the alike, particularly when interviewees refer national army of the DRC and then demo- the interviewer to friends and relatives with bilized and returned to civilian life. Drawing similar experiences. To counter this, a diverse on ex-combatant interviews, the Practice array of individuals were sought out to begin Note describes the military organization of different chains of referrals. These individu- these two groups and parses the linkages als were accessed via ex-combatant associa- between armed group fracturing, desertion, tions, reintegration projects, and referrals Richards: Implementing DDR in Settings of Ongoing Conflict Art. 11, page 3 of 10 from civilians across the city of Goma in a new armed group, later known as CNDP, from North Kivu Province. The interviews were three RCD-Goma brigades under his command, then transcribed and different responses to the 81st, 82nd and 83rd brigades in Masisi and similar interview questions – concerning Walikale (Stearns 2012: 20). Nkunda’s defection group fragmentation, demobilization and was allegedly ordered by Rwanda, although he desertion – were compared.2 also stressed how RCD-Goma had done poorly out of the peace deal (ibid: 19). RCD-Goma and CNDP The origins of RCD-Goma begin with its Group Organization and Group Exit predecessor group, the Rally for Congolese In terms of basic military organization, RCD- Democracy (RCD). RCD participated in the Goma and CNDP had much in common. “Second Congo War” beginning in 1998 and Although technically non-state armed groups, aimed to remove the DRC’s President Laurent both were conventionally organized due, in Kabila from power. Kabila had assumed the part, to the influence of Rwanda’s national presidency earlier in 1997 after leading a Patriotic Army (RPA). RPA soldiers formed and Rwandan-backed rebellion which toppled participated in RCD-Goma, and a large num- President Mobutu. However, once in charge, ber of RPA-trained RCD-Goma members also Kabila soon turned against his sponsors, went on to form CNDP’s senior command ordering Rwandan soldiers to leave the DRC. (Stearns 2012: 11). As a result, both groups Drawn together by the common aim of oust- had similar conventionally-inspired mecha- ing Kabila, RCD was a coalition of otherwise nisms in place to prevent desertion among disparate interests, and cracks in the alliance their fighters, including a military intelligence began to emerge in May 1999 when key officer for each brigade and battalion. These RCD officials announced they were remov- intelligence officers were part of a broader ing Ernest Wamba dia Wamba, the group’s executive staff section for intelligence (the leader. Wamba subsequently began a new S2 department), and could sometimes go group, RCD-Kisangani, while the remain- out into the community to gather informa- der of RCD became known as RCD-Goma. tion on a deserter’s whereabouts. Brigade Although RCD-Goma failed to swiftly remove and battalion level S2 officers also appointed Kabila, the group went on to control a large intelligence agents at the lower levels of the zone of territory in eastern DRC, including company, platoon, and section in both RCD- both North and South Kivu. Goma and CNDP. These individuals, known Following a series of negotiations and peace as “Intelligence Security” (I.S) agents, were agreements throughout the Second Congo often unknown among the troops but were War, the Global and Inclusive Peace Agreement expected to watch over the rank-and-file and was signed in 2002. Subsequent agreements report signs of potential desertion to higher to implement this peace accord committed level intelligence officers. As former members RCD-Goma and other signatory armed groups of CNDP recalled, the role of I.S agents was to integrate into a reformed national army, to “know military intelligence, and the state henceforth known as the Armed Forces of the of military units, including desertions.”3 In the DRC (FARDC).