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1_739_Bjorklund_v7.indd 257 Received 31December2015,accepted 6September2016 Acta NeurobiolExp2016,76:257–268 Review Hwi 20, ao‑oe ad hewih 2004). to play appear Wheelwright neuroinflammation and system and Immune Baron‑Cohem 2003, (Howlin developmentsyndromeAsperger in normal is essentially also challenges theassumptionthatearlylanguage pathologies, asthepoorperformanceonlanguagetests language delaysmaybeusedtodistinguishthetwo syndromewhereadults, in autism functioning high with children’s andadultsASD,particularlyAsperger issues arose from attemptingtodistinguishingbetween 2016, al. et Endreffy Fujiwara etal.2016,Zerbo2016).Controversial 2013, (Hsiao pathology complex immune causeshave beenrecently associatedwiththis complex andcontroversial, andbothnutritional Lakshminarayananisof ASD The pathogenesis 2016). dysfunction (APA 2013,Wuetal.2015,Bakroon and with stereotyped behaviors andinterests andeven visual interaction, and non‑verbal verbal in deficits and relationship andcommunication, repetitive behavior showingfeatures coreof abnormalitiesinsocial a complex andheterogeneous neurologic disorder, Autism spectrumdisorder (ASD)isconsidered Key words:autism,,innateimmunity,neuroinflammation inthe components important are and diagnosis andtreatmentofASD. dysregulation immune conclusion, In neuroinflammation. associated and chemokines and cytokines peripheral elevated have ASD with diagnosed individuals of portion significant a Finally, autoantibodies. , cells, B cells, natural killer T cells, and as dendritic cells. Also, such many individuals cells diagnosed with immune ASD have alterations in in immunoglobulins alterations and increased have ASD with diagnosed individuals often that found was It ASD. with those in present frequently is dysfunction immune that hypothesis the examine to is review comprehensive and critical this of Many pathogenesis. purposeThe ASD. with diagnosed individuals among responses immune altered recognized have decades four last the over studies a complex with disorder neurodevelopmental heterogeneous a complex is (ASD) disorder spectrum Autism Immune dysfunctionandneuroinflammationin 1 Assiut University,Assiut,Egypt, Council forNutritionalandEnvironmentalMedicine,MoiRana,Norway, Geir Bjørklund 4 Institute ofChronicIllnesses,Inc.,SilverSpring,MD,USA, INTRODUCTION 1 Naturales yOceanográficas,UniversidaddeConcepción,Concepción,Chile, *, KhaledSaad autism spectrumdisorder 3 Department of Neurological and Movement Science, University of Verona, Verona, Italy, Department ofNeurologicalandMovementScience,UniversityVerona,Italy, Mark R.Geier 2 , SalvatoreChirumbolo *

Email: [email protected] 4 , andMauricioA.Urbina Email: [email protected] Correspondence shouldbeaddressed to G.Bjørklund neurobiological patternofASDcurrently isa the in system immune the of involvement The 2014). al. et Wang 2014, al. et Ruggeri 2014, al. et (Kern ASD with be more commonlypresent inindividualsdiagnosed and undiagnosedautoimmunedisorders appeared to vaccines/ to over‑reaction , e.g., loss, toleranceimmune of signs Also, 2016). Zhou and Li 2015, persistent intestinalyeast infections(Sakamoto etal. allergies, asthma,seizures, unexplained skinrashes, and frequently displayinfections,environmental andfood ASD with people Many 2015). McAllister and Estes 2014, diagnosed withASD(Hsiao2013,NoriegaandSavelkoul recognized altered immuneresponses inindividuals al. 2016).Several studiesover thelastfourdecadeshave et Young 2015, al. et Jašarević 2014, al. et Wang 2011, al. participating inmanyneurological activities(DeJonget with removing apoptoticneurons, butalsoactively proliferation, synapseformation,andplasticity, along and peripheral nervous systems,regulating neuronal plays a ASD pathogenesisandsymptomatology. concern aboutwhetheritcausesASDonsetorregulates a 5 fundamental role inASD development, despitesome Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Ciencias Departamento deZoología,FacultadCiencias pivotal role in theneurodevelopment ofcentral 2 Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Department ofPediatrics,FacultyMedicine, 3 , JanetK.Kern 5 4 , DavidA.Geier

4 , topic of 05/01/17 21:13

© 2016 by Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis 258 G. Bjørklund et al. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2016, 76: 257–268

intensive research. The purpose of the present review et al. 2012, Mead and Ashwood 2015) but no causative is to explore the state‑of‑art research in this field and issues were further outlined. Previous reports identified explore the hypothesis that ASD individuals frequently a reduced percentage of CD4+ T‑helper cells, lower also have a significant immune dysfunction. number of T cells (CD2+ cells) and lower percentages and number of total lymphocytes in ASD subjects compared to controls (Warren et al. 1990, Yonk et al. 1990, Ashwood Alterations in immune cells in ASD et al. 2011b, Lopez‑Cacho et al. 2016). Furthermore, the CD4+ T‑cell subpopulations showed a decrease in CD4RA+ T cells T cells, which are responsible for inducing suppressor T cells (Yonk et al. 1990, Ahmad et al. 2016). In a recent Potential immune cells involved in ASD, in different twin‑model with ASD, CD4+ depression was assessed by model species, are listed and detailed in Table I. Recent a dysregulation in the production of interferon‑gamma studies reported that children with ASD may have several (IFN‑γ) and interleukin‑17 (IL‑17), associated with other different immune phenotypes and sub‑phenotypes that neurological comorbidities (Magid‑Bernstein et al. 2015). correlate with increasingly severe behavioral impairments A decrease in CD4+ T‑cell appears to be a common finding (Careaga et al. 2015). The causative relationship between in ASD. Several studies in the past reported abnormalities ASD and immune function impairment has yet far to be in T‑lymphocytes in about 35% of ASD patients with fully elucidated. T cells play a significant role in adaptive decreased numbers of CD4+ T‑cells and T‑helper cells immunity, particularly because of their distinctive feature (CD4+CD8), altered the CD4/CD8 ratios, and an increased dealing with immunological T‑cell memory. Anomalies number of suppressor T‑cells (CD4+CD8+) (Gupta et al. 1996, in function were reported in ASD (Jyonouchi et 1998). In support of this, a double‑blind study reported al. 2005, Ashwood et al. 2011b, Bailey et al. 2012, Onore a significant reduction of autistic symptoms in 56% of

Table I. Overview of the studies to date detailing a relationship between ASD and immune function

IMMUNE CELLS EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE REFERENCES TYPE/SUBTYPE SETTING

Targeting Th17 allows pregnant mothers Mouse model ↑ to be protected from viral infections Choi et al. 2016 Th17 causing ASD in offspring Production of IL-17 in cells from Cell from subjects Akintunde et al. 2015 ↑ children with ASD

Depression of peripheral CD4+ Yonk et al. 1990, CD4+ Blood-ASD ↓ Dysregulation Th1/Th2/Th17 Ahmad et al. 2016 T-cell Altered peripheral levels of CD20+ B-cells, CD8+ Blood-ASD ↓ T(CD8+), CD4+CDw29+, CD2+, Yonk et al. 1990 CD4+CD45RA+ T cells Colonic C8 cells Increase in cell infiltration-Altered gut Gut specimen Furlano et al. 2001 and gut γδT-cells ↑ immunity

CD4+CD25high Children with ASD Decreased blood levels Mostafa et al. 2010 regulatory T cells ↓

Decreased response to hormones, Response to ↓ with less growth depression and less B-cell estrogens and ASD subjects Sharpe et al. 2013a, 2013b mitochondrial upregulation DHT ↑ Mitochondrial defects

↑ Chemokine MCP-1 Granulocytes Neutrophils Newborns Zerbo et al. 2014 ↓ Chemokines RANTES, MIP-1α

CD57+CD3- Children with ASD ↓ Decreased levels in peripheral blood samples Siniscalco et al. 2016 Natural killer cells (NK) 59 adult patients NK, NKT CD25 expression López-Cacho et al. 2016 with ASD ↑

Monocytes, Monocytes 31 ASD children Increased blood levels Sweeten et al. 2003 neopterin ↑

Innate immunity ASD children ↓↑ Dysregulated innate immunity Jyonouchi et al. 2005 Innate cells Dysregulated cytokines levels ASD subjects Pecorelli et al. 2016 ↓↑ (TNF-α, IL-8, IL-9, IL-13, IL-15)

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ASD children, following treatment with the potent opiate IL‑1, IL‑6, TNF‑α, IL‑23 and the brain‑derived neurotrophic antagonist naltrexone. The drug increased the number of factor (BDNF) in ASD was recently reported (Ricci et al. T‑helper inducers and reduced the number of T‑cytotoxic 2013). ASD children express increased IFNγ and IL‑1 suppressors, resulting in a normalization of the CD4/CD8 antagonist (IL‑1ra), resulting in a Th1 skewing ratio (Scifo et al. 1996). Those studies were, however, not (Croonenberghs et al. 2002a, Goines et al. 2011). Also, in further continued in the following years, probably because ASD patients, compared to controls, an increase in the of new markers and interests in the immunological production of markers of cell‑mediated immunity were spectrum of ASD. Recent attempts have also tried to observed, together with augmented T‑cell production develop an animal model of autism‑risk stressing on the of TNFα and decreased IL‑10 production was recently immune disorder pattern (Hsiao et al. 2012). The offspring reported (Rossignol 2007, Ashwood et al. 2011b). Many of mothers in mouse models, which underwent a maternal studies indicated that ASD children had an evident shift in immune activation (MIA), showed altered immune profiles. the CD4+‑cell population from Th1 cells toward Th2 cells The immunological changes included a deficit in CD4+, (Gupta et al. 1996, 1998, Ashwood et al. 2011b). This shift TCRβ(+) Foxp3(+) CD25(+) T regulatory cells, increased might enhance susceptibility to chronic viral infections CD4‑mediated production of IL6 and IL‑17 and increased in ASD (Croonenberghs et al. 2002b). Past reports showed levels of peripheral Gr‑(1)+ cells with abnormalities in that ASD children have an increased production of the myeloid hematopoietic lineage. When irradiated mice (IgE) and IL‑4 producing CD4+ T‑cells, were re‑populated with immune cells from MIA mice, they and lower levels of IL‑2 producing CD4+ T‑cells compared were not able to restore the immune phenotype, providing to controls (Gupta et al. 1996, 1998), and this was recently evidence supportive of the existence of an individual’s confirmed (Rossignol 2007, Theoharides 2013). peripheral context affecting the long‑time reprogramming Gut epithelial dysfunction and gut microbiome of immune function. However, behaviorally abnormal impairment were also reported in ASD, due to disorder MIA‑derived offspring, which exhibited stereotyped in the T‑cell mediated (Furlano et al. and repetitive attitudes and anxiety‑like behaviors and 2001, Luna et al. 2016). Moreover, past reports showed were previously irradiated, when transplanted with that about 5% of ASD patients have IgA deficiency, and control or MIA‑derived immune populations, restored 30–40% have low serum IgA levels (Gupta et al. 1996, a normal behavioral and neurological pattern, showing Wasilewska et al. 2012). ASD patients often display an a fundamental relationship between ASD and immune enhanced sensitivity to gluten, with increased anti‑gliadin dysregulation (Hsiao et al. 2012). compared to healthy individuals (Lau et al. From an immunological point of view, CD4+ 2013). This suggests a disorder in the mucosal immunity lymphocyte helper‑cell activities are fundamentally in ASD (Ashwood et al. 2004). This was even confirmed for divided into T‑helper 1 (Th1) (cell‑mediated immunity), anti‑transglutaminase autoantibodies (Rosenspire et al. and Th2 (humoral immunity) subsets. Th1 is the first‑line 2011). In ASD, particularly in children with regressive ASD, of defense system primarily against viral, fungi, and a shift in the immunoglobulin composition in serum, with protozoa, while Th2 helps the B‑cells to produce low‑normal IgA and CD23‑expressing B‑cells, was observed antibodies, although this paradigm has been recently (Wasilewska et al. 2012). updated (Moore et al. 2001, Rossignol 2007, Hirahara et Mucosal immunity should also affect regulatory T cells al. 2016). Current immunology has deeply revised these (Kinoshita and Takeda 2014). The activity of Th17 cells concepts, by introducing further CD4+ populations, most in mucosal immunity has also been associated with the of which with regulatory functions. In this perspective, role exerted by vitamin D in this context and in mucosal the role of T‑cell response in ASD has come to the spotlight immune tolerance (Chirumbolo 2015). This would suggest because of impairments observed in either Th1, Th2 or a role for vitamin D in ASD (Mostafa and Al‑Ayadhi 2012, Th17 phenotype content, immune dysregulation in their Cannell and Grant 2013, Saad et al. 2015). At least, as relationship with innate and acquired immunity and the observed in mouse models, an association of impaired B‑cell repertoire and expression of major cytokines, e.g. Th17 function and ASD was reported (Choi et al. 2016). IL‑1β, TNF‑α, IL‑2, IL‑4, IL‑13, IL‑17 and IL‑10 (Moore et al. Children with ASD express an increased amount of IL‑17 2001, Molloy et al. 2006, Rossignol 2007, Li et al. 2009, Estes and IL‑17a, with co‑morbid asthma (Al‑Ayadhi and Mostafa and McAllister 2016). Furthermore, a number of abnormal 2012, Akintunde et al. 2015). Therefore the role of IL‑17 immune adaptive responses have been reported in ASD in ASD appears to be of significant interest. Finally, an patients. Previous studies revealed activation of the Th1 autistic “endophenotype” able to produce antibodies system with increased production of IL‑12 and interferon reactive to brain proteins (Connolly et al. 2006, Cabanlit et when compared to controls (Stubbs 1995, Singh 1996), al. 2007), seems to have a typical immunological pattern, and was recently confirmed (Ross et al. 2013). Alterations characterized by 1) the existence and increase of immune in the level of pro‑inflammatory cytokines such as IL‑12, cells producing proinflammatory cytokines and IL‑10;

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2) an increase in CD8+ naïve (CD45RA+/CCR7+) T lymphocytes compared to healthy controls (Denny et al. 1996, Sweeten and CD8+ effector memory (CD45RA‑/CCR7‑) cells and also et al. 2003). Furthermore, augmented expression of 3) a decrease in CD4+ terminally differentiated (CD45RA‑/ activation markers on these monocytes suggested that CCR7+) (Saresella et al. 2009). These data also support these cells were in an activated state (Ashwood et al. significant alterations in the adaptive immune responses 2011a). A fundamental question that should arise from in children diagnosed with ASD. ASD research is the impact of neuroimmune alterations in ASD (Gottfried et al. 2015, Siniscalco 2015). Immunological B cells impairment in innate immunity was observed in ASD. Peripheral blood monocytes were found to increase the Children diagnosed with ASD in comparison to controls release inflammatory cytokines such as IL‑1β, TNF‑α, were reported to either have an increased absolute and IL‑6 in response to TLR2 and TLR4 stimulus and, number of B cells per volume of blood of about 20 to 25% particularly, IL‑6 and IL‑10 (Jyonouchi et al. 2005, Manzardo (Ashwood et al. 2011a), or had no change (Heuer et al. et al. 2012, Jyonouchi et al. 2014). Increased production of 2012). Although when comparing the two studies, patients IL‑6 and IL‑1β was associated with increased impairment differed in median age and the experimental approaches of social behaviors in individuals diagnosed with ASD was were quite different. A recent survey reported that observed (Enstrom et al. 2009). Innate immunity, therefore, variability in single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) in plays a fundamental role in ASD development. Innate the CD157 or bone marrow stromal cell ‑1 (BST‑1), immunity‑related cytokines and chemokines are altered in particularly the CT genotype in rs10001565, is frequently ASD compared with controls, and suggest these molecules associated with subjects suffering from ASD as compared may be used as ASD risk immune markers (Zerbo et al. to controls, and, thus demonstrates the possibility of 2014, Masi et al. 2015, Xu et al. 2015). Alternative mRNA an impaired B‑cell population in ASD (Yokoyama et al. splicing disorder in ASD may explain some impairment in 2015). It is intriguing to note that both CD38 and CD157 / and natural killer cells (Stamova et modulate the innate and adaptive immune response in al. 2013). T and B cells (Malavasi et al. 2006). Probably, in subjects All these observations suggest that impairment in with ASD, a mitochondrial dysfunction in B‑cells may innate immunity may have a role in ASD, but are not explain why B lymphocytes in ASD exhibit a differential necessarily causative. The immunological profile of ASD immune response to estrogens, dihydrotestosterone, and subjects regarding innate immunity may be somewhat hormone disrupters, which were associated with ASD more controversial. Despite a pro‑inflammatory hallmark onset (Sharpe et al. 2013a). B‑cell sensitivity to external in ASD, recent reports showed that ASD individuals stimuli has also been reported for thimerosal (Sharpe in comparison to controls have a cytokine pattern of et al. 2013b). Individuals with ASD display a reduced peripheral monocyte/ producing reduced number of B‑cells and an increased amount of NK cells pro‑inflammatory cytokines following activation of (Bressler et al. 2012). This evidence may suggest that the TLR7/8 (IL‑6, IL‑23), TLR2/6 (IL‑6), TLR4 (IL‑12p40), reduction in immunoglobulin levels observed in ASD may without stimuli (IL‑1ß, IL‑6, and TNF‑α) after challenging be a consequence of B‑cell depletion or impairment, but with T cell mitogens (IFN‑γ, IL‑17, and IL‑12p40), and recent findings seem to contradict this opinion (Hauer et with from the genus Candida (IL‑10 or IL‑12p40) al. 2012). (Jyonouchi et al. 2012). Recent evidence showed that the endocannabinoid receptor, which is involved in Peripheral monocluate cells a system able to modulate the immune response via the cannabinoid receptor type 2(CB2R), and while is highly Monocytes differentiate into macrophages upon expressed in macrophages and microglia, its function migration into the surrounding tissues. Macrophages, is impaired in ASD patients (Siniscalco et al. 2014). in turn, phagocytize and present antigens to Many soluble factors, besides leukocyte receptors, are lymphocytes (Berdowska and Zwirska‑Korczala 2001, fundamental markers in ASD. For example, brain IL‑6 Sweeten et al. 2003). When stimulated by IFNγ, monocytes is considered a major neuroimmune mediator in ASD and macrophages produce increased amounts of neopterin. onset and development (Wei et al. 2013). Macrophage High levels of neopterin could serve as an indicator of activity is also altered in ASD. As another example, monocyte/macrophage activation, as well as activation several ligands of CCR4, such as macrophage‑derived of T cells and cell‑mediated immunity (Berdowska and chemokines (MDC) or CCL22 and thymus and activated/ Zwirska‑Korczala 2001, Zhao et al. 2015). Previous studies regulated chemokine (TARC) or CCL17, were reported in ASD revealed a somewhat higher number of absolute to be elevated in ASD children as compared to controls monocyte counts and a significantly higher percentage (Al Ayadhi and Mostafa 2013). It was recently reported of monocytes, in relation to total leukocytes in ASD as for macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) that

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there was a genetic association between a functional After binding these ligands/antigens, dendritic cells polymorphism in the genetic promoter for MIF and undertake maturation steps that increase mobility for ASD. As a consequence, it was suggested that MIF may migration, produce chemokines to convert other immune play an important functional role in ASD pathogenesis cells, and co‑stimulatory molecules for priming of naïve (Grigorenko et al. 2008). T cells or stimulation of effector T cells and secrete large quantities of cytokines that control neighboring immune Natural killer (NK) cells cells (Banchereau et al. 2000, Ueno et al. 2007, Breece et al. 2013). Myeloid dendritic cells frequency is augmented Ashwood and others (2011a) reported that the absolute in ASD (Breece et al. 2013). Both myeloid dendritic cells, numbers of NK cells were approximately 40% higher in with phenotype defined as Lin‑1‑BDCA1+CD11c+ and children diagnosed with ASD compared to controls. These Lin‑1‑BDCA3+CD123‑) and plasmacytoid dendritic cells, data are in agreement with Enstrom and colleagues (2010) namely (Lin‑1‑BDCA2+CD123+ or Lin‑1‑BDCA4+CD11c‑) are who reported greater numbers of NK cells and increased impaired in ASD, where plasmacytoid phenotypes seem to gene expression of NK cell‑related cellular receptors and be associated with developmental regression in ASD and effector molecules in children diagnosed with ASD in an increase in the amygdala volume (Breece et al. 2013). comparison to controls (Enstrom et al. 2010). However, Moreover, dendritic cells play a significant role in inducing Vojdani and others (2008) have reported 45% of the ASD both central and peripheral tolerance. Dendritic cells children had a decreased responsiveness of NK cells to in the periphery continuously capture and present low in‑vitro stimulation (Vojdani et al. 2008). The increase in dose non‑immunogenic antigens to T cells with limited NK cell numbers may, therefore, reveal a compensatory or absent co‑stimulation to maintain tolerance either by mechanism to increase cell numbers to make up for deletion, the induction of unresponsiveness or generation NK cell function deficiencies (Ashwood et al. 2011a). of adaptive T regulatory cells (Steinman 2007). Breece and The number of CD57+CD3‑lymphocytes appeared to others (2013) found that there are increased circulating fall below the clinically accepted range in ASD children frequencies of blood myeloid dendritic cells in young (Siniscalco et al. 2016). Moreover, children with ASD have children diagnosed with ASD. These increased frequencies activating KIR/HLA complexes (aKIR/HLA), where KIR is were associated with an increased volume of the amygdalas the killer cell immune globulin‑like receptor, expressed and increased repetitive behaviors in patients with ASD on NK cells, i.e., in utero these immune interactions (Breece et al. 2013). may promote immune activation in ASD (Guerini et al. 2014). Abnormalities in NK cells in ASD may predispose individuals to the development of autoimmunity and/ Alterations in immunoglobulins in ASD or adverse neuroimmune interactions during critical periods of development (Enstrom et al. 2010). The Previous studies have reported changes in the levels presence of autoantibodies towards central nervous of immunoglobulins among individuals diagnosed with system (CNS) proteins is a common finding in ASD and ASD. However, these reports are controversial, and no may reflect an ongoing inflammatory and or autoimmune clear consensus has been reached. IgG and IgM are either process in individuals with ASD that could be started by increased (Croonenberghs et al. 2002b) or decreased (Gupta abnormal NK cell activation (Ashwood et al. 2006). In this et al. 1996, Heuer et al. 2008) in ASD individuals compared circumstance, the expansion of NK cell numbers may to healthy controls. The supposed presence in the serum result from intensified immune/autoimmune responses of anti‑neuronal antibodies including anti‑glutamic acid probably mediated through the increased production decarboxylase antibodies (anti‑GAD), has been recently of homeostatic and growth factors such as cytokines dismissed (Bayram et al. 2016). Plasma markers in ASD (Ashwood et al. 2011a). were assessed and revealed serum IgG antibodies to casein, egg whites, egg yolks, and peanuts (Esparham et Dendritic cells al. 2015). Many ASD subjects showed polymorphism in the glutathione scavenging system, namely the absence of Dendritic cells actively participate in innate immunity glutathione S‑transferase (GSTM) at the 1p13.3 location, and also modulate the adaptive immune response and heterozygosity for the glutathione S‑transferase I105V and immune tolerance. They are phagocytic cells, (GSTP1), while most of ASD patients exhibited genetic expressing several innate pattern‑recognition receptors polymorphism of the mitochondrial gene superoxide (PPRs), which are targeted by ‑associated dismutase A16V (SOD2) (Esparham et al. 2015). Therefore, molecular pattern molecules (PAMPs) on microbes or nutritional, environmental and immunological factors damage‑associated molecular pattern molecules of should play a significant role in ASD pathogenesis. Heuer endogenous tissues (Steinman 2007, Breece et al. 2013). and others (2008) reported low levels of immunoglobulin

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(IgG and IgM) in children diagnosed with ASD, which also 2016). The immune dysregulation of cells should also correlated with increased behavioral severity of autistic affect the function and production of cytokines. symptoms on the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC) (Heuer et al. 2008). However, in comparing the previous studies, the differences are attributed to different sample sizes, Autoantibodies the median age of patients with ASD, variations in types of control samples, and different experimental approaches Autoantibodies were reported to numerous and varied (Heuer et al. 2008). Even alterations in maternal immune targets in ASD. They may point to cellular damage involved globulins and the presence of autoantibodies may cause in increasing inflammation, revealing antigens otherwise ASD in the offspring (Poleataev et al. 2014, Brown et al. hidden and/or epitope spreading (Onore et al. 2012). 2015). The presence of autoantibodies is also reported Elevated serum autoantibodies to many neuron‑specific in ASD children (Elamin and Al‑Ayadhi 2014, Mostafa antigens and cross‑reactive peptides have been found in ASD et al. 2014). Further research is needed to enhance our children including antibodies directed against cerebellar comprehension of dysregulated antibodies in ASD. Purkinje cells and other neural proteins (Onore et al. 2012, Wang et al. 2014), but some of the findings have been inconsistent between studies. Multiple studies reported an Peripheral cytokines and chemokines in ASD elevated number of autoantibodies that react against the brain and central nervous system in children diagnosed Both cytokines and chemokines are small proteins with ASD when compared to healthy controls (Cabanlit et secreted by immune or other somatic cells with al. 2007, Wills et al. 2007). It was not only brain‑specific IgGs hormone‑like, informative activity. They have the ability autoantibodies occurred at a high frequency among children to induce modifications in neighboring responsive cells. diagnosed with ASD in comparison to controls (Cabanlit et Some cytokines are considered pro‑inflammatory and al. 2007, Elamin and Al‑Ayadhi 2014), but also anti‑neuron can be induced during an immune response to recruit antibodies that were associated with more severe cognitive cells of the to the site of (Wang and behavioral profiles in children diagnosed with ASD et al. 2014). Individuals diagnosed with ASD have been (Piras et al. 2014). Interestingly, brain autoantibodies are observed to have altered cytokine profiles compared to also associated with lower serum docosahexaenoic acids healthy controls, and to be in a chronic state of cytokine (DHA) levels in ASD in comparison to controls (Mostafa et induction (Ashwood et al. 2011c, 2011d, Wang et al. 2014). al. 2015) and higher blood mercury (BHg) levels (Mostafa Patients diagnosed with ASD in comparison to controls and Refai 2007, Mostafa and Al‑Ayadhi 2015, Mostafa et al. have a diminished Th2 anti‑inflammatory response and 2016a). High Hg levels in children with ASD may relate to an increased Th1 pro‑inflammatory cytokine response. increased exposure to Hg, but can also be a consequence This includes an enhanced innate and adaptive immune of a decreased ability to excrete Hg, leading to a higher reaction through the Th1 pathway and suggests body‑burden (Khaled et al. 2016). Neuroinflammation, with that localized brain inflammation and autoimmune increased levels of neurokinin A, is seen in some children dysfunction may be involved in ASD (Ashwood et al. with ASD and is evidenced by elevated BHg levels. In fact, 2011c, 2011d, Wang et al. 2014). More specifically, a recent study found a positive relationship between Ashwood and others (2011c, 2011d) reported elevated the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) scores and cytokines including IL‑1β, IL‑6, IL‑8 and IL‑12p40, the levels of serum neurokinin A and BHg (Mostafa et al. MCP‑1, RANTES and eotaxin in children diagnosed with 2016a). Furthermore, Pb induces neuroinflammation and ASD in comparison to controls (Ashwood et al. 2011c, autoimmunity in ASD (Mostafa et al. 2016b). A recent study 2011d). It was recently confirmed that persons with suggests that increased levels of BPb in some children with ASD in comparison to controls have cytokine functional ASD may trigger the production of serum anti‑ribosomal impairment (Goines and Ashwood 2013, Krakowiak P antibodies (Mostafa et al. 2016b). It has been reported et al. 2015, Masi et al. 2015, Pecorelli et al. 2016). In that ASD children often have a lower zinc (Zn)‑to‑copper previous studies, elevated inflammatory mediators were (Cu) ratio in blood compared to healthy controls (Faber associated with more abnormal behaviors in individuals et al. 2009, Li et al. 2014, Crăciun et al. 2016) and children with ASD (Ashwood et al. 2011c, 2011d). It was also with other neurological disorders (Macedoni‑Lukšič et al. reported in other studies that increased levels of 2015). It has been suggested that metallothionein (MT) inflammatory cytokines in plasma of children diagnosed dysfunction may occur as a cause of Hg accumulation in with ASD in comparison to controls were observed children with ASD, and the same dysfunction may also for IFNγ (Singh 1996), MIF (Grigorenko et al. 2008), lead to Zn deficiency (Bjørklund 2013). Zinc plays a major platelet‑derived growth factor‑BB (PDGF‑BB) (Kajizuka role in the immune system, and Zn deficient subjects et al. 2010), and dysregulation of IL‑18 (Businaro et al. may experience increased susceptibility to a variety of

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pathogens. Both trace elements (or heavy metals) and activation in ASD. This emphasizes the role of microglia autoantibodies may be causes of neuroinflammation. in the neuroinflammation pattern of ASD. Moreover, Many researchers suggested the presence of maternal some of the cerebellar tissues had an accumulation of autoantibodies that can have a detrimental effect on perivascular macrophages and monocytes and deposition fetal brain development during . Maternal of complement membrane attack complexes (Vargas et pathogenic autoantibodies can reach the fetus, affecting al. 2005). Activation of microglial cells and perivascular the fetal brain tissue (Zimmerman et al. 2007, Croen et al. macrophages was measured by increased MHC II expression 2008). Therefore, it is possible that brain‑specific maternal and were observed in the cortical regions, white matter, and autoantibodies might have an impact in some neurological cerebellum of patients diagnosed with ASD in comparison developmental disorders. Also, children diagnosed with to controls. This microglial and astroglial activation in the ASD in comparison to controls more frequently have cerebellum was associated with degenerating Purkinje a family history of autoimmune disorders, such as type cells, granule cells, and axons (Vargas et al. 2005). Altered 1 diabetes and ulcerative colitis (Zimmerman et al. 2007, microglial profiles found in post‑mortem brain samples Croen et al. 2008, Wang et al. 2014). from ASD patients in comparison to controls showed an increase in average microglial somal volume in white matter and an increase in microglial density in gray matter Neuroinflammation and neurobiology in ASD (Morgan et al. 2010). Also, postmortem temporal cortex samples from ASD and general population controls were What are the implications of the immune dysregulated assessed for transcriptome differences and it was observed function observed in ASD? Is immune dysregulated that samples from ASD individuals showed increases in function a primary cause or rather an ancillary source of expression of immune‑related genes (Garbett et al. 2008). the etiopathogenesis of ASD? It was also previously revealed that individuals diagnosed ASD is one of an increasing number of neurological with ASD in comparison to controls have an inflammatory disorders in both children and adults that are found to response presenting as an increased lymphocytes and involve a neuroinflammatory process, which can occur proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF‑α and IFN‑γ in the absence of overt leukocyte infiltration. One of the and less of the anti‑inflammatory cytokine IL‑10 (Torrente main indicators of neuroinflammation in ASD is microglial et al. 2002, Ashwood et al. 2004, Nakagawa and Chiba activation. Microglia are the primary immune cells of 2016). As a result, among individuals diagnosed with ASD, the CNS and are very similar to peripheral macrophages. inflammation can become chronic. Furthermore, it is reported that microglia defend the Recent findings suggested that imbalances in the brain by clearing cellular debris and dead neurons from neuro‑immune function in ASD are signaling an ongoing the nervous tissue through . However, when neuroinflammation process. Some researchers have microglial activation is exaggerated and sustained, this suggested a possible allergic response from the brain as can lead to collateral damage or damage of healthy tissue a cause of ASD (Theoharides 2013, Theoharides et al. 2016), (Rodriguez and Kern 2011). For example, excessive and where activation is involved (Theoharides et al. sustained microglial activation can result in the loss of 2012) and possibly neurotensin and other stress‑related healthy synaptic connections. Exaggerated and sustained hormones, such as corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH), microglial activation is consistently found in ASD (Vargas play a significant role (Tsilioni et al. 2014). Besides the et al. 2005). Inflammation in postmortem brain specimens neuroinflammatory perspective, ASD has been associated of individuals diagnosed with ASD has been observed, with deep functional disorders in neuronal function. specifically, in the cerebellum, anterior cingular gyrus and For example, altered neural connectivity in inhibitory the mid‑frontal regions of the brain (Vargas et al. 2005). and excitatory cortical circuits based fundamentally Neuroglial activation and presence of increased levels of on functional non‑invasive studies showing atypical inflammatory cytokines such as IFN‑γ, IL‑1β, IL‑6, TNF‑α synchronization and connectivity patterns between and chemokines CCL‑2 were found in the brain tissue of cortical areas was revealed in children and adults with ASD individuals diagnosed with ASD. Also, accumulation of in comparison to controls (Zikopoulos and Barbas 2013). macrophages chemoattractant protein‑1 (MCP‑1) and Furthermore, investigators have suggested that changes in inflammatory cells (microglia and astroglia) around the prefrontal axons and their network disruption may cause blood vessels were reported, and suggest an inflammation ASD (Zikopoulos and Barbas 2010). It is rather difficult, of the blood vessels. Also, an increased pro‑inflammatory at present, to know how immunophenotype differences, cytokine profile in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) was altered immune function, and immune dysregulation may reported in living ASD children (Vargas et al. 2005, Morgan interact or contribute to other potential pathomechanisms et al. 2010). The cerebellum, in particular, showed the of ASD such as atypical interneuron connectivity or mirror most prominent histological changes and microglial neuron defects, which could be related to autoimmune

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processes or immune imbalances in the brain. It is the described immune abnormalities in this review as tempting to speculate that astrocyte function may be the biomarkers should further help in the early identification bottleneck of a possible suggestive answer to this question and treatment of ASD. Biomarkers or miRNAs will also (Bianco‑Suarez et al. 2016). The neurobiological pattern of be important to further understand the potentials links ASD has recently introduced the role of mirror neurons between immune dysregulation and resulting changes in (Schulte‑Rüther et al. 2016, Linkovski et al. 2016, Saffin and neural connectivity and behavior. More research is needed Tohid 2016). Mirror neurons exert direct action that impact to explain the mechanisms of immune dysfunction and the occipital cortex, cingulate cortex, insula and dorsal neuroinflammation in ASD, and how these aberrations prefrontal cortex in ASD (Yang and Hoffmann 2015). Future affect the neurological and behavioral changes in ASD. research should elucidate if these disorders may come either from neuroinflammation events or dysregulation in the astrocyte‑synapse interaction. REFERENCES

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