Subject: Environment Management Course Code: CP-103 Author

Subject: Environment Management

Course Code: CP-103 Author: Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Lesson No.: 1 Vetter: Prof. Praveen Sharma

Understanding Environment

Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definitions 1.3 Need for Environmental Awareness 1.4 Importance of the Environment 1.5 Components of the Environment 1.6 Major Global Environmental Issues 1.7 Environment Management Systems 1.8 Summary

1.9 Key Words 1.10 Self Assessment Questions 1.11 References and Suggested Further Readings 1.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you should be able to:  define the term environment;  explain the need for environmental awareness;  describe the importance of environment; and  explain some global environmental issues. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The planet Earth is the only planet that supports life. The earth provides us with so many resources that we directly benefit from. Human beings interact with nature and vice-versa. In ancient times, our environment was pure and pristine. The plants, animals and humans lived in a healthy environment that was free of pollution and contamination. This is not the case today. Further, before the year 1900, no city of five million existed. Our populations have increased dramatically over the years and the various technologies that we use presently require increased inputs of energy, space and resources. The tremendous impact of human activities has changed the physical environment and has put it out of balance with nature. The degradation of the environment has further accelerated due to industrial activities and industrial revolution. This industrial revolution has improved the quality of life on hand but at the same time it has caused serious impacts on the earth‟s environment and living beings. Human beings exploit the environment in different ways and we need to understand that this has upset the natural environment. Several industrial accidents such as the Bhopal gas tragedy, Chernobyl disaster, Fukushima Daiichi disaster and so on have occurred due to industrial reasons. The problems faced today are directly or indirectly related to the environment and sustainable solutions need a sound environmental knowledge. Anthropogenic factors have degraded our environment and there is a need for scientific awareness, assessment, monitoring and early warning. It is thus important to sensitize environmental issues right from school children to adults. Presently, the issues such as global warming, climate change, pollution and natural resource depletion increasingly require the expertise from different disciplines for addressing these problems. Understanding our environment and the processes that control it is very important. We need to adopt sustainable solutions that accommodate the present social, economic and cultural needs without compromising those of the future generations.

Scope of Environmental Science

Environmental Sciences is a compilation of numerous subjects. Its scope is enormous and the subject requires a sound knowledge of biology, geology, chemistry, mathematics, physics, biochemistry, statistics, microbiology, genetics and biotechnology, social sciences, economics, management practices and strategies, engineering and technological aspects, agricultural sciences and computer applications. This way it is an interdisciplinary subject. The subject‟s specializations include: Environmental sciences, environmental geology, environmental chemistry, environmental microbiology, environmental biotechnology, environmental economics, environmental management, environmental engineering, and so on. 1.2 DEFINITIONS Let us now learn some definitions related to environment.

Environment: The term environment means surroundings. Our environment is the entire web of biological and physical interactions, which characterize the relationships between life and the earth.

Environmental Sciences: It is an interdisciplinary subject and involves the study of various subjects in relation to the environment. It helps in understanding a scientific basis for establishing standards for acceptably clean, safe, healthy environment for humans and the natural ecosystem. Environmental science starts by understanding how the natural world in which we live works.

Environmental Engineering: This involves the study of the technical processes that are used to minimise pollution.

The Environment Protection Act: This act was approved by the Government of India in 1986. It defines the environment as the sum total of water, air, land, the interrelationships among themselves, with human beings and with other organisms and property.

Ecosystem: Basic functional unit of organisms and their environment, interacting with each other and within their own components.

1.3 NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS Let us now learn how developing awareness to environmental issues is the first step to achieving sustainable development. The following paragraphs will explain this clearly.

1.3.1 Awareness

Every day we use so many things for our living. We throw so much trash at home in our offices and so on. Have you ever wondered where all this trash goes? Why is trash not segregated right from the collection points in each Indian city? In developed countries there are separate bins marked for textiles, white glass bottles, coloured glass bottles, kitchen wastes, electronic wastes and so on. There is a heavy fine imposed when trash is not disposed off properly. In some countries people can be even imprisoned for this. Therefore, environmental awareness among people is important and it involves developing an understanding towards environmental problems. Each of our actions count such as the way we respond to our environment, using our resources carefully and adopting eco-friendly lifestyles. In olden days our forefathers resourced only so much material from nature what was essential to them, thereby conserving the precious natural resources. But, during the past few years, there has been a gradual decline in our natural resources and the quality of our environment. We have put an increasing stress on nature, with growing demands for food, water, mineral and energy due to increasing population and changing lifestyles. Environmental problems, issues and challenges are complex and multifaceted. The survival and progress of a country depends on the sustainable use of resources. An example worth emulating is the government of Himachal that imposed a ban on plastics in 1998 and today polythene and plastic bags are not seen in the whole state. Sikkim became the first state in 2016 to ban the use of single use plastics. More states need to follow such examples. It shows the role of public cooperation with the government in conserving the environment. In the same way solid wastes need to be managed well. Industries should also treat the industrial wastes and dispose them in a proper way.

The book Silent Spring (1962), authored by the famous biologist writer and ecologist Rachel Carson triggered the environmental awareness movement all over the world. Carson's work showed that residues of DDT used as pesticide and other chemicals used to enhance agricultural productivity were toxic. It warned the general public about the long-term effects of misusing pesticides. Her work challenged the practices of the agricultural scientists and the government and called for a change in the way we perceive nature. This was coupled with the major oil spills and threats to endangered species. To address these problems various environment conferences were held and the subject received worldwide attention and importance. The Stockholm Conference on Human Environment (Sweden, 1972), The conference held at Rio de Janeiro, 1992 by the United Nations on Environment and Development (UNCED), The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002), are some conferences that have made the public aware regarding the deterioration of the environment of our earth.

It is understood that there have been five major mass extinctions on our planet. Each of these major events was characterized by the end of dominant life forms. These include the extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period. Then life evolved again and new species developed their new niches. Edward Wilson, biologist, believes that human beings will be responsible for precipitating the sixth mass extinction event (Wilson, 2002). If the present trends continue, then it is possible that almost 50 % of all species will become extinct within the next hundred years. Therefore, there is a strong need to change our living styles, attitude towards our environment and living beings and measure the impacts of our activities for betterment.

1.3.2 Indian Government and the Environment

As far as the Indian context is concerned, the most fundamental feature of India‟s ancient philosophy is our respect for the environment. In India, environmental protection and the using resources sustainably started in the 1970‟s. The Fourth five-year plan (1968 – 73) recognized the need to integrate the environmental perspectives in planning and developmental processes. In 1970, the Government under the chairmanship of Sh. Pitambar Pant set up the Committee on Human Environment for preparing a country report for the UN Conference on Human Environment to be held in Sweden in 1972. Following this, a National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) was set up in 1972 in response to the Pant Committee recommendations. In 1980, the Tiwari Committee was constituted for recommending the legislative measures and administrative policies to bring about environmental protection. Following the recommendations of this committee, the Government of India constituted the Department of Environment effective from November 1st 1980 to be responsible for all matters relating to the environment. Then, finally in 1985, a fully-fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests was constituted to coordinate the environmental matters at the national level.

It may be relevant to mention here that, our country is one of the very few countries that have provided constitutional safeguards for the preservation and protection of the environment. Article 48 A and 51 A (g) in the section on directive principles of state policies in The Indian Constitution, approved in the year 1976 states that the “State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife in the country and to protect and improve the natural environment including the forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for the living creatures.” Despite this the importance of Environmental Studies was not recognized in the Indian curriculum. Hence, the Honourable Supreme Court of India in 1991, on a public litigation interest filed by Sh. M.C. Mehta in 1988, made it mandatory to include the subject environmental studies in all the universities and colleges. This was basically to create environmental awareness among the Indian citizens.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT Our environment provides us with so many natural resources such as water, forest, biodiversity and so on. The ecosystem provides us with services and products. The services provided include provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services. The provisioning services include the various products that we obtain for fuel, food, water and genetic resources. The regulating services provided to us include the climate regulation, biogeochemical cycling of elements, water purification services and so on. The cultural services are those provided to us for our recreation, tourism, spiritual and aesthetic purposes. The supporting services provided include those such as production of oxygen, and soil formation processes. In this way the environment is of utmost importance to all organisms and humans.

1.5 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT We have learnt that the environment is everything that surrounds us and its importance for all species on the earth. Now let us learn about the various components of the environment and how they are beneficial for our survival.

1.5.1 Ecosystem

The environment consists of the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and the hydrosphere. The surface of the Earth is called the biosphere and is composed of smaller units called the ecosystems. An Ecosystem consists of all the life forms and the non-living environment found in a particular place. An ecosystem comprises of a community of living organisms such as plants, animals, microbes (biotic) along with the nonliving (abiotic) components of the environment such as air, soil, and so on interacting together as a system. The living and nonliving components of the environment interact through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Each organism depends in some way on other living and nonliving things in its environment. They can be large or small. The Earth hosts a variety of life forms and the surface of the Earth, as a whole is an ecosystem. The study of natural ecosystems will help us to understand the interrelations between living beings and the environment and how the impact of human beings is influencing the natural world. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common examples of ecosystems.

The atmosphere, solar energy, and our planet‟s magnetic fields support life on Earth. The atmosphere absorbs the energy from the Sun, recycles water and other nutrients, and works with the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The atmosphere also protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space. Without water, the elixir of life, the biosphere that exists on the surface of the earth would not be possible. Water is vital for all living beings. The solid component of the upper part of earth is called the lithosphere. Soil is the uppermost layer of the lithosphere. The surface of the Earth (air, water and land) is called the biosphere.

1.5.2 Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the outer most layer of the earth consisting of crust and the uppermost mantle. They comprise the hard and rigid outer layer of the earth. There are two types of crust. They are continental and oceanic crust. The continental crust contains a variety of rocks such as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It is lighter than the oceanic crust and older than oceanic plates. These rocks are derived from the upper mantle. The oceanic crust is much younger as it is constantly being formed at spreading zones and recycled in subduction zones. New oceanic crust forms when crustal plates separate. Molten rock from the upper mantle that has collected in magma chambers oozes onto the ocean floor forming a layer of rocks between the spreading plates. This is the newest and youngest crust on the surface of the Earth. The crust consists of rocks and soil which are very important to life. Soil consists of inorganic and organic matter. The minerals such potassium, calcium, silicon, iron, manganese, and so on can be present in soil. Organic constituents such as polysaccharides, compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur are all found in soil and in soil fertility. Various industrial processes have polluted the soil and contaminated the food we eat with heavy metals and other hazardous chemicals.

1.5.3 Hydrosphere

Our planet has abundant water resources on its surface. Liquid water is not found on other planets, the cosmos, the sun or interstellar space. Water is possible only on a planet of the right mass and chemical composition and at the right distance from the sun. Water is essential for life and without water there will be no life forms. The earth surface is approximately 510 million square km; 362 million is covered by water and 325 million square km by open oceans. The total amount of water on the Earth is 1.5 billion square km out of which 97 % is marine water. Water forms two important aquatic environments, the fresh water and marine respectively. Water is vital for all living beings, in the formation of soil and so on. Water has different residence times in various reservoirs and the largest reservoir is the oceans. The residence time is the average time a substance stays within a specified region of space, such as a reservoir. For example, the residence time of water stored in deep groundwater, is approximately 10,000 years. The hydrologic cycle or the water cycle describes the storage and movement of water between the hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. Water can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water is continually cycled between its various reservoirs. This cycling occurs through the processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow. All the biochemical reactions are dependent on water in our body. Two important sources of water are the surface and ground water. The process of taking water from these sources is known as water withdrawal and the water thus consumed and not returned is known as water consumption. Pollutants disturbing water bodies are domestic wastes or sewage, pesticides, industrial wastes, plastics, polythene, solid wastes, dead organic matter, acidic material, mine tailings, dyes etc. All the environmental pollutants in fresh water ultimately end up in the sea. Seventy-seven percent of the pollutants in the ocean come from the combined input of land runoff and atmospheric deposition. Only 12% of the ocean's pollutants come from shipping accidents while 10% are from ocean dumping.

1.5.4 Atmosphere

Atmosphere in Greek is „atmos‟ meaning vapour and „sphaira‟ meaning sphere. It is a layer of gases surrounding the earth. The earth‟ atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, along with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts. Oxygen is essential for living organisms for respiration. Certain bacteria are able to fix nitrogen in the presence of lightening to produce ammonia which is used in the formation of basic building blocks such as nucleotides and amino acids. Carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis by plants, cyanobacteria and so on. The atmosphere shelters organisms from genetic damage from the sun‟s ultraviolet radiations and cosmic rays. The present composition of the Earth's atmosphere is the product of billions of years of biochemical transformations over geological time by the earth‟s organisms. The atmosphere is comprised of different layers based on temperature. These layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The region at about 500 km above the Earth's surface is called the exosphere. These layers possess differences in their composition, temperature and pressure. The lowest layer is the troposphere and 3/4th of the earth‟s atmospheric mass resides within the troposphere. It is this layer where the earth‟s weather develops. The depth of this layer is approximately 17 km at the equator and 7 km at the poles. The stratosphere extends from the top of the troposphere to the bottom of the mesosphere. It contains the ozone layer at altitudes 15 - 35 km. It is here that most of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed. The top of the mesosphere ranges 50 - 85 km and here most meteors burn. The thermosphere extends from 85 km to the base of the exosphere at 690 km. This consists of the ionosphere and here the atmosphere is ionized by incoming solar radiation. Finally, the exosphere starts from 690 - 1,000 km above the surface, where it interacts with the earth‟s magnetosphere.

1.5.5 Biosphere

The term biosphere comes from the Greek word „bios‟ meaning life and „sphaira‟ meaning sphere. It is also known as ecosphere. This is the segment of the Earth where life exists. It was named so by the geologist Eduard Suess in 1875. He defined biosphere as the place on Earth's surface where life dwells. This layer extends up to 10 km above sea level and to depths of the ocean more than 8 km deep. The biosphere is the global ecological system which integrates all organisms, their interrelationships with other and with the earth‟s different segments such as lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Therefore, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. Biospheres do not exist on any other planet or in extraterrestrial space.

1.6 MAJOR GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Air and water pollution, soil degradation, deforestation, desertification, shrinking wetlands, inadequate public health and sanitation, water scarcity, falling groundwater tables, over extraction of water for irrigation purposes are some of the global environmental problems. Environmental degradation, poverty and economic development are closely inter-linked. An important factor contributing to environmental degradation is the overuse and misuse of the common property resources (for example, oceans, air, which is free of cost and owned by nobody). This was referred to as the tragedy of the commons by biologist Garret Hardin, 1968. Conservation of precious natural resources is important as they may take millions of years to form.

1.6.1 Environmental degradation

It is the damage to our biosphere as a whole due to anthropogenic activities. It results when our resources are being consumed at a faster rate than nature can replenish them, when heavy pollution results in degradation and when man destroys ecosystems in the process of development. The end result of unsustainable development is desertification, deforestation, declining standards of living, the extinctions of large numbers of species, health problems, conflicts for dwindling resources, water scarcity and many other major social, economic and political problems. Environmental degradation would culminate in environments that are no longer able to sustain human populations. An unsustainable situation occurs when total of nature's resources is used up faster than it can be replenished. This situation will result in a total collapse of our earth systems or most popularly as the `dooms day` as described by Meadows et al in their famous „The Limits to Growth‟, 1972. The goal of environmental sustainability is to minimize these and other causes, to stop and reverse the processes they lead to. Sustainability requires that we use nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally.

Some of the key environmental problems that lead to degradation include the following:

 Rapid population growth  Rapid consumption of resources  Little emphasis on pollution prevention and waste reduction strategies  Degradation of parts of the earth‟s life support systems  Poverty, which drives poor people to use renewable resources unsustainably  Failure of economic and political systems to encourage sustainable development  Management of our environment with little knowledge about how ecosystems work Some major environmental problems in India include:

 Land degradation, deforestation practices  Air, soil, water pollution, hazardous wastes and improper solid waste disposal  Unplanned power generation, shortage of electricity and power quality and quantity  The loss of wildlife  Destruction and erosion of genetic resources (crop, animal, fish, tree genetic resources) Major global environmental problems include global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, acid precipitation, deforestation, hazardous waste, increasing human population, threat to biodiversity and depletion of our energy resources. Also, the impacts of mining, construction of dams and their socio-economic aspects, pollution and waste management are very important environmental issues. It is important for us to understand the transport and fate of pollutants and toxins in air/water/soil. Proper management of the environment includes the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological processes and life support systems essential for a functional biosphere, sustainable management practices.

Activity 1. Make an observation of your surroundings. 2. Is it polluted? Do people complain of health problems? 3. Are there any steps taken to control the pollution by the authorities?

1.6.2 Global warming and Greenhouse effect

The earth receives energy from the sun, which warms the earth‟s surface. As this energy passes through the atmosphere, a certain percentage (about 34%) gets scattered called albedo. Some part of this energy is reflected back into the atmosphere from the land and ocean surface. The rest (66%) remains to heat the earth (Fig 6.1). In order to establish a balance, the earth must radiate some energy back into the atmosphere. As the earth is much cooler than the sun, it does not emit energy as visible light but emits through infrared or thermal radiation. However, certain gases in the atmosphere form a sort of blanket around the earth and absorb some of this energy emitted back into the atmosphere. Without this blanket effect, our earth would be around 30°C colder than it normally is. These gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, along with water vapour, comprise less than one per cent of the atmosphere. They are called 'greenhouse gases' as the working principle is same as that which occurs in a greenhouse. The greenhouse gas layer functions like a green glass house, where the glass allows sunlight to come in but prevent the heat from going out. Glass easily transmits short wave length solar energy into the greenhouse and is almost opaque to the longer wavelengths radiated by the interiors of the greenhouse. This trapping of the radiation is responsible for the increased temperatures inside the greenhouse. This phenomenon is known as the green house effect and this process results in warming the air in the lower layers leading to global warming. This gas blanket has been in place ever since the creation of the earth. Since the industrial revolution human activities have been releasing more and more of these greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This leads to the blanket becoming thicker and upsets the „natural greenhouse effect‟. The resulting enhanced greenhouse effect is more commonly referred to as global warming or climate change. The most important green house gases are CO2, methane, Chlorofluorocarbons and nitrous oxide. Scientists predict 1.5 - 4.5°C increase in temperatures by 2100. This may result in glaciers melting, sea levels rising, and redistribution of dry and wet regions.

Atmospheric CO2 levels have been increasing at an alarming rate since 1970. During the pre-industrial era, the amount of carbon dioxide remained constant but now it has increased from 250 to 411 ppm. Economic activity, technology and population explosion are driving factors in enhancing global warming. It may reach 450 ppm by 2040. This will increase the earth‟s temperature. The Kyoto protocol formulated in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, entered into force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the protocol. The main aim is to control emissions of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases in ways that reflect underlying national differences in green house gas emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions.

Table 1 The Major greenhouse gases, their sources and atmospheric concentration

Major Green house Atmospheric Sources Gases concentration (ppb) Carbon dioxide 375,000 Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation Methane 1,850 Swamps, marshes, paddy fields, wetlands, livestock, natural gas leaks, fermentation from enteric processes of animals, biomass burning Nitrous oxide 316 Fertilizers, fossil fuels, biomass burning Chlorofluorocarbons 1.2 Aerosols, plastic foams, industrial and halocarbons solvents, air conditioning, refrigeration (Source: Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2007)

Scientists predict that the greenhouse gases will increase the global average temperatures by approximately 6 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of this century. Also extreme floods, droughts and heat waves, are likely to occur with increasing frequencies. Some more effects likely to occur include:

 Climate-related diseases are likely to double by 2030.  Floods as a result of coastal storm surges can affect people.  Rapid loss of biodiversity and a decline in natural resources.  Changes in the rainfall and monsoon patterns.  Melting of ice caps and glaciers.  Thermal expansion of the oceans and the sea level rise.  Climate change can cause disastrous effects on the ecosystems.  Disruption of marine ecosystems and flooding of the coastal wetlands.  Frequent storms in many regions where storms were never experienced.  Floods can result in the spread of infectious diseases.  Groundwater can become contaminated.

1.6.3 Acid rain

Another common effect of air pollution is acid rain. When rainwater goes below a pH of 5.6, it is called acid rain as normal rainwater has a pH of 5.6 due to the dissolution of CO2 in rainwater. The phenomenon occurs when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of fossil fuels such as, petrol, diesel, and coal combine with water vapour in the atmosphere and fall as acidic rain, snow or fog. These gases can also be emitted from natural sources like volcanoes. Acid rain causes extensive damage to water, forest, soil resources and even human health. They can be wet depositions, where the acidic substances are dissolved in rain, dew, fog, snow and dry depositions, where acidic particulate matter in dry form can be deposited on vegetation, monuments etc. Acid rain mobilizes heavy metals like cadmium, mercury, calcium etc in soils, rocks, sediments that are slowly leached and enter the surface water bodies. Many lakes and streams have been contaminated and this has led to the disappearance of some species of fish in Europe, USA and Canada as also extensive damage to forests and other forms of life. It is said that it can corrode buildings, monuments and be hazardous to human health. Because the contaminants are carried long distances, the sources of acid rain are difficult to pinpoint and hence difficult to control. For example, the acid rain that may have damaged some forest in Canada could have originated in the industrial areas of USA.

1.6.4 Ozone layer depletion

Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen and is a strong oxidant. It derives its name from the Greek word ozein meaning smell as it has a pungent smell in a concentrated form. About 90 % of the ozone in the atmosphere is present in the stratosphere. This protective ozone is formed as a product of a photochemical equilibrium. Ozone is being continuously formed in the stratosphere by the absorption of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and is also removed by chemical reactions converting it back to molecular oxygen. The balance between creation and removal is affected by increasing stratospheric concentrations of chlorine, nitrogen and bromine, which act as catalysts speeding up the removal process. The most prominent ozone destructive gases are the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that are very stable compounds, relatively unaffected by the usual pollutant removal process in the troposphere. CFC molecules can be broken by ultraviolet radiation freeing the chlorine that is available to destroy ozone. Ozone can be removed from the stratosphere by catalytic reactions involving chlorine, nitrogen, hydrogen oxides or bromines. It is the enhancement of these reactions by anthropogenic activities that are of concern. Ultraviolet radiations are of three kinds UV-A (320 - 400 nm), UV-B (280 - 320 nm) and UV-C (200 - 280 nm). Of these UV-B is known to be most damaging to biological systems. The ozone layer present in the stratosphere filters out the harmful UV-B radiations from the Sun, thereby protecting life on our earth. Pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), released from refrigeration, air conditioning systems, solvents, plastic foams, aerosols, propellants destroy this equilibrium and the ozone (O3) present in the stratosphere. The result is the thinning of the ozone layer, particularly at the poles. In addition to reducing ozone concentrations, CFCs are themselves potent greenhouse gases and trap an enormous amount of heat. In addition the supersonic aircrafts flying at stratospheric heights can cause major disturbances in the ozone layer. In spite of the slow vertical mixing of pollutants some of the pollutants like CFCs enter the stratosphere and remain there for many years until they are converted to other products. They stay for about 60 -100 years in the stratosphere. This results in depletion of the layer.

1.7 ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS) Environmental management and economic development are mutually supportive aspects of the same agenda. The ISO 14001 (International Organization for Standardization, Geneva) defines it “as the overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources for developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental policy”. The ISO 14001 environmental management system standard is the most widely recognized EMS framework and more than 12,000 entities have had their EMSs certified conforming to ISO 14001.

1.7.1 Objectives of Environmental Management

 To protect of the environment  To promote the prudent use of natural resources  To increase awareness among residents, establishments, institutions, the general public of the value and importance of the environment  To actively promote environmental policies in all aspects of management and its implementation. Some important organizations in India working in the field of environment

There are several leading NGO‟s in India working on different issues in the field of environment where they have developed expertise. The Centre for Science and Environment is one of India‟s leading environmental NGO with a deep interest in sustainable natural resource management and they bring out a bimonthly magazine, Down to earth where current environmental issues are brought to the notice of the general public. TERI is an organization based in New Delhi. Their main focus is on efficient utilization of energy, sustainable use of natural resources, large-scale adoption of renewable energy technologies and the reduction of all forms of waste working for development towards sustainability. Some of the other important government organizations devoted to environmental management in India are the Geological Survey of India, Botanical survey of India, Zoological survey of India, Forest Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India (Dehradun), Environmental Protection Agency, Forest Research Institute (Dehradun), Bombay Natural History Society (Mumbai) that bring out their magazine Hornbill, Salim Ali Institute for Ornithology and Natural History (Coimbatore), etc.

Solutions to global environmental problems require both a through awareness and knowledge of the problems. We have a moral obligation to keep our environment clean and free from pollution and hand it over safely to our future generations.

1.8 SUMMARY In this unit we have studied about the term environment, the need for awareness and the importance of our environment. We have also learnt about the different components of the environment such as atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and the hydrosphere and ecosystem. The ecosystem consists of all the life forms and non-living things in a particular place. The study of natural ecosystems will help us to understand the interrelations between living beings and the environment and how the impact of human beings is influencing the natural world. The chapter also introduces you to some major global environmental issues. Finally it introduces you to some objectives of environmental management.

1.9 Key words

Ecosystem: It consists of all the life forms and the non-living environment found in a particular place.

Lithosphere: It is the outer most layer of the earth consisting of crust and the uppermost mantle. They comprise the hard and rigid outer layer of the earth.

Environmental degradation: It is the damage to our biosphere as a whole due to anthropogenic activities.

Acid rain: When rainwater goes below a pH of 5.6, it is called acid rain.

CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon.

EMS: Environmental management system.

1.10 Self Assessment Questions Self Assessment Questions 1 1. Define environment and justify the need for public awareness on environmental issues. 2. Trace the history of environmental protection measures taken by Government of India.

Self Assessment Questions 2

1. Describe some major global environmental issues. 2. What are the objectives of environmental management?

1.11 References and Suggested Further Readings Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2007. Environmental Studies for Undergraduates, (First Edition) (As per UGC notified syllabus) Unicorn Publishers, New Delhi, 363 pp. ISBN 978-81-7806- 132-0.

Keller, E.A. 2010. Environmental Geology, 9th Edition, Pearson publication, 624 p.

Botkin, D.B., and Keller, E.A. (2010). Environmental Science: Earth as a living planet. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Wright, R.T. and Nebel, B.J (2002). Environmental Science: Towards a sustainable future. Prentice Hall.

Key to Self Assessment Questions Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1

1. Your answer should include the following points:  Environment: The term environment means surroundings. Our environment is the entire web of biological and physical interactions, which characterize the relationships between life and the earth.  Environmental awareness among people is important and it involves developing an understanding towards environmental problems. Each of our actions count such as the way we respond to our environment, using our resources carefully and adopting eco- friendly lifestyles. During the past few years, there has been a gradual decline in our natural resources and the quality of our environment. We have put an increasing stress on nature, with growing demands for food, water, mineral and energy due to increasing population and changing lifestyles. Environmental problems, issues and challenges are complex and multifaceted. The survival and progress of a country depends on the sustainable use of resources.  Rachel Carson was responsible for triggering the environmental awareness movement.

2. Your answer should include the following points:  The most fundamental feature of India‟s ancient philosophy is our respect for the environment. The Fourth five-year plan recognized the need to integrate environmental perspectives in planning and development. In 1970, the Government under the chairmanship of Sh. Pitambar Pant set up the Committee on Human Environment for preparing a country report for the UN Conference on Human Environment to be held in Sweden in 1972. National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination was set up in 1972 in response to the Pant Committee recommendations. In 1980, the Tiwari Committee was constituted for recommending the legislative measures and administrative policies to bring about environmental protection. Department of Environment was effective from November 1st 1980. The Ministry of Environment and Forests was constituted in 1985 to coordinate the environmental matters at the national level.  It may be relevant to mention here that, our country is one of the very few countries that have provided constitutional safeguards for the preservation and protection of the environment.

Key to Self Assessment Questions 2

1. Your answer should include the following points:  To protect of the environment  To promote the prudent use of natural resources  To increase awareness among residents, establishments, institutions, the general public of the value and importance of the environment  To actively promote environmental policies in all aspects of management and its implementation.

2. Your answer should include the following points:  Environmental degradation  Global warming and Greenhouse effect  Acid rain  Ozone layer depletion Subject: Course: Environment Management

Course Code: CP-103 Author: Professor S.R. Gupta

Lesson No.: 2 Vetter:

HUMAN POPULATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON ENVIRONMENT

Structure 2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 History of population Increase

2.3 Demography

2.4 Population Estimates and Projections

2.5 Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids

2.6 Population Implications on Environment

2.7 Summary

2.8 Key words

2.9 Self-assessment questions

2.10 References/Suggested readings

2.0 Objectives After going through this lesson, you will be able to:

 Understand History of population Increase  Population change, increase and Demographic Transition Model  Population growth, variation among nations, and Population Age Structure

 Human Population Impact on Environment

2.1 Introduction

Population in the world is currently growing at a rate of around 1.02% per year, the current average population increase is estimated at 83 million people per year (UN 2017). The world population will continue to grow in the 21st century, but at a much slower rate compared to the recent past (UN 2017). At present the world's population is growing rapidly in developing countries, whereas the rate of population increase has slowed down in industrially developed nations. The ever increasing global human population has its impact on the environment. Natural resources of the planet earth are finite, and there are greater risks from overpopulation. Humans have used natural resources to fulfill their needs even at the expanse of environmental degradation. Researchers have developed a mathematical equation to describe the impact of human activity on the earth, revealing that people are causing the climate to change 170 times faster than natural forces (Steffen et al. 2015). Population pressures on the environment are changing spatially and temporally, with marked implications for the planet‟s biodiversity and economies (Venter et al. 2016). It has been found that 75% the planet‟s land surface is experiencing human pressures especially in regions of high biodiversity (Venter et al. 2016). Though earth has a capacity to support more people, in the long-run there must be an upper limit of population growth.

2.2 History of Population Increase

The history of the human population growth can be viewed in four major periods (Figure1). An early period of hunters and gatherers, in which human population was probably less than a few millions. During the prehistoric era, the world population was stable. During the neolithic transition, about 8,000BC, there was a significant increase in population when humans began to farm and raise animals. The estimated world population was approximately five million, ''increasing to 50 million by 1000 B.C.' Until the Middle Ages, human populations were held in check by diseases, famines and wars, and thus grew very slowly. By 1650, world population had expanded about 50 times, i.e., from 10 million to 500 million. . During industrial revolution, there was improvement in healthcare and better food supplies, which led to rapid increase in population. A tremendous change occurred with the industrial revolution and human population reached one billion in 1820. The trends in population increase beyond 1800 are summarized as follows:

 Until the 1800s the world's population grew slowly for thousands of years.  In 1820 the world's population reached one billion.  In the early 1970s, the world's population reached three billion.  In October 1999, less than 30 years later, the population doubled to six billion. This was an historic milestone in the growth of world population.  On October 31, 2011, world population reached seven billion

The human population to reached one billion in thousands of years , whereas only 200 years to reach 7 billion. Annual growth rate of human population reached its peak in the late 1960s, when it was at around 2%. World population has doubled in 40 years from 1959 (three billion) to 1999 (six billion).

Figure 1. World population growth through history, the graph shows the extremely rapid growth in the world population that has taken place since the 18th century. ( adapted from McFalls Jr., J.A . 2007.US Population Reference Bureau).

2.2.1 Thomas Malthus and His Essay on Population

Thomas Robert Malthus was an English Economist who proposed a systematic theory of population. In 1798, Malthus published his famous book, Essay on the Principle of Population. According to Malthus, it is not possible to maintain a rapidly growing population on a finite resource base. Populations are likely to outgrow their food supplies. In Essay on the Principle of Population ,Malthus proposes the principle that human populations grow exponentially (i.e., doubling with each cycle, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32) while food production grows at an arithmetic rate (2, 4, 6, 8, 10). Malthus argued that human population growth is exponential while natural resources (particularly food) are fixed, and their availability can only grow linearly. Thus, he argued that unless the human population was regulated in some way, the population would surpass resource availability. This scenario of arithmetic food growth with simultaneous exponential human population growth predicted a future when humans would have no resources to survive leading to famine, disease, and population collapse, known as the 'Malthusian catastrophe (Figure 2). To avoid such a catastrophe, Malthus suggested controls on population growth.

Figure 2. The Malthusian growth model that predicts periodic catastrophe with unchecked human population growth (https://www.e- education.psu.edu/geog30/node/328)

The Malthusian Theory of Population has been criticized because mathematical proposition is not supported by facts and history, undue emphasis has been placed on the relation between population and food supply, the role of scientific discoveries and inventions. The critics are of the view that new technologies and better healthcare will continue to save human race from a Malthusian fate, and growth of human population may not be reason to worry in nearby future.

2.3 DEMOGRAPHY

It is the study of the size, composition, and distribution of human populations and the causes and consequences of changes in these characteristics. Specialists in this field are called demographers. Human populations grow or decline through the interplay of three processes, i.e., births, deaths, and migration. These three variables are the components of population change and are depicted in Figure 3.

 Births - usually measured using the birth rate , demographers use the birth rate, or crude birth rate (the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year)

 Deaths - usually measured using the death or crude death rate (the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year). (Number of deaths per 1,000 of the population per year).

Migration - the movement of people in and out of an area.

Births Immigration

Population gain + + Natural HUMAN Migrational change POPULATION change

- Population loss -

Deaths Emigration

Figure 3: The variables of population change.

2.3.1 Population change

It is calculated by subtracting the number of people leaving a population (through death and emigration) from the number entering it through birth and immigration) during a specified period of time (usually a year):

Population change = (Births+ Immigration)- (Deaths + Emigration) Births minus deaths constitute natural increase. When deaths exceed births, the result is natural decrease. Subtracting emigrants from immigrants yields net migration, which also can be either positive or negative

Births – deaths = natural increase/decrease, whereas Immigrants – emigrants = net migration

2.3.2 Rate of Change Births and deaths are natural causes of population change. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country or place is called the natural increase. The natural increase is calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate. The rate of natural increase is given as a percentage, calculated by dividing the natural increase by 10. For example, if the birth rate is 20 per 1,000 population, and the death rate is 8 per 1000 population, then the natural increase = 20 - 8 = 12.

That is 12/1000, which is equal to 1.2%.

The doubling time is a frequently used concept in discussing human population growth, it refers to the time for a population to reach twice its present size, and can be estimated by using the formula:

Td = 70/annual growth rate, where Td is doubling time , annual growth rate is expressed as a percentage. For example , a population growing at 2% per year would double in approximately 35 years. While calculating doubling time, it is assumed that population is growing exponentially ( has a constant rate of growth).

2.3.3 The Demographic Transition Model The observation and documentation of this global phenomenon has produced a model, the Demographic Transition Model(DTM), which helps explain the changes in population demographics. Based on an interpretation of demographic history, the DTM was developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson on the basis of observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years. This model helps to understand the changes in a country‟s demographics, based on the relationship between crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR).

Using the Demographic Transition Model, demographers can better understand a country‟s current population growth based on its placement within one of five stages. The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is a graph that represents population change over time. It studies how birth rate and death rate affect the total population of a country (Figure 4). Even though all countries are experiencing changes in population at different rates, they are all going through the similar process of the DTM and are in one of these stages

High

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

Natural Increase In

Population

Births and deaths per deaths and Births 1,000 people per year per people 1,000

High Early Late Low Decline Low fluctuating expanding expanding fluctuating

Time

Figure 4. The five stages of the demographic transition model (adapted from https://www.rgs.org) Stage 1: High fluctuating – A period of high birth and death rates, both of which fluctuate. Natural change ranges between increase and decrease.

Stage 2: Early expanding – A period of high birth rates, but falling death rates. The population begins to increase rapidly. Examples are Bolivia, Nigeria and India

Stage 3: Late expanding – A period of falling birth rates and death rates. The rate of population growth slows down as the rate of natural increase lessens. Examples are Argentina and China.

Stage 4: Low fluctuating – A period of low birth and death rates. The population as a whole becomes older. Death rate kept low by improving healthcare. Examples are USA and UK, Poland, Sweden

Stage 5: Decline – the demographic transition model suggests that birth rate may decrease to a level below death rate and create a natural decrease; something which over time could cause a total population decrease. Few countries have reached this stage, meaning any analysis of it is based on very limited evidence.

Most of the less economically developed countries are at stage 2 or 3 (with a growing population and a high natural increase). In contrast, the more economically developed countries are now at stage 4 of the model and some such as Germany and Japan have entered stage 4.

Limitations of the DMT model The model was developed after studying the experiences of countries in Western Europe and North America. Therefore patterns experienced today in many different countries of the world may be different. The original model doesn't take into account the fact that some countries now have a declining population and are at stage five.

2.4 Population Estimates and Projections

The 2017 Revision of the World Population Prospects is the twenty-fifth round of official United Nations population estimates and projections, which have been prepared since 1951 by the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. The world population was 6 billion at the end of 1999. In just the next 12 years, i.e., in the year 2011, global population reached 7 billion(UN 2011). The global human population is estimated nearly 7.55 billion as of mid-2017(Table 1), implying that the world has added approximately one billion inhabitants over the last twelve years.

Population is unevenly distributed among the world‟s regions. Sixty per cent of the world‟s people live in Asia (4.5 billion), 17 per cent in Africa (1.3 billion), 10 per cent in Europe (742 million), 9 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean (646 million), and the remaining 6 per cent in Northern America (361 million) and Oceania (41 million). China (1.4 billion) and India (1.3 billion). China (with 1.4 billion inhabitants) and India (1.3 billion inhabitants) remain the two most populous countries of the world, comprising 19 and 18% of the total global population, respectively.

Among the ten largest countries of the world, one is in Africa (Nigeria), five are in Asia (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, and Pakistan), two are in Latin America (Brazil and Mexico), one is in Northern America (United States of America), and one is in Europe (Russian Federation). Amongst these, Nigeria‟s population, currently the seventh largest in the world, is growing the most rapidly. Consequently, the population of Nigeria is projected to surpass that of the United States shortly before 2050, at which point it would become the third largest country in the world.

Table 1. Population of the world and regions, 2017, 2030, 2050 and 2100, according to the medium-variant projection (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2017) Population (billions)

Region 2017 2030 2050 World 7. 550 8. 551 9. 772 Africa 1. 256 1. 704 2. 528 Asia 4 .504 4. 947 5. 257 Europe 0.742 0.739 0.716 Latin America 0.646 0.718 0.780 and the Caribbean Northern 0.361 0.395 0.435 America Oceania 0.041 0.048 0.057

The Most Populous Countries of the World The 2017 Revision, published by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, shows that currently China and India are the two most populous countries of the world.

Demographics of India

India, the country of a high demographic heterogeneity. Some salient features of Population demography are ( www.Worldometers.info) As of 1 January 2018, the population of India has been estimated to be 1.346 billion people based on the latest United Nations estimates

 India population is equivalent to 17.74% of the total world population  The population density in India is 450 per Km2 (1,167 people per mi2).  The total land area is 2,973,190 Km2 (1,147,955 sq. miles)  32.8 % of the population is urban (439,801,466 people in 2018);the median age in India is 27.0 years.

The sex ratio of the total population was 1.070 (1,070 males per 1 000 females) which is slightly higher than global sex ratio (in the world there were 1 016 males to 1 000 females as of 2017).

Demographics of China

 The current population of China is 1,412,404,766 as of January 8, 2018, based on the latest United Nations estimates.  China population is equivalent to 18.67% of the total world population, 58.2 % of the population is urban  China ranks number one in the list of countries by population.  The population density in China is 150 per Km2  The median age in China is 37.3 years

It has been reported that population in China is rapidly aging. The “One Child Policy” was enacted in 1979, which was primarily aimed to slow the country‟s rapid population growth. Since early 2016, families have been allowed to have two children, but even with this change in place. The aging population in China is going to impact its future economic growth prospects and will exert huge pressure on finances of the country.

Projected Growth of the Global Population

Today, the world‟s population continues to grow, more slowly than in the recent past. Ten years ago, the global population was growing by 1.24 per cent per year. Today, it is growing by 1.10 per cent per year, adding an additional 83 million people annually. Demographers project that the world population will increase by slightly more than one billion people over the next 13 years, reaching 8.6 billion in 2030, and to increase further to 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100 (UN 2017). With roughly 83 million people being added to the world‟s population every year, the upward trend in population size is expected to continue, even assuming that fertility levels will continue to decline.

From 2017 to 2050, it is expected that half of the world‟s population growth will be concentrated in just nine countries: India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, Ethiopia, the United Republic of Tanzania, the United States of America, Uganda and Indonesia (ordered by their expected contribution to total growth).

2.5 Population Age Structure and Population Pyramids

2.5.1 Fertility: Adding New People

Fertility refers to the number of births that occur to an individual or in a population. The total fertility rate (TFR) is commonly used because it represents the average total number of children a woman will have. But the TFR is a synthetic rate; it does not measure the fertility of any real group of women. The TFR is a valuable measure for knowing fertility trends or comparing different populations.

2.5.2 Population structure

Population structure is usually shown using a population pyramid. A population pyramid can be drawn up for any area, from a whole continent or country to an individual town, city or village. A population pyramid, or age structure graph, is a simple graph that conveys the complex social narrative of a population through its shape. The overall shape of the pyramid tells us about the present balances between the different age groups and between males and females. The diagram can be very helpful when making forecasts about future population totals and population growth rates. The pyramid of age is also important because the data helps to predict the population growth in the future.

Every population pyramid is unique, most can be categorized into three prototypical shapes: expansive (young and growing), constrictive (elderly and shrinking), and stationary (little or no population growth). There are the three basic shapes of population pyramids which are described as follows:

Expansive : Expansive population pyramids are used to describe populations that are young and growing. They are often characterized by their typical „pyramid‟ shape, which has a broad base and narrow top (Figure 5a). These types of populations are typically representative of developing countries like India and Indonesia. According to this type of graph, the populations of India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Mexico, Brazil, Bangladesh, and Pakistan will continue to grow at a rapid pace.

Constrictive: A constrictive pyramid has fewer people in the younger age categories, whereas more people are elderly (Figure 5b). Constrictive pyramids typically have an inverted shape with the graph tapering in at the bottom. Constrictive pyramids have smaller percentages of people in the younger age groups; a large portion of the population has access to quality education and health care. For example, the population pyramid of Japan.

Stationary: Stationary, or near stationary, population pyramids are used to describe populations that are not growing ( Figure 5c). For example, Sweden show stationary age categories because of relatively low, constant birth rates, and a high quality of life Stationary © Expansive (a) Constrictive (b) Population pyramid Population pyramid Population pyramid Sweden India Japan

Figure 5. Three Types Population pyramid structures, (a) expansive, (b) constrictive and (C ) stationary . Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision. New York: United Nations.

From these three population pyramids, we can now understand that their shape is controlled by: The birth rate – the higher it is, the broader the base of the pyramid. The death rate – the lower it is, the taller the pyramid. The balance between the two rates – whether births exceed deaths or vice versa.

According to UN report, 2017 (United Nations, 2017) the male population being slightly larger than the female population at the global level. There are 102 men for every 100 women. Children under 14 years of age represent roughly 26 percent of the world‟s population, while older persons aged 65 or over account for 8.68 percent of human population. More than half (61 per cent) are adults between 15 and 59 years of age. The graphic representation of the Distribution of the world‟s population by age and sex, 2017 is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Distribution of the world’s population by age and sex, 2017. (Source: United Nations, 2017).

2.5.4 Population Structure and Ageing Population growth rates of countries vary considerably, but a trend of slowing down has begun to affect humans. Population is a major consequence of decrease in fertility and mortality, and increase in life expectancy. Globally the population of those aged 60 or more represents 11% of total population (800 million) and is predicted be 22% (about 1 billion) in the year 2050 (the UN population Division). The old-age-dependency ratio is number of individuals 65 years or older per 100 in the 15-to64 years old working population..

Eurostat‟s population projections analyzed the likely impact of ageing populations on public spending by the European Commission. Increased social expenditure related to population ageing, in the form of pensions, healthcare and institutional or private (health) care, is likely to result in a higher burden for the working-age population (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics- accessed 9 December, 2018). A number of important policies in social and economic fields will be affected. For example, population ageing and it‟s likely to impact the sustainability of public finances and welfare provisions, or the economic and social impact of demographic change

2.6. Population Implications on Environment

2.6.1. IPAT Equation and the Ecological Footprint

A classic attempt to explain the relationship between a human population and its impact on the environment is the IPAT equation. The equation maintains that impacts (I) on ecosystems are the product of the population size (P), affluence (A), and technology (T) of the human population in question (Figure 7). This equation was developed by biologist Paul Ehrlich and environmental scientist John Holdren in 1971, IPAT is an equation that expresses the idea that environmental impact (I) is the product of three factors: population (P), affluence (A) and technology (T) ( Figure 7).

Affluence

World

population ENVIRONMENT Technology

Ecological IMPACT I = P x A x T Footprint

Less Economic High Economic Development Development

Habitat Disease ECONOMIC Resource use Hunger Destruction IMPACT

Figure 7. The impacts of human growth on the environment. The population (P), affluence(A), and destructive technology(T) impact the environment according to the IPAT equation (Ehrlich and Holdren, 1972). An analogous model is the ecological footprint which increases with development. High economic development contribute to resource use and habitat destruction, whereas less economic development can lead to problems like disease and hunger

2.6.2. The ecological footprint It is a standardized measure of how much productive land and water is needed to produce the resources that are consumed, and to absorb the wastes produced by a person or group of people. Since the 1970s, humanity has been in ecological overshoot as the annual demand on resources exceeds the generative capacity of Earth. It is clear that human population is using more natural resources and services through overfishing, deforestation, and emission of more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than forests can sequester. According to Global Footprint Network, humans require 1.7 planets to produce enough natural resources to match our consumption rates and a growing population. At current population levels, our planet has only 1.7 global hectares (gha) of biologically productive surface area per person.

The Ecological Footprint per capita : It is a nation's total Ecological Footprint divided by the total population of the nation. Ecological footprint per capita of some countries in the year 2013 are shown in Table 3. It is high for United States( 8.6) , whereas very low for a least developed country like Burundi ( 0.6) To live within the means of our planet's resources, the world's Ecological Footprint would have to equal the available biocapacity per person on our planet, which is currently 1.7 global hectares. So if a nation's Ecological Footprint per capita is 6.8 global hectares, its citizens are demanding four times the resources and wastes that our planet can regenerate and absorb in the atmosphere (http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)

Table3. Ecological footprint per capita some countries in2013 (http://www.footprintnetwork.org/)

Countries Ecological footprint per capita in global hectares in 2013

United States 8.6 Japan 5.0 China 3.6 India 1.1 Nigeria 1.1 Burundi 0.6

Aggregate ecological footprint :The countries with the highest aggregate ecological footprints have high population. The Ecological Footprint of the top five countries makes up about 50% of the global total ( Figure 8). Analysis of the 2014 National Footprint Accounts reveals that China (16 per cent) and the USA (15 per cent) have the greatest aggregate ecological footprint. China with its largest population shows high ecological footprint. Total Footprint of USA is high because of its greater per capita consumption. \

China United States India Brazil Russia Rest of world

19%

52.80% 13.70%

7.10% 3.70% 3.70%

Figure 8. Share of total Ecological Footprint among the top five countries with the highest demand and the rest of the world (Global Footprint Network, 2014).

2.5.2 Impact of Population on Environment

The impacts of population on environment in terms of consumption, urbanization, biodiversity loss, deforestation, air pollution, and climate change, are discussed as follows:

Unsustainable patterns of Consumption: In developed nations, the unsustainable patterns of consumption and production are of great concern. The mass production of goods is using large amounts of energy, creating excess pollution, and generating huge amounts of waste. A study undertaken in 2009 showed that the countries with the fastest population growth also had the slowest increases in carbon emissions. Individuals living in developed countries have, in general, a much bigger ecological footprint than those living in the developing world. The increasing unsustainable consumption patterns have caused problems of air pollution, water scarcity and waste generation, and human health in south-east Asia ( UNEP 2016).

Urbanisation : It is an increase in the number of people living in towns and cities. Urbanization occurs mainly because people move from rural areas to urban areas and it results in growth in the size of the urban population and the extent of urban areas. The regular increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas is because of increase in employment and easy access to education. The world has urbanized rapidly since 1950 and projections indicate that it will continue to urbanize in the coming decades (Table 4). Northern America and Latin America and the Caribbean are the most urbanized regions, with 80 per cent or more of their populations residing in urban settlements in 2014. Africa and Asia remain mostly rural, with 40 per cent and 48 per cent of their respective populations living in urban areas in 2014, As per UN estimate India‟s urban population is projected to be 814 million i.e., 50 per cent of total population by 2050 (United Nations 2015).

Table 4 The world urban population in 1980, 2014 and 2050 (http://www.urbanet.info/world-urban-population/) Year Billion people Share of urban population 1980 4.439 39% 2014 7.349 54% 2050 9.725 66%

Cities are hotspots of production, consumption and waste generation, including greenhouse gas emissions (Grimm et al 2008). During the past century, the high urban population growth has taken place on <3% of the global terrestrial surface, yet having global impacts in terms of 78% of carbon emissions, 60% of residential water use, and 76% of wood used for industrial purposes ( Brown 2001). Megacities in India include Ahmadabad (6.3 million), Hyderabad (7.7 million), Bangalore (8.4 million), Chennai (8.6 million), Kolkata (14.1 million), Delhi (16.3 million) and Greater Mumbai (18.4 million( GOI 2011; Kumar et al. 2017). Increase in human population and urbanization, and the various economic activities are producing huge amounts of solid wastes. Population growth and particularly the development of megacities are making solid waste management in India a major problem.

Loss of Biodiversity: Research suggests that the growth of human population, technological change and unequal consumption in different regions of the world contribute substantially to the loss of biological diversity. Increasing human impacts will cause extinctions of species, decline of wild species populations, and habitat destruction. The number of documented extinctions since 1500 AD is 784 species and the extinction rates are 50 to 500 times higher than previous rates calculated from the fossil record (Baillie et al, 2004). The populations of agricultural and domestic animal species have increased alongside humans, whereas biodiversity has declined globally. The impact of food production on biodiversity affects every system of the planet (Crist et al. 2017). Land conversion for crop and animal agriculture is the chief driver of habitat loss. Thousands of animal species are at critical risk of becoming extinct due to unsustainable farming and fishing methods and climate change according to latest report of RED List of endangered species of the IUCN released in December, 2017. Deforestation :Many of the worlds‟ most threatened and endangered animals live in forests, and 1.6 billion people rely on benefits forests offer, including food, fresh water, clothing, traditional medicine and shelter. Forests cover almost 30 percent of the world‟s land area and provide shelter to over 80% of all terrestrial biodiversity (United Nations, 2015). About 1.6 billion people worldwide are dependent on forest ecosystems as their source of income (United Nations, 2015). The world lost almost 130 million hectares of forest between 1990 and 2015 (FAO 2016). According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), only 15% of forests remain intact, around 30% of global forest cover has been cleared and an additional 20% has been degraded. Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees in forests. Trees are usually removed to make way for agriculture, roads, and urban development. Deforestation is a particular concern in tropical regions because these forests contain much of the world‟s biodiversity.

The problem of Air Pollution: Air quality is one of the leading environmental threats to public health. Air pollution issues are especially acute in rapidly urbanizing and industrializing nations such as India and China. About 90 per cent of people in Sub-Saharan Africa are exposed to indoor air pollution, impacting both economies and livelihoods while contributing to increased emissions of greenhouse gases.

Climate Change :Human population growth is a major contributor to global warming as humans use fossil fuels for their economic growth and to support improved lifestyles. When fossil fuels are burned, these emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which traps warm air inside like a greenhouse. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in its Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports (IPCC 2007; IPCC 2014), has provided a strong scientific evidence of global warming. It is now clear that climate change is being caused by people that threaten the livelihoods and well-being of all people and societies. The extreme climate events such as storms, heat waves, droughts, and devastating floods are intensifying. The extreme climate events cause direct destruction and have pervasive impacts on food security, infectious disease transmission, and economic stability that continue to occur for many years. 2.7 SUMMARY

i. According to a new United Nations report, the world population on October 12, 2017 is 7.6 billion which is expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. ii. Demography is the study of the size, composition, and distribution of human populations and the causes and consequences of changes in these characteristics. iii. The Demographic Transition Model helps to understand the changes in a country‟s demographics, based on the relationship between crude birth rate and crude death rate. iv. China (with 1.4 billion inhabitants) and India (1.346 billion inhabitants) are the two most populous countries of the world. v. As of 1 January 2018, the population of India has been estimated to be 1.346 billion people, constituting 17.74% of the total world population, 32.8 % of the population is urban. vi. There are the three basic shapes of population pyramids, i.e. expansive, constrictive, and stationary. vii. IPAT Equation explain the relationship between a human population and its impact on the environment. The equation maintains that impacts (I) on ecosystems are the product of the population size (P), affluence (A), and technology (T). viii. Humans require 1.7 planets to produce enough natural resources to match their consumption rates and population growth according to Global Footprint Network. ix. Population growth has impacts on the environment because of high consumption, urbanization, biodiversity loss, deforestation, air pollution, climate change, , and waste generation. x. Climate change is being caused by people that threaten the livelihoods and well-being of all people and societies. .

2.8 KEY WORDS

Population Growth, Malthusian Growth Model, Demography , Population Change,

Doubling Time, The Demographic Transition Model, United Nations Population

Estimates, Population Age Structure, Population Pyramids, IPAT Equation, the

Ecological Footprint, Population impact on Environment

2.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.The principle that human populations grow exponentially, while food production grows at an arithmetic rate was put forward by :

(a) Adam smith (b) Charles Darwin

2.The global human population according to The 2017 Revision of the World Population Prospects is :

(a) 4.55 billion (b) 7.55 billion

3. The study of trends in human population growth and prediction of future growth is called: (a) Demography (b) Biography

4.Doubling time (Td) of population can be calculated by:

(a) Td =70/annual growth rate

(b) Td = annual growth rate / 70 (c) Td = 70 × annual growth rate

(d) Td = 70 + annual growth rate

5.The average life expectancy around the world is currently: (a) Decreasing (b) Increasing

6. Which of the countries is near to zero population growth?

(a) Brazil (b) India

7. The Demographic Transition Model to understand the changes in a country’s demographics was developed by:

(a) Warren Thompson (b) Charles Darwin

8. The most populous country in the world in the year 2017 is:

(a) Brazil (b) India

9. The urban population in India as per population data of January 2018 is:

(a) 32.8 % (b) 40.8 %

10. population pyramids are used to describe populations that are young and growing are:

(a) Expansive pyramids (b) constrictive pyramids

11. The relationship between a human population and its impact on the environment can be described by …………..Equation. 12. A nation's total Ecological Footprint divided by the total population of the nation refers to:

(a) The Ecological Footprint per capita (b) Aggregate ecological footprint

13. An increase in the number of people living in towns and cities is called:

(a)Migration (b) Immigration

14. The number of documented extinctions since 1500 AD is…………. Species.

15. The large-scale removal of trees in forests to make way for agriculture, roads, and urban development is called:

(a)Afforestation (b) Plantation

Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the principal reasons for the growth of population rapidly in the 20th century? 2. Discuss the importance of age structure of human population. 3. Explain the demographic transition model. 4. Define doubling time of human population. 5. Discuss in brief the history of population growth. 6. Explain the IPAT equation and its significance. 7. What is ecological footprint? 8. Write an essay on impact of human population on environment.

2.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Baillie JE, Hilton-Taylor C, Stuart SN (eds; 2004) A Global Species Assessment. Gland, Switzerland: The World Conservation Union. www.iucnredlist.org Brown L. R.2001. Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth (Norton, New York,

Crist E., Mora C., and Engelman R. (2017). The interaction of human population, food production, and biodiversity protection. Science 356 : 260-264 Ehrlich, P.R. and J.P. Holdren, 1972. Critique: One Dimensional Ecology. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 28(5): 16, 18-27.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). (2016). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015: How are the world’s forests changing? (Second Edition). Food & Agriculture Org. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf

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Venter, O., E. W. Sanderson, A. McGrach, H. Possingham, P. Wood, B. Fekete, W. F. Laurance, M. Levy and J. E. M. Watson (2016). Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation. Nature Communications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12558

Subject: Environment Management

Course Code: CP-103 Author: Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Lesson No.: 3 Vetter: Prof. Praveen Sharma

Overview of Environmental Laws

Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Definitions and Nature of Environmental laws 3.3 Various Environmental laws 3.4 Some laws in relation to National Environment 3.5 Five Year Plans on Environmental Issues 3.6 International Environmental Laws and Agreements 3.7 Summary 3.8 Key Words 3.9 Self Assessment Questions 3.10 References and Suggested Further Readings 3.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you should be able to:  define the term environmental law;  explain the various national laws and policies in relation to the environment; and  describe the international laws in relation to environment. 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter you will learn about the various environmental laws enforced in order to protect our environment from deterioration. Law is an instrument of social change which helps us bring about a positive change in the human society. The air, water, soil, has been polluted and laws and policies are most important for environmental protection. Paul Harrison, has pointed out that an overall development of human beings with due respect to nature is of utmost importance. Environmental law can be defined as set of laws, policies and certain procedures enforced by different government agencies for protecting the environment. Industries, chemical spills, tankers in the ocean, solid wastes, and hospital wastes have caused serious havoc to our natural environment. Even the biodiversity is endangered and wildlife poaching is responsible for species extinction and dwindling biodiversity. Environmental law establishes protection for our scarce natural resources and natural surroundings, like land, air and water. We have understood that our planet is facing risk from anthropogenic sources. Solutions for such problems lie in developing strategies for correcting our behaviour towards the environment. Environmental law creates a framework for the same. Law is a way of regulating human behaviour.

In this unit we shall learn about the laws and policies in India relating to environment protection, including the conservation of forest and natural resources, coastal zone management, and some international environmental conventions.

3.2 DEFINITIONS AND NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS Let us now learn some definitions related to environment.

3.2.1 Definitions

The Environment Protection Act: This act was approved by the Government of India in 1986. It defines the term environment as “the sum total of water, air, land, the interrelationships among themselves, with human beings and with other organisms and property”.

Environmental Law: This discipline deals with a system of statutes, common laws, treaties, conventions, regulations and policies for the protection of our natural environment that are impacted by anthropogenic activities.

Some environmental laws regulate the impacts of human activities. These include setting limits for permissible levels of certain chemicals or heavy metals or permits and so on. Some other environmental laws are preventive which assess the possible impacts before the human activities can occur. These include mining or projects proposed for major developmental activities. Environmental law started in the 1960s and is now a specialized area of law. It is most important for sustainable development. Certain policy concepts such as public participation, environmental justice, and paying for pollution by the polluter principle have been important solutions for dealing with environmental pollution. Further, some more concepts such as eco-taxes, tradable emission allowances, standards such as ISO 14000 and negotiated agreements have also played positive roles.

3.2.2 Nature of Environmental Laws

These include laws related to the air, water, land, flora, fauna, natural resources and human habitation. There exist a number of Acts and protective laws for humans in relation to the air, water, land, noise, nuclear, thermal pollution and also for other living organisms. We need to protect as well as manage our environment properly. Globally, many Constitutions and international treaties in the world recognize the right to protect the environment and the right to live in clean and healthy environments. In our country, the constitution of India in Article 21 states that every person has the right to life. Further, Articles 51 A (g) (ii), 39 (b), (c), 19 (e)) imposes duty on the citizens to protect the environment. The Article 48A includes for the protection of our environment, forest and wildlife of India by the government. Article 31 A and 31C gives powers to the government for the acquisition of forest, lands, estates and other natural resources for common good (Article 39(b) and (c) of directive principles).

3.3 VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS Respecting nature, worshipping nature and protection of environment is rooted in Indian culture. Let us now learn about the environmental laws that exist in India.

3.3.1 Environmental Legislations in India (Before 1980)

There have been various laws in our country from the 1853 onwards. The details of the laws are summarized in the following paragraphs.

Some Laws in relation to Water Pollution

 The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolkata) Act, 1853: This very old act aims to remove nuisances and encroachments in the Islands of Bombay and Kolaba below high water mark.  The Oriental Gas Company Act, 1857: This law deals with the control of water pollution from oriental gas company discharges.  Indian Penal Code of 1860: It is the main criminal code of India. It has 23 chapters consisting of 511 sections.  The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897: This act prohibits the killing of aquatic fishes using explosives or by poisoning waters.  The Indian Ports Act, 1908: This act deals with the prohibition of oil discharge in ports.  The Indian Forest Act, 1927: This act deals with the prohibition of poisoning of water bodies within forest areas.  The River Boards Act, 1956: This act enables the states to enroll the central government in setting up an Advisory River Board for issues related to cooperation of inter-states.

Some Laws in relation to Air Pollution

 Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905: This act aims to prevent air pollution in Calcutta and protect marble structures.  Bombay smoke nuisance Act, 1912: This act aims to prevent smoke and air pollution in Bombay.

Some Laws in relation to Wild Life Conservation

 The Madras Wild Elephant Act, 1873: This act is the first wildlife Act to protect wild Elephants.  The Elephant Preservation Act, 1879: It protects wild Elephants.  The Wild Bird Protection Act, 1887: It prohibits trade in wild birds.  The Wild Birds and Animal Protection Act, 1912: This act regulated the hunting of wild birds but it failed in the control for wildlife trade.  The Hailey National Park Act, 1937: It aimed to protect the unique ecosystem of Western Himalayas in Corbett National Park then Hailey National Park.

Some Laws in relation to Forest Conservation

There have been many laws for protecting forest resources. They include Indian Forest Act, 1865; Indian Forest Act, 1878 and Forest Policy of India, 1884.  Indian Forest Act, 1927: It deals with laws in relation to forest resource protection, forest produce, and the taxes/ duty on forest products and timber. All the above acts show that India worked hard for environmental quality even before independence. But, the environment received more importance in the Fourth five year plan (1969-74). Also the United Nation conference on human environment, held in 1972 at Sweden further strengthened the need for environmental protection and legislations. It also proposed that developing nations need to balance their population growth. In 1976, the 42nd Amendment to the constitution of India, introduced significant provisions in constitution relating to the environment protection. The National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) was constituted in 1972. It focussed on the issues related to environmental management, improvement of human environment, population growth and economic development. During this period various acts were passed which include: The Indian wildlife protection Act of 1972 and the water prevention and control of pollution Act of 1974. It was only after the United Nations Conference at Stockholm, Sweden in 1972 that constitutional sanction was given for environment protection through the 42nd Amendment in 1976. This was a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Rights and Duties. In 1980 the Tiwari Committee was formed for environmental legislations and it led to the formation of a Department of Environment and later on a full fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests.

3.3.2 Environmental Legislations in India (1980 - present)

The Government of India is effortlessly working for environment protection. The list of environmental Acts, Rules and Notifications in India from 1980 to present is given in the following paragraphs.

(a) Water Pollution  Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, amended 1988: It deals with the prohibition of pollutant discharges into water bodies more than a given standard. Penalties exist for non-compliance.  Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, amended 1992, 2003: This Act deals with the prevention and control of water pollution by collecting a cess on water used by industries and local authorities.  The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules 1978: This Act deals with standards for the type and location of water meters with indicators, pressure gauges that every consumer needs to install. (b) Air Pollution  Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: This Act deals with the prohibition of fuels and pollutants in the air and regulates devices that pollute the air. The Act gives the power to Central Pollution Control Board for establishing industrial plants. The board tests the air in air pollution control areas, inspects the pollution control equipments, and manufacturing processes employed. (c) Environment Protection Act, 1986  The Act is enacted under Article 253 of the Indian constitution for environmental protection and to address major environmental hazards. Under this Act, the central government is empowered for taking necessary measures for protecting the environment. It also gives standards for emissions and discharges; regulation of the location of industries; hazardous wastes management and for protection of human health and welfare. The salient features are as follows.  Gives procedures for pollutant emission standards.  Gives parameters for the location and operation of industries in different areas.  Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999: It prohibits construction of some industries; restricts units in the Taj Trapezium; lays conditions for the construction of around Archaeological Monuments.  Several rules have been notified for the management of hazardous chemicals, wastes, and so on.  Subject to the provision of this Act, all powers have been given to the Central Government for taking necessary steps for environmental protection and to improve the environmental quality. (d) Noise Pollution Noise pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000: This was formed under EPA and amended twice in 2002 and 2006. It prohibits loud noise and pollution due to noise. The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change has recently notified the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Amendment Rules, 2017 for amending the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. During night hours (between 10:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight) or during cultural or religious festival occasions the public address systems and loud speakers can be used. The term “festive occasion” has been specifically defined in the amended rules. The amended rules have given the power to State Governments to declare silence area / zone which is less than 100 meters around hospitals, educational institutions and courts.

(e) Ozone Layer Depletion Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000: These have been introduced for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.

(f) Coastal Regulation Zone This notification, issued by the central government by virtue of its power under EPA declares limits of and prohibitions in coastal regulation zones. There are 30 notifications between 1997 - 2009. The notifications put regulations on various activities, including construction. It also provides for some protection to the backwaters and estuaries.

(g) Environment Impact Assessment This notification came in 1994 and was amended in 2006. It deals with projects or activities that require prior environmental clearance from the concerned regulatory authority. The stages of prior Environment Clearance (EC) for new projects are also notified. There is also provision for the constitution of State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority.

(h) Animal Welfare Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 and Rules (18), 1965-2006. This act was passed for the prevention of inducing unnecessary pain or suffering on animals and the prevention of cruelty to animals. For the promotion of animal welfare the Animal Board of India has been established by the Central Government.

(i) Bio Diversity Conservation Biological Diversity Act, 2002: This act deals with the conservation of biodiversity, and sustainable management of these resources.

(j) Forest Conservation These include: Forest Conservation Act, 1980, amended 1988, Rules, 1981, amended 1988, 1992, 2003. It basically deals with the protection and the conservation of the forest resources.

(k) Wild Life Protection The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, amended 1993, The Wildlife (protection) Amendment Act, 2002 and set of 9 Rules, 1973-2003. The act deals with the protection of birds and animals in their natural habitats.

(l) Hazardous Substances Management Rules o The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001: This rule deals with the manufacture, processing, sale, purchase, and use of batteries and its safe disposal practices. o The Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules, 2000: This deals with the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and proper disposal of municipal solid wastes. o The Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999 amended Rules, 2003: This restricts the manufacture, sale, distribution, and use of plastic carry bags and containers less than 8 x 12 inches (20 x 30 cms) in size and having minimum thickness of 20 micron. o Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous microorganisms; genetically engineered organisms or cells, 1989, Amended 2006, 2007. This deals with environmental and human health protection in relation to gene technology applications and microorganisms. o The Manufacture, Storage and import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989, Amended 2000. It deals with the industrial activities associated with hazardous chemicals and isolated storage facilities. o The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008, 2009. This deals with the management of hazardous wastes and those applicable for import and export. o Biomedical Waste Management and Handling Rules, 1998 amended 2003. This deals with hospitals and other health care institutions to abide legally for the proper handling of hospital waste.

Activity 1 4. Visit a lake or a water body. What do you see – fishes, crustaceans? Make an observation of the same. 5. Are there any laws to protect fishes from being hunted down? If so write them in your note book. 6. Do you observe water birds and animals around the lake? 7. Are there any laws to protect the birds from being hunted down? Record your observations.

3.4 Some laws in relation to National Environment

 The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995: This gives compensation for damages to persons, property and the environment that has come from activities related to hazardous substances.  The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997: This has been formed for addressing problems related to restrictions of areas for types of industries etc. They are performed subject to certain safeguards under the Environment protection act.  Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, amended in 1992: This act gives public liability insurance for providing relief to those persons who are affected while handling hazardous substances. It was amended in 1992, and the Central Government was given the authorization for establishing the Environmental Relief Fund, for relief payments and The Public Liability Insurance Rules, 1992, amended in 1993.

3.5 Five Year Plans on Environmental Issues

Discussion on various plans is given below:

(a) Sixth Plan (1980-1985): The recommendations of the Tiwari Committee led to the formation of the Department of Environment on 1st November, 1980. It was assigned the following functions: o To act as a nodal agency for environmental protection and eco- development. o To carry out environmental appraisal of development projects through other ministries/agencies as well as directly. o To have administrative responsibility for Pollution monitoring and regulation; conservation of critical ecosystems designated as Biosphere Reserves and the conservation of the marine ecosystem. o Major activities in water and air pollution control were undertaken. The activities were Environment Impact Assessment, natural living resource conservation, ecological studies by the Botanical Survey of India and Zoological Survey of India, environmental information, education, training and awareness programmes. o A ten year review in respect of appendices on flora for CITES prepared. o An integrated study of the Ganga basin was completed. The integrated River Basin Studies for the Brahmaputra, Indus and Narmada were proposed. o The Wildlife Institutes were set up in 1982-83 for scientific knowledge on wildlife research. (b) Seventh Plan (1985-1990): This includes the following: o A lot of progress occurred under the Ganga Action Plan, forestry and wildlife, wasteland development, and island development sectors. o Waste recycling and prevention of coastal pollution programmes were initiated. o Through the Environmental Appraisal Committee the Environment Impact Assessment of major river valleys, hydroelectric, mining, industrial and thermal power projects were done. o National Forest Policy was formulated in 1988 for ensuring environmental stability and maintenance of the ecological balance. o Implementation of the 10 point National Wildlife Plan was initiated. o Considerable amount of land area was brought under the afforestation programme and the National Development Board set up in 1985. (c) Eighth Plan (1992-1997): This includes the following: o Pollution abatement activities were undertaken. This comprised of the management and operation of national air and water quality network, controlling pollution at sources, river basin studies, hazardous waste management; development of criteria for eco-labelling of consumer products, remedial measures for vehicular pollution; training of personnel engaged in controlling pollution and organising nationwide awareness programme for prevention and control of pollution, promoting adoption of Clean Technologies in small scale industries. o Certain incentives were given for adopting efficiency enhancing and waste minimisation practices like enhancement of cess rates on water consumption, duty concessions on import of certain pollution control equipment, accelerated depreciation on pollution abatement equipment. o Studies pertaining to improved methodology and techniques of EIA were done. o Biodiversity Conservation was initiated in 1991-92. o Environmental research programmes, climate change research, Man and Biosphere Programme were undertaken. o For environmental education for children more than 5000 clubs were started. o The National River Conservation Plan was approved in 1995. o Several steps for afforestation and eco-development were also undertaken. (d) Ninth Plan (1997-2002) o Attempts were made to phase out lead in motor spirit and to improve the quality of high speed diesel. o Some specific programmes were started. They were: National River Conservation Programme started the National Lake Conservation Programme, Taj Trapezium, schemes to protect Himalayan ecosystem and biodiversity, programmes for sustainable development of islands. Further the Islands Development Authority (IDA) was constituted in 1998. o Management of biosphere reserves, biodiversity conservation, environmental education and training was strengthened. o Wetland development programmes were also formulated. (e) Tenth Plan (2002-2007) o Population and economic growth with environmental conservation was considered as a necessity. o Action plans began for reducing pollution levels. o Prioritization of hazardous waste management through collection, processing and disposal. o Emphasis is laid on environmental educational education amongst masses through the involvement of NGOs and Youth educational institutes. (f) Eleventh Plan (2007-2012) o Increase in tree cover and forests by five percentage points. o All major cities should have WHO standards of air quality by 2011-12. o All urban waste waters should be treated by 2011-12 to clean the rivers. o Energy efficiency should be increased by twenty percentage points by the year 2016-17.

3.5 National Policies related to Environment

There are number of policies framed by government of India on various environmental issues like

o National Forest Policy, 1988: Under this the objective is to maintain one third of the country‟s geographical area under forest and tree cover. In the hills and in mountainous regions, two-third of the area is to be maintained for the prevention of erosion and land degradation and to ensure the stability of the fragile ecosystem. It ensures environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance. o National conservation strategy and policy statement on Environment and Development Policy, 1992: This ensures that the demand for the environment does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present as well as future generations. o The other National Polices are given below: o National Policy on Abatement of Pollution, 1992 o National Slum Policy, 1999 o National Agricultural Policy, 2000 o National Population Policy, 2000 o National Health Policy, 2002 o National Water Policy, 2002 o Science and Technology Policy 3.6 International Environmental Laws and Agreements

International Environmental law deals with environmental issues worldwide such as protection of biodiversity or marine ecosystems and so on. This has led to many international agreements and declarations. The nature of these agreements is usually multilateral. The subsidiary agreements arising from the primary treaty is known as a protocol such as the Kyoto Protocol. Some important international environmental conferences include: the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972), United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992); and World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002).

3.6.1 Stockholm Conference This was the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in 1972 at Stockholm, Sweden. It was the UN's first major conference on international environmental issues. This conference was a historic event in the development of international environmental politics. The conference outcomes were: 1. Declaration concerning the environment and development; 2. An Action Plan with 109 recommendations, and 3. Resolutions relating to the financial and institutional arrangements. The conference gave 26 principles, which include: o Fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in a good quality environment. o Intergenerational equity, maintenance, restoration and improvement of renewable resources. o Appeal to the people to manage the environment properly. o Understanding the relationship between economic, social and environmental development. o States should cooperate in developing international environmental law. o States should adopt and implement suitable environmental standards. o The International Organizations should co-ordinate in such activities that facilitate better environmental management.

3.6.2 Rio conference This conference aimed to stop environmental degradation of the planet. This United Nations Conference on Environment and Development was held in 1992 at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. It aimed to understand how development could support socio-economic development and prevent the deterioration of the environment. It also stressed on the need for global partnership for solutions to environmental problems. The issues addressed in the Rio conference include the following:

 Systematic study of patterns of production of toxic substances.

 Alternative sources of energy.

 Use of public transportation systems to reduce vehicle emissions and pollution.

 The growing demand and limited supply of water.

It also adopted three important non-binding instruments in the forms of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; Agenda 21; Forest Principles.

3.6.2.1 Framework Convention on Climate Change

A major achievement of the Rio summit was the agreement on the Climate Change Convention which later led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

3.6.2.2 Convention on Biological Diversity

This was also an achievement of the Rio summit. It prevented the destruction of natural eco- regions and so-called uneconomic growth.

3.6.3 Johannesburg treaty

The Earth Summit or the World Summit on Sustainable Development took place in 2002 at Johannesburg, South Africa by the United Nations. This mainly discussed sustainable development. Some key features of the treaty include: Poverty eradication, (ii) consumption and production, (iii) the natural resource base, (iv) health, (v) small island developing states, (vi) Africa (vii) other regional initiatives, (viii) means of implementation, and (ix) institutional framework. The Plan of Implementation contains over 30 targets, the majority of which have been established in the Millennium Declaration.

3.6.4 CITES The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora - CITES was convened in 1973. It is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. It was drafted in 1963 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It entered into force in 1975. The main objective is to ensure that the international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild.

3.6.5 Vienna Convention This Convention deals with Ozone Layer protection. It is a multilateral environmental agreement. It was agreed at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and came into force in 1988.

3.6.5.1 Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was a protocol to the Vienna Convention. It is an international treaty for the protection of the ozone layer. It aimed to phase out the production of ozone depleting substances. It entered into force in 1989.

3.6.6 Stockholm Convention on POP This is an international environmental treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants signed in 2001 and effective from 2004. It aimed at eliminating the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

3.6.7 Basel convention

It was an international treaty that aimed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations. It also aimed to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. It does not address radioactive wastes. It also aimed reduce the amount and toxicity of wastes generated for environmentally sound management practices. The Convention entered into force in 1992.

3.6.8 Cartegena protocol on biosafety

This is an international agreement on biosafety. It is a supplement to the Convention on Biological Diversity effective since 2003. It aimed to protect biological diversity from the potential risks of biotechnology specifically in relation to the genetically modified organisms.

3.7 LET US SUM UP In this unit we have studied about environmental law, the various laws in India in relation to the national environment and the five year plans on environmental issues in our country. Finally we have also understood the various international environmental laws and Agreements that have taken place for environmental protection and quality.

3.8 Key words

Convention: It refers to an agreement between states, for example covering environmental issues. Treaty: It refers to a binding agreement between two or more countries on subjects such as climate, peace and so on. CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.

3.9 Self Assessment Questions Self Assessment Questions 1

3. Describe the laws in relation to water pollution after 1980‟s. 4. Explain the Environmental Protection Act, 1986. List the important rules.

Self Assessment Questions 2

1. Describe the environment programmes under the eighth five year plan. 2. List some laws in relation to the National Environment. 3. List some important international laws and agreements.

3.10 References and Suggested further readings Bell, S., Mcgillivray and Pederson, OW. 2013. Environmental Law, 8th edition, Oxford press, UK.

Rao, RS. 2014. Lectures on Environmental Law Paperback. Asia Law House.

Rosencranz, A. and Divan, S. 2002. Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials, and Statutes. 2nd edition, Oxford India paperbacks, 876 p. Viñuales, JE. and Dupuy, PM. 2018. International Environmental Law. 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, 578 p.

Key to Self Assessment Questions Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1

1. Your answer should include the following points:  Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, amended 1988  Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, amended 1992, 2003 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules 1978  Write details.

2. Your answer should include the following points:  It is enacted under Article 253 of the Indian constitution for environmental protection and to address major environmental hazards. The central government has the power for taking necessary measures for protecting the environment. It also gives standards for emissions and discharges; regulation of the location of industries; hazardous wastes management and for protection of human health.  Write the salient features of the Act.

Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2

1. Your answer should include the following points:  Pollution abatement activities were undertaken. This comprised of the management and operation of national air and water quality network, controlling pollution at sources, river basin studies, hazardous waste management; development of criteria for eco-labeling of consumer products, remedial measures for vehicular pollution; training of personnel engaged in controlling pollution and organizing nationwide awareness programme for prevention and control of pollution, promoting adoption of Clean Technologies in small scale industries.  Improving methodology and techniques of EIA.  Biodiversity Conservation initiated in 1991-92.  Environmental research programmes, climate change research, Man and Biosphere Programme were undertaken.  For environmental education for children more than 5000 clubs were started.  The National River Conservation Plan was approved in 1995.  Several steps for afforestation and eco-development were also undertaken.

2. Your answer should include the following points:  The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995  The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997  Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, amended in 1992  Write the salient features.

3. Your answer should include the following points:  Stockholm Conference  Rio conference  Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)  Convention on Biological Diversity  Johannesburg treaty  CITES  Vienna Convention  Montreal Protocol  Stockholm Convention on POP  Basel convention  Cartegena protocol on biosafety

Subject: Course: Environment Management

Course Code: CP-103 Author: Professor S.R. Gupta

Lesson No.: 5 Vetter:

Principles of Ecology: Concepts, Applications and Recycling

Structure 5.0 Objectives

5.1 Introduction

5.2 What is Ecology?

5.3 Concepts of Ecology

5.4 Applications of Ecology

5.5Ecological and Environmental Challenges for India

5.6 Recycling

5.7 Summary

5.8 Key words

5.9 Self-assessment questions

5.10 References/Suggested readings

5.0 Objectives After going through this lesson, you will be able to:

 Definition of Ecology, and the concept of levels of organization.  Basic concepts related to population and biological community  Concept of energy flow and nutrient cycling in an Ecosystem  Ecological and environmental challenges for India  Applications of ecology and the concept of recycling

5.1 Introduction

In nature, relationships between organisms and non-living components are clearly visible. Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. It seeks to understand the key connections between plants, and animals, and the abiotic environment. Ecology has developed over the last century from descriptive science to a multidisciplinary and holistic science. As a holistic science, ecology has its roots in biological, physical and social sciences. The multidisciplinary approaches in ecology are useful when addressing problems at ecosystem, landscape and global levels. The disciplines within ecology, such as oceanography, vegetation analysis, and freshwater ecology, provide information to better understand the functioning of natural systems. This information also can help to improve our environment, manage our natural resources, and protect human health. The emerging disciplines of study in ecology include biogeography, natural history, conservation biology, evolutionary ecology and global change ecology. Ecology is taking a prominent role in modern life so as to provide linkages between physical and social sciences. Humans are the dominant species on the earth today, and ecology is concerned with how humans interact with all other kind of organisms and the environment. The emergence of the discipline of sustainability science addresses the fundamental character of interactions between nature and society (Kates et al. 2001). Integration of humans and their socio- economic needs into ecosystem framework is essential for ecological sustainability. The social-ecological systems approach emphasizes that people, communities, economies, societies, and cultures are an integral part of the biosphere and shape it, from local to global scales (Steffen et al., 2004).

5.2 What is Ecology?

Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term Oekologie, was introduced by a German Zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866 which meant the study of the relationship of the animal to its organic as well as its inorganic environment. The word comes from the Greek word „oikos', meaning “household,” “home,” or “place to live.” and 'logos' meaning the study of. Thus, ecology deals with the organism and its environment. Odum (1971) cites one of the elaborate definitions for ecology which states, "The totality of patterns of relations between organisms and their environment". Ecology deals with numerous and varied components of nature, which can be categorized variously (climate, soil, litter lying over soil, plants, animals, production, decomposition, diversity, dominance, etc.) and the linkages existing between them (e.g., how diversity is related to production or litter lying over soil to production). In ecology we study the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions with the physical environment comprising the lithosphere, hydrosphere and the atmosphere as well as the influences of one organism on the other. Ecology has been appropriately defined as the study of the structure and function of nature (Odum 1971). Structure includes the distribution, and abundance of organisms, whereas functions include all aspects of population growth, species interactions, and flow of energy and nutrient cycling. The ecological concepts highlight that changing one component in an ecological system generally results in changes the other components.

5.3 Concepts of Ecology

The developments in the field of ecology have been gradual from natural history to population ecology, biogeography to ecosystem ecology and more recently global ecology with an emphasis on global climate change, biodiversity conservation, restoration ecology and ecological sustainability (Singh et al. 2015). Ecological concepts are general understandings about the levels of ecological organization, individual organisms, populations, communities and ecosystem functioning.

5.3.1The levels of Ecological organization The concept of levels of organization provides a framework for dealing with complex biological systems. In the ascending level of complexity, these levels include the genes, cells, organs, individual organism, population, biological community, ecosystem, landscape, biome and the biosphere. Each level of organization has abiotic and biotic components, forming a functional biological system characterized by the exchange of matter and energy. One level of organization integrates with the other levels. In ecology, there is focus on organisms, populations, community, ecosystem and the biosphere (Figure1).

Organism is an individual living entity. It forms a basic unit of study in ecology to understand the form, physiology and behavior, distribution and adaptations in relation to the environment.

Population is a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a given area.

Community is an assemblage of populations of different species that live in a particular area and potentially interact with each other.

Ecosystem refers to a community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment.

Biosphere refers to parts of Earth‟s air, water, and soil occupied by living organisms. Atmosphere is gaseous envelope surrounding earth, hydrosphere represents the earth‟s supply of water, and lithosphere refers to soil and rock of the earth‟s crust. Parts of Earth’s air, water, and Biosphere soil where life is found

A community interacting with Ecosystem their nonliving environment

Populations of different species Community

Population A group of individuals of the same species

Organism An individual living entity

Figure 1. Levels of organization in ecology ranging from organisms to biosphere

5.3.2 Ecology of individual organisms

The organism approach in ecology is used for studying the adaptations of organisms to their environment. The special characteristics of plants and animals that enable them to be successful under prevailing set of environmental conditions are called adaptations. These adaptations can be morphological, physiological, and behavioral. Organisms are adapted to their environments; species differ in their specific ecological requirements. The distribution and abundance of a species is determined by the physical habitat, dispersal patterns, and interactions with other organisms.

5.3.3 Ecology of Populations

Population ecology is the study of factors that affect population and population changes over time. Population ecology has its deep historic roots, and its rich development, in the study of population growth, regulation, and dynamics, or demography. Changes in population size reflect the sum of births, deaths, immigration, and emigration. A population has group characteristics like density, natality (birth rate), mortality (death rate) and age structure. Population density refers to number of individuals per unit of area or volume. Natality in population ecology is the term for used for birth rate; natality rate is used to calculate the dynamics of a population. Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. Age structure defines the relative proportions of individuals of each age: pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post- reproductive

Population ecology tries to apply models and theories for the study of populations. The population has two basic patterns of population growth designated as exponential growth (J-shaped) and sigmoid growth (S-shaped), Figure 2. Exponential growth can occur only in an unlimited environment with respect to space and food. Sigmoid population growth occurs in an environment that limits its growth at some point. Populations are limited by their resources in their capacity to grow; the maximum population abundance an environment can sustain is called the carrying capacity. Human population growth serves as an important model for population ecologists, and is one of the most important environmental issues of the twenty-first century.

Exponential growth Sigmoid growth

(a) (b)

Figure 2 (a) Exponential population growth form and (b) Sigmoid population growth curve for a population. (https://www.khanacademy.org/)

5.3.4 Ecology of Communities

A biological community consists of the different species within an area. Community ecology deals with the study of the interactions within and among these species. Community concepts are concerned with understanding the diversity and relative abundances of different kinds of organisms living together in an area. Community ecology is an expanding and rich subfield of ecology that deals with the factors that influence biodiversity, community structure, and the distribution and abundance of species. Some important community concepts relating to Ecological niche, species interaction, keystone species and succession are described as follows.

Habitat and Ecological Niche: Habitat is the physical place where an organism lives, e.g. a pine forest or a fresh water lake. The functional role of an organism in a community refers to Niche. Among the first to use the term niche was Grinnell (1917). Elton (1927) defined ecological niche as the place of species in the biological environment, its relationship to food and predators. Niche segregation refers to the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist .

Species interactions in a community: Competition, predation, parasitism, commensalism and mutualism are the five major types of interspecific interactions that structure communities (Table 1). These interactions can have regulating effects on population sizes and can impact ecological and evolutionary processes affecting diversity.

Table 1 : Types of species interactions in a community Mutualism An interaction that is beneficial to both species, e.g. plants and their pollinators, plants and animals that disperse their seeds. Amensalism The interaction in which one of the two species populations is inhibited and the other remains unaffected. Commensalism Beneficial to one species but neutral to another. Parasitism An interaction that benefits one species and is detrimental to another Predation An interaction beneficial to one species and detrimental to another by direct attack. In this case the prey is killed; predators are those that kill the prey.

Keystone species: The role of keystone species in communities is an important tenet, and one of the best-known ideas in community ecology. Keystone species are those whose presence or absence markedly affects other species in the community, disproportionately to its abundance. Robert T. Paine performed a predator removal study to determine the effect that the predator has on the abundance and diversity of species in the rock intertidal community in the North Pacific (Paine 1966). Since Paine‟s study, many other similar studies have been carried out to determine the effect of top predators on the species diversity of the community. Sea otters are a keystone species because of their ability to transform sea urchin-dominated communities into kelp-dominated communities by preying on sea urchins and thus reducing the intensity of herbivory. Sea otters in the North Pacific feed preferentially on sea urchins that feed on productive and diverse kelp beds. The otters indirectly but greatly benefit the kelps and a highly diverse group of species that depend on the kelps for food and refuge. Islands with sea otters had healthy kelp forests while islands without otters were comprised of sea urchins and no kelp forest. The keystone top predators such as panthers, lions, tigers and leopards in terrestrial ecosystems have strongly influenced the communities by reducing competition among prey species (Singh et al. 2015).

Succession : Communities are not static, they gradually change over time because the environment changes and species themselves tend to change their habitats. Succession is the change in species composition over time and results from both abiotic and biotic factors, and disturbance regimes. Succession is a natural part of the dynamics of the community. Understanding the process, rates and pattern of ecological succession is important for the management of ecosystems and for understanding dynamic changes in the landscapes.

5.3.5 Ecosystem Ecology

The ecosystem has been a key organizational concept in ecology. It is an important theoretical and applied concept for studying global change, and human environmental impacts. A.G. Tansley, a British ecologist, defined an ecosystem as a basic unit of nature, composed of the set of organisms and physical factors forming the environment (Tansley 1935). Ecosystem concept has proved to be of practical value to understand the complexity of natural systems and ecosystem properties. Species diversity at the levels of autotrophs, macroconsumers, and decomposers is an important structural characteristic of the ecosystems. Trophic structure refers to the food relationships between the biotic components of the ecosystem, i.e., producers, consumers, and decomposers. Ecosystem functioning refers to the biological, geochemical and physical processes that take place within an ecosystem. Ecosystems exhibit the exchange of matter and energy with their environment. The key functional aspects of ecosystems are energy flow, food chains and food webs, biogeochemical cycling, and ecosystem regulation and stability. . Energy flow, Food chains and Food webs: The sun is the ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems; primary production by autotrophs provides the energy for all ecosystems. The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional (Figure 3) and governed by the two basic laws of thermodynamics. A linear arrangement of trophic levels is called food-chain along which the energy flows. An ecosystem contains several food-chains; often these food chains are inter-linked forming a food web. Food webs represent interlocking food chains that connect all organisms in an ecosystem. Food webs provide useful way to describe the flow of energy through ecosystems. Food webs are useful in studies at the ecosystem level.

Biogeochemical cycling: Six nutrient elements, i.e., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, make up 95 percent of the biospheric mass on the Earth (Schlesinger 1997). The cycling of these elements through the Earth system in their biological, geological, and chemical forms constitutes the biogeochemical cycles ( Figure 4) The biogeochemical cycles are of two basic types, viz., gaseous and sedimentary types. In the gaseous cycles (such as nitrogen and carbon) the reservoir is in the atmosphere or hydrosphere (ocean). In sedimentary types (for example, phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is in the lithosphere. Human activities have greatly increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and nitrogen levels in the biosphere (Galloway et al. 2014).

Carbon Nitrogen Cycle Water Cycle

Heat in the Environment

Heat Heat Hea

Figure 3. Life on the earth depends on the one-way flow of energy indicated with dashed lines from the sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrient elements with solid lines around circles ( adapted from Miller Jr 2005).

Ecosystem Regulation and Stability: The ecosystem is an open system as well as a cybernetic system. The ecosystem is an open system because of the requirement of an outside input in the form of solar radiation and an output to the environment (e.g., heat of respiration) for continued operation (Figure 5). Cybernetic system responds to inputs and has outputs, and a specialized kind of system response is called feedback (Figure 5). This feedback is of two types: positive feedback and negative feedback. In the positive feedback, increased output results in increased input and therefore in further increased output and so on. Reproduction is an example of positive feedback: births increase population size, which in turn increases the rate of reproduction, which leads to yet more births. Negative feedback is one of the principal mechanisms of homeostasis- the maintenance of dynamic equilibrium by internal regulation. Predator–prey systems are examples of negative feedback.

Input Output

SYSTEM

Input Output

SYSTEM

Negative Feedback Loop

Figure 4. An ecosystem is: (a) an open system receiving input of energy and having the output ;(a cybernetic system showing negative feedback control. (based on Odum 1983).

5.4 Applications of Ecology

The ever increasing human population and human activities such as food production, industrial development, and international commerce, excessive use of water resources, energy production, and urbanization are the main cause of environmental degradation. Currently, humans are using about 40% of the Earth‟s terrestrial primary production every year (Foley et al. 2007), and over harvesting freshwater resources largely for irrigation in agriculture (Steffen et al. 2015). There are increasingly environmental health risks due to poverty, unsafe drinking water, sanitation in rural and urban areas, environmental pollution, unsafe solid waste management, and intensive agriculture. Ecology has become an important science due to societal concerns about the increasing human population and environmental degradation from local to regional and global scale. The field of applied ecology addresses issues in conservation biology, the use of natural resources, environmental pollution, the effects of global climate change, and the management of natural resources. There are many practical applications of ecology to managing environmental pollution, control of biological invasions and improving the environment, conservation biology, natural resource management including agriculture, forestry and wildlife, restoration of degraded ecosystems, and sustainable development ( Figure5) .

Figure 5. Applications of Ecology in different fields .

5.4.1 Managing Environmental Pollution

Heavy use of coal, high-sulphur fuels and nitrogen fertilizers and growth in vehicular traffic have increased the problem of air pollution. The contamination of air, water and soil is accelerating the accumulation of toxic metals in the human food chain. Pollution pauses a major threat to planetary health, destroys ecosystems, and is closely linked to global climate change. Pollution is the largest environmental cause of disease and premature death in the world today. Diseases caused by pollution were responsible for an estimated nine million premature deaths in 2015, 16% of all deaths worldwide (Landrigan et al. 2016). Pollution mitigation, prevention and control can yield large net gains both for human health and the economy. Pollution control can also help in fulfilling many of the sustainable development goals, the 17 goals established by the United Nations to guide global development in the 21st century (Landrigan et al. 2016).

5.4.2 Control of Biological Invasions

The Invasive alien species (IAS) are a significant and growing problem worldwide. Invasive species are those that occur outside their natural range, spread rapidly and cause harm to other species, communities, or entire ecosystems and to human well being. The introductions of non-native species can have a major impact on the structure and functioning of terrestrial, freshwater and marine systems as well as islands and urban areas. Lantana (Lantana camara) is an example of one of the most troublesome weeds in the world; it has invaded most of the tropical and subtropical regions of India (Babu et al. 2009). The restoration program for Lantana camara and other invasive species can be devised on the basis of understanding of the biology of the invader, the local soil and micro climatic conditions, the status of the ecosystem, and understanding the larger landscape matrix.

5.4.3 Biodiversity Conservation

Conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitats. Conservation biology is the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. Biodiversity at all levels,i.e., gene pool, species and ecosystems is important and needs to be conserved for sustainable development. Conservation biology has a focus on the protection and management of biodiversity based on principles of both basic and applied ecology.

Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) has recognized four broad categories of ecosystem services, i.e., provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services (MA, 2005). The provisioning services describe the processes that yield foods, fibers, fuels, freshwater, biochemicals (medicinal plants, pharmaceuticals), and genetic resources. The cultural services comprise a set of largely non-material benefits of the ecosystems including recreation and tourism. The regulating services are the benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes. The supporting services are those that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. The MEA‟s vision of ecosystem-service science is holistic, integrative, and cross- disciplinary. The ecosystem services concept can be used for natural resource management and biodiversity conservation. . For example, recent studies demonstrate the links between crop pollination and wild bee pollinators and thereby highlight the economic value of natural habitats.

5.4.4 Natural Resource management

Natural resource management focuses on the need of sustainable management of the Earth's depleting natural resources such as freshwater, energy, and biological resources including agriculture, forests and wildlife, in relation to the growth of the human population. Agricultural Management encompasses many diverse interests and emerging problems, including the need to address growing pest and weed control problems, reduce pressure on supporting natural resources, ameliorate environmental impacts of agricultural operations and promote sustainable agricultural production. Areas of application range from the physiological, population, and community ecology of organisms present in agricultural systems, and the impact of agricultural systems from regional to global scale. Conservation agriculture is system of agronomic practices through the application of minimal soil disturbance that includes no- tillage, zero-tillage, direct seeding, reduced tillage, ridge tillage and cover crops, so as to improve livelihoods of farmers.

Forest management: Forest ecology is the study of all aspects of the ecology of forested areas, including rainforest, deciduous and evergreen, temperate and boreal forest. It includes the community ecology of the trees and other plant and non-plant species, as well as ecosystem processes and conservation. The world‟s forests are one of our greatest natural assets, providing numerous ecological, social and economic services. It is therefore vital that we adopt suitable management practices to help ensure their ecological integrity and long-term sustainability in a changing world.

Wildlife management: Wildlife is a renewable resource that generates many environmental services. It plays a key role in regulating natural processes at all levels of the food chain and delivers “provisioning” services (such as those that produce food and income) to a substantial proportion of the world‟s people. Wildlife typically provides cultural services, too, forming the basis of many traditions. The aim of sustainable wildlife management is to maintain wildlife numbers at economically, socially and environmentally desirable levels.

Ecological carrying capacity is the maximum population size that can be sustained by a habitat indefinitely, given the resources available in the environment (which may fluctuate seasonally or over periods of several years due to cyclical changes in environmental conditions). Human-wildlife conflict may occur when humans and wildlife coexist and have overlapping habitats; they involve situations in which human activities put pressure on wildlife populations

5.4.5 Restoring Degraded Ecosystems

Restoration ecology is the application of ecological theory to restoration of highly disturbed habitats, ecosystems and landscapes. The field of applied ecology assumes significance as greater attention is paid to the recovery of disturbed landscapes. Ecological Restoration has a focus on restoring terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems based on ecological principles so as to restore the ecological processes and assist the ecosystems to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The restoration studies have shown that restoration actions in a wide range of ecosystem types are effective in improving ecosystem services, particularly in the tropical regions (Rey Benayas et al., 2009).

5.4.6 Ecological Sustainability

As defined in the Brundtland Commission Report (WCED 1987), “sustainable development is meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Sustainability science is a field of research which deals with the interactions between natural and social systems, and with how those interactions affect the challenges of sustainability (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA(PNAS), http://www. pnas.org/site/misc/sustainability.shtml). Sustainability science has emerged in the 21st century as a new academic discipline, and the core of this discipline is the concept of sustainability which means meeting the needs of present and future generations while reducing poverty and conserving the planet's life support systems (Kates et al. 2001). Thus, Sustainability science seeks real world solutions and practical applications of ecological concepts in decision making.

5.4.7 Climate Change Ecology Human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 40% over pre- industrial levels. The CO2 levels in the atmosphere currently (407 ppm in September 2017) are higher than at any time, at least the last 800,000 years (170 to 300 ppm), indicating a pronounced human impact (IPCC 2014). Climate-change ecology is the study of the effects of anthropogenic climate change on different levels of biological organization from genes to ecosystems. It includes the effects of altered temperature and precipitation on the distribution, abundance, behaviour and physiology of populations and communities. Climate change has been caused by increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are primarily responsible for the changing climate. Burning fossil fuels and clearing natural habitats for human use produce the majority of these emissions. The world is currently experiencing considerable losses of natural resources, reductions in biodiversity, increased frequency of extreme events, and collapse in natural systems due to climate change (IPCC 2014). Climate change continues to cause changes across ecosystems from terrestrial and marine environments, rising sea levels, increases in global mean surface temperatures, increases in extreme weather events, and changes in the abundance, distribution, and composition of species.

5.5 Ecological and Environmental Challenges for India

India has about 17.85% of the world‟s population on just 2.4% of the worlds land area. This creates enormous pressure on natural resources and human development as reflected by poverty and inequality, unsafe drinking water and health risks due to environmental pollution. The main environmental issues in India are: poverty and socio-economic inequality, under nourishment and disease, deforestation and land degradation, loss of Biodiversity, Environmental pollution , and the over exploitation of natural resources. Area covered by land degradation is 45% of total land area due to water erosion, wind erosion, soil acidity, alkalinity and salinity.

The Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is a method of quantifying and numerically marking the environmental performance of a state's policies. The Environmental Performance Index 2018 for 180 countries has been released by Universities Yale and Columbia in association with the World Economic Forum (https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/2018-epi-report/executive-summary). This report shows that India is at 177 ranks in the overall category of EPI, because of poor performance in the environmental health policy and deaths due to air pollution.

Singh (2011) has given a detailed account of progress of ecology in India dealing with early history, the contributions of different schools of ecology, significant contributions of different workers in the field, and future perspectives of ecological research. For ecological and environmental challenges facing India, there is a need for a total system perspective and integrative approach, long-term data and experiments on ecosystem properties, understanding of sustainability parameters, ecology education, and integration of social and ecological sciences (Singh 2011, Singh and Bagchi 2013).

5.6 Recycling

Recycling of water and nutrients is a key process in ecosystems and an important concern for human well-being. According to Odum and Barrette (2005), there are five major recycling pathways in an ecosystem: (i) though the process of microbial decomposition, (ii) by animal excretion, (iii) by direct recycling of nutrients from plant to plant through symbiosis, (iv) by physical means through the action of sunlight, and (v) by the use of fuel energy such as industrial fixation of nitrogen. All organisms are interconnected by global recycling systems made up of biogeochemical cycles. The recycling concepts have been explained by taking the example of organic matter decomposition, carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles.

Decomposition is the process of the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers to inorganic materials like carbon dioxide, water and various mineral nutrients. The surface layer of soil is the main site for decomposition processes in the ecosystem. Decomposition is a complex and multi step process of breaking down of complex organic matter by soil organisms to release free the nutrients for renewed uptake by the plants. During the process of litter decomposition, a large proportion of carbon is lost as respiration of decomposer organisms and nutrients are recycled.

Carbon is the basic building block of the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, DNA, and other organic compounds necessary for life. It is circulated through the biosphere by the carbon cycle. This cycle is based on carbon dioxide gas, which constitutes about 0.040% of the volume of the atmosphere and also remains dissolved in water. The basic movement of CO2 is from the atmospheric reservoir to plants and animals and from them to decomposers and then back to atmosphere. The carbon fixed by the plants is used for their own growth and then enters the food chains as animals eat the plants. Respiratory activity of plants and animals, and, that of the decomposers organisms results in the return of biologically fixed carbon as CO2 to the atmosphere. Oceans play important roles in the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle has its significance to understand global climate change.

Different types of bacteria help recycle nitrogen through the earth‟s air, water, soil, and living organisms. Nitrogen is the atmosphere‟s most abundant element, constituting about 78% of the volume of the air. The nitrogen cycle describes the routes that nitrogen takes through the ecosystem. The nitrogen cycle relies on bacteria that make nitrogen useful to organisms and bacteria that can return it to the atmosphere. The atmosphere (nitrogen gas) goes through the fixation of lightning and the fixation by micro-organisms. Nitrogen fixed by Azotobacter and Clostridium, and Rhizobium . More than 90 percent of all nitrogen fixation is carried out by these organisms, which thus play an important role in the nitrogen cycle. Symbiotic fixation by leguminous and other naturally occurring plants may be significant in some ecosystems. Nitrogen fixation by soil algae and bacteria probably provides a major input of nitrogen in most desert ecosystems. Plants and animals return nitrogen-rich organic compounds to the environment as wastes, cast-off particles, and dead organic matter. Nitrogen return occurs through litter and dead plants. In the soil, the organic matter is converted by soil microorganisms to ammonium then to nitrate through the process of ammonification and nitrification. The denitrifying bacteria (which are anaerobic), living in soil and water, release the fixed nitrogen as gaseous form of nitrogen back into atmosphere through the process called denitrification. The use of nitrogen fertilizers has altered the nitrogen cycle. Human production of nitrogen as fertilizer nitrogen exceeds total nitrogen fixation from Natural Systems.

5.7 Summary

i. Ecology is the study of interactions between living organisms including humans, and their environment. ii. Ecological concepts are general understandings about the levels of ecological organization, individual organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystem structure and functioning. iii. Levels of organization in ecology include the organisms, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. The organism approach in ecology deals with the adaptations of organisms to their environment. A population has group characteristics like density, natality (birth rate), mortality (death rate) and age structure. iv. Community ecology deals with the concepts of habitat and ecological niche, species interactions, and keystone species. The key functional aspects of ecosystem are energy flow, food chains and food webs, biogeochemical cycling, and ecosystem regulation and stability. v. Biosphere refers to parts of Earth‟s air, water, and soil where life exists. vi. There are many practical applications of ecology principles in managing environmental pollution, control of biological invasions, conservation biology, natural resource management including agriculture, forestry and wildlife, restoration of degraded ecosystems, and sustainable development. vii. The main environmental issues in India are: population, under nourishment and disease, deforestation and land degradation, loss of biodiversity, environmental pollution, and the degradation of natural resources. viii. The recycling concepts can be explained on the basis of organic matter decomposition, recycling of nutrients.

5.8 Key words

Ecology, Abiotic and biotic components, levels of organization, ecosystem Structure, Ecosystem functions, Energy flow, Food chains and Foodwebs , Biogeochemical cycles, Ecosystem regulation and stability, biodiversity, natural resource management, pollution, conservation biology, sustainable development, recycling..

2.9 Self-assessment questions

1. Define of Ecology and explain the concept of levels of organization. 2. Enumerate the group characteristics of the population. Explain two basic growth form of population. 3. Explain the concept of habitat and ecological niche. 4. What are major species interactions in a community? 5. Why keystone species are important in regulating a community. 6. Define energy flow, food chains and Foodwebs. 7. What are biogeochemical cycles? 8. Explain the concept of ecosystem regulation and stability. 9. Write an essay on practical applications of ecology. 10. How ecological principles apply to natural resource management? 11. Explain the concept of recycling.

5.10 References/Suggested Readings

Babu, S., Love, A. and Babu, C.R., (2009). Ecological restoration of Lantana- invaded landscapes in Corbett Tiger Reserve, India. Restoration Ecology 27, 467–477.

Foley JA, Monfreda C, Ramankutty N, Zaks D. (2007). Our share of the planetary pie. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 12585-6.

Galloway, J. N., W. H. Schlesinger, C. M. Clark, et al. (2014) Ch. 15: Biogeochemical Cycles. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 350-368. doi:10.7930/J0X63JT0.

Grinnell , J. (1917). The Niche-Relationships of the California Thrasher. The Auk 34 : 427-433

Kates, R., Clark, W., Corell, R., Hall, J., et al. (2001). Sustainability science. Science 292: 641-642.

Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJR, et al. (2017) The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. Lancet 2017; published online Oct 19 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0.

MA (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis Report. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. World Resources Institute. Island Press, Washington, DC. www.wri.org Miller, Jr.G. T. (2005). Essentials of Ecology. 3rd edition.. : Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. Australia ; Pacific Grove, California.

Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. Third Edition. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia.

Odum, E.P. (1983). Basic Ecology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia.

Odum, E.P. and Barrett, G.W.(2005). Fundamentals of Ecology. Fifth Edition. Cengage Learning, New Delhi.

Paine, R.T. (1966). Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist 100: 65-75.

Rey Benayas, J. M., Newton, A. C., Diaz, A. and Bullock, J. M. (1979). Enhancement of biodiversity and ecosystem services by ecological restoration: a meta-analysis . Science 325 : 1121-1124.

Schlesinger W.H.(1997). Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. Gulf Professional Publishing. 588 pages

Singh JS, Singh SP, Gupta SR (2015). Ecology, Environmental Science and Conservation. S. Chand, New Delhi, India.

Singh, J.S. (2011). Ecology in India: Retrospect and Prospects. Third Prof. R. Misra Birth Centenary Lecture. Bulletin of the National Institute of Ecology 22: 1-13.

Singh, N.J. and Bagchi, S. (2013). Applied ecology in India: scope of science and policy to meet contemporary environmental and socio-ecological challenges. Journal of Applied Ecology 50: 4–14.

Steffen, W., Broadgate, W., Deutsch, L., Gaffney, O. and Ludwig, C (2015). The trajectory of the Anthropocene: the great acceleration. Anthropocene Review 2, 81–98. Steffen W, Sanderson A, Tyson PD et al. (2004). Global change and the Earth system: a Planet under Pressure. Springer-Verlag, New York, USA.

Tansley AG(1935). The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology 16: 284-307.

WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) 1987. Our Common Future. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Subject: Environment Management

Course Code: CP-103 Author: Dr. Meenakshi Suhag

Lesson No.: 6 Vetter: Dr. Sanjay Tiwari

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM: EMS STANDARDS AND AUDITING

Structure

6.0 Objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Environmental Management System (EMS)

6.3 Environmental Management System Standards

6.4 ISO 14001

6.5 Benefits of ISO 14001 found in the literature

6.6 Implementation of ISO 14001

6.7 Environmental Auditing

6.8 Self-Assessment Questions

6.9 References/Suggested Readings

6.0 Objectives

After studying this lesson, you will be able to understand:

 The concept of Environment Management System (EMS)  Significance of EMS  Different EMS standards  Role of ISO 14001 for the Implementation of EMS  The concept of environmental auditing

6.1 Introduction

Environment provides resources as well as essential services to supports life of human beings. Now a days, resource conservation and management have become significant for the commercial establishment of an enterprise or company and decision-making procedures both in organisations in industrial and service sectors. Not all resources are of renewable nature as well as after their consumption by different industries for making good and other desired products; they are also generating lots of waste and pollutants in air, water and land. Therefore, degradation of the environment has been threatening the sustainability of human beings and its green planet earth. In order to achieve sustainable development goal, enterprises, companies and industries must adopt resource conservation and environmental protection as an integral part of overall management and business strategy. The capability of corporations to manage their environmental performance is emerging as a strategic issue for many companies worldwide. There is an urgent requirement of more effective standards or tools that a company must follow to assess their management practices and level of their effectiveness in meeting their environmental responsibilities.

In other word, the structure of an organization must be changed for better relationship with nature and its resources at each level. The growing public concern about environmental quality has led to the development and implementation of various voluntary schemes and standards for environmental management and pollution control.

Implementation of an Environmental Management System by an organization or enterprise is a systemic approach to minimize environmental risk. With the rapid development of industrial economy in recent decades, global warming caused by carbon emission has raised wider concern around the world. With the keen awareness of corporate social responsibility, an increasing number of firms are actively pursuing various certifications on environmental management and ISO 14001 is the most popular one.

6.2 Environmental Management System (EMS)

EMS is a continuous improvement practice program may have following defined sequence steps drawn from established project management practices applied in business management.

Why to have EMS is important for any firm?

 Business typically argues that the traditional government regulations are costly;  In addition to it, the traditional regulations have been criticized for establishing a threshold of acceptable pollution and accordingly facilities strive to meet these thresholds but fail to reduce their emissions any further.

An EMS is regarded as an important management tool that aids a business. In general, the the process of setting up an EMS can be outlined as follows:

1. Analyzing the environmental consequences of the operations; 2. Designing a set of policies and objectives for environmental performance; 3. Establishing an action plan to achieve the objectives; 4. Monitoring performances against these objectives; 5. Reporting the results appropriately; 6. Reviewing the system and strive for continuous improvement.

An EMS can be implemented in any organization/company or industry-big or small, private or government in different ways depending upon the needs and objectives. Hence, its implementation is flexible which make it useful at all relevant levels in achieving environmental goals. ISO 14001 specifies the standard for establishment and maintenance of an EMS in any organization. The Ford Motor Company was one of the first MNCs to embrace ISO 14001 series guidelines for all of its manufacturing facilities. General Motors, Daimler-Chrysler, Toyota and other automobile manufactures around the World adopt EMS and certify them through International standards.

An Environmental Management System of an organization helps to:

 Develop and maintain a well-organized management structure that ensures compliance with regulations and environmental legislations.  Provide a framework through which harmful impacts of organizational activities on environment can be minimized.  Improve established project management practices.  Enhance employee awareness regarding environmental issues and responsibility.  Enhance consumers support, sound image in public and market.  Reduce the cost associated with environmental management practices due to increased efficiency.

6.3 Environmental Management System Standards

It was after the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 that environmental management matters too for achieving sustainable development. Later on, the EMS was introduced to help the organizations coping with their environmental issues in a more standardized and effective manner. The concept of external certification expanded with the introduction of the British standard with the introduction of the British Standard 7750 in the early 1990s, followed by the development of EMAS in 1993, and the promulgation of the ISO 14000 series in 1996 (Morrow and Rondinelli, 2002).

The two most frequently used guidelines for EMS design and certification are the International Standards ISO 14001 and the European Standard, EMAS.

6.4 ISO 14001

The constituent standards of management systems are organized by the international Organization for Standardization (ISO), an international organization based in Geneva. In 1996, at the request of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) four years earlier, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) introduced ISO 14001, the first of the 1SO 14000 family of environmental management systems (EMS) standards (Ferron-Vilchez, 2016). ISO 14001 provides guidelines by which corporations or other organizations design and implement an EMS. It presents the elements of an EMS that organizations are required to conform with, if they seek third party certification. The Plan-do-check-Act is the basic cycle behind all the ISO standards.

Plan

Act Do

Check

Figure Cycle representing elements of EMS

1. Plan: EMS implementation through ISO14001 guidelines. 2. Do: Life cycle assessment and management of environmental aspects. 3. Check: auditing and evaluation of environment performance. 4. Act: continuous improvement by maintain EMS.

Some of the important features of ISO 14001 are as follows:

 Among all the ISO 14000 series, the ISO 14001 is the only one auditable, granting environmental quality certification to organizations (Disterheft et al., 2012).  Since the official launch of ISO 14001 in 1996, more than 320,000 organizations worldwide have certified their EMSs through this standard (ISO, 2014)  It is in accordance with environmental laws of the country that adopt it, because this type of Environmental Management System (EMS) was written to be applicable to all types and sizes of organizations.  In addition, the standard must be adjusted to the different geographical, cultural and social conditions (Cary and Roberts, 2013).  Its first version was released in 1996, published and based on the British Standards (BS) 7750. Seeking to improve the standard, updates were made in 2004 and 2015.  It is the most widely accepted as a standard tool for managing environmental welfare of the organization.  As per qualitative analysis, China, Italy, Japan, the UK and Spain are the main countries in numbers of ISO 14001 certificates issued.

The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS):

It is similar to ISO 14001 in its components and requirements but the only difference is that EMAS applicable only at the site level, while ISO can be applicable at the facility, company and organization levels.

The Goals of ISO 14001 were twofold (Bansal and Hunter, 2003):

1. At the corporate level, ISO 14001 was designed to help businesses reduce their environmental impact while improving management control.

2. At a societal level, ISO 14001 was intended to facilitate sustainable development and foster international trade by providing an internationally legitimized system of standardization.

The ISO 14001 is an international based environmental management system (EMS) of which the subscribed firms follow the standard of five main components which include the environmental policy, planning, implementation and operation, checking and corrective action, review and improvement (Hazudin et al., 2015). An EMS is a formal set of procedures that defines how a facility will manage its impacts to the natural environment. They are based on a continuous-improvement model that expects firms to periodically revisit and update their environmental improvement goals to ensure that negative environmental impacts are minimized (Darnall and Edwards, 2006). The certification has seemed a feasible option particularly among firms operating in environmentally sensitive industries such as paper and pulp industry as well as chemical based industry to help the firms minimize its environmental risk exposures.

Issued in September 1996, ISO 14001consists of five essential requirements (Boiral and Sala, 1998): 1. Commitment and Policy

For the implementation of a successful EMS system it is essential for an organization to have a written environmental policy appropriate to the nature, scale and environmental impacts of its activities, products and services. An environmental policy is usually published as a written statement and a corporate commitment for improving environmental performance. It is the prime duty of the top management that the environmental policy of the company must conform to all applicable national laws, regulations and other requirements related to its environmental aspects. The policy documented must include pollution prevention as one of its policies and principles of actions to reduce such impacts. It should be a public document properly analyzed and revised depending upon the objectives and targets of the organization. Last but not the least it must have a commitment towards continuously improving environment performance.

2. Planning

For appropriate planning first different environmental aspects should be identified and recognized by well-specified processes. The identification of the environmental impacts arising from the environmental aspects will form the foundation of the targets and objectives for the corporate environmental plan. Moreover, the company must identify and evaluate all legal (national & international) and other requirements related to the environmental aspects of an organization in any ways. The plan of action of the organization describes all the measures taken over by an organization in order to achieve all the targets and objectives within the framework of applicable legislation. The action plan required to express the environmental policies of the organization into objectives and targets and identifies the activities to achieve them, defines the responsibilities and commits the necessary human and financial resources for implementation.

3. Implementation and operation

Successful implementation of EMS would need commitment of all the employees. Environment awareness of the staff in general and training for those involved in EMS brings benefits to the organization. Proper communication channels are essential to inspire the employees and to influence external interested parties. All the documents related to EMS such as environmental policy, objectives, targets, important elements and other required records shall be controlled by making proper procedure. It is the responsibility of each organization to make emergency preparedness operations and periodically testing them in order to avoid accidents or other hazards.

4. Checking and corrective action

According to this every organization shall establish and implement a set of procedures to monitor or check their environmental impacts on regular basis. The equipment should be calibrated and maintained time to time for better environmental performance. The corrective and preventive actions must be taken up and recorded as per the standards. In addition to this the organizations are required to conduct audits to at planned intervals verify the EMS implementation. Senior management shall implements such programmes by selecting auditors, giving employees proper training and providing appropriate time for conducting audits. The outcomes of audits must be documented and properly implemented.

5. Management review and continual improvement

Top management must periodically review the EMS to evaluate its sustainability and effectiveness. The review should be conducted by means of preplanned meetings. After reviewing appropriate changes in the policy, targets and corrective actions shall be done by the management with the obligation of continuous improvement in organizational environmental performance. Continual Environmental Policy improvement

Management Review Planning

Implementation and Checking operation

Figure: ISO 14001 EMS Model

6.5 Benefits of ISO 14001 found in the literature:

1. Portraying a good environmental image of the company ; 2. Improving the need for the company to comply with laws and regulations; 3. Improving environmental associations of the company and 4. Inducing the company‟s internal problems with encouraged supports from their employees. 5. ISO certification leads to increased competitive advantage and increased financial performance in addition to improved reputation and reduced business cost (Hwee Nga, 2009). 6. Studies suggested that adoption of ISO14001-certified EMS leads to a significant improvement in environment quality and decrease in BOD discharge (Barla, 2007), solid waste generation (Arimura et al., 2008) and reduces pollutant emissions (Sam et al., 2009).

6.6 Implementation of ISO 14001 It has become essential that resource conservation and environmental protection must now become a part of overall management as Environmental Management System to be adopted as a strategy by the enterprise for meeting the expectations of the society as well as sustainable development. Pollution prevention, continuous improvement and voluntary participation are the three principles that guide the standard as well as contribute to its flexibility. ISO 14001 is not a performance standard but it is a process based standard. Is however not a one-time job and easy. Study conducted by Babakri et al. (2003) found that normally most firms take 8 to 19 month to be officially certified and they face the greatest problem in funding the cost of certification as documentation, training and hiring activities can be very costly and time consuming. Furthermore, it will be more difficult for those companies with limited resources to carry out the installation process and usage.

6.7 Environmental Auditing

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines an environmental audit as “a systematic, periodic, documented and objective review by regulated entities of facility operations and practices related to meeting environmental requirements.

Objectives of Environmental Audit

Environmental audit is a tool used to evaluate the effectiveness of environmental efforts performed by an organization and focusing on the following objectives:

1. To assess the establishment and implementation of environmental management system in an organization. 2. To review management system, environmental policies and other provisions. 3. To authenticate standards, legal and others environmental regulations. 4. To identify the new approaches/methods and areas for enhancing environment problems. 5. To verify the information, data and records 6. To identify weaknesses and problems associated with operations at the same time point out more effective methods to ensure better performance. 7. To check the emergency strategy, safety systems and actions in an effective manner. 8. Confirm the design specification, resource utilization, treatment and disposable facilities. Preparing for the audit

The types of audit may vary according to the need and type of the concern organization. The elementary areas under consideration of audit programmes air and water quality; Energy, water and waste management; EMS performance etc. The environmental audit can be conducted by the individuals of the organization called internal audits and if by the external party or consultants called external audits. ISO 14010, ISO 14011 and ISO 14012 are the three important Environmental standards where ISO 14010 defines the common principles to all audits; ISO 14011 explains the process for the audit; ISO 14012 explains the qualification criteria for an auditor.

The environmental manager should maintain an EMS audit schedule showing: 1. The frequency and timing of audits; 2. Specific areas and activities to be audited; 3. Identity and qualification of auditor (s); 4. Auditing and reporting criteria. Hence, Environmental audits are the regular evaluation tool that helps an organization to examine and comparing operating methods and processes against standard procedures ensuring compliance with the laws and standards. Therefore, enhance the awareness regarding environmental problems as well as planning for efficient responses. It makes the management more efficient regarding use of resources and more financial savings.

6.8 Summary

Multinational companies, organizations and corporations- large or small, adopt Environmental Management Systems and certifying them by international standards such as ISO 14001. It provides framework for managing their environmental impacts and promote continuous improvement. The process of successful implementation of the EMS depends on commitment from all levels especially from senior management. An EMS involves multiple components such as developing an environmental policy, monitoring programs, training programs and environmental audit protocols. Environmental audits are regular, systematic and policy relevant for improving compliance with environment regulations. Moreover they promote stronger overall environmental management and reflect management decisions.

6.9 Keywords 1. EMS: EMS is a continuous improvement practice program may have following defined sequence steps drawn from established project management practices applied in business management.

2. ISO: International Standard Organization: The constituent standards of management systems are organized by the international Organization for Standardization (ISO), an international organization based in Geneva.

3. ISI 14001: It is an international based environmental management system (EMS) of which the subscribed firms follow the standard of five main components which include the environmental policy, planning, implementation and operation, checking and corrective action, review and improvement.

4. Environmental Auditing: A systematic, periodic, documented and objective review by regulated entities of facility operations and practices related to meeting environmental requirements.

6.10 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Explain how an industry benefits from an Environmental Management System?

2. State the responsibilities of top management for an efficient EMS in their organization.

3. What is ISO 14001? Describe its salient features and its importance in protecting environment.

4. Discuss the core elements required for the implementation of EMS in an organization?

5. How ISO standards are different from other standards.

6. Explain different types of Environmental Management System standards.

7. What is the significance of environmental audits?

8. What do you mean by “Environmental Auditing”? Explain the basic objectives of environmental auditing.

9. Discuss the general characteristics of environmental audits.

6. 11 References/suggested readings 1. Arimura, T., Hibiki, A., Katayama, H. (2008). Is a voluntary approach an effective environmental policy instrument? A case for environmental management systems. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 55, 281–295. 2. Bansal, P and Hunter, T. (2003). Strategic Explanations for the Early Adoption of ISO 14001. Journal of Business Ethics, 46: 289-299. 3. Barla, P. (2007). ISO14001certification and environmental performance in Quebec‟s pulp and paper industry. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 53, 291–306. 4. Boiral, O. and Sala, J.M. (1998), “Environmental management: should industry adopt ISO14001?”,Business Horizons, January/February, pp. 57-64. 5. Cary, J.W., Roberts, A.M. (2013). The limitations of environmental management systems in Australian agriculture. J. Env. Manag. 92, 878-885. 6. Cary, J.W., Roberts, A.M. (2013). The limitations of environmental management systems in Australian agriculture. J. Env. Manag. 92, 878-885. 7. Darnall, N., Edwards Jr., D. (2006). Predicting the cost of environmental management system adoption: The role of capabilities, resources, and ownership structure. Strategic Manag. J. 27, 301-320. 8. Disterheft, A., Caeiro, S.S.F.S., Ramos, M.R., Azeiteiro, U.M.M., 2012. Environmental Management Systems (EMS) implementation processes and practices in European higher education institutions - top-down versus participatory approaches. J. Clean. Prod. 31, 80-90. 9. Ferron-Vilchez, V. (). Does symbolism benefit environmental business performance in the adoption of ISI 14001?. Journal of Environmental Management. 183; 882-894. 10. Hazudin, S.F., Mohamad, S.A., Azer, I., Daud, R., Paino, H. (2015). ISO 14001 and Financial Performance: is the Accreditation Financially worth It for Malaysian Firms. Procedia Economics and Finance 31; 56-61. 11. Hwee Nga, J.K. (2009). The influence of ISO 14000 on firm performance. Soc. Resp. J. 5, 408-422. 12. International Organization for Standardization. (2014). The ISO survey of management systems standards. Geneva: ISO. 13. Morrow, D and Rondinelli, D. (2002). Adopting Corporate Environmental Management Systems: Motivations and Results of ISO 14001 and EMAS Certification. European Management Journal, 20(2), 159-171. 14. Sam, A., Khanna, M., Innes, R. (2009). Voluntary pollution reduction programs, environmental management, and environmental performance: an empirical study. Land Econ. 85(4), 692–711. 15. Tinsley, S and Pillai, I. Environmental management System, Understanding Organizational Drivers and Barriers, Printed by Brijbasi Aet Press Ltd., I-72 Sector-9, Noida, India, 2007. 16. Kulkarni, V., Ramachandra, T.V. Environmental Management. Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. TERI Press, New Delhi, 2014 (3rd reprint).

Subject: Environmental Management

Course Code: Author: Dr. Meenakshi Suhag

Lesson No.: 7 Vetter: Prof. Praveen Sharma

ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING

Structure

7.0 Objectives

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Environmental Accounting

7.3 Levels of Environmental Accounting

7.4 Environmental Accounting as a Business management Tool

7.5 Environmental Cost Accounting

7.6 Environmental Management Accounting (EMA)

7.7 Corporate Environmental Accounting

7.8 Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting (ENRA)

7.9 Summary

7.10 Keywords

7.11 Self-assessment questions

7.12 References/Suggested readings

7.0 Objectives

After studying this lesson, you will be able to understand:

1. Concept of Environmental Accounting 2. Objectives of Environmental Accounting 3. Levels of Environmental Accounting 4. Benefits of Environmental Accounting 5. Nature of Environmental Cost accounting 6. Role of Natural Resource Accounting

7. 1 Introduction

The global reports on environmental issues such as global warming, depletion of nonrenewable resources and loss of natural habitats have risen considerably during the past two decades. Companies for the maximum profit, development of more advancing technologies, endless use of natural resources for product operations cause a lot of environmental problems. Industrialization has brought factory pollutants and greater land use, which have harmed the natural environment resulting in habitat loss and danger to natural biodiversity. Degradation of natural resources such as air, fresh water, oceans and land are threatened by pollutants. In order to achieve sustainable development organizations must need to work more socially and environmentally responsible while conducting their business.

As discussed in the previous lesson, for the better relationship with nature and its resources at each level business is becoming progressively more aware of the environmental and social liabilities pertaining to their operations and products. Implementation of various voluntary schemes such as an Environmental Management System by an organization or enterprise is a systematic approach to minimize environmental risk and pollution control.

In an utmost world, poor environmental conduct may have a real adverse impact on the business and its finances. Environmental risks (both physical and financial) cannot be ignored, they are now as much a part of running a successful business as product design, marketing, and sound financial management. Environmental accounting is an important tool for understanding the role played by the natural environment in the economy. Organizations would reflect environmental factors in their accounting processes via the identification of the environmental costs attached to products, processes, and services. Norway was the first country followed by Netherland and France to develop environmental accounts to track use of their forests, fisheries, energy, and land. Environmental accounting will also serve as a solid foundation for an Environmental Management System (EMS) by bringing the traditional functions of accounting to the environmental management process. It deals with recognizing and disclosing a company‟s environmental costs and liabilities in financial reports.

7.2 Environmental Accounting

Accounting is the word of finance meaning systematic recording, reporting and analysis of financial transactions of a business. The traditional approaches of cost accounting have become insufficient as they have neglected key environmental costs and activities and their impact on the environment. On the other hand a conspicuous disparity is left due to financial incompleteness and absence of fair view of financial statement information reporting to environmental regulatory agencies and the general public. Therefore, the development and implementation of identified environmental related accounting measures may suggest the significance of the specific issues to the individual organization. EA is the practice of using traditional accounting and finance principles to calculate the costs of a company‟s national economic impact on the environment. According to Institute of Management Accountants (USA), environmental accounting is "the identification, measurement, and allocation of environmental costs, the integration of these environmental costs into business decisions, and the subsequent communication of the information to a company's stakeholders." The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines environmental accounting as "management accounting practices that enable the incorporation of environmental cost and benefit information into business decisions." Environmental accounting sometimes referred to as "green accounting", "resource accounting" or "integrated economic and environmental accounting". The scope of Environmental Accounting (EA) is extensive and includes corporate, national & international level. One of the most important features of the environmental accounts is their capacity to organise and present coherent information in both physical (often for the environment) and monetary terms (often for the economy). The range of applications of environmental accounts includes resource efficiency and productivity, decomposition analysis, analysis of net wealth and depletion, sustainable production and consumption. The accounts also provide an information base for the development of models e.g. input-output analysis and general equilibrium modelling.

Environmental accounting addresses the following issues

1. Compliance with regulatory requirement;

2. Eco-friendly operations that do not harm the environment; 3. Encourage a culture and attitude of environmentally safe working amongst its employees;

4. Disclosure to shareholders and other users about the amount and nature of the preventive measures taken by the management;

5. To ensure safe handling and disposal of hazardous waste and other chemicals.

Organizations adopt EA to achieve following objectives: a. To help managers in decisions making that will reduce their environmental costs; b. To better track environmental costs that may have been previously covered in overhead accounts or otherwise overlooked; c. To better understand the environmental costs and performance of processes and products for more accurate costing and pricing of products; d. To extend and improve the investment analysis and assessment process to include potential environmental impacts; and e. To support the development and operation of an overall environmental management system.

Benefits for a company that adopt an environmental accounting:

1. Obtaining clear information about environmental costs for control and strategic decision making regarding continuing or abandoning a particular product or process.

2. Meeting the ongoing requirements of various stakeholders including the government, investors, lenders, banks, non-governmental institutions, among others,

3. Detecting potential areas for savings and environmental improvements, and

4. Proper management of resources through energy and resource conservation that will lead to direct returns including cost savings and

5 Competitive benefits by minimizing environmental impacts through improved design of products, packages, and processes. 6. Reductions, and/or indirect returns like superior organization goodwill and reputation.

7.3 Levels of Environmental Accounting

1. National income accounting:

In the perspective of national income accounting environmental accounting refers to natural resource accounting including physical or monetary units to evaluate the consumption of the nation‟s natural resources ( both renewable and nonrenewable). Governments around the world develop economic data systems known as national income accounts (NIA) to calculate macroeconomic indicators such as gross domestic product. The Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) in India is working on a methodology to systematically incorporate natural resources into national accounts in different states for land, water, air, and sub-soil assets. For example the forest products in the national accounts are classified into two major groups: (1) major products comprising industrial wood (timber, round wood, matchwood and pulpwood) and fuelwood (firewood and charcoal wood) and (2) minor products such as bamboo, fodder, sandalwood, honey, resin, gum etc.

2. Financial Accounting

Environmental accounting in the context of financial accounting usually enables companies for the preparation of financial reports to external users using Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). This is financial reporting to external users through quarterly and annual reports conveying the environmental liabilities and financially material environmental costs.

3. Business Management Accounting

Environmental accounting as a feature of management accounting serves business managers in making capital investment decisions. Environmental management accounting (EMA) is defined as the generation, analysis and use of financial and related non-financial information, to support management within a company or business. EMA integrates corporate environmental and business policies, and thereby provides guidance on building a sustainable business (Yakhou and Dorweiler, 2004). Management accounting practices and systems differ according to the needs of the businesses they serve. For example, if a firm wants to encourage pollution prevention in capital budgeting, it might consider distinguishing (1) environmental costs that can be avoided by pollution prevention investments, from (2) environmental costs related to treatment of the contamination that has already occurred.

7.4 Environmental Accounting as a Business management Tool

Environmental accounting is an inclusive aspect of accounting, generates reports for both internal use, providing environmental information to help make management decisions on controlling overhead, capital budgeting and pricing, and external use, disclosing environmental information of interest to the government, public and to the financial community (Eze et al., 2016).

 Environmental accounting provides a „family‟ of tools for assessing resource use, pollution and sustainability in a number of areas ranging from industrial production, green consumerism to areas such as nature conservation, biodiversity and ecosystem services (Patterson et al., 2011).  Environmental accounts may provide data which highlight both the contribution of natural resources to economic wellbeing and the costs imposed by pollution or resource degradation (Protogeros et al., 2011).  Environmental accounting defines as the practice of environment-based categorization of business activities, collecting, analyzing and then monitoring these environment-related activities, then put all these information into business balance sheet to help an organization‟s decision making (Vasile and Man, 2012).  Environmental Accounting tools have been developed  To conceptualize and enumerate the direct and indirect effects of human activity on the environment,  To enable decision-makers to track and measure progress towards sustainability outcomes and goals.  These environmental accounting methods range from ecological footprinting (quantitative measurement of total amount of land required to support a community, business or individual person or it measure the biocapacity of the average hectare of land on the globe in hectare), carbon footprinting, energy analysis, ecological pricing and life cycle assessment to environmental input-output analysis (Patterson et al., 2017).

The environmental accounting (EA) at the corporate level helps the management to know whether the corporate has been discharging its responsibilities towards sustainable development while meeting the business objective. Company that introduces EA in their management accounting system results in lower energy bills and greater efficiency in their operation. Environmental accounting involves any costs and benefits that arise from changes to a firm‟s products or processes, where the change also involves a change in environmental impacts (James, 1998).

Following aspects are included in environmental accounting.

1. Firstly, the direct investments made by a corporate for minimization of losses to environment. It includes investment made into the equipment/devices that help in reducing potential losses to the environment. This can be easily monetized.

2. Secondly, indirect losses happen due to business operation. It mainly includes degradation and destruction such as loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution, hazardous waste including bio medical waste, coastal marine pollution etc. Furthermore, depletion happens because of nonrenewable natural resources. Beside that deforestation and land uses (measuring and monetizing them can be complex).

7.5 Environmental Cost Accounting

According to USA Environmental Protection Agency the definition of environmental cost depends on utilization of information in a company and the environmental costs can include conventional costs (raw materials and energy costs with the environmental relevance), potentially hidden costs (costs which are captured by accounting system but then lose their identity in overheads), contingent costs (costs in a future time – contingent liabilities), and image and relationship costs. Environmental cost accounting is a term used to refer to the addition of environmental cost information into existing cost accounting procedures and/or recognizing embedded environmental costs and allocating them to appropriate products or processes. Identification of environmental costs associated with a product, process, system, or facility is important for good management decisions. Costs of environmental remediation, pollution control equipment, and noncompliance penalties are all unquestionably environmental costs. Other costs incurred for environmental protection are likewise clearly environmental costs, even if they are not explicitly required by regulations or go beyond regulatory compliance levels. Environmental costs can refer to a subset of external costs or can be used as a synonym for environmental externalities, societal costs, private costs, or both private and societal costs. In addition costs associated with the creation, detection, remediation and prevention of environmental degradation.

1. Full Cost Accounting - Full Costing means the allocation of all direct and indirect costs to a product or process for the purposes of inventory valuation, profitability analysis, and pricing decisions. Full cost accounting is a term often used to describe desirable environmental accounting practices. In the accounting profession, “full cost accounting” is a concept and term used in various contexts. In management accounting, “full costing” means the allocation of all direct and indirect costs to a product or product line for the purposes of inventory valuation, profitability analysis, and pricing decisions

2. Total Cost Assessment (TCA) Total cost accounting, an often used synonym for full cost environmental accounting, is a term that seems to have origins with environmental professionals. It has no particular meaning to accountants.

3. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Environmental Accounting in terms of its focus on „products‟ or services and motivates to certify or audit the environmental impact of products, taking account of the entire Life Cycle of the product. Life Cycle Assessment has the most systematic and widely accepted methodology, as laid down in international standards such as ISO. It also involves data collection and modelling of the product system, as well as description and verification of data. For example, categories of input and output quantities include inputs of materials, energy, chemicals and „other‟ − and outputs of air emissions (CO2), water emissions and solid waste. The life cycle of a product, process, system, or facility can refer to the suite of activities starting with acquisition (and upfront pre-acquisition activities) and concluding with back-end disposal/decommissioning that a specific firm performs or is responsible for.

7.6 Environmental Management Accounting (EMA)

Environmental management accounting (EMA) is defined as the generation, analysis and use of financial and related non-financial information, to support management within a company or business. EMA integrates corporate environmental and business policies, and thereby provides guidance on building a sustainable business (Yakhou and Dorweiler, 2004).

Environmental accounting assists in expressing environmental and social liabilities as environmental costs. While environmental accounting systems now form part of industrial decision making in first world countries (Beer and Friend, 2006).

Advantages of EMA are as follows (Vasile and Man, 2012):

i. Pollution prevention; ii. Planning in the field of improving the environment; iii. The planning/cost/estimation of the environment life cycle; iv. Administration of products circulation from the point of view of the environment; v. Supply process from the point of view of the environment; vi. Responsibility of the product or producer vii. Management systems focusing upon environment; viii. Evaluation and testing of the performances of environment activities; ix. Reporting such performances.

7.7 Corporate Environmental Accounting: Corporate environmental accounting involves "provision of environmental performance related information to stakeholders both within, and outside, the organization." Thus, disclosing information relating to environmental aspects is considered as one of significant issues in relations to environmental accounting.

7.8 Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting (ENRA)

Accounting for the environment or the acronym “Green accounting” is receiving increased attention in the recent years. It provides information on stocks of a resource available at a particular point in time and what activities the resource is being used for. Such accounts typically cover agricultural land, fisheries, forests, minerals and petroleum, and water. The conventional System of National Income Accounts (SNA) normally does not capture the cost of depletion, degradation or pollution of natural resources. This encourages unsustainable use of natural resources since the costs are not reflected when assessing the country‟s economic performance or development progress. NRA is thus an attempt to integrate environmental issues into the conventional national accounts. The water sector is one sector that could greatly benefit from this natural resource management tool. Botswana has adopted NRA as a natural resource management tool and has so far developed accounts for minerals, livestock and water. The cost of natural resources includes all costs necessary to acquire the resource and prepare it for extraction. If the property must be restored after the natural resources are removed, the restoration costs are also considered to be part of the cost. The accounts are based on a countryside survey included a land cover census, remote sensing data and field survey. In practice, the basic framework includes physical and monetary supply and use tables (which report what flows go in and what come out), functional accounts and asset accounts for natural resources (which report how the opening stock plus changes give the closing stock). The measurement of physical flows is structured around the flows of natural inputs from the environment to the economy, flows of products within the economy and flows from the economy to the environment i.e., residuals.

Gundimeda et al., 2007 discussed the physical accounts for area under forests has the following structure: Opening stock + Changes in forest land + Natural expansion and afforestation Net transfer of forest land to non-forest uses (through deforestation or degradation) Loss of forest land due to shifting cultivation + Net reclassification and other changes = Closing stocks

Benefits of NRA • It aims to keep track of change in human and natural capital and sustainable development. • It helps to know the actual amount of natural resources remained in a particular country. • Traditional accounts do not consider services provided by natural resources.

7.9 Summary

Businesses have become increasingly aware of the environmental implications of their operations, products and services. Management accounting techniques can distort and misrepresent environmental issues, leading to managers making decisions that are bad for businesses and bad for the environment. Environmental Accounting is an important function that provides firms with a means to incorporate information with business decision making and business operations. In addition, having an environmental accounting system in place allows firms to (i) Better manage environmental costs, (ii) Better formulate business strategies, (iii) More accurately cost products and processes and (iv) Discover new opportunities to offset or minimize environmental costs through environmental thinking.

7.10 Keywords

Environmental accounts provide data which highlight both the contribution of natural resources to economic well-being and the costs imposed by pollution or resource degradation.

Environmental costs cover all costs incurred concerning environmental protection such as emissions treatment as well as wasted material, capital and labour which so called „non product output‟ as a result of inefficiency production activities.

Natural Resource Accounts include data on stocks of natural resources and changes in them caused by either natural processes or human use.

Green accounting “the identification, tracking, analysis, and re-porting of the materials and cost information associated with the environmental aspects of an organization” (UN, 2000).

7.11 Self assessment questions

1. What do you understand by Environmental Accounting? Explain how it is different from conventional accounting system.

2. Discuss the various issues considered under Environmental accounting.

3. What are the objectives of Environmental accounting?

4. What is Environmental Cost? Describe the various forms of environmental costs accounting.

5. What are the benefits to an organization for adopting Environmental accounting?

6. Discuss different levels of environmental accounting.

7. Write a short note on Environmental Management Accounting.

8. How environmental accounting is help full for the policy or decision makers?

9. Explain Environmental and Natural Resource Accounting in detail along with its benefits.

10. Discuss the role of Environmental accounting as a Business management tool.

7.12 References/suggested readings

Yakhou M., Dorweiler V.P. (2004). Environmental Accounting: An Essential Component of Business Strategy, Business Strategy and the Environment (13), 65-77.

Eze, Chukwudi, J., Nweze, Uchechukwu, A., Enekwe, Innocent, C. 2016. The effects of Environmental Accounting on a developing Nation: Nigerian experience. European Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance Research, 4(1), pp.17-27.

Patterson, M.G., McDonald, G., Smith, N., 2011. Ecosystem service appropriation into the auckland economy: an input output analysis. J. Reg. Stud. Assoc. (45), 333–350.

Pattersona, M., McDonaldb, G., Hardy, D. 2017. Is there more in common than we think? Convergence of ecological footprinting, energy analysis, life cycle assessment and other methods of environmental accounting. Ecological Modelling (362), 19–36.

Protogeros, N., Vontas, A., Chatzikostas, G., Koumpis, A. 2011. A software shell for environmental accounting. Environmental Modelling & Software. (26), 235-237.

Chopra, K. and Dayal, V. Handbook of Environmental Economics in India, published in India by Oxford University Press (2009), New Delhi. Beer, P.D, Friend, F. 2006. Environmental accounting: A management tool for enhancing corporate environmental and economic performance. - Ecological Economics, 58(3): 548-560.

Gundimeda, H.P., Sukhdev, P., Sinha, R. and Sanyal, S. 2007. Natural Resources Accounting for Indian States-illustrating the Case of forest Resource‟s, Ecological Economics, 61: 635-49.

Kadekodi, G. „Approaches to Natural Resource Accounting in the Indian Context‟ in G. Kadekodi (ed.), Environmental Economics in Practice, pp. 332-72. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Vasile, E. and Man, M. 2012. Current dimension of environmental management accounting. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 62: 566-570.

United Nations, “The Handbook of National Accounting, Studies in Methods Series F, No. 78 Integrated Environ-mental and Economic Accounting: An Operational Manual,” United Nations, New York, 2000.

James, B (1998). The Benefits of Improved Environmental Accounting: An Economic Framework to Identify Priorities Resources for the future Washington, DC, 13 – 15.

Subject:

Course Code: Author: Dr. Hardeep Rai Sharma

Lesson No.:12 Vetter: Prof. Rajesh Lohchab Bio-Diversity: Issues and Trade

Structure: 12.0 Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Types of biodiversity 12.1.2 Wildlife wealth of India 12.2 Biodiversity Issues 12.2.1 Importance of biodiversity 12.2.2 Threats to Biodiversity 12.2.3 Biodiversity Conservation 12.2.3.1 In-Situ Conservation 12.2.3.2 Ex-Situ Conservation 12.2.4 Laws governing biodiversity conservation in India 12.3 Biodiversity Trade 12.3.1 Wildlife trade- Indian Scenario 12.3.2 Policy framework for International biodiversity trade 12.3.3 Methods to control illegal trade 12.4 Summary 12.5 Key words 12.6 Self-assessment questions 12.7 References/Suggested readings

12.0 Objectives:

After going through this lesson, students will be able to: • Understand the concept of biodiversity.

• Describe types, importance, threats and conservation of biodiversity.

• Learn concept of biodiversity trade

• Explain

12.1 Introduction: Only our mother Earth is known to support life in this universe. This life which has been supported on planet Earth comes in many shapes, forms and sizes ranging from whales and redwoods to butterflies and even tiny microbes. This collection/range of life is known as biodiversity (Bio means life and diversity means variety). Scientists have identified and counted about 1.4 million species, which is only a small fraction of the number of species that they think, may exist on our Earth.

Definition of Biodiversity: The word “biodiversity” is a contracted form of the term „biological diversity‟. The Convention on Biological Diversity defines biodiversity as "the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems."

12.1.1 Types of biodiversity: Biodiversity can be of following types:

i) Genetic diversity: It refers to the variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a species. Variation at the level of individual genes and provides a mechanism for populations to adapt to their ever-changing environment. The more is the difference, the better is the chance that at least some members of the group (animal and plants) will have an allelic variant that is suited for the new environment. Those members will produce offspring with the variant that will in turn reproduce and continue the population into subsequent generations. If there are changes in genetic diversity, particularly loss of diversity through the loss of species, it results in a loss of biological diversity. Large number of people with different color of eyes and hair is an expression of genetic diversity within human beings.

ii) Species diversity: The variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms found in different habitats of the Earth. It includes both species richness (the number of species in a community) and the evenness of species‟ abundance. Communities with more species are considered to be more diverse e.g. a community containing ten species would be more diverse than a community with five species. Different types of tress in a forest are example of species diversity. iii) Ecosystem or ecological diversity: Ecological diversity or ecosystem diversity is the variety of biological communities like forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes etc. that interact with one another and with their physical and chemical (nonliving) environments. It relates to the different forms of life which are present in any one particular area or site.

iv) Functional diversity: Refers to the biological and chemical processes of functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological communities. It comprises many ecological interactions among species e.g. competition, parasitism, predation, mutualism, etc. as well as ecological processes such as nutrient retention and recycling. Some scholars also include human cultural diversity as part of the earth‟s biodiversity. The variety of human cultures represents numerous social and technological solutions to changing environmental conditions.

12.1.2 Wildlife wealth of India

India contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forests, oceans and in wetlands and ranks 6th among the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. The geographical area of country represents about 2.4% of the world‟s total landmass, it harbours a total of 47,513 plant species (Singh & Dash, 2014) out of about 0.4 million till now known in the world, representing about 11.4% of world flora. The country has 6.7% of the world animal species which is nearly 96,373 known species, including 63,423 insect species, 423 species of mammals, 526 species of reptiles, 342 species of amphibians, 1233 species of birds, 3022 species of fishes (ZSI, 2014).

12.2 Biodiversity Issues: To understand the concept of biodiversity one must know the issues related to it. In the following section we will learn biodiversity issues i.e. importance, threats and conservation of biodiversity with special reference to India.

12.2.1 Importance of biodiversity

The natural environment is the source of all resources necessary for our survival and environmental processes provide us with air to breathe, water to drink and food to eat, medicines and industrial chemicals as well as materials to use in our daily lives and natural beauty to enjoy. The biodiversity service/benefits contribute hundreds of billions of dollars into the world economy each year. Living organisms play important role in biogeochemical cycles e.g. carbon, nitrogen etc. and water. Loss of biodiversity not only reduces the availability of ecosystem services but also decreases the ability of species, communities, and ecosystems to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Biodiversity provides numerous benefits and services some include: i) Generation of soils

ii) Maintenance of air quality

iii) Maintenance of soil quality

iv) Maintenance of water quality v) Pest control

vi) Detoxification and decomposition of wastes

vii) Crop production thereby providing food security

viii) Pollination

ix) Stabilization of climate and ecosystems

x) Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters

xi) Provision of health care – medicines

xii) Income generation

xiii) Spiritual, cultural and aesthic value

12.2.2 Threats to Biodiversity

Extinction is a part of nature. In fact, an estimated nine per cent of species become extinct every million years or so, a rate that works out to between one to five species per year. However, the extinction rate is between 1000 and 10,000 times higher than the “background” or expected natural extinction rate (IUCN, 2007). But unlike extinction happened earlier, the current one is not due to environmental changes but due to actions of human beings. The main threats to biodiversity are:

a) Overpopulation – the world‟s population is estimated to be over 7 billion and has direct impact on resource consumption.

b) Overexploitation of natural resources, such as the world‟s oceans and forests. It includes overharvesting of trees for timber and oceans for food.

c) Habitat Loss ‒ draining wetlands, clearing grasslands and forests for agricultural and residential purposes. Ruining habitats by fragmentation, due to road construction and development.

d) The introduction of harmful species into foreign ecosystems, e.g. the introduction to black rats to Antigua and Barbuda island nation, which has left the Antiguan Racer snake as critically endangered.

e) Environmental pollution i.e. releasing toxic pollutants into air, aquatic bodies and lands.

f) Climate change – continued rise of global temperatures. g) Poaching as well as the unsustainable hunting and illegal trade of wildlife.

h) Dams and water withdrawals alter river systems and thus threat freshwater fish species.

i) Knock-on effects where one of the co-evolved species become extinct. Decrease in elephant‟s population in some countries like Benin, Ghana and Ivory Coast had a significant impact on tree distribution.

j) Parasites/Predators/Pathogens/Diseases also creates threat to biodiversity. 12.2.3 Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity conservation means active management of the biosphere to make sure the survival of the maximum variety of species and the maintenance of genetic variability within species. It includes the maintenance of biosphere functioning i.e. ecosystem function and nutrient cycling and the concept of sustainable resource use. There are two methods of biodiversity conservation in-situ and ex-situ. In-situ means conservation of species at its original place i.e. within species natural habitat. Ex-situ conservation involves the conservation of biological diversity away from natural habitats. It includes the conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated species.

12.2.3.1 In-situ conservation is through establishments of National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves and by declaring Biodiversity Hotspots. As per Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Govt. of India (MoEF&CC, 2018), India has a network of 700 protected areas designated into National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.

National parks: First introduced in 1969, by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as a mean of a protected area. A national park has a defined boundary, through which no person can enter into the park without an approval, either via paying a visitor ticket or an approved letter from the governing body (mostly the government). The visitors can only observe the park inside a vehicle that routes through defined tracks and they cannot get out the vehicle for any reason unless there is an approved place for visitors. Photographs are allowed but research and educational work can only be done with a prior permission. The park cannot be used for any reason viz. firewood, timber, fruits…etc. With all these regulations, the national parks are established to conserve the natural habitats of the wild fauna and flora with a minimum human interference. There are 104 National parks in India covering an area of 40,501 km2, which is 1.23% of the geographical area of the country (ENVIS, 2018). Some national parks in India are Kaziranga National Park (Assam), Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh), Bandipur National Park (Karnataka), Silent Valley National Park (Kerala), Kanha National Park (Madhya Pradesh), Sariska and Ranthambore National Parks (Rajasthan), Rajaji National Park (Uttarakhand), Sultanpur and Kalesar National Park (Haryana).

Wildlife sanctuary: Is a declared protected area, where very limited human activity is permitted, owned either by a government or by private organization or person, provided the rules are governed by the concerned government. Inside a wildlife sanctuary (WLS), the hunting of animals is completely prohibited. Additionally, the trees cannot be cut down for any purpose; especially the clearing of the forest for agriculture is completely banned. However, it is not physically fenced to restrict the public from entering and roaming inside a wildlife sanctuary for research, educational, inspirational, and recreational purposes. People can collect firewood, fruits, medicinal plants etc. in small scale from a wildlife sanctuary. There are 543 wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 118,918 km2, which is 3.62 % of the geographical area of the country (ENVIS, 2018). Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin WLS (Bihar), Sukhna Lake WLS (Chandigarh), Gir and Wild Ass WLS‟s (Gujarat), Chhilchhila and Nahar WLS‟s (Haryana), Renuka and Shikari Devi WLS‟s (Himachal Pradesh), Trikuta WLS (J & K) are some name of WLS‟s in India.

Conservation reserves and community reserves: They act as a buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India. These areas are designated as conservation areas if uninhabited and completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities and community areas if owned privately. Shri Naina Devi (Himachal Pradesh), Ranjit Sagar (Punjab), Asan Wetland (Uttarakhand) are some conservation reserves and Lalwan (Punjab) is an example of Community Reserve in India (ENVIS, 2018).

Marine protected area: These are a space in the ocean where human activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters. These places are given special protections for natural or historic marine resources by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national authorities. They can be sanctuaries (e.g. Pulicat Lake in Andhra Pradesh), national parks (e.g. Sundarbans in West Bengal) or Community Reserve (e.g. Kadalundi Vallikkunnu in Kerala) (ENVIS, 2018).

In addition to above there are Biodiversity hotspots and Biosphere reserves meant for biodiversity conservation at its place of origin.

Biodiversity Hotspots: Biodiversity is not spread equally around the globe. Some areas possess a richer variety of species than others. Biodiversity hotspots are the Earth‟s biologically richest and most endangered ecosystems. The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" in 1988 as areas that are characterised both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and also by serious levels of habitat loss. These areas support natural ecosystems that are largely intact and the native species and communities associated with these ecosystems are well represented. These are the areas with a high diversity of locally endemic species which usually are not found or are rarely found outside the hotspot. Eastern Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Japan, Mountains of Southwest China, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Philippines, Polynesia – Micronesia, Southwest Australia, Sundaland, and Western Ghats and Sri Lanka are the examples of Hotspots in Asia – Pacific region.

Biosphere Reserves (BRs): The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have introduced the designation „Biosphere Reserve‟ for natural areas to minimize conflict between development and conservation. BRs are nominated by national government which meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to minimal set of conditions for inclusion in the world network of Biosphere reserves under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme of UNESCO. Biosphere reserves are divided into 3 inter-related zones i.e. Core, Buffer and Transition. Core zone conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs having exceptional scientific interest. A core zone being National Park or Sanctuary/protected/regulated mostly under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and kept free from human pressures external to the system. The buffer zone surrounds the core zone, uses and activities are managed in this area in the ways that help in protection of core zone in its natural condition. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, including research and educational activities etc; which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. The transition zone, the outermost part of a biosphere reserve is usually not delimited. This is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics of the region.

Globally there are about 621 BRs representing from 117 countries including 16 transboundary sites. There are eighteen BRs in India as on 06.10.2016 namely Nilgiri (the first declared in 1986), Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Manas, Sunderban, Gulf of Mannar, Similipal, Dibru-Saikhova (Smallest in area of 765 km2 in India), Dehang-Dibang, Pachmarhi, Khangchendzonga, Agasthyamalai, Achanakmar- Amarkantak, Kachchh (Largest area of 12,454 km2 in India); Cold Desert, Seshachalam, and Panna (Recent one in August 2011) (MOEF, 2018).

12.2.3.2 Ex-situ conservation: Conserving the organism in an artificial habitat by shifting it from its natural habitat, in the form of seed, whole plants, pollen, vegetative propagules, tissue or cell cultures. Zoological gardens/Zoos, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed and gene banks, long term captive breeding, animal‟s translocation, are examples of ex-situ conservation. It can be done as following: i). Botanical Garden: According to the International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation (BGCI, 2012), botanic garden can be defined as the institutions holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education. During 2012 there were about 2951 botanical gardens and arboreta (a botanical garden devoted to trees) in 148 countries worldwide maintaining > 5 million living plant collections. There are about 122 Botanic gardens in India and some important are Indian Botanic Garden (largest and oldest) at Sibpur, Kolkata; National Botanic Garden, Lucknow; Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling, and Mysore State Botanical Garden, Bengaluru. ii). Zoological Garden: Also known as zoological parks, animal park, or zoo is a place where wild animals are maintained live in captivity where people can visit and watch them. They are of many types like Urban/sub-urban zoos, Petting zoos, Safari Parks, and Game reserves. The oldest Schonbrumm zoo was established in Vienna in 1759. In India, the 1st zoo came into existence at Barrackpore (West Bengal) in 1800. In world there are about 1491 zoos having about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos have undertaken captive breeding programmes. Lucknow Zoo (Uttar Pradesh), Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyan (also known Patna Zoo in Bihar), Rajiv Gandhi Zoo (Pune), National Zoological Park (Delhi), Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Garden (Mysore Zoo in Karnataka), Nandankanan Zoological Park (Bhubaneswar, Orissa) are some of the famous Zoo‟s in India. iii). Seed Gene banks: These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled humidity and temperature for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low temperature. Seeds are dried and placed in sealed containers at 5°C for short-term storage, at -20°C for long-term preservation including the use of cryopreservation (using liquid nitrogen at -180°C) for extremely long- term storage. Botanic gardens in many countries have established seed banks for the storage of seeds, mostly of wild species. As per Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) there were around 400 botanic gardens in 2015 having long term and medium-term storage of seeds. iv). Gene bank or Germplasm bank: Germplasm of asexually propagated species can be conserved in the form of meristem (embryonic tissue in plants; undifferentiated, growing, actively dividing cells). In vitro method can be used in two ways, first, for storage of tissue under slow growth conditions. Second, long term conservation of germplasm is through cryopreservation. Up to 2017, the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in India has conserved over 64,829 traditional varieties in Gene Banks located in different states. v). Long term captive breeding: The process of breeding animals in controlled environments within well defined settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos or other conservation facilities. The method is especially for the endangered species that have lost their habitat permanently or certain highly unfavorable conditions are present in their habitat. India has many successful breeding programs as Arignar Anna Zoological Park (Chennai, Tamil Nadu) for lion tailed macaques and Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctury (Bhagalpur, Bihar) for Gangetic dolphins. The Jatayu Conservation Breeding Centre, Pinjore in Bir Shikargah Wildlife Sanctuary is for the breeding and conservation of Indian vultures in Haryana. In June 2016, Haryana government has launched Asia's First Gyps Vulture Reintroduction Programme in this breeding centre.

12.2.4 Laws governing biodiversity conservation in India: Major Indian Acts relevant to biodiversity are the Indian Forest Act, 1927; the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (with the (Amendment) Act, 2006); the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. To meet the commitments under the Convention on Biological Diversity, India enacted The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 under which The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was established in 2003 at Chennai, under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. In addition to national rules our country is a party to five major international conventions related to wild life conservation. These are United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-World Heritage Committee (UNESCO-WHC), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), International Whaling Commission (IWC), and the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).

12.3 Biodiversity Trade

Biodiversity trade (biotrade) means selling or exchanging wild animals and plants. It refers to activities of collection, production, transformation, and commercialisation of goods and services obtained from native biodiversity under criteria of social economic and environmental sustainability. International commercial products traded are miscellaneous, varying from plants (including algae), animals and fungi – and the products derived from them such as leaves, fruits, seeds, oils, bones, feathers, and skins. Several industries like cosmetics, healthcare, luxury goods, food, fibre, construction, pets and ornaments demand for these products (Broad et al., 2003). Excluding invasive species, 30% of global species are under threat due to international trade (Lenzen et al. 2012).

For every species, biotrade has positive and negative effects for conservation and the long-term survival of species and biodiversity. Trade can generate incentives for sustainable use and management of species, but can resulted into overharvest and broader negative impacts on the ecosystem. Similarly, trade may have positive or negative consequences for the local livelihoods of the poor, specifically in terms of income generation, assets and wellbeing. The illegal trade of timber and wildlife is a serious economic and environmental problem that can disturb ecosystems, economies, undermine environmentally sustainable activities, and reduce future options for the use of resources. Illegal trade is also associated with armed conflict – both in terms of armed gangs participating in trade and posing a security threat to local people.

Wildlife trade is not always illegal, but when species are caught or harvested in an unsustainable manner or when endangered species are targeted, it causes direct threats to the survival of species and biodiversity. Illegal trade, overharvesting and overhunting of species not only threatens the survival of species, but also implies other risks such as introducing exotic and alien species into a new country. The overexploitation of wildlife for trade has affected countless species, such as the Javan rhinoceros, which is now extinct in Viet Nam. Commercial interest is one of the major motivations for such a biodiversity-destroying activity. Enthusiastic people looking for particular plant or animal species are taking part in such ruinous practices. This people like to complete their collection of species and are frequently acting without any commercial motivation. Finally, travellers and tourists collecting souvenirs made from animals and plants contribute significantly to the loss of biodiversity. In addition to above, manufactured products such as Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) and products made of skins also play a major role in illicit trade.

Because of their importance as a source of resources for human use, the exploitation of many wild species has stimulated the trade in animal products. The regulation of trade in wild animals and their by-products is governed primarily by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) - of which India has been a signatory since March 1973. The illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade is a major and growing threat to biodiversity, estimated to be worth $8-10 billion (excluding fish and timber), making it one of the highest valued illicit trade sectors in the world. This is recognised by many governments as a major threat to biodiversity. For example, Tanzanian government statistics show a 60% decline in elephant numbers between 2009 and 2014, attributed to poaching for ivory. The western black rhino was officially declared extinct due to poaching in 2011. China‟s pangolin population has declined by an estimated 94% since the 1960s due to trade for consumption, while international trade in its bile and paws has contributed to a global decline of 49% in Asiatic black bear populations (Milner- Gulland and Wright, 2017). The demand of animal parts and products has multiplied manifolds over the years for example:

■ Tigers and leopards are killed illegally for claws, bones, skins, whiskers, and virtually every part of their body which are used in TCM.

■ Rhino are killed for horns and skin and elephants for their ivory.

■ The Otter skin is used as trimming for coats and other garments.

■ Musk deer hunted for musk pod.

■ Chiru hunted for wool for Shahtoosh shawls.

■ Bear bile used in TCM. ■ Mongoose for hair for fine paint brushes.

■ Snakes skins for belts and leather purses.

■ Sea turtles shells, butterflies as curios are some examples.

■ Shark fins are traded for fin soup, Sea horses for food and medicine, corals for their use in jewellery and shells as curios.

Another area of concern is the medicinal plant sector. Over 8,000 species of medicinal plants in use, nearly 90% of the species in trade are exploited from the wild. Such exploitation is usually done in an unscientific and unsustainable manner, often secretly. Movement of these products is mostly from India to Nepal and China and some trade with Pakistan but mostly hidden.

Around 5,337 green pythons are illegally wild-caught for export from Indonesia each year (Lyons and Natusch, 2011) as these green tree pythons are popular among reptile enthusiasts and breeders for their colours. In Burkina Faso country, wild-sourced shea butter (from the shea tree Vitellaria paradoxa) is the fourth-largest export product after gold, cotton and livestock (Konaté, 2012).

12.3.1 Wildlife trade- Indian Scenario: In 1976 CITES bans trade of Asian ivory and ten years later in 1986, Indian Government banned Indian ivory trade. In Kerala state of India, two species of freshwater turtles, the Indian black turtle or Indian pond terrapin, and the Indian Flap-shelled turtle are exploited from Vembanad lake and associated wetlands in Punnamada to meet the demand from local restaurants and toddy shops (Krishnakumar et al., 2009). According to a recent book titled “State of India‟s Environment 2017: In Figures by Centre for Science and Environment” reported 52% increase in poaching and wildlife crimes between 2014 and 2016. Till December 31, 2016 over 30,382 wildlife crimes and mortality have been recorded and the number of species that are poached or illegally traded in the country increased from 400 in 2014 to 465 in 2016 (Down to Earth, 2017). As per International Union of Forest Research Organisations, India is the third largest importer of the illegally logged timber in the world. With an annual import of over Rs 40 billion, the country accounts for nearly 10% of the global illegal wood trade (Shrivastava, 2016).

12.3.2 Policy framework for International biodiversity trade: At the international level, trade in wildlife species is regulated under CITES. CITES subject‟s trade in species listed in three appendices to mandatory licensing, through permits and certificates, to ensure that trade does not threaten their survival. Around 35,000 species are listed in these appendices, of which about 30,000 are plants. The trade of medicinal plants is regulated under the CITES, World League for Protection of Animals (WLPA), Customs Act and by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) rules. The Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC) organization which was established by the Species Survival Commission of IUCN in 1976, monitor‟s wildlife trade and the implementation of the treaty. TRAFFIC has grown to become the world's largest wildlife trade monitoring programme. It actively monitors and investigates wildlife trade, and provides the information to a diverse audience world-wide, as a basis for effective conservation policies and programmes. Its headquarters are in United Kingdom with a spread across 5 continents and with 7 regional programmes and existence in 30 countries. TRAFFIC came to India in 1991 and is hosted by WWF-India, closely works with IUCN, WWF and CITES secretariat along with various national and regional and state agencies, on wildlife trade issues.

12.3.3 Methods to control illegal trade:

Various methods to control illegal biodiversity trade between source, transit and consumer countries are:

1. Implementing various laws and regulations to stop illegal trade in wildlife and to enforce laws prohibiting and penalizing wildlife trafficking.

2. Reducing demand for illegally traded wildlife and products made from them.

3. Build international cooperation, commitment, and public‐private partnerships to control illegal trade especially at borders.

4. Increase public awareness through different mass media about the harms done by wildlife trafficking.

5. Use of high-tech equipments like acoustic traps, mobile technology, camera traps, radio collars, metal scanners, mikrokopters, radio frequency identification tags, encrypted data digital networks, DNA testing, satellite imageries, drones, etc. to counter-poaching efforts without requiring much manpower and risking lives (UNEP-GEAS, 2014).

6. Remote sensing technologies, like satellite imagery, thermal infrared sensors, aerial surveys, seismic ground sensors, and heartbeat monitors are also used in many countries to control illegal wildlife trade (Duporge 2016).

7. Detector dogs are now being enrolled to detect rhino horn, ivory and other commodities in different places like air cargo warehouses, ocean containers, and international mail facilities.

8. As mentioned in point 5, DNA analysis of ivory, permits investigators to pinpoint illicit ivory origin and focus enforcement on high-risk areas.

9. Using real-time satellite imagery and tracking, Virtual Watch Room system (developed by Pew Charitable Trusts and Satellite Applications Catapultcan) identify the boats/vessels acting suspiciously so that authorities can take action to stop illegal fishing (Raxter, 2015). 12.4 Summary

Biodiversity conservation is must for smooth functioning and balance of our ecosystem. Different means of in-situ and ex-situ techniques must be adopted to control and protect the extinction of wildlife. On the other hand illegal wildlife hunting and trade in different parts of world reflects the weaknesses of existing rules and problems in their implementation/enforcement. Licensing schemes can be an important tool in helping to detect and regulate illegal flows of environmental goods. Awareness among users, strict actions against hunters and middle man/agents must be enforced timely so as to control illegal wildlife trade.

12.5 Key words

Biodiversity: variability among living organisms

Importance: quality or aspect having great worth or significance

Threats: a danger that something unpleasant might happen.

Conservation: protection of plants, animals, and natural areas

Illegal wildlife trade: the trade of living or dead individuals, tissues such as skins, bones or meat, or other products.

Legislation: set of laws suggested by a government and made official by a parliament.

12.6 Self-assessment questions

1. Define biodiversity and its types.

2. Describe the importance of biodiversity.

3. What are the different threats to biodiversity?

4. Explain various conservation strategies to preserve and protect wildlife.

5. What do you understand by in-situ conservation?

6. Discuss various ex-situ methods to conserve wildlife.

7. Explain how illegal trade of wildlife can be control?

8. Describe biodiversity trade.

9. Name some botanical and zoological gardens in India.

10. Name some wild life sanctuaries and national parks in India. 12.7 References/Suggested readings

BGCI. 2012. International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation: 2nd edition. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, UK. Broad, S., T. Mulliken and D. Roe (2003). The nature and extent of legal and illegal trade in wildlife. The Trade in Wildlife: Regulation for Conservation. S. Oldfield, ed. London. Earthscan, pp. 3–22.

Down to Earth (2017). 30,382 wildlife crimes recorded in India. Down to Earth, Wednesday 26 July 2017

Duporge, I. 2016, How do Wildlife Crime Experts view Remote Sensing Technologies used to Combat Illegal Wildlife Crime? Available at: https://www.wildlabs.net/resources/thought-pieces/how-do- wildlife-crime-experts-viewremote-sensing-technologies-used-combat (Accessed on 16.08.2018)

ENVIS (2018). Protected Areas of India. ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun Available at: http://www.wiienvis.nic.in/Database/Protected_Area_854.aspx (Accessed on 02.08.2018)

IUCN (2007) available at: Species Extinction – The Facts. IUCN Red List, available at: https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/species_extinction_05_2007.pdf (accessed on 24.06.2018).

Konaté, L. (2012). Creating competitive market models. Burkina Faso: the case of nununa women‟s shea butter federation, SNV Netherlands Development Organization.

Krishnakumar, K., Raghavan, R. and Pereira, B (2009). Protected on papers, hunted in wetlands: exploitation and trade of freshwater turtles (Melanochelys trijuga coronata and Lissemys punctata punctata) in Punnamada, Kerala, India. Tropical Conservation Science, 2 (3):363-373.

Lyons and Natusch (2011) Lyons, J.A. and D.J.D. Natusch (2011). Wildlife laundering through breeding farms: Illegal harvest, population declines and a means of regulating the trade of green pythons (Morelia viridis) from Indonesia. Biological Conservation 144(12), pp. 3,073–3,081.

Lenzen, M., Moran, D., Kanemoto, K., Foran, B., Lobefaro L. and Geschke, A. (2012). International trade drives biodiversity threats in developing nations. Nature, 486: 109-112.

Milner-Gulland, E. J. and Wright, J. (2017). The global threat to biodiversity from wildlife trade - A major 21st century challenge. Publisher Oxford Martin Programme on the Illegal Wildlife Trade, pp:1-7.

MOEF (2018). List of Biosphere Reserves, their area, date of designation, and location available at: http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/BR%20List.pdf (Accessed on: 15.08.2018)

Raxter, P (2015). 11 Ways Technology Stops Crime Against Endangered Animals. National Geographic, July 6, 2015. Available at: https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/150706-wildlife-crime- technology-poaching-endangered-animals/ (Accessed on: 16.08.2018)

Shrivastava, K, S. (2016). India third-largest importer of illegally logged wood. The Hindustan Times, Dec 20, 2016 available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-third-largest- importer-of-illegally-logged-wood-study/story-DGwXuqsd9dUqm 4TKP0FPFO.html (accessed on 18.04.2018).

Singh, P. and Dash, S.S. 2014. Plant Discoveries 2013 – New Genera, Species and New Records. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata. UNEP- Global Environmental Alert Service (GEAS). (2014). Emerging Technologies: Smarter ways to fight wildlife crime. June 2014, pp: 1-8, available at: www.unep.org/geas

ZSI (2014) Official communication from Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, India cited from India's Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 2014 available at: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/in/in-nr-05-en.pdf (accessed on 21.06.2018)

Subject: Environment Management

Course Code: CP- 103 Author: 1. Prof. Rajesh Kumar Lohchab 2. Mikhlesh Kumari

Lesson No.: 13 Vetter: AIR CLIMATE POLLUTION

Structure 13.0 Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Atmosphere Composition 13.3 Air Pollution 13.4 Ai r pollut ant s 13.4.1 Classification of air pollutants 13.4.2 Common Air Pollutants 13.5 Air Quality Standards 13.6 Effect of Air Pollution 13.7 Air Pollution Control Measures 13.7.1 Control of Particulates Matter 13.7.2 Control of Gaseous Pollutants 13.8 S umm ary 13.9 Ke y words 13.10 Self Assessment Questions 13.11 Suggested Readings

13.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson, student will be able to:

 Understands the basics of atmospheric composition  Understand the sources and factor responsible of air pollution

 Explain the major air pollutants and their health effects and environmental impacts  Explain major global issues related to air pollution

 Understand and explain control measures for various pollutants

13.1 Introduction

Air is an important natural source and it provides the basis of life on earth. It provides oxygen to animals. During the past two centuries the atmosphere composition has undergone significant changes because of our activities like combustion of fossil fuels, burning wood, deforestation, industrial and agricultural activities. These activities disturb the environment and cause pollution.

13.2 Atmosphere Composition

Atmosphere is a thin envelope of gases surroundings the earth. It is divided into several layers (Figure 1). The lowest layer of atmosphere extending from 10 to 16 km is called troposphere. About 99% of the volume of air consist nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) (Table 1). The remaining volume has argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, ozone and neon. Troposphere has a minimum temperature of about -560C varies in altitude. All weather phenomenons occur in troposphere. The second layer of the atmosphere is stratosphere. Stratosphere is extending from 17 to 50 km. In stratosphere maximum temperature rises to about 0 -2 C. It contains ozone (O3) gas that filter out UV rays of incoming solar radiation. Ozone concentration is maximum between 25 to 30 km. The next layer is mesosphere which extending from 50 to 85 km. In mesosphere temperature is decrease to about -920C. Next layer is thermosphere. It is extending from 85 to 500 km. In thermosphere highly rarified gas temperature reaches as high as 12000C by the absorption of very energetic radiation of wavelength less than 200nm.

Figure 1: Earth Atmosphere

Table 1: Principal Chemical Constituents of Atmosphere

Gases In % Nitrogen 78.084 Oxygen 20.946 Argon 0.934 Carbon Dioxide 0.036

13.3 Air Pollution

Air pollution may be described as contamination of the atmosphere by gaseous, liquid or solid wastes or byproducts which are injurious, or tend to be injurious to human health or welfare and animal or plant life.

13.4 Air pollutants When the concentration of pollutants added to the atmosphere to such levels that they become injurious to humans, animals or environment then it is called air pollutant.

13.4.1 Classification of air pollutants

Based on origin the pollutants are classified as primary or secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutant: Primary pollutants are those pollutants which after emission directly enters the air e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), radioactive substances etc.

Secondary pollutant: Secondary pollutants are formed by chemical reaction of primary pollutants e.g. peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), photochemical smog etc..

Sources of air pollutants

Based on generation pollutants can be classified as natural and man-made.

Natural sources: Natural sources of pollution are:

(a) Volcanic eruptions: results in production of solid particles and gases. (b) Forest fires: results in emission of particulate matter, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. (c) Dust storms: dust storms caused by temperature and pressure difference in different regions. It resulted in high concentration of dust/particulate matter in air. (d) Pollen grains: produce in spring season and mainly responsible for allergy. (e) Radioactivity: radioactive minerals present in the earth crust are the sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere. Man-made sources: Man-made sources of pollution are:

(a) Domestic pollution: in homes burning of bio-fuels and fossil fuels for cooking, lightning purpose etc. results in emission of particulate matter, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. (b) Industrial pollution: various industrial activities like steam generation, machinery operations etc. are major sources of pollution. Different industries using different types of raw material and fuels therefore nature of pollutants emitted are different in different industry. Most common pollutants emitted by various industries are emission of particulate matter, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Other pollutants emitted by industries are PAHs, Benzene, heavy metals like lead, pesticides etc. (c) Vehicular pollution: it is line source of air pollution which is having its own disadvantage of continuously polluting the whole environment through which it is running. Automobiles release gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and suspended particulate matter. Based on the entry air pollutants are categorized into point source, line source and area source.

(a) Point sources: are those sources which can be easily identified by their entry into atmosphere through single point and thus their control is also easy. These sources are known as point sources e.g. industrial stack emission, volcanic eruption etc. (b) Line sources: are those sources whose entry in atmosphere is line shape through which it is running e.g. pesticides spray, vehicular pollution etc. (c) Area sources: are those sources whose entry in atmosphere is not identified and it cover large area e.g. blasting of poisonous gas tank, forest fire etc.

13.4.2 Common Air Pollutants

Suspended particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter (SPM) includes a range of different size and nature particulate matters that are suspended in atmosphere. Burning of coal in power and industrial units, burning diesel, agriculture, construction activities etc. are responsible for generation of particulate matter. Respiratory system is unable to filter out particles of smaller than 10 microns size. These particles can reach deep into lung resulting in respiratory diseases, possible premature death and cancer. Smaller the particle deeper it penetrates in lungs and more adversely it affects the body. Environmental effects include poor visibility and damage to trees, soil and aquatic life.

Sulphur dioxides: it is a primary precursor of acidic precipitation. Sulphur dioxide forms when substances containing Sulphur such as coal, diesel and oil are burned. Industrial processes like pulp and paper making, steam generation, electricity production and smelting of metals also produces sulphur dioxide. It can harm human and animal lungs. It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulphur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen to form sulphuric acid. Acid rain kills plant and animals and deteriorates materials and metals. Historical monuments made of stone like marble e.g. Taj Mahal are very badly deteriorated by acid rain. Nitrogen oxides: nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown irritating gas produced by burning of fossil fuels like petrol, diesel and coal. It can cause respiratory illness and increase breathing difficulty. It is also responsible and primary factor of photochemical smog formation. Nitrogen oxides combine with water and make acid rain which can harm humans, animals, vegetation and erode buildings. NO2 can also damage fabrics.

Carbon monoxide: it is a colourless, odourless gas produced by the incomplete combustion fossil fuels e.g. petrol, diesel and wood and biomass. Vehicular exhaust contributes roughly 60% of all CO emission and up to 95% in cities. It combines with hemoglobin and lowers oxygen carrying capacity of our blood. This can cause slower reflexes, confusion and drowsiness. At higher levels it result in death of human and animals. Carbon monoxide levels are generally highest in areas with traffic congestion and poor air circulation.

Carbon dioxide: it is emitted as a result of burning of biomass and fossil fuel like coal, oil and natural gases. It finds uses as a refrigerant, in fire extinguishers and in beverage carbonation. It is the main greenhouse gas which results in global warming.

Lead: it is present in petrol, diesel, leaded gasoline, lead batteries, paints and hair dye products. If human or animals are exposed to lead over a long period, it bio-accumulates and biomagnified and damages nervous system.

Ozone: it is an essential in stratosphere and protects us from harmful UV rays but in troposphere near ground levels it is a pollutant. Vehicles and industries are the major source of ground level ozone emission. It is also generated during formation of photochemical smog. Ozone irritates the mucus membrane of the respiratory system, eyes and other tissues. Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn and water. It lowers our resistance to cold and pneumonia.

13.5 Air Quality Standards

The Parliament of India having powers under Article 253, enacted the Air Act, 1981 to control and prohibit air pollution. The main objectives of the act are eradication, control and reduction of air pollution; establishment of Central and State Pollution Control Board ; and provide powers and functions to such Boards. The Central Pollution Control Board notify the National Ambient Air Quality Standards in the year 1982 which are appropriately reconsidered in 1994 based on health criteria and land uses. Sr. Pollutant Time Concentration in Ambient Air NO. Weighted Industrial, Residential, Ecologically Sensitive Average Rural and Other Area Area (notified by central government) 1 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Annual 50 20 ug/m3 24 hours 80 80 2 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Annual 40 30 ug/m3 24 hours 80 80 3 Particulate Matter (Size Annual 60 60 less than 10 um) or 3 PM10ug/m 24 hours 100 100 4 Particulate Matter ( Size Annual 40 40 less than 2.5 um) or 3 PM2.5 ug/m 24 hours 60 60 3 5 Ozone (O3) ug/m 8 hours 100 100

1 hour 180 180 6 Lead (Pb) ug/m3 Annual 0.50 0.50

24 hours 1.0 1.0 7 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8 hours 02 02 mg/m3 1 hour 04 04 8 Ammonia (NH3) ug/m3 Annual 100 100

24 hours 400 400 3 9 Benzene (C6H6) ug/m Annual 05 05

10 Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP)- Annual 01 01 particulate phase only ng/m3 11 Arsenic (As) ng/m3 Annual 06 06

12 Nickel (Ni) ng/m3 Annual 20 20

13.6 Effect of Air Pollution

1. Effect on Human beings Clean air is necessary for human health. Air pollution affects the respiratory system, nervous system and lungs. Polluted air causes many harmful effects on human beings. The table 2 shows various health effects due to different air pollutants:

Table 2: Sources and health effects of various air pollutants

Pollutants Sources Effects Suspended Burning of fossil fuels, vehicular Pulmonary malfunctioning, Particulate Matter emission and industrial emissions asthma and affect photosynthesis Sulphur Dioxides Thermal power plants and Eye and throat irritation, allergies, industries reduce exchange of gases from lung surface and acid rain Nitrogen Dioxide Vehicles, thermal power plants Breathlessness, bronchitis, and industries asthma, cancer and acid rain Carbon Monoxide Incomplete burning of fossil Difficulty in breathing, severe fuels, vehicular and industrial headaches, unconsciousness and emissions death Carbon Dioxide Burning of fossil fuels Heart strain, impairs reflexes, global warming Ozone Automobile and industrial Breathlessness, asthma, wheezing emissions and emphysema Lead Petrol and industrial emissions Damage brain and central nervous system, impaired intelligence and cancer Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil fuels Carcinogenic effect, irritation of eyes, hypertension and kidney damage Hydrogen Soft coal, vehicular emission Nausea, irritate eyes and throat Sulphides Mercury Industries Memory loss, nervous disorder and minimata disease Cadmium Industries Affects the kidney and itai-itai disease Silica Dust Silicon quarries Silicosis Coal Dust Coal mines Black lung disease and cancer Tobacco Smoke Cigarettes Lung cancer, chronic bronchitis and asthma Radioactive Radon, radium, x-rays, beta rays Leukemia, destroy living tissue Pollutants and permanent genetic changes Ammonia Dye making industries, fertilizers Bring tears in eyes, damage lungs

2. Effects on Plants Air pollution affects the plants directly or indirectly. The potential for damage to crops by air pollution is depends on nature and concentration of pollutants. Direct damage to plants includes necrosis and chlorosis, indirect damage results soil acidification from acid rain. The table 3 shows various effects of air pollution on plants:

Table 3: Effects of air pollutants on plants

Pollutants Effects

Sulphur Dioxide Chlorosis, plasmolysis, membrane damage, growth suppression and lichen desert Ozone Bleaching, growth suppression and damage chlorenchyma Ethylene Flower dropping, premature leaf fall, curling of petals and discoloration of sepals Hydrogen Fluoride Chlorosis and dwarfing leaf abscission Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) Bronzing on the lower surface of leaves

3. Effects on Aquatic Animals Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid. These compounds come back onto the ground as acid rain. Acid rains are very harmful to the aquatic animals. Acid rain due to low pH results in high aluminium level in soils and water bodies. Acid rain falls on streams and lakes and acidifies them. At lower pH level fish eggs cannot hatch which destroy fish population.

4. Effects on Materials Presence of sulphur dioxide and moisture in the atmosphere make sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid damage metal parts of buildings, vehicles, bridges, railway tracks and statues made up of marble and limestone. Prolonged exposure of ozone in atmosphere results in deterioration of rubber. Oxides of nitrogen cause deterioration of dolomite buildings and also cause fading of cotton and rayon fibres.

5. Green House Effect

Green house means a building made of glass. In a similar way earth atmosphere act like a green house. When sunlight reaches earth surface some is absorbed and warms the earth surface. Solar radiation coming to earth are absorbed by surface of green house gases like CO2, CFC and methane and reradiated as infrared (IR) radiations which are entrapped on earth and increases its temperature. This process is called greenhouse effects.

Greenhouse gases reflect back the IR radiations as heat energy to the earth surface. This transfer of heat energy back to earth surface by the atmospheric gases is called the greenhouse effect.

The four major greenhouse gases are CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and CFC. Their contribution to greenhouse effect is CO2 (55%), methane (20%) and CFC (14.5%). Burning of fossil fuels by industries and vehicles are mainly responsible for higher CO2 emissions into the environment.

Control of Greenhouse Effect

 Reducing the consumption of fossil fuel by use of non-conventional renewable source of energy such as solar, wind, biogas and nuclear energy.

 Enhancing forestation will reduce the CO2 level thereby decreasing the greenhouse effect.

6. Global Warming

Global warming means increase in earth surface temperature. It results in change in earth climate and sea level rise. The increased concentration of carbon dioxide, methane and chloro floro carbon (CFC) by burning of fossil fuels to be the primary sources of the global warming. Impacts of global warming are sea levels rising, melting of the polar ice caps and glaciers, change in rainfall pattern and shifting of food production belts.

Effects of global warming

1. Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion of the ocean.

2. Patterns of precipitation are changing.

3. Increase in floods, droughts and tornadoes.

7. Acid Rain

Acid rain is the rainfall that has been acidified. It is formed when oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur react with the moisture in the atmosphere. It is rain with pH of less than 5.6. Acid rain is particularly damaging plants and animals that live in lakes, streams, rivers, forests ecosystem etc.

Types of Acid Deposition: Acid rain is a mixture of wet and dry deposition from the atmosphere.  Wet Deposition: Wet deposition takes place in the form of rain, snow and fog. It decreases the pH of soil and water bodies thereby affecting plants and animals.  Dry Deposition: In dry weather, the chemicals get deposited on dust and smoke. These comes down to earth surface by the rain.

Effects of Acid Rain

 Acid rain causes excessive damage to buildings and structural materials such as marble, lime stone and slate. Lime stone is attacked rapidly e.g. Taj Mahal in Agra has suffered a lot due

to SO2 and sulphuric acid from Mathura Refinery.  Acid rain is contaminating portable ground water with toxic compounds present in it. These toxic compounds enter in the human body and affect the respiratory, nervous and digestive system of human being.  Acid rain produces acidity in lakes and rivers which kill fishes, algae and bacteria.  The adverse impact on agriculture leads to the deterioration of life quality indices.

Control Measures:

 Reduce vehicular emission containing nitrogen oxide.  Reduce emission from power station containing Sulphur dioxide by using alternate source of energy like tidal, wind, hydropower etc.  Buffering: adding a neutralizing agent to increases the pH of soil and water body.  Using low Sulphur fuel.

8. Ozone Depletion

Ozone layer is present in stratosphere. Maximum concentration of ozone (O3) is at a height of 20 to 30 kilometers because at this height there is maximum concentration of Oxygen (O2) and UV rays. With increase in height there is decrease in concentration of O2 and increase in UV rays and reverse in case of decrease in height. In presence of UV rays, Oxygen is broken into nascent oxygen (O). This single atom of oxygen (O) combines with oxygen molecule (O2) and forms the ozone (O3)

UV formation takes place as below:

O2 + UV rays O + O ------1 O2 + O O3 ------2

It protects life on earth by absorbing harmful UV rays. Harmful effects of UV rays are sunburn, cataract and blindness, skin ageing and weakening of immune system.

Ozone layer depletion is a serious environmental problem. Ozone layer depletion initial captured the world attention in 1970 in Antarctica. The term “Ozone hole” is applied when level of ozone is below 200 Dobson Unit (D.U). Main cause ozone depletion is release of CFCs in environment which finds its way into Antarctic through air circulation.

UV rays librates the chlorine atom from the CFC molecule. This librated free chlorine reacts with an O3 to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and oxygen (O2). The chlorine atom from ClO is again librated by reaction of oxygen atom (O) with CIO. UV depletion takes place as below:

Cl + O3 O2 + ClO ------3

O + ClO Cl + O2 ------4

Control Measures:

 Stop using CFCs as refrigerant.  Stop using CFCs in Foams.  Stop using CFCs cleaning solvents.

13.7 Air Pollution Control Measures

Air pollution control devices remove particulates and gaseous pollutants.

13.7.1 Control of Particulates Matter

Particulate matters are removed from a polluted air stream by various processes. Most common types of equipments used are settling chambers, cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and bagfilters.

Settling Chambers

In settling chambers particulate matters are removed by force of gravity. In these systems velocity of gas is so reduced that large particles will move slow enough and gets collected in the settling chamber by gravity. They are mainly used as a precleaner.

Cyclones Air is allowed to enter the cyclone chamber where it forms a vortex. Due to centrifugal force larger particles have greater inertia and move to the wall of cyclone. Thus particulate matter slide down into hopper at the bottom of the cyclone and cleaned air come out from the top. They have efficiencies of about 90 percent.

Scrubbers

In wet scrubbers spray of water or liquid capture the suspended particles. Spray-tower scrubbers and Venture scrubbers are most commonly used methods to scrub particulate matter from air.

Electrostatic Precipitator

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) work on principle of potential difference. They have collection efficiency of more than 99 %. The dust particles suspended in flue gas get charged when they pass through the ESP and opposite charge ions migrate towards the collection electrode. Bagfilters

Filtering fabric made of nylon or wool used to remove particles air is known as bagfilter. When gas is passed through filter, the particulates matter is retained on the fabric. Forces of impaction, interception and diffusion are responsible for particle removal in bag filter.

13.7.2 Control of Gaseous Pollutants

Gaseous pollutants are controlled by three techniques which are absorption, adsorption and incineration.

Absorption:

Gaseous pollutants are removed from air when they pass through the liquid. Spray tower, packed columns, spray chambers and venture scrubbers are used for absorption of gaseous pollutants. Adsorption:

It is a surface phenomenon. When a gas is passed through a solid, it is adsorbed on the surface of the solid by van der waals forces. Adsorbent have high surface area. Commonly used adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel and alumina.

Incineration: In this technique substances are burnt at very high temperature in oxygen saturation condition so that they are completely oxidized. During incineration, organic substances and fuels are completely oxidized into CO2 and water.

13.8 Summary Air pollution may be defined as addition of pollutants, which may be natural gas or man made synthetic chemical, in air to such a level that it become injurious to humans, animals or other materials. The major air pollutants are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter (PM10 and

PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), poly aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), ozone (O3), lead (Pb), etc. These pollutants lead to adverse impacts on human health, animal, plants and materials, if present above standard permissible limits. The pollutants like SO2, and NOx are responsible for acid rain. Whereas CO2, CH4, and CFCs are major green house gases which lead to global warming. CFCs are also responsible for ozone depletion. Particulates matter from air can be removed techniques of settling chambers, cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and bagfilters, whereas gaseous pollutants are controlled by absorption, adsorption and incineration.

13.9 Key words Atmosphere: Thin envelope of gases surroundings the earth.

Air Pollution: Presence of air pollutant in air which are injurious to human health, animal and plant.

Air pollutants: major air pollutants are Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5), Ozone (O3), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO2) , Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Lead (Pb) and Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) etc.

Green House Effect: Reflecting back of heat energy by the atmospheric gases is called the greenhouse effect

Global Warming: Increase in the temperature of the atmosphere and oceans

Acid Rain: Rain with pH of less than 5.6

13.10 Self Assessment Questions 1. What do you mean by Atmosphere? Discuss its composition and change in temperature with height. 2. Define Air pollution. Which are the factors responsible for air pollution?

3. What do you mean by air pollutants? Discuss their sources.

4. Write in brief the various health effects on human, animals and plants of air pollution. Also discuss their effects on materials.

5. Discuss global environmental issues of air pollution.

6. Why maximum concentration of Ozone is in between 20 to 30 kilometers. Discuss mechanism of Ozone depletion.

7. What is a green house effect? Discuss mechanism of green house effect and also discuss its effects on environment.

8. What do you mean by global warming? Discuss its adverse effects on environment.

9. Discuss in short the methods of air pollution control. Also discuss in brief the air quality standards. 13.11 Suggested Readings  Daniel Vallero (2014). Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Academic Press.  Jeremy Colls (2002).Air Pollution, Spon Press, London.  Kaushik, A. and Kaushik, C.P. (2008). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New Age International Publishers.  Rao, C. S. (2006). Environmental Pollution Control Engineering. New Age International Publishers.  The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981). Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Government of India.  Zanneti, P., Al-Azmi, D. and Al- Rashied, S., Editors (2007). An introduction to air pollution- Definition, Classification and History, Published by The Arab Scholl for Science and Technology (ASST) (http://www.arabschool.org.sy) and The Enviro Comp Institute (http://www.envirocomp.org/).

Subject: Environment Management

Course Code: CP- 103 Author: Prof. Rajesh Kumar Lohchab

Lesson No.: 14 Vetter: WATER RESOURCES AND POLLUTION Structure 14.0 Objectives 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Water Resources 14.2.1 Surface Water 14.2.2 Water Reservoirs 14.2.3 Ground Water 14.2.4 Hydrological cycle 14.2.4.1 Components of Hydrological Cycle 14.3 Water Pollution 14.3.1 Nutrients Pollution 14.3.2 Organic Matter 14.3.3 Microbiological Disease Causing Agents 14.3.4 Chemical Water Pollution 14.3.5 Turbidity 14.3.6 Oil Spillage 14.3.8 Thermal Pollution 14.3.7 Radioactive Waste 14.4 Summary 14.5 Key words 14.6 Self Assessment Questions 14.7 References/Suggested readings 14.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson, student will be able to:  Understands the water resources and basics of movement of water on earth  Understand the sources and factor responsible of water pollution  Explain the major water pollutants and their health effects 14.1 Introduction

Before man start agriculture, he was a hunter and gather with few requirements and small population, thus he has negligible impacts on the environment. After start of agriculture and industrialization our requirement has increased many folds. With growth of human population industrialization and technological development, man attitude towards nature has been changed and we have over exploited natural resources to raise our living standard thereby causing very adverse impacts on the environment. At present our civilization has reached to its zenith leading to environmental degradation to such a level that it is getting difficult to make it safer for human being and other living plants and animals.

Industrialization during 19th century changed mankind’s lifestyle and gave a new pace at which knowledge was gathered and new substances or technology came. Thus, new knowledge and technological development make our life easy and comfortable but our environment is getting polluted day by day by release of harmful industrial effluents in the form of air and water pollutants and hazardous substances. Environmental pollution is now become a serious problem at world level and environmental issue never happened in human history are being raised now a day’s creating serious environment conflicts in the form of pollution, with release of persistent toxic chemicals leading to serious ecological and environmental problem.

The term environment has been derived from French word “Environia” means to surround. Surrounding in which man sustains its life process which effects the growth and development of living beings. Environmental pollution means the presence of harmful substances or products into the the environment.

As per EPA, 1986 water pollution is caused by release of toxic and hazardous pollutants into surface water bodies i.e. river lakes, stream etc. and ground water bodies i.e. non- confined and confined aquifers. Polluted water is inappropriate for use in industry and unfit for drinking purpose and can adversely affect recreation and agriculture uses. It reduces the aesthetic beauty of lakes and rivers. It is impossible to escape from the affects of water pollution. Consumption of this contaminated water and cultivation of crops on polluted soil adversely affects the health of plants and animals including human beings. Disposal of solid waste on land surface is anaesthetic and it spread harmful diseases as well.

Industrial revolution without control is non-sustainable in long run as new synthetic persistent chemicals having long lasting effects on the environment are being introduced into the environment. Industrial waste is process waste produced during manufacturing of products, thus nature of waste produced vary from industry to industry and product to product.

The 70% of the earth surface water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exits on earth. Global water pollution scenario suggests that a large section of people lack safe drinking water resulting in millions of deaths by waterborne diseases such as cholera and hepatitis every year.

In India, situation of water resources is very critical because India has 16% of world’s population and about 2.45% of worlds land area but available world’s water resources are about 4%. India has already facing the grave drinking water crisis and today water is one of the largest problems India facing. The main industries contributing to water pollution are pulp and paper industries, textile industry and various food processing industries.

Environmental pollution is necessary evil of all development because organic and inorganic chemicals are disposed off into the air and water in the form of solids, liquid and slurry. Huge amount of different chemicals are also being released into the environment in the form of industrial effluent which are responsible for environmental pollution especially the pollution of water bodies (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003, Sauza et al., 2004).

Physical, chemical and biological treatment methods are used to treat wastewater. Biological methods are beneficial instead of chemical treatment due to less sludge production with high COD removal in addition to economic benefits as no chemicals are required. Physical treatment methods include sedimentation, floatation and adsorption. Chemical treatment of wastewater by coagulants such as calcium hydroxide, aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride and iron chloride results in about 94% removal of suspended matter and 89% removal of phosphorus and average elimination of COD and TKN. A physical-chemical treatment method is not been a viable technology due to their high capital cost and environmental consideration and low treatment efficiency in reducing the COD and BOD load.

A balance is must between environment and development. This can be done through sustainable development by meeting the need of present population with taking care of future generation. Any development which cannot provide clean air and safe water to its people cannot be constructive and impractical for any country. There is nothing more important than environment protection and it should be our top priority (National Green Tribunal).

14.2 Water Resources

14.2.1 Surface Water

Surface water sources are river, lake and reservoir used for swimming, drinking, industrial, agricultural or other uses but due to water pollution sometimes these uses are limited. Water release from reservoirs depends upon time of year, needs of irrigators and drinking water demands. They can also be used for recreation or hydro-power generation.

Municipal and industrial sewage are major sources of pollution for streams, lake and reservoirs but these days other sources of pollution are more difficult to identify and control. Water quality must be monitored and the effects of water pollution on aquatic life, human health and environment must study.

14.2.2 Water Reservoirs

A res ervoi r is an artificial lake constructing by making a dams across rivers to store wat er. It can also be formed on natural lake by constructing a dam at lake outlet. They are used for power generation, downstream water supply, irrigation, fl ood control, canals and recreation . Reservoirs are highly managed structure used to balance the flow by taking in water during high flows and releasing it during low flows in controlled manner. Recreational uses of reservoir are fis hi ng, boat ing bi rd wat ching, landscape painting , walking and hiki ng. Large reservoirs retain water for months or even years of average inflows basis and also provide flood protection and irrigation serv ices. The design and provision of these services in a hydrpower plant dependents on environment and social needs.

14.2.3 Ground Water

Ground water is in more abundance than surface water sources. It is pumped from aquifer and considered as cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water, thus, used for public water supplies.

Ground water pollution resulted by improper waste disposal. It is more dangerous and difficult to treat in comparison to surface water.

Movement of water in various resources on earth is governed by hydrological/water cycle.

14.2.4 Hydrological cycle

The hydrological cycle discoverer, Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), declare that rainfall itself is adequate for the maintenance of rivers. The hydrological cycle is called the water cycle. It explains the nonstop movement of water on, above and below the earth surface. The water travels from one source to another i.e. from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere and back by evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff and subsurface flow. During this it undergoes through liquid, solid (ice) and vapor (gas) phase. This cycle extend from an average depth of about 1km in the lithosphere (the crust of the earth), to a height of about 15 km in the atmosphere.

Water is evaporated from the oceans, lakes, rivers and earth's surface and transpirated by plants to the atmosphere and there these vapours in the clouds are converted into water droplets by condensation resulted in water precipitation back to the earth surface and oceans. Water fell on earth surface in the form of rainfall or snowfall. Precipitation comes back to the oceans by gravity as surface runoff through rivers. A part of it percolates through soil and reaches to ground water aquifers. It may be detain for millions of years in polar ice caps.

The water cycle maintain of life and ecosystems on the earth and used for households, industries, agriculture and production of power. 14.2.4.1 Components of Hydrological Cycle

1. Evaporation

Evaporation is the conversion of water from liquid to gaseous phase by solar radiations. The gaseous phase i.e. water vapours moves from the earth surface into the atmosphere.

2. Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration includes both the eavaporation and transpiration together. Transpiration is the release of water vapor by plants.

3. Condensation It is transformation of water vapor into liquid droplets in the air.

4. Precipitation It is the falling of water in the form of rain, snow, hail, frost etc. on the earth‟s surface.

Rain: Water in the form of liquid droplets after condensation in clouds becomes heavy enough to fall as precipitation on earth surface. It is a major component of the hydrological cycle and responsible for deposition of the majority of fresh water on the Earth.

Snowfall: The fall of water in the form of snowflakes from the clouds is referred as snowfall. It is the precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice on earth. It occurs when the freezing level is less than 300 m from the ground surface.

Sleet: It is a mixture of snow and rain in the form of small pellets of transparent ice having a diameter of 5 mm or less.

Hail: It consists of large pellets or balls of ice. It is a form of solid rainfall known as hailstorms of diameter of 5 mm to 50 mm. They damage the crops and claim human and animal lives.

Drizzle: It is the continuous and uniform fall water droplets of diameter less than 0.5 mm.

Frost: It is the overnight deposit of ice in humid air and cold conditions which made fragile branched patterns of ice crystals as the result of fractal process. It damage crops and vegetation.

5. Infiltration

It is the water percolation from the earth surface into the ground. After infiltration, the water turns into groundwater. Percolation is the seepage of water from one soil zone to a lower zone.

6. Runoff Runoff is the drainage of water by streams and river at the outlet of a catchment. Runoff is excess rainfall calculated by subtraction of initial losses and infiltration losses from the total rainfall. During runoff, the water may percolate into the ground, evaporate into the air, get stored in lakes and reservoirs, or utilize for agricultural or other human uses.

Runoff phase of hydrological cycle is represented by stream flow. Runoff/Stream flow depends upon rainfall characteristics, catchment characteristics and climate factors.

7. Storage Storage is the water deposition in natural depressions of a basin. 8. Groundwater flow The flow of water below the earth surface, in the aquifers is referred as groundwater flow. Groundwater water may come back to the surface in the form of springs or by being pumped or ultimately seep into the oceans. Groundwater has tendency to move slowly, thus it replenished slowly and remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

14.3 Water Pollution

Pollutants find its way into water bodies and cause pollution of water. Presence of contaminants in water bodies like river, lake, stream and ground water to such an extent that became injurious to health of animals plant and human being is called water pollution. Major categories of water pollutants are as below:

 Nutrients Pollution like phosphate, nitrate etc.  Organic Matter  Microbiological i.e. disease causing agents  Chemicals like acid and bases, salts, heavy metals, pesticide etc.  Suspended Solids  Oil Spillage  Radioactive Waste  Thermal Pollution

14.3.1 Nutrients Pollution

Wastewater contains too much of nutrient like phosphate and nitrate leads to eutrophication i.e. high growth of algae and aquatic plants like water hyacinth. High growth of algae and aquatic plants create high organic matter content in water body when they die. Decomposition of this creates anaerobic condition by depleting oxygen content of water body leading to death of aquatic fauna like fishes by oxygen starvation.

14.3.2 Organic Matter

Biodegradation of organic matter in water bodies by micro organisms which include aerobes and anaerobes consume dissolved oxygen causing its depletion in the water body. In presence of high organic matter content in water body, the dissolve oxygen reach to such a level that aerobes may die leading to growth of anaerobic microorganism which resulted in production of harmful toxins such as ammonia and sulphides.

Organic Matter + O2+ Aerobic microorganism– CO2 + H2O + New cells

Organic Matter + Anaerobic microorganism– CH4+ CO2 + H2S+ New cells

14.3.3 Microbiological Disease Causing Agents

It includes bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms. These infectious organisms cause diseases in infected individuals. Developing and underdeveloped countries does not have enough resources, so people living in these countries drink untreated water directly from river or stream contaminated by disease causing microorganism. Diseases caused by consumption of this contaminated water are known as water borne disease. The most common waterborne diseases with their causative organism are as given below in table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Common waterborne diseases with their causative organism

Disease Causative Organism

Typhoid Salmonella typhi

Dysentery Shigella dysenteriae

Chloera Vibrio Cholerae

Enteritis Clostridium perfringens, other bacteria

Amoebic Dysentery Entamoeba histolytica

Infectious Hepatitis Hepatitis Virus A

Anclystomiasis Anclyostoma sp.

Cryptospordiosis Cryptosporodium sp.

Poliomyelitis Poliovirus

Schistosomiasis Schistosoma sp.

14.3.4 Chemical Water Pollution

Many industries uses different chemicals end up in water. These include chemicals like acids, bases, cations, anion, heavy metals, pesticide etc. Out of these some are very toxic like heavy metals and pesticides and responsible for many disease and death of human beings as well as aquatic plant and animals. Chemical can be grouped into organic and inorganic.

Inorganic chemicals include acids, metals, salts etc. Contaminants that contain elements other than carbon do not get degraded easily. Acid base and salt affects the pH of water bodies thereby adversely affecting growth of many aquatic flora and fauna. Heavy metals are toxic in nature and cause many types of problem. The sources and toxic effects of different heavy metals are discussed below in table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Sources and toxic effects of heavy metals

Heavy Source Harmful Effect metals

Chromium Discharge from steel, textile gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hemolysis, manufacturing, electro plating acute renal failure, pulmonary fibrosis,

and pulp mills; erosion of natural lung cancer (Soghoian and Sinert, 2008). deposits etc.

Copper Metal cleaning, plating baths, pulp and gastrointestinal distress, liver or kidney paper industry, fertilizer industry, damage.

copper/ brass-plating, corrosion of pipes and erosion of rocks etc.

Cadmium Electroplating, paint pigments, plastics, Pneumonitis, proteinuria, lung cancer,

alloy preparation mining and silver- osteomalacia (Zhang et. al., 2008). cadmium batteries; metal refineries discharge; corrosion of pipes and erosion of rocks etc. Nickel Processing of minerals, paints, Allergic sensitization, lung and nervous electroplating, enamelling of porcelain system damages and dermatitis (Malkoc, etc. 2006)

Zinc Printed circuit board manufacturing, Dermatitis, Pneumoitis, stomach pain, metal electroplating, painting, dying, nausea, lethargy, dizziness and muscle photography etc. incoordination (Bishnoi and Garima, 2005).

Lead Batteries, smelting and alloying, nausea, vomiting, encephalopathy, paints, some types of solders etc. headache, anaxia, anemia, abdominal pain, nephropathy, foot-drop/wrist-drop (Soghoian and Sinert

2009).

Mercury Old paint, industrial pollutants, leaded Inflammation of gums and mouth, kidney

gasoline. disorder, neurotic disorder, Parageusia, metallic taste, pain and pink discoloration of hands and feet (Soghoian and Sinert, 2009).

Organic chemicals include man made (synthetic) and natural. Natural organic chemicals include carbohydrate (sugar), fat (fatty acids) and protein (amino acid). They are non toxic in nature but may create BOD by depleting oxygen of water bodies if present in high concentration. Synthetic organic substances include pesticides, solvent, plastic etc. They may be toxic to human being, animals and plants. Some of toxic effects of different chemical are discussed below in table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Toxic effects of different chemical

Compound Health Effect

Solvent Benzene Associated with blood disorder, leukemia.

Carbon Tetrachloride Possibly causes cancer, liver damage, may also affect kidney.

Chloroform Possibly causes cancer.

Trichloroethylene Probably cause cancer.

Pesticide

Aldicarb Attack Nervous System

Ethylene dibromide Possibly causes cancer; attack liver and kidney. (fumigant)

DDT Carcinogenic

Organophosphate Attack nervous system

Chemicals

Polychlorinated Bibhenyl Attack liver and kidney; Possibly causes cancer.

Vinyl Chloride Causes cancer.

Dioxins Some cause cancer; may harm reproductive, immune and nervous system.

Pesticides prevents, destroy or control the pest and vectors of diseases causing harm and responsible for loss of food and food crops and also leads to death of plants and human being. Pesticides can be classified into herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.

14.3.5 Turbidity

Some pollutants do not easily dissolve in water and remain in suspension. These materials are called suspended particulate matter. They block the light penetration into water body thereby affecting the photosynthetic rate. It means there is less oxygen content near to bottom of water bodies. 14.3.6 Oil Spillage

Oil spills effect the wildlife as it stuck into the feather of sea birds causing them to lose their ability to fly. It also affects fishes and aquatic organism by making a barrier for transfer of oxygen into water bodies.

14.3.7 Radioactive Waste

Radioactive waste contains radionuclides like strontium, iodine, radium, sodium, cesium, thorium, uranium etc. These are unstable atoms or molecules which decay by emitting radiations.

Biological effects of radiations are of two types i.e. somatic and genetic. Somatic effects are immediate radiation sickness and acute radiation syndrome and delayed response in the form of leukemia, carcinogenesis, foetal development abnormality and shortening of life.

Genetic effects may be chromosomal which leads to chromosomal mutation leading to sterility and point mutation which affects the gene and its changes travel from one generation to another.

Radiations are used to sterilization of food and drugs, killing of insects in seeds and activation of chemical reactions in petroleum process.

Source of radiations includes nuclear reactor, ventilation air, uranium mining etc.

14.3.8 Thermal Pollution

Effluent discharge from industries like thermal power plant increases the temperature of receiving water body to such a level that it affects the respiration and reproduction of aquatic life. The increase in temperature of water body decreases its dissolve oxygen content thereby affecting fishes or aquatic life.

Industry has a moral, legal and economic responsibility to consider waste treatment as one of the variable costs of doing business. Industry must treat its waste to the level of below effluent discharge standards limits. This can be done by adopting cheaper technology using locally available resources. Primary benefit of industrial waste treatment is in the form of saving by reuse of treated effluents by meeting compliance of regulatory bodies like CPCB, SPCB etc. Secondary benefits are saving to downstream consumers from improved water quality, increase in employment in construction and operation of wastewater treatment plant and increased recreation uses, such as fishing, boating, swimming, as a result of increased purity of water. Intangible benefits of wastewater treatment are good public relation and improved industrial image, improved mental health of citizens and improved conservation practices (Nemrow, 2005). Main objectives of wastewater treatment are:

 Removal of inorganic and organic suspended and dissolves solids  Removal of toxic chemicals and disease causing micro-organism.

The methods of wastewater treatment are classified as physical unit operations and chemical and biological unit processes. In unit operation pollutant are removed by using physical forces without any changes in their properties. Predominant physical unit operations used in treatment of wastewater are screening, flocculation, sedimentation, floatation and filtration.

In chemical and biological unit process pollutants are removed by converting them into non harmful end products. Chemical process mainly changes the pollutant composition by chemical reaction of pollutant with chemicals present in treatment system or added from outside whereas biological agent like micro-organism convert the organic substances in presence or absence of oxygen through enzymatic action. Predominant chemical processes are coagulation, precipitation, adsorption, disinfection.

Purpose of different treatment techniques is waste minimization. Based on characteristics and amount of toxic chemicals and presence of biodegradable and non biodegradable matter in an industrial wastewater, the waste can be minimized by adopting techniques of volume reduction, strength reduction, neutralization, and equalisation and proportioning.

14.4 Summary

Unauthorised release of sewage and industrial wastewater having toxic chemicals without treatment into water bodies is mainly responsible for health hazards in living beings and such pollutants are mainly responsible to pollute our holy rivers like Ganga, Yamuna etc. to an extent that water of these rivers becomes unfit for drinking, bathing and other purposes. These rivers water is beyond the level of purification making it an impossible task to clean them even after spending huge amount of money and use of technology. Thus, it is necessary to treat the wastewater before their discharge into water bodies. Various environmental acts prohibit discharging effluents into the environment without their treatment to a level of permissible limits. Wastewater treatment can be done by using various unit operations like filtration, sedimentation etc. and unit processes including chemical and biological treatments like precipitation, oxidation/reduction and aerobic treatment like activated sludge processes, tricking filter, rotating biological contactor, oxidation ponds etc. and anaerobic treatment like UASB reactor.

14.5 Keywords

Water Resources: These are sources of water have potential for various uses like domestic, agriculture and industrial

Water pollution: Introduction of pollutants in water

Pollutants: Substance/chemical present in such concentration that it is injurious to health of organisms and environment

Water treatment: Removal of pollutants to below permissible limits by using various unit operations and processes

14.6 Self Assessment Questions

1. Define water resources. Discuss its types and various uses.

2. What do you mean by hydrological cycle? What is its importance in maintaining various water resources?

3. Define water pollution. Which are the factors responsible for water pollution?

4. What do you mean by water pollutants? Discuss their sources.

5. Write in brief the various health effects on human, animals and plants of water pollution. Also discuss their effects on aquatic ecosystems. 6. Discuss in short the methods of wastewater treatments. Also discuss in brief the legislative measures of control of water pollution.

14.7 Reference

 Bishnoi, N. R. and Garima (2005). Fungus: An-alternative for bioremediation of heavy metal containing wastewater: A review. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 64: 93-100.

 Malkoc E. (2006). Ni (II) removal from aqueous solutions using cone biomass of Thuja orientalis. J. Hazar. Mater, 137: 899-908.

 Metcalf L. and Eddy H.P. (2003). Waste Water Engineering. Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co., New Delhi.

 Nemrow N.L. (2005). Industrial Collaborative Solutions. In: Agaedy, F.J. and Nemrow N.L. (editors) Environmental Solutions: Elsevier Inc., Oxford, U.K.: 249-295 (ISBN: 978- 0-12-088441-4).

 Soghoian S. and Sinert R. H. (2009). Heavy metals toxicity. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/ 814960-overview.

 Souza R.R., Bersolin I.T.L., Bioni T.L., Gimenes M.L. and Dias Filho B.P. (2004). The performance of a three phase fluidizes bed reactor in treatment of wastewater with organic load. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 21(2): 219-227.

 Zhang W., Pang F., Huang Y., Yan P. and Lin W. (2008). Cadmium exerts toxic effects on ovarian steroid hormone release in rats. Toxicol Lett., 182(1-3):18–23.

Subject: Environment Management

Course Code: CP- 103 Author: Prof. Rajesh Kumar Lohchab

Lesson No.: 15 Vetter: SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT Structure 15.0 Objectives 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Solid Waste 15.3 Classification of solid waste 15.3.1 Classification on the basis of source 15.3.2 Classification on the basis of type 15.4 Municipal Solid Waste 15.4.1 Biodegradable waste 15.4.2 Non-biodegradable waste 15.4.3 MSW generation in India 15.5 Solid Waste Management 15.5.1 Indian guidelines for waste management 15.5.2 Regulatory framework for the municipal solid waste 15.5.3 Collection of municipal solid waste 15.5.4 Storage of MSW 15.5.5 Segregation of MSW 15.5.6 Transportation of MSW 15.5.7 Disposal of MSW 15.6 Hazardous Waste 15.6.1 Classification of Hazardous Waste 15.6.2 Hazardous Waste Management 15.7 Summary 15.8 Key words 15.9 Self Assessment Questions 15.10 References 15.0 Objectives

After going through this lesson, student will be able to:

 Understands the basics of solid waste and its generation  Explain the Classification and Characteristics of solid waste  Explains the methods of solid waste management  Understand the basic of hazardous waste  Explain the types of hazardous waste and its management 15.1 Introduction

Solid waste attracted the attention of human civilization even before water and air pollution. The municipal solid waste quantity is challengeable and has changed over the time due to advancement of science and change in life style (Chandrappa and Brown, 2012). Littering of waste and their piles in every nook and corner is a common site in our country (Singh et al., 2014). The rural areas have also not been spared from the menace of huge mounting garbage and the hazards associated. Inadequate civic services with higher population and resource utilization are responsible for unhygienic conditions in all around our cities causing adverse affect on our environment and human health. A trend of considerable increase in generation of solid waste by population growth, urbanization and industrialization has been observed. There is a positive correlation between economic development and municipal solid waste generation. Rise in MSW in cities is in proportion to increase population growth with migration of people from rural area (Kaushal et al., 2012). It can also lead to the adverse effects on the environment and economy of many countries (Christensen et al., 2001 and Chofqi et al., 2004). To find land for MSW disposal is a challengeable task (Idris et al., 2004 and Sharholy et al., 2007).

Municipal solid waste and hazardous waste can cause a serious environmental problem if it is not managed in scientific manner. It can be a valuable resource if material and energy are recovered.

15.2 Solid Waste

Conventionally waste can be defined any solid or liquid material that doesn‟t have any further use. As per Environment Public Health Act (EPHA, 1988) of Singapore „waste‟ includes: a) Scrap material or an effluent arising from the application of any process, b) Broken, worn out, contaminated or spoiled material have disposed off and c) Discarded material shall be presumed to be waste unless the contrary is proved.

Garbage, sludge, refuse and other discarded solid materials resulting from industrial, residential and commercial activities and other operations are defined as solid waste. It does not include solids or dissolved material in domestic sewage or other pollutants like silt, dissolved or suspended solids in industrial wastewater effluents, dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or other common water pollutants (Leyes, 1993).

15.3 Classification of solid waste

15.3.1 Classification on the basis of source (Hosetti, 2006.)

 Residential and Municipal: Waste originate from residential area like houses, apartments etc. It consists of waste includes fruits and vegetables seed and peeled material, leaf litter, wood pieces, clothes, plastics, ashes, dust, building debris and soil etc. It also includes waste originated from demolition, construction, street cleaning, land scraping etc.  Commercial and Institutional: It includes waste originate from shops, hotels, etc. like grocery materials, leftover food, glasses, metals and ashes etc. Waste material like paper, plastic, glasses etc originate from school, colleges and offices is known as institutional waste.

 Agricultural: Waste material like degraded grains, fruits and vegetables, grass, litter etc. originated from agricultural activities is known as agricultural waste.

15.3.2 Classification on the basis of type (Hosetti, 2006.)

 Refuse: it includes all types of rubbish and garbage.

 Garbage: waste materials from kitchen waste, food, slaughter houses, canning and freezing industries can decompose easily are known as garbage.  Rubbish: it includes wastes material like paper, rubber, leather, wood, garden wastes metal, glass, ceramics, stones and soil.  Ashes: left over of heating and cooking or incineration of waste material is known as ash.  Street wastes: wastes collected during cleaning of streets, walkways, parks, playgrounds etc. It includes soil, paper, cardboard, plastics, leaves and vegetable matter in large quantities.

 Large wastes: waste like parts or whole of automobile, furniture, refrigerator and other home appliances, trees, fires, demolition and construction wastes is considered as large waste.  Industrial wastes: waste originated from industries like chemicals, paints, fertilizer, pesticides, sand and explosives etc. It can be of hazards nature.  Sewage sludge: it includes sludge from primary and secondary settling tank and solids from screens etc.  Mining wastes: waste originated from mines which include mine dump, slug ropes and waste from coal mines like coal dust, fine coal and dirt.  Agricultural wastes: waste originated from animal farm like crop residue, cattle dung, manure etc.

15.4 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Waste originate from communities which include residential colonies/home is known as municipal solid waste (MSW). It mainly includes waste originate from domestic and commercial activities. It also includes waste originated from institutional and industrial activities. Components of MSW is highly diverse in nature which includes packaging and containers, food waste, news paper, paper, leather, textile, metals, glass, yard waste and home appliances etc (Pichtel, 2005).

The MSW consist biodegradable organic waste like vegetable and fruit peels and seeds, recyclables waste like metals, glass, paper, plastic, etc., toxic waste like pesticides, batteries etc. and medical waste like expired medicines, disposable needles and syringes, stained cotton, sanitary napkins, etc. ( Jha et al., 2008 and Gupta et al., 2015).

MSW can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable

15.4.1 Biodegradable waste

This type of waste can be decomposed easily by the microorganisms into simpler substances i.e.

CO2 and H2O under aerobic conditions and CH4, CO2 and H2S under anaerobic conditions. Mainly organic wastes such as kitchen waste and waste from agricultural activities constitute the bulk of these wastes generated.

15.4.2 Non-biodegradable waste

The waste like polythene bags, plastic stuff, discarded vehicles, pesticide and fertilizer residues, worn tires, industrial wastes including metal scrap and medical waste such as disposable needles and syringes, plastic and glass bottles etc are non-biodegradable. They do not decompose with time and persistent in nature.

15.4.3 MSW generation in India

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2012) estimates that waste generation is expected to increase from 48 million tons (MT) per year to 300 MT per year by the year 2047 and estimated requirement of land for disposal would be 169.6 km2 (Pappu et al., 2007). Urban local bodies are investing around 35-50% of its available funds on waste management, but the problem of solid waste is increasing day by day (Annepu, 2012). Therefore, it is the need of time to optimize the service and delivery to increase the efficiency of municipal solid waste management.

15.5 Solid Waste Management

Management of solid waste in India becomes a difficult task due to urbanization with inappropriate planning and poor financial condition (Kaushal et al., 2012). Municipal solid waste is disposed off on road side and undefined areas without proper management. Management of solid waste involves collection, segregation and secondary storage, transportation, treatment and final disposal of waste.

15.5.1 Indian guidelines for waste management

Indian government initiated proper management of solid waste as early as 1960‟s by providing loans for MSW composting plants. Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules were formulated in 2000 for municipal solid waste management. Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 are applicable for collection, segregation, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste. Laws related to solid waste management and handling are framed by Govt. of India (Table 3.1) which includes municipal solid waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 having four schedules (Table 3.2). Table 3.1:- Laws related to solid waste

1962 Atomic Energy Act

1986 Environmental (Protection) Act

1989 Hazards Waste (Management and Handling) Rules

1996 Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules

1998 Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules

1999 Recycled Plastic manufactured & usage Rules

1999 Solid Waste Management in Class 1 cities in India-Guided by Supreme Court Of India

2000 Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules

2001 Batteries (Management and Handling) Rule

Table 3.2: Guidelines for Scientific disposal of MSW suggested in various Schedules of Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) rules, 2000

Schedule – I Related to implemented Schedule

Schedule – II Specification related to collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal solid waste

Schedule- III Specification for landfilling, measures of pollution prevention and closure of landfill site and post care.

Schedule- IV Include standards for composting, treated leachates and incinerations

Source: Akolkar, 2000

15.5.2 Regulatory framework for the municipal solid waste

According to MSW (management and handling) rules 2000, it is the responsibility of departments of urban development of the respective state governments to enforce the provisions of this rule in metro cities. The DC of the concerned districts is responsible for implementation of this rule. The MSW (management and handling) rules, 2000 deal with all aspects of MSW management i.e. from collection to disposal. State Pollution Control Boards should monitor the compost quality and incineration standards as specified in the rules (Pamnani and Srinivasarao, 2013).

15.5.3 Collection of municipal solid waste

For proper collection of MSW, the MSW (management and handling) rules of 2000 prescribe collection of MSW at household level by door-to-door collection or community bins to prohibit littering. It is the responsibility of urban local bodies to collect the waste from door-to-door or house-to-house. Waste collection is carried out by using handcarts, tricycles or any small motorized vehicles (Annepu, 2012). Community bins should be used for collection of waste from private colonies/sectors, commercial complexes, multistoried buildings etc.

15.5.4 Storage of MSW

It is common practice in India to collect wastes in plastic buckets and deposit it in community bins located near the houses. Wastes collected during the cleaning of streets are also disposed off in community bins (Kumar et al., 2009).

15.5.5 Segregation of MSW

Segregation means separation of waste into biodegradable (food waste, vegetable and fruit peels etc.), non-biodegradable (polythene bags, plastic, metal scraps, needles, syringe, plastic and glass bottles etc.) and recyclable (paper, cardboard, metals, glass, plastics etc.) (Parekh et al., 2013). It protects human health and the environment by removing the harmful pollutants from the waste stream and conserve natural resources (Hosetti, 2006).

15.5.6 Transportation of MSW

During transportation of waste, it should be covered to avoid exposure and spillage in environment. There should be separate cabin for driver for the protection of his health.

15.5.7 Disposal of MSW

The waste collected from municipalities is finally transferred to disposal site which may be a landfill site, incinerator or other disposal facilities like composting plant. Safe disposal of MSW is very important for safety of environment, wildlife and public health. An efficient waste management system is generally that which provide a landfill for ecologically sound disposal of waste that can‟t be reduced, recycled, composted, combusted or processed further (Ali et al., 1999 and Hosetti, 2006).

Methods of solid waste disposal are listed below: i) Open dumping and Burning

Solid wastes disposed off on roadside and in low lying areas are called an open dumpingThe open dumps attract flies, insects, rodents, birds and also produce odors because they remain uncovered (Hosetti, 2006). It causes pollution of ground water and soil as well as health problems.

Burning of waste is a common practice at open dumping site. It is prohibited in law and causing various types of pollution especially air pollution. ii) Composting

During composting process bacteria, fungi and other microbes break down organic materials to stable and usable organic substances called compost (Bernal et al., 2009 and Bundela et al., 2010). Compost is a good fertilizer because it contains various essential elements for plant.

In India, composting is carried out on small fraction i.e. 10-12% of total waste because it needs segregation and sorting which is not widely practiced (Sharholy et al., 2006). iii) Incineration

It is burning of solid waste in a closed chamber at very high temperature with excess air. During incineration various types of gaseous pollutants like CO2, CO, NOx, SOx etc. and fly ash in the form of suspended particulate matter are emitted into the atmosphere. The ash produced during incineration should be disposed off into sanitary landfill. iv) Bio-gasification

Under anaerobic conditions, the organic matter is converted into methane gas through process of hydrolysis, acitogensis, acidogensis and methongensis. Biogas consists of methane, carbon dioxide, H2S and ammonia etc. which is a good source of renewable energy. It can be used for heating and lightening. When large amount of biogas is produced, it can be used for generation of electricity (Hosetti, 2006). v) Refuse derived fuel (RDF) RDF involves the segregation of high calorific fraction of processed MSW to substitute coal in industrial operations such as electricity generation, manufacturing of steel, cement kilns etc. The organic fraction of waste is renewable source of energy considered as bio-fuel in RDF. vi) Sanitary land filling

In sanitary landfill, wastes are disposed off on land and covered with soil on daily basis to protect the environment and public health. Part of waste bring to landfill covered with soil and compacted on daily basis is known as a cell. The cells are placed successively on other cell and separated by a barrier of soil. During landfilling of waste a barrier of clay or plastic sheet is places at the bottom to control leaching of leachate into ground water (Ramachandra, 2007).

Site selection for landfilling depends on quality and quantity of waste generated, soil characteristics, ground water table, availability of land etc. The waste disposed off in landfill is decomposed by microbes. During decomposition of waste, the physical and chemical properties of waste are changed. Leachate and landfill gas is generated in landfill. The movement of leachate should be controlled so that it does not affect surface and ground water quality as well as adjacent soil because it is highly concentrated and hazardous nature. The gas generated in landfill can be collected and used for common purpose like heating, lighting and generation of electricity (Hosetti, 2006).

Leachate is a liquid which is formed by the leaching of rain water or surface run-off through the municipal solid waste in landfill. It dissolves suspended or dissolved impurities and other substances during percolation. Leachate quality and quantity depends on the types of solid waste and the landfill geology and hydrology.

Leachate treatment is necessary before their discharge into water body as they contain organic and inorganic contaminates like high organic matter, ammonia, pathogenic microorganisms, heavy metals, strong color and bad odor. vii) Bioreactor landfill

The landfill bioreactor can be defined as “a sanitary landfill that uses enhanced microbiological processes to transform and stabilize the readily and moderately decomposable organic waste constituents within 5 to 10 years of bioreactor process implementation. The landfill bioreactor significantly increases the extent of organic waste decomposition, conversion rates and process effectiveness over what would otherwise occur within the landfill.”

The decomposition process is accelerated by leachate recirculation which increases the moisture content of the MSW.

These are large conventional landfill with addition of water for addition of moisture by leachate collection and their recirculation into landfill and collection of biogas.

Component of Bioreactor landfill

Liner

A barrier of clay or plastic placed at the base of a landfill to control leachate from leaching into ground water and subsurface soil is called liner. Composite liners made up of clay or other material can be used for the collection of leachate in landfill site.

Leachate collection system:

Provision of leachate collection is a must for proper management of a landfill site. Leachate may be treated or recirculated back into the bioreactor landfill. To prevent clogging of leachate collection pipe from fine solids, there should provision of filtration unit in the design of a landfill (Thampan and Chandel, 2015).

Leachate recirculation and distribution system:

Leachate recirculation is a technique for leachate treatment and stabilization of waste. It increases the moisture content in the landfill that enhances the degradation rate of solid waste. Methods of leachate recirculation include distribution of collected leachate on the waste surface directly by spraying of leachate and injected through vertical or horizontal wells (Chiemchaisri et al., 2004). Leachate distributed at the surface of landfill percolate through the waste is collected from the bottom of the landfill. It is distributed to the surface of the landfill again and again.

Gas collection system:

During anaerobic decomposition of waste, biogas is produced which constitute about 60-70% of methane. It can be used for heating, lighting and generation of electricity, thus, a bioreactor landfill design should have provision of proper collection and management of biogas.

viii) Ocean dumping Some coastal cities dump their solid waste in to the ocean. There are massive environmental implications of this practice. ix) Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a process which uses intense heat to cause chemical changes in solid waste but not combustion. Trash rich in paper and other organic materials yields combustible gases when pyrolyzed and the gases can be burned for fuel. Some wastes can be pyrolyzed to produce various chemicals.

15.6 Hazardous Waste

Waste is a substance solid, semi-solid or liquid which have no further use and any waste which exhibits the characteristics of reactivity, toxicity, flammability, explosivity and/or corrosivity and cause danger or likely to cause danger to health and/or environment is known as hazardous waste.

As per Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 “hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of characteristics such as physical, chemical, biological, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive, causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or in contact with other wastes or substances, and shall include - (i) waste specified under column (3) of Schedule I; (ii) waste having equal to or more than the concentration limits specified for the constituents in class A and class B of Schedule II or any of the characteristics as specified in class C of Schedule II; and (iii) wastes specified in Part A of Schedule III in respect of import or export of such wastes or the wastes not specified in Part A but exhibit hazardous characteristics specified in Part C of Schedule III.

15.6.1 Classification of Hazardous Waste

Corrosive Waste

Wastes having a pH less than 2 or greater than 12 are called corrosive waste i.e. strong acids and strong bases.

Reactive Waste Waste which are unstable and go through violent reaction readily without detonating are called reactive waste i.e. reacts violently with water like elemental Sodium and cyanide or sulphide bearing waste which generate toxic gases, vapours or fumes.

Ignitabile

Any liquid has flash point less than 60°C and substances capable get ignited or caught fire by friction, absorption of moisture or spontaneous chemical changes at normal temperature and pressure and burns vigorously are called ignitable waste.

Toxicity

Substances like heavy metals i.e. Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Mercury, Lead etc., Organic Chemicals and pesticides like Benzene, Carbon tetrachloride, Chlorobenzene, Chloroform, Cresol, Endrin, Lindane etc. in excess of the concentration limits prescribed are called toxic substances.

Explosive

Solid waste which suddenly release of gas, heat, and pressure with loud noise when subjected to shock, pressure, or temperature is called explosive.

Infectious waste

Wastes which contain micro-organisms or their toxins known or suspected to cause disease in animal or humans are called infectious wastes.

As per Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 Schedule II, hazardous waste characteristics as specified in class C waste are classified in 13 categories i.e. C1: Flammable substances, C2: Corrosive substances, C3: Reactive or explosive substances, C4: Toxic substances, C5: Substances or Wastes liable to spontaneous combustion, C6: Substances or Wastes which, in contact with water emit flammable gases, C7: Oxidizing substances, C8: Organic Peroxides, C9: Poisons (acute) substances, C10: Infectious substances, C11: Liberation of toxic gases in contact with air or water , C12: Eco-toxic substances and C13: Capable, by any means, after disposal, of yielding another material, e.g., leachate, which possesses any of the characteristics listed above.

15.6.2 Hazardous Waste Management Best option for management of hazardous waste is waste minimization. It can be done by:

1. Reduction of waste at source

2. Resource recovery and reuse

3. Recycling of waste

4. Treatment like incineration, oxidation/reduction, chemical precipitation, biological Treatment like land farming and bioremediation, Phytoremediation etc.

5. Safe storage

6. Transportation through use of Manifest system

7. Deep Well Injection

8. Land filling.

15.7 Summary Garbage, sludge, refuse and other discarded solid materials resulting from industrial, residential and commercial activities and other operations are defined as solid waste. Municipal solid waste includes biodegradable organic waste like food waste, vegetable and fruit peels, recyclables waste like paper, plastic, metals, glass etc., toxic waste like paints, pesticides, used batteries etc. and medical waste like blood stained cotton, sanitary napkins, disposable needles and syringes etc. Municipal solid waste and hazardous waste can cause a serious environmental problem if it is not managed in scientific manner. It can be a valuable resource if material and energy are recovered. Management of municipal solid waste in India is a difficult task due to inappropriate planning and poor financial condition. Management of municipal solid waste involves collection, segregation and secondary storage, transportation, treatment and final disposal of waste. Reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive waste is called hazardous waste. Their disposal is a difficult task because they cause danger or likely to cause danger to health and/or environment. Best approaches for their management are reduce, reuse and recycle. They can be dispose off by incineration, deep well injection and incineration.

15.8 Key words Waste: solid, semi-solid or liquid substance which have no further use Solid waste: Garbage, sludge, refuse and other discarded solid materials Municipal Solid Waste: Waste originate from communities which include residential colonies/homes Solid Waste Management: Scientific collection, segregation and storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste Hazardous Waste: Reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive waste 15.9 Self Assessment Questions 1. What do you mean by waste? Define different types of wastes. 2. What do you mean by solid waste? Based on sources and nature classify solid waste. 3. What do you mean by solid waste management? Discuss steps of solid waste management indetail. 5. What do you mean by waste minimization? Discuss in brief the techniques of waste minimization. 6. In brief discuss the methods of solid waste disposals. 7. Define Hazardous waste. Based on characteristics, classify the hazardous waste. 8. 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