reverse. Easier yet was autography, a lithographic tech- nique involving drawing right reading with greasy ink on transfer paper that could be placed face down on the stone and dampened, causing the water-soluble transfer coating to release the image onto the stone when pulled L through the press. Used for writing documents and even books, as well as for drawing maps (such as to illustrate Labeling of Maps. geographical journals), transfer paper sparked what has Labeling Techniques been called an autographic revival (that is, a revival of Typography and Map Design the manuscript tradition) in the mid-nineteenth cen- tury, enabling relatively unskilled persons to write their Labeling Techniques. When Erwin Raisz noted in his own text and draw their own graphic images for litho- ground-breaking 1938 textbook that adding place- graphic printing (Ashwin 1983, 16). With the advent names to maps was one of the cartographer’s most dif- of the photolithographic transfer process in 1860, fol- fi cult problems, he was voicing an opinion shared by lowed by other photomechanical processes, it became many mapmakers of the precomputer era. Map labels possible to draw maps on paper for photomechanical were necessary to identify features on maps, but it was re production. hard to place them without detracting from the map as During the mid-nineteenth century a number of meth- a picture of the earth (Raisz 1938, 156–57). Raisz also ods were developed for the systematic teaching of writ- noted the infl uence of the production technique em- ing in schools, an increasing need as education became ployed on the appearance of map lettering. For instance, more accessible. One such method, Rundschrift (known while earlier manuscript maps drawn with pen and ink as round writing in English and écriture ronde in French), were often “clogged” with lettering, copper-engraved was developed in Germany by Friedrich Soennecken for maps, which dominated from the sixteenth into the execution with special metal pen points, broad-tipped nineteenth century, were more sparingly labeled, involv- with an ink feeder, which his company manufactured. ing the expensive incision of names in the hard metal Holding the pen at a consistent angle, the writer could plate by a skilled craftsman who could engrave letters make wide and narrow strokes in the same motion, in reverse, so they would print right reading. After the creating rounded letter shapes based on a grid schema early nineteenth century, however, a succession of new (fi g. 444). Regarded as easy to write and read, the Soen- techniques facilitated map production and reproduc- necken system was taught to European schoolchildren, tion, including map lettering. who also saw it used in school atlases (Volksschulatlas- First on the scene was lithography, invented just be- sen) (Linhoff 1891, 15). Rundschrift was adopted for fore 1800 in Germany by Alois Senefelder, who became some sheet maps as well as atlases in Austria, Italy, and involved by 1809 in producing lithographic maps for Germany (Eckert 1921–25, 1:344). The Soennecken sys- the Bavarian cadastral survey. The chemical basis of the tem and pens were also marketed in England and, from lithographic process, which depends on the antipathy the late-nineteenth century until as late as 1921, in the of oil and water, made it versatile, requiring only the United States by Keuffel & Esser, importers of drafting creation by some means of a greasy image on a suitable and surveying equipment, whose advertisements recom- block of limestone. Drawing with pen and greasy ink mended its use for map lettering (Keuffel & Esser 1921, on the lithographic stone or engraving it (that is, using 226–27). pointed tools to remove a thin resist coating the stone to The style of printed type also infl uenced hand letter- expose portions of it for oiling) was easier than copper ing for maps. In 1903 the English map publisher G. W. engraving, even though letters still had to be drawn in Bacon & Co. advertised its lettering charts, created by Labeling of Maps 739

fig. 444. “DIRECTIONS FOR HOLDING THE PEN.” Al- Size of the original: 8.9 × 18.1 cm. From Friedrich Soennecken, though its origins lay in medieval Roman-style scripts written Methodical Text Book of Round Writing for Self-Instruction with quill pens, the grid-based system of writing developed by and Use in Schools (London: A. Eltzbacher, 1879), X. Image Friedrich Soennecken for use with his line of special metal pen courtesy of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford (2578 points also refl ected industrial-age technology. d. 10).

Frank Steeley, for systematically teaching type-like print- Instrument Company) of New York, which manufactured ing in addition to cursive writing in schools, and espe- lettering stencils and pens patented in 1926. The Ames cially recommending it for use in map drawing (Anony- Lettering Guide, patented in 1917, was used to draw mous 1903). Hand lettering with special pens, inks, and precisely spaced guidelines for hand lettering (fi g. 447). drawing materials for photomechanical reproduction The Leroy lettering template, patented in 1919, and the was a technology that helped to promote hand letter- Varigraph adjustable lettering machine, manufactured in ing and enabled it to survive on printed maps through Madison, Wisconsin, in the mid-twentieth century, em- the mid-twentieth century. However, the difference be- ployed the pantograph concept to trace grooved letters tween hand lettering by skilled draftsmen employed to engraved in a template and guide an attached offset pen draw maps for premier geographical publications, such that drew them on paper (fi g. 448). Around 1960, after as the journals of the Royal Geographical Society and direct scribing of negatives had begun to supplant pen- the American Geographical Society (fi g. 445), and more and-ink drafting for photography, the Gebrüder Haff amateur efforts remained evident (Raisz 1938, 159). fi rm of Pfronten-Ried, in Bavaria, developed the Ro- Already common in the mid-nineteenth century, trea- tograph. That electric-powered adaptation of template tises on hand lettering for students of engineering and lettering could engrave negative lettering on scribecoat technical drawing continued to appear in the early de- by substituting a graver rotating at 3,000 rpm for an cades of the twentieth century. Over time such books ink pen (Raisz 1962, 279). Such devices represented the also began to recommend mechanical aids for achieving height of semi-mechanized hand lettering in the mid- to greater uniformity of letter shapes and sizes, although late twentieth century. not necessarily a faster production speed, and still re- However, a parallel strand of typographic lettering quiring a deft touch and skill in spacing the letters. As technologies had coexisted with hand lettering for cen- cartography textbooks multiplied in the mid-twentieth turies. Beginning in the sixteenth century, the diffi cult century, they mentioned hand lettering less and less and task of cutting text labels in relief on woodblocks had emphasized mechanical lettering aids more. Such devices been eased by setting metal type into the woodblock included lettering stencils (Schriftschablone in German) letter-by-letter or as entire words or blocks of text cop- like those produced by the Standardgraph fi rm founded ied by stereotyping. During the mid-nineteenth century in Germany in 1911 (fi g. 446) and Wrico (Wood-Regan a new relief process, wax engraving, was developed in 740 Labeling of Maps

fig. 445. MAP OF THE EASTERN PYRENEES. The precise View from Canigou: Nature and Man in the Eastern Pyr- and simple hand lettering on American Geographical Society enees,” Geographical Review 26 (1936): 190–204, 191 (fi g. 2). maps betrays the stylistic infl uence of sans serif type. Permission courtesy of the American Geographical Society, Size of the original: 6.2 × 11 cm. From Henri Gaussen, “A New York.

fig. 447. AMES LETTERING GUIDE. The user could rotate the disk to different angles, thus altering the spacing of the fig. 446. USING A STENCIL AS AN AID IN LETTERING. circular holes and of the resulting lettering guidelines when a Held vertically in a special adaptor, the draftsman holding the pencil was inserted into successive holes and the fl at base was Rotring Varioscript stencil pen creates letters by following the pulled along a straight edge. guide holes cut in the Standardgraph stencil, which is held in From Claude Z. Westfall, Basic Graphics and Cartogra- position against a straight edge. phy (Orono: University of Maine at Orono Press, 1984), 95 From Lawrence 1971, 125 (fi g. 12.7). Reproduced by permis- (fi g. 6.8). Permission courtesy of the University of Maine Press, sion of Taylor & Francis Books U.K. Orono.

England and the United States. In the latter country it to form a relief printing plate. In addition to crowding was used by fi rms such as Jewitt and Chandler of New and overlettering, the uniform shapes and sizes of the York and Rand McNally of Chicago so much that it type lettering added by the wax engraver contributed a characterized American maps in books and atlases into look of graphic monotony to wax-engraved maps. Pro- the twentieth century. The bodies of such maps swarmed ducing such maps was still a craft activity carried out in with place-names, almost too easily created by stamping the print shop. type set in straight or curved metal holders into a wax By the mid-twentieth century, though, a shift of map layer, in which the map symbols were also stamped or production from the engraver’s or printer’s workshop engraved before the image was copied by electrotyping to the cartographic laboratory had taken place. The Labeling of Maps 741

fig. 449. STAMPING LETTERING WITH THE WULKOW- SCHRIFTSTEMPELGERÄT. Type lettering set in a special holder is being stamped onto a German map using the Wulkow brand of type-stamping equipment. From Bosse 1954–55, vol. 1, between 96 and 97 (fi g. 9). Per- mission courtesy of Elisabeth Seeger Verlag, Freiburg.

dling type were best suited to stamping type on maps. They worked most effi ciently in pairs, alternating two typeholders, with one worker setting type in one holder, while the other worker used the other holder to stamp already-set words on the drafting surface. Simple in prin- ciple, it was a craft process requiring nimble knowing fi ngers for typesetting, a judicious sense of inking and stamping pressure, and scrupulous care when cleaning the quick-drying ink from the type. Stamping 120 names with type onto one sheet of the Neue Hessische Karte 1:2 000 occupied one workday (Bosse 1954–55, 1:93). Meanwhile, the typewriter, invented in the United States and fi rst commercially marketed there by the Remington fi rm in 1873, offered a more accessible method of add- ing type lettering to maps. In 1907 the new Hammond fig. 448. “LETTERING MACHINE ADJUSTS FOR SIZE.” typewriter no. 12 (the forerunner of the Varityper)— More than sixty Varigraph templates, each a different typefont, offering features such as instantaneous change of type could be traced by following the grooves in the template and styles, variable spacing, and the use of paper in any redrawn automatically by a connected pen at different sizes set width—was advertised in an American college maga- by adjusting the height and width scales on the machine. Size of the original: 10.9 × 6.4 cm. From Popular Mechanics zine as very desirable for mathematics and map lettering Magazine 95, no. 5 (1951): 104. (Anonymous 1907). In 1932 Popular Science Monthly, a U.S. periodical with national circulation, reported on a typewriterlike machine on wheels that could be rolled stamping of type lettering, for example, was adapted to around atop a map for adding lettering (fi g. 450). The the production of maps for photomechanical reproduc- introduction of the IBM Selectric in 1961 had a more tion (fi g. 449). As early as the 1860s the British Ord- signifi cant and longer-lasting impact on the more or less nance Survey began stamping type lettering on 1:25,000 informal sector of cartography. Powered by electric- map sheets intended for photolithographic reproduc- ity, successively improved models with interchangeable tion (Dickinson 1976, 76). Around 1900 in the United typeballs remained standard U.S. offi ce equipment into States, J. A. Ockerson, principal assistant engineer of the the 1980s and were readily accessible to small carto- Mississippi River Commission, found type useful for graphic operations for adding lettering directly to small stamping repetitive numbers indicating water depths on maps (such as maps that were often duplicated by mim- river charts (Jacoby 1909, 81–82). In Germany, it was eograph, ditto, or photocopying for use in university in- found that experienced typesetters accustomed to han- struction) or for typing and applying lettering to larger 742 Labeling of Maps

was wetted with a brush of sticky liquid, which fi ltered through the paper and attached it fi rmly to the base; by 1948 wax-backed lettering printed on a sheet of cel- lophane had come into use (Raisz 1948, 140). A shop making its own stick-up lettering could roll a layer of wax onto the back of the paper or fi lm with an elec- trically heated waxing device, such as the hand-held Electro-Stik waxer. Lettering for specifi c maps could either be printed in-house, typically in a large mapping organization, or ordered from a commercial vendor, such as Monsen Ty- pographers, Inc., of Chicago. In 1954 a book on car- tographic techniques listed brands of phototypesetting machines manufactured in Hungary (Uhertype), En- gland (Rotofoto, Monophoto), the United States (Inter- type Photosetter, Photon, Coxhead-Liner), the Nether- lands (Hadego), and Germany (Kart-Lichtsatzgerät) (Bosse 1954–55, 1:94–95). Thousands of names could be set in an hour and printed in negative or positive form for incorporation in fi lm overlays or for stick-up. fig. 450. “MACHINE PUTS LETTERING ON MAPS.” A ma- By 1962 the French Staphograph could photograph al- chine resembling a typewriter rolls on rubber wheels to the de- ready composed names and position them on map-size sired point on the drafting board, where the wheels are locked, fi lm (fi g. 451). Once exposed and developed, the large and the keys rap down on the surface of the drawing to add the required lettering. Size of the original: 7 × 10.5 cm. From Popular Science Monthly 121, no. 3 (1932): 46. maps as stick-up (also called stick-on) labels, such as by typing on sheets of self-adhesive paper labels (Dil- lon 1985, 33). In the 1980s more sophisticated, but still precomputer, stand-alone strike-on typing equipment was being employed in-house in mapping organizations, such as the Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, to type lettering orders for maps, as well as for- matting text for geological reports. Similar applications of the typewriter were widespread, but still other typo- graphic lettering options had emerged during the early twentieth century and found general use in mapmaking. As letterpress typesetting transitioned from hand-set metal type to mechanical composition of metal type by Linotype (invented in the mid-1880s) and similar machines, and then to phototypesetting equipment in the 1940s and 1950s, such lettering was being used on maps. Some phototypesetters photographed images of the letters, while others employed negatives; some em- ployed a range of master disks, each bearing a particular disk in a particular size, while others employed a single master for each font, enlarging or reducing the letters photographically as needed. fig. 451. PHOTOTYPESETTING MACHINE (STAPHO- Various types of adhesives and carrier materials were GRAPH). The Staphograph printed all the desired names on seventy-millimeter fi lm and with the help of an electrocoordi- employed. During the early 1940s one process, which natograph positions them according to the position indicator saw limited use due to patent restrictions, employed let- template. tering printed on thin Japanese paper. When in place, it From Raisz 1962, 278 (fi g. 27.9). Labeling of Maps 743

fig. 453. POSITIONING PREPRINTED- ON-FILM LET- fig. 452. A LINE OF FINISHED TYPE EMERGES FROM TERING. Although this place-name was laid down straight THE VARITYPER HEADLINER 820, A PHOTOCOM- as printed, it was also possible to curve this kind of preprinted POSER WITH CHANGEABLE TYPEMASTER DISKS. The lettering by partially cutting between the letters and fanning type is produced after being photographed, developed, fi xed, out the cut side. and washed within the machine. From Lawrence 1971, 128 (fi g. 12.9). Reproduced by permis- From A. G. Hodgkiss, Maps for Books and Theses (New York: sion of Taylor & Francis Books U.K. Pica Press, 1970), 84. Permission courtesy of Robert Hodgkiss. fi lm formed a positive lettering overlay (Raisz 1962, Despite the inventive and varied applications of mech- 279). Its greatest potential utility would seem to have anization to map labeling during the twentieth century, been in a large cartographic operation producing large- the labeling process, by and large, retained a signifi cant format map series, such as topographic sheets. Writing manual component requiring the skill and judgment of in England in 1970, A. G. Hodgkiss (104) recommended the cartographic draftsman, until the advent of com- the Monotype Photo-lettering machine and the Barr & puter mapping. Even the Staphograph’s position indica- Stroud Photonymograph as top-of-the-line. tor template used to guide the electrocoordinatograph By 1970 smaller, less expensive desktop photocom- must have involved some initial human decision making posing machines, such the Varityper Headliner 820 about name placement to avoid overlap. Full automation (fi g. 452) and the Kroy lettering machine were also avail- of the labeling process remained a challenge to be taken able. They soon became standard equipment in many up by the next new cartographic technology, computer smaller cartographic operations. Although costing about mapping, toward the end of the twentieth century. U.S. $600 in 1985, the Kroy was still too expensive for Karen Severud Cook some academic users (Dillon 1985, 32). After being cut See also: Drafting of Maps: (1) Drawing Instruments, (2) Pen-and- out and tentatively placed with the aid of a scalpel, such Ink Drafting; Electronic Cartography: Electronic Map Labeling; as an X-Acto knife, adhesive-backed stick-up lettering Raisz, Erwin (Josephus); Reproduction of Maps: Reproduction, De- was burnished down once in fi nal position (fi g. 453). sign, and Aesthetics Preprinted lettering was also available as sheets of mul- Bibliography: Anonymous. 1903. “Bacon’s New Drawing Publications.” School tiple individual letters in different type fonts and sizes. World 5, no. 50:xiii. Some brands of preprinted alphabets, such as Artype in ———. 1907. “Have You Seen the New No. 12 Hammond?” Cornell the United States, were printed on adhesive-backed fi lm. Era 39, no. 2 (Advertiser):36. Although the letters could be repositioned before bur- Ashwin, Clive, comp. 1983. History of Graphic Design and Commu- nishing them down, aligning and adjusting the spacing nication: A Source Book. London: Pembridge Press. Bosse, Heinz. 1954–55. Kartentechnik. 3d ed. 2 vols. Lahr/Schwarz- between small letters was a touchy and slow task to be wald: “Astra” Josef Penyigey-Szabó. avoided if possible. Another type was the dry-transfer Dickinson, G. C. 1976. Maps and Air Photographs. London: Edward variety, such as that made by Letraset in England, con- Arnold. sisting of letters affi xed to the underside of a transparent Dillon, Brian D., ed. 1985. The Student’s Guide to Archaeological Il- carrier sheet, from which they could be burnished down, lustrating. 2d rev. ed. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, Univer- sity of California, Los Angeles. one-by-one, onto the drafting surface (fi g. 454). The let- Eckert, Max. 1921–25. Die Kartenwissenschaft: Forschungen und ters had to be positioned carefully because they could Grundlagen zu einer Kartographie als Wissenschaft. 2 vols. Berlin: not be moved once burnished down. Walter de Gruyter. 744 Labeling of Maps

cartography. Labels must work closely with the detailed geographic information on a map and accurately in- dicate referents without obscuring important features. Typography involves the use of standardized movable letters (type) to compose words and pages of words for printing. The initial use of typography for mapmaking closely followed its mid-fi fteenth century invention in Germany. Some fi fteenth-century woodcut maps had metal type set into mortised slots, and stereotypes of typeset words were glued onto sixteenth-century wood- blocks, but neither cumbersome technique became wide- spread (Woodward 1987, 199–201). Instead, maps printed from engraved copperplates with hand lettering incised with a burin predominated from the sixteenth century until the invention of lithog- raphy at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Draw- ing maps for printing from lithographic stones revived the manuscript tradition of hand lettering with pen and ink, but not for long. After the mid-nineteenth century, movable type was combined with new printing pro- cesses to increase the effi ciency of map labeling, mar- ginalizing hand lettering. By the early twentieth century, typographic lettering had become the dominant means of labeling maps. Twentieth-century map typography experienced three major technological phases. Its fi rst upsurge, in the form of stamped type, accompanied the rise of wax engraving in American commercial cartography. In the United States, Sidney E. Morse pioneered reliable methods using wax engraving to produce printing plates in the early 1840s. American mapmakers adopted the technique widely by fig. 454. THE PROCEDURES OF ALIGNING AND APPLY- about 1870 and continued to use it through the 1930s, ING DRY-TRANSFER LETTERING. with peak years from 1910 to 1920 (Woodward 1977). Size of the original: 20.4 × 13.4 cm. From Hodgkiss 1970, 83. Technicians pressed metal type into a wax layer on a Permission courtesy of Robert Hodgkiss. metal substrate. Over time, lettering methods progressed from stamping individual letters to whole words set in holders. Stamping type eliminated the need for a trained Hodgkiss, A. G. 1970. Maps for Books and Theses. New York: Pica lettering engraver, so the placement of type lettering of- Press. ten betrayed lack of training. Maps were crowded with Jacoby, Henry Sylvester. 1909. A Text-Book on Plain Lettering. New York: Engineering News Publishing. many small place-names. Labels were often angled into Keuffel & Esser Co. 1921. Catalogue of Keuffel & Esser Co.: Manu- tight positions and long place-names split to avoid other facturers and Importers Drawing Materials, Surveying Instruments, map features. Only a limited number of foundry typefaces Measuring Tapes. 36th ed. New York: Keuffel & Esser. were available, among them Century Schoolbook, News Lawrence, George Richard Peter. 1971. Cartographic Methods. Lon- Gothic, Stymie, Clearface Gothic, and Cheltenham. don: Methuen. Linhoff, Mattias. 1891. Rundschrift oder Eckenschrift? Münster in Some U.S. fi rms created well-designed wax-engraved Westfalen: Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung. maps, among them Matthews-Northrup Co. of Buffalo, Lloyd, Malcolm. 1930. A Practical Treatise on Mapping and Lettering New York, which published The Century Atlas (1897) Including the Construction of the Basic Alphabets and the Elements (fi g. 455) and Elroy McKendree Avery and William of Map Design. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s Son. Abbatt’s A History of the United States and Its People Raisz, Erwin. 1938. General Cartography. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 2d ed. 1948. (7 vols., 1904–10). Despite such exceptions, mechani- ———. 1962. Principles of Cartography. New York: McGraw-Hill cal-looking wax-engraved maps characterized American Book Company. atlases, books, and ephemeral publications like railway timetables well into the twentieth century. Typography and Map Design. Map lettering has been The combination of photocomposed type with photo- a challenge for mapmakers throughout the history of lithographic printing of maps ushered in a second tech- Labeling of Maps 745

fig. 455. DETAIL FROM OHIO, NORTHERN PART, 1897, Size of the entire original: ca. 26.5 × 37.5 cm; size of detail: 1:1,013,760. Northern Ohio from a wax-engraved map by 10.4 × 19.4 cm. From Benjamin E. Smith, The Century Atlas Matthews-Northrup Co. on which the many nicely positioned of the World (New York: Century, 1897), no. 17. place-names in various styles and size hierarchies provide de- tailed and well-ordered locational information.

nological phase, lasting from the 1940s until the 1980s. tions in other countries included the Hadego manual Devices for photocomposition fell into three main cat- photocompositor in Holland in 1948 and the Noma- egories: manual devices with individual letters placed by plot/Bibette used in France for Michelin maps in the hand and then photographed, mechanical devices with 1950s (Woodward 1987, 205). Photocomposed type letters projected sequentially onto fi lm, and electronic soon spread from large mapmaking operations to small devices with digitally stored letters exposed to photo- ones. By the 1970s devices like the Varityper Headliner, graphic fi lm. which produced strips of photocomposed lettering, were After 1850 various inventions prepared the way affordable and common in the United States, although for photo typography. They included nonphotographic large type orders were often placed with suppliers like transfer of type onto lithographic stones for map print- Monsen Typographers, Inc. A cartographic workshop ing, photographic transfer of map images onto differ- with a copy camera could also make its own stick-up ent printing surfaces, and type labels stamped on paper lettering by photographing text typewritten on an IBM for affi xing onto maps before photography (Woodward Selectric typewriter and printing it onto photographic 1987, 204–5). Actual photocomposition of type had paper (later applying hot wax to the reverse to make it been patented as early as 1856 but fi rst reached work- adhesive) or onto adhesive-backed fi lm using the PMT ing model stage in 1915. Commercial adoption began in (photo mechanical transfer) process. the 1930s, when map printers were abandoning wax en- All aspects of map lettering changed with photocom- graving (in the United States) and copperplate engraving position of type, not only how typographic designers cre- (in Europe) and adopting offset lithography (introduced ated letterforms, how typographers and cartographers about 1905) using zinc or aluminum plates for print- prepared labels, and how cartographers placed labels, ing maps. In the United States, National Geographic but also the visual character of typefaces. For example, Society cartographers built their own photocomposer a designer of metal type cut letterforms for each font and designed a typeface suitable for photographic re- size separately, ten-point type having different visual duction. Their fi rst map with photocomposed type ap- characteristics from thirty-six-point type, while photo- peared as a supplement to the National Geographic graphic type was usually designed with a single master Magazine in 1933 (Woodward 1987, 205–6). Innova- font (Chappell and Bringhurst 1999, 267). 746 Labeling of Maps

The photographic revolution in typography, along with the widespread shift to offset lithography, led to an explosion of new typefaces. The number and variety of typefaces available increased from the limited set of hot- metal typefaces to over 50,000 commercial typefaces (Chappell and Bringhurst 1999, 285). Writing about map design, Arthur H. Robinson (1952) noted that the problem for the cartographer had become choosing ef- fective typefaces for mapping. He recommended that cartographers should look to graphic designers’ use of type because there was little literature on typographic use in cartography. Twentieth-century European and American cartogra- phers and geographers began to explore new designs of letterforms. At a Royal Geographic Society presentation on the style of lettering for the new Ordnance Survey (OS) maps of Great Britain, J. G. Withycombe (1929) and others examined the confl icting demands of leg- ibility and beauty in lettering. Withycombe argued for reexamination of lettering styles, both manuscript as then practiced and looking toward adoption of typog- raphy. He noted that the renaissance in typography and printing afforded an opportunity to improve declining standards in map lettering. Disliking changes made by copperplate engravers to roman and italic lettering, he presented a new set of letters following classic forms. Withycombe emphasized legibility, suitability for pho- tographic reproduction, good style, distinction, and har- mony of overall effect. He railed against modern serif faces, such as Bodoni, and sans serif faces. Several dis- cussants focused on the importance of legibility. One of them, C. B. Fawcett (1940), revisited that topic a decade later and declared fl ourishes on letters to be anathema. He suggested an alphabet of letterforms containing un- usual letterforms that one discussant, E. G. R. Taylor, found to be “hideous” (26). Commenting on the sans serif nature of Fawcett’s alphabet, A. J. Wilmott noted that serifs were generally better for larger type sizes on maps, while sans serif worked well for small sizes (28). Acceptance of the modern sans serif typeface presaged a general shift to sans serif typefaces for maps. Cartographers at the National Geographic Society had also created a new set of typefaces in the 1930s, perhaps the fi rst specifi cally for maps. The typefaces (fi g. 456), balancing legibility with visual appeal, were designed for photographic typesetting and offset litho- fig. 456. LETTERING STYLES, 1947. Six styles of letter- graphic printing. ing (top to bottom: roman, block, script, antique, decorative In the 1960s and 1970s, national mapping agencies script, and shaded) designed by Charles E. Riddiford, staff car- also reevaluated their choices of typefaces. The U.S. tographer, for photocomposition and photographic reduction Geological Survey cartographers designed a set of ex- for use on National Geographic Society maps. × perimental maps with new typefaces to improve sim- Size of the original: 19.8 8 cm. From Wellman Chamber- lin, The Round Earth on Flat Paper: Map Projections Used plicity, clarity, and economy of style (Gilman 1983). The by Cartographers (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic primary U.S. Geological Survey typefaces had been Hel- Society, 1947), 15. Permission courtesy of the National Geo- vetica and Times, and the switch to Univers and Souve- graphic Society, Washington, D.C. Labeling of Maps 747

fig. 457. DETAIL FROM SARANAC LAKE, NEW YORK, art nouveau period when it was designed, were already dated 1:25,000, 1979. Detail of topographic quadrangle with photo- when the U.S. Geological Survey adopted the typeface in the composed place-names in two typefaces of which the sans 1970s. serif Univers has held up stylistically better than Souvenir, Size of the entire original: 61.1 × 95.7 cm; size of detail: whose rubbery serifs, evocative of the early twentieth-century 11.3 × 17.3 cm. nir gave the maps a different visual character (fi g. 457). maps, although output was still to fi lm for mechanical Critics accepted Univers as a clean and effi cient sans stick up. Soon computers also were used for type design, serif face but were concerned about Souvenir (Wood- name composition, and label placement. ward 1987, 208). Designed for advertising signage in the The digital revolution changed the look of typogra- 1920s, Souvenir gave the maps a period look. Usabil- phy and of maps again. The addition of a second and ity and legibility suffered, too. The bowed legs of some radically different major form of map display, the com- letterforms (such as capitals A, U, W, and Y) exhibited puter screen, had an important effect. The development softness, and the four weights were insuffi ciently differ- of digital typefaces began in the 1980s with the creation entiated for effective map use. of replicas of photographic type families. The 1990s The Ordnance Survey also introduced a new series of ushered in an era of more original digital faces (Chap- maps, which drew the attention of English cartographers. pell and Bringhurst 1999). Oliver M. Dixon (1975, 8) noted the complete adoption The computer made cartographers into their own of Univers (which subsequently became a modern sans typesetters and, in some cases, type designers. Those serif typeface of choice for cartographers) for all map changes had important effects on map lettering. Tradi- lettering except sites of antiquity. He objected that lack tional typographic style slipped due to the use of im- of variation in the letterforms hindered readability, and proper glyphs (such as inch marks instead of quotation that a more varied typographic palette would have im- marks) and computer-generated type varieties instead of proved the design. individually designed letterforms (such as small caps and The phase of photographic type ended with the ad- bold and italic versions of typefaces). However, the digi- vent of computer composition of letters into labels for tal shift brought more effective map lettering through 748 Labeling of Maps typographic manipulation software. Cartographers al- adjusted label density (Brewer 2005; Jenny, Jenny, and tered the look of commercial typefaces and added char- Räber 2008). In addition, sans serif typefaces emerged acters, symbols, and diacritical marks. as a dominant choice. Their clean design and lack of The democratization of the type design process adornments rendered well on screen. The six typefaces spurred production of new typefaces, often by small recommended in an essay on Internet map design were type foundries or individuals. Participating in that typo- all sans serif: Verdana, Lucida Grande, Frutiger, Stone graphic design surge, Felix Arnold (2000), in conjunc- Sans, Cisalpin, and Myriad (Jenny, Jenny, and Räber tion with the Bundesamt für Landestopografi e, created 2008, 42–43). a new font specifi cally for cartography, perhaps the fi rst A succession of three technical revolutions in since the National Geographic Society in the 1930s. Cis- twentieth- century typography and map reproduction alpin, originally called Cassini, was a clean sans serif led to changes in map lettering and design: metal type font designed to work within the confi nes of a map. It combined with wax engraving, photographic type com- represented the culmination of the cartographic shift bined with offset lithography, and digital type combined from serif to sans serif typefaces (fi g. 458). with reproduction to computer screen. The fact that Digital technology affected typography and map de- Robinson devoted three (of ten) chapters in his semi- sign by adding the computer screen as a reproduction nal The Look of Maps (1952) to lettering bears witness medium. To account for the vagaries of computer screens, to its importance in map design. Each new technology especially resolution, cartographers pushed type sizes stimulated cartographers to adapt map lettering to the larger, embraced anti-aliasing (smoothed edges), and new methods of typography and reproduction, changes

fig. 458. DETAIL FROM KANTON SCHAFFHAUSEN, Size of the entire original: 51 × 61 cm; size of detail: 11.4 × 1:75,000, 2005. The sans serif typeface used in this map was 17.3 cm. Image courtesy of the Zentralbibliothek, Zurich. Per- developed in the late 1990s specifi cally for cartography by the mission courtesy of the Education Department, Schaffhausen Swiss type designer Felix Arnold who fi rst called it Cassini but Canton, Schaffhausen. later renamed it Cisalpin. Several test maps were made, but only two maps were published with Cisalpin font. Land Systems Analysis 749 that also gave maps a distinctive typographic look. In in southern and eastern Africa as well as in the United the twentieth century, fi rst with the revolution of photo- Kingdom triggered an international collaboration that graphic type but even more with the revolution of digi- standardized nomenclature in the mid-1960s (Brink et al. tal type, cartographers gained freedom to choose from 1966). The Canada Land Inventory, established in 1962, among thousands of typefaces and exert more control applied similar methods, and they were also widely ap- over the design of typographic lettering on maps. plied in the Soviet Union in the 1960s and 1970s. Alex Tait Land systems surveys have varied their selection of See also: Art and Cartography; Imhof, Eduard; Reproduction of physiographic attributes to refl ect project objectives as Maps: Reproduction, Design, and Aesthetics well as the area studied. Erosion control and agricul- Bibliography: tural irrigation are inherently different, for example, and Arnold, Felix. 2000. “Cassini: Ein Schriftprogramm für die Karto- traits important to the analysis of a semiarid plain are = graphie A Typeface Program for Cartography.” Typografi sche generally less relevant to a mountain environment in the Monatsblätter 68, no. 2:17–32. Brewer, Cynthia A. 2005. Designing Better Maps: A Guide for GIS humid tropics. The choice of variables also depends on Users. Redlands: ESRI Press. assumed relationships among landscape elements. Some Chappell, Warren, and Robert Bringhurst. 1999. A Short History of studies have favored geomorphological traits, while oth- the Printed Word. 2d ed., rev. Point Roberts, Wash.: Hartley & ers have focused on landscape ecology and the interac- Marks. tions of animal or plant communities. Man-made fea- Dixon, Oliver M. 1975. “The Ordnance Survey 1:50,000 Series.” Bul- letin of the Society of University Cartographers 9, no. 1:4–9. tures in the landscape have also been incorporated into Fawcett, C. B. 1940. “Formal Writing on Maps.” Geographical Journal terrain profi les and classifi cations. 95:19–29. Land systems analysis is based on the assumption Gilman, Clarence R. 1983. “Map Design at USGS: A Memoir.” Ameri- that areas consist of homogeneous elements or sites. The can Cartographer 10:31–49. smallest, most homogeneous mapping unit is the facet, Jenny, Bernhard, Helen Jenny, and Stefan Räber. 2008. “Map Design for the Internet.” In International Perspectives on Maps and the In- which consists of one or more uniform elements or sites, ternet, ed. Michael P. Peterson, 31–48. Berlin: Springer. suffi ciently homogeneous to serve the objectives of the Robinson, Arthur H. 1952. The Look of Maps: An Examination of study (Mitchell 1973, 29–30). In many studies, facets Cartographic Design. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. are not mapped separately; instead distinctive assem- Withycombe, J. G. 1929. “Lettering on Maps.” Geographical Journal blages of facets are mapped, termed land systems by the 73:429–46. Woodward, David. 1977. The All-American Map: Wax Engraving CSIRO Division of Land Research and Regional Survey and Its Infl uence on Cartography. Chicago: University of Chicago (fi g. 459), and also known as natural regions or terrain Press. systems. In general, a land system is an area with a per- ———. 1987. “The Manuscript, Engraved, and Typographic Tradi- sistent pattern of geology, hydrology, topography, soils, tions of Map Lettering.” In Art and Cartography: Six Historical and vegetation (Christian and Stewart 1968, 242). Essays, ed. David Woodward, 174–212. Chicago: University of Chi- cago Press. Mapping assemblages of land units rather than lower- order, more fi nely categorized features has been found to Land Surveying. See Property Mapping; Property yield useful results as well as save time and expense. But Mapping Practices when a map is focused on land systems or more complex areal units, the user who needs to locate homogeneous areas within the land systems typically must fi nd them Land Systems Analysis. Land systems analysis is a by using supplementary maps or remote sensing sources. regionalization of land into distinct assemblages of land Because the degree of generalization can be varied to units to enable rapid reconnaissance surveys in poorly refl ect the size of the area, the scale of the map, or the mapped areas primarily for the assessment of their natu- purpose of the survey, agencies using the land systems ral resources. It is based on physiography, that is, the approach have often constructed elaborate hierarchies in-depth study of the earth’s surface, geology, climate, of regions. soils, water, vegetation, and their interaction. Intended Block diagrams describing both vertical and horizon- to characterize the earth’s surface very broadly, the land tal relationships are valuable supplements to land sys- systems approach is also referred to as the “landscape tems maps and physiographic descriptions. These three- approach” (Mitchell 1973), in recognition of its origin, dimensional graphics have been particularly useful in early in the twentieth century, in the regional concept. showing the location of facets within land systems and Land systems analysis was refi ned after World War II thereby pointing out unmapped units. Even so, inexperi- in Australia by the Commonwealth Scientifi c and Indus- enced users often have diffi culty using land systems maps, trial Research Organization (CSIRO), which adopted a block diagrams, and tables to locate facets in the fi eld. holistic approach to the exploration of remote areas of Although planners and researchers agree that a hi- Australia (Christian and Stewart 1953). Similar projects erarchical structure of land units is useful, there is no 750 Land Systems Analysis

fig. 459. MONTAGE OF DETAILS OF A LAND SYSTEMS General Report on Lands of the Wabag-Tari Area, Territory MAP, 1965. Map (left) and portion of legend (lower right) of Papua and New Guinea, 1960–61, Land Research Series are from Land Systems of the Wabag-Tari Area: Territory of No. 15 (Melbourne: Commonwealth Scientifi c and Industrial Papua and New Guinea; the block diagram and description Research Organization, Australia, 1965), 51. of the land system (upper right) are from the accompanying Image courtesy of Alastair W. Pearson. consensus on the level within the hierarchy at which an low and where human transformation of the vegetation investigation might most effi ciently commence. Some in- cover is limited. vestigators have preferred the land system or province Delineation of land systems inevitably involves sub- as their starting point (e.g., Christian and Stewart 1968), stantial subjectivity. To overcome this issue, consider- while others stressed the need to focus fi rst on lower- able effort has been put into the objective defi nition level features (e.g., Wright 1972). of terrain units, a process often requiring systemati- Until the 1970s almost all land systems mapping relied cally arranged data. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers heavily on the photointerpretation of stereoscopically (USACE) Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, viewed aerial photographs accompanied by fi eldwork. Mississippi, which was concerned with traffi cability and In the latter part of the twentieth century other forms other military applications, pioneered the application of of remote sensing, such as satellite imagery and radar, grid squares for terrain description. The USACE strategy have also been used. The analyst typically uses available began by recording multiple distinctive characteristics information to interpret relationships among the vari- for each cell, which produced a grid with multiple layers. ous components of the terrain and at a fi nal stage pro- Class boundaries were established for each layer, and the vides inferences about the suitability of the terrain units resulting “factor maps” superimposed to produce a “fac- for particular uses. Effi ciency depends, of course, on the tor complex” map showing regions typifi ed by values for type of terrain insofar as some types of region are more each factor. The layers could then be integrated mathe- easily identifi ed than others. In general, regionalization matically to provide a combined estimate of terrain suit- is relatively straightforward, where vegetation cover is ability or performance (Townsend 1981, 123). Land Use Map 751

In the fi nal decades of the twentieth century, geo- plats, second–third millennia b.c. More pertinent ante- graphic information systems (GIS) were often used to cedents were special-purpose maps developed through improve the objectivity of the resultant regions. Al- the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in England, though physiographic regionalization had become a France, Germany, and Holland; they portrayed variation far less important tool in collecting and analyzing ter- in geographical qualities such as topography, ethnicity, rain data and in estimating the likely potential or con- forest cover, soils, fi re outbreaks, insurance values, dis- sequences of terrain, the ability of an operational GIS ease, and rail networks (Wallis 1981). to retrieve data for any particular geographical location The land use map proper distinguished itself from did not diminish the importance of regionalization. Af- these earlier representations through its form and func- ter all, a signifi cant proportion of the data planes in a tion. Formally a land use map was designed to classify GIS, such as soils or geology, are themselves composed and delineate bounded units of land that people put to of regions, derived in part by physiographic principles. work—residential, commercial, agricultural, recreational, Moreover, terrain unit data can form a unique and valu- productive, nonproductive, urban, suburban, waste, and able data plane within a GIS. the like. Functionally the land use map developed as a Similar approaches to land evaluation rely on a land tool to administer and coordinate land uses themselves. systems approach, even though the term may not be ex- Land cover maps and land utilization maps were two plicitly used. These include the use of agro-ecological varietals also invented during the twentieth century; zones to assess crop production potential (e.g., Sivaku- both were used almost interchangeably with land use mar and Valentin 1997) and the global SOTER (soils map. Land cover maps tended to depict the physical and terrain) digital database (FAO 1993). Diverse appli- features that visibly predominated in a given area, such cations of a land systems approach include estimation of as forest, crop, and vegetation types, while land utiliza- biodiversity, effectiveness of protected areas, land hazard tion maps often took on more prescriptive, planning- mapping, poverty alleviation, and resource management oriented aims. and archeological prediction for hominid land use. There was no single moment or individual solely re- John R. G. Townshend sponsible for pioneering the fi rst land use map. Instead, the map evolved over time as a practical tool in the See also: Planning, Urban and Regional; Property Mapping; Property hands of several different groups of land users. Each Mapping Practices Bibliography: group defi ned distinctive categories of land use in order Brink, A. B., et al. 1966. Report of the Working Group on Land Clas- to serve its own specifi c social goals, whether natural sifi cation and Data Storage. Christchurch, England[: Military Engi- resource appraisal, population engineering, disciplinary neering Experimental Establishment]. development, ecological conservation, or government Christian, C. S., and G. A. Stewart. 1953. General Report on Survey administration. of Katherine-Darwin Region, 1946. Melbourne: Commonwealth Scientifi c and Industrial Research Organization. Great Britain probably has the strongest claim to be ———. 1968. “Methodology of Integrated Surveys.” In Aerial Surveys the birthplace of large-scale land use surveys. In the and Integrated Studies: Proceedings of the Toulouse Conference, nineteenth century the Scottish biologist and planner 233–80. Paris: UNESCO. Patrick Geddes had proposed the idea of the “regional Davis, Charles M. 1969. A Study of the Land Type. Ann Arbor: Uni- survey” in order to promote harmonious economic versity of Michigan, Department of Geography. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). developments (James 1972, 276), while the Ordnance 1993. Global and National Soils and Terrain Digital Databases Survey had earlier mapped land cover of the entire na- (SOTER): Procedures Manual. Rome: Food and Agricultural Orga- tion at 1:10,560. These efforts paved the way for the nization of the United Nations. Rev. ed. 1995. seminal Land Utilisation Survey, a national effort to Mitchell, Colin W. 1973. Terrain Evaluation: An Introductory Hand- gain “a snap-shot picture of Britain,” with no “political book to the History, Principles, and Methods of Practical Terrain Assessment. London: Longman. colour” or “ulterior motives,” undertaken by L. Dudley Sivakumar, M. V. K., and Christian Valentin. 1997. “Agroecological Stamp and a team of some 250,000 young fi eldwork- Zones and the Assessment of Crop Production Potential.” Philo- ers (schoolchildren) between 1931 and 1933 (Fuller, sophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 352:907–16. Sheail, and Barr 1994, 173–75). Its classifi catory catego- Townshend, John R. G. 1981. “Regionalization of Terrain and Re- ries (“waterside meadows,” “lowland heaths & moors,” motely Sensed Data.” In Terrain Analysis and Remote Sensing, ed. John R. G. Townshend, 109–32. London: George Allen & Unwin. “commons,” “orchards,” “gardens,” and so on) refl ected Wright, R. L. 1972. “Principles in a Geomorphological Approach to powerful social currents of the day. Stamp and his col- Land Classifi cation.” Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 16:351–73. laborators not only satisfi ed a desire to inventory rural resources comprehensively for effi cient commerce and administration, they also resonated with a cultural ethos Land Use Map. The common land use map is a that linked one’s experiences traversing the countryside twentieth-century artifact. Its roots, however, date back to a healthy body politic and robust national character to the earliest cadastral surveys and land ownership (Matless 1992). A second national survey, launched in 752 Land Use Map

1960, took full advantage of aerial photography, while labor intensiveness (Checkovich 2004). Only aerial pho- a third, the Land Cover Map of Britain (1988–91), de- tographs or Hollerith punch card data processing ma- ployed Landsat’s Thematic Mapper (TM) (Fuller, Sheail, chines, it seemed, would make similarly detailed land and Barr 1994). use maps practicable. During the interwar years American city planners The adoption of aerial photographs in the Great developed their own administrative technology—the Depression and electronic computers following World zoning plan—that has become arguably the quintes- War II revolutionized the capacity of cartographers to sential style of modern land use map. The zoning plan tailor their “pictures” of land uses to timely practical combined aspects of the Regional Survey of New York ends. Suddenly Montfort-like documents, rich with data and Its Environs (8 vols., 1927–31), which sparked the on land cover, quality, use, and possibilities, could be production of similarly sweeping maps for purposes of produced across large areas and with substantially re- multiphase metropolitan management, intensive studies duced labor in the fi eld. In the hands of conservation- of neighborhood composition by sociologists at the Uni- ists, regional planners, natural resource scientists, and versity of Chicago, and Ebenezer Howard’s ambitious government offi cials all over the world, land use maps turn-of-the-century plans for “garden cities” in Britain. exploded in number and kind (James 1972, 490–502). Planners’ maps tended to codify a rational, synoptic view The American New Deal especially spurred the creation of controllable urban spaces because such a perspec- of new types of land use maps, as newly formed “ac- tive dovetailed nicely with their professionalizing aims. tion agencies” strove cartographically to master lands Key texts in this line included Harland Bartholomew’s such as the Dust Bowl, the Great Lakes Cutover, and the Urban Land Uses (1932), Thomas Adams’s Design of eroded cotton South that ordinary citizens had used “in- Residential Areas (1934), Ladislas Segoe’s Local Plan- effi ciently.” The Michigan Land Economic Survey and ning Administration (1941), and Robert B. Mitchell and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), for instance, were Chester Rapkin’s Urban Traffi c: A Function of Land Use two programs whose daily functions and remedial scope (1954) (Birch 2001, 409–10). In the 1960s and 1970s, depended utterly on land utilization data embodied in the authority and role of planners began to shift in re- maps (Checkovich 2004). sponse to larger socioeconomic currents. Widespread Land use maps have continued to evolve beyond their suburbanization, urban deterioration, the rise of envi- interwar heyday. Advocates for economic development ronmental activism, and civic unrest caused planners to exported the TVA model of comprehensive basin-wide reevaluate their apolitical, positivist approach to map- land use planning to nations in Latin America, Asia, and ping (in which slums, for instance, had been considered Africa. That model had mixed success in soil conserva- “obsolete land uses”). By the 1980s and 1990s, many tion and dam building programs, even as the programs planners held that land use maps were as important for themselves ensured the land use map’s global preemi- the inclusive, participatory, community-sustaining pro- nence as the technological means through which states cesses involved in their production as for what they ac- conceptualize human-environmental interactions. Such tually portrayed on sheets (Birch 2001). cases demonstrate that land use maps have become Perhaps the century’s most infl uential species of land technologies whose use affects different people in pro- use maps came from American geographers. Carl Ort- foundly material ways (Robbins and Maddock 2000). win Sauer introduced the German ideal of integrated Geographical information systems, meanwhile, enabled Landschaft fi eld surveying methods to a generation of cartographers to take knowledge formerly locked into American geographers eager to repudiate their young paper documents, and manipulate those data in ways discipline’s taint of environmental determinism. Large- that suited cartographer’s peculiar purposes as partici- scale land use maps of small towns, counties, and re- pants in ecologies both natural and, at the same time, gions offered a pathway to legitimacy. Through rigorous institutional. Remote sensing technologies, fi nally, per- fi eldwork practices like areal differentiation, geogra- mitted a (by no means uniform) community of scien- phers sought empirically to correlate on maps the physi- tists and planners to track precise land use changes over cal fundament (soil, slope, surface patterns, vegetation) time for quite specifi c areas, underscoring everyone’s with types of economic use (agricultural, residential, role, however small, in modifying entire nations’ “origi- recreational, industrial) (James 1972, 229–32). The cap- nal vegetation cover” and in shaping and responding to stone of this mode was V. C. Finch’s extraordinary map forces such as soil erosion, sprawl, and climate change of Montfort, Wisconsin (1:15,000; 1928–33). It em- (UNEP/FAO 1994). ployed a “fractional code method,” in which each clas- The common strand uniting all these developments, sifi ed unit was assigned a fractional symbol (fi g. 460). from Geddes to the geographic information system, The Montfort map dealt with some 20,000 geograph- has been the land use map’s role as a culturally situ- ical facts (Finch 1933, 8), took fi ve years to compile, ated facilitator of humans’ understanding and shaping and was deemed by Finch an interesting failure for its of the natural world. Over the twentieth century, car- Land Use Map 753

fig. 460. DETAIL FROM A MAP SHOWING THE UTILI- code method, “221 / 15x” denoted “permanent grass pasture ZATION OF LAND IN THE SERVICE AREA OF MONT- with scattered trees or brush, good quality, on level land with FORT, WISCONSIN, IN ITS RELATION TO CONDI- Wabash silt loam soil, poorly drained.” TIONS OF SLOPE, SOIL, DRAINAGE AND ROADS, 1928. Size of the entire original: 55.4 × 56.4 cm; size of detail: 26.3 × The Montfort map embodies both the conceptual achieve- 29.6 cm. From Finch 1933, pl. 1. Image courtesy of the Ameri- ments and the practicable limits of the intensive, ground-based can Geographical Society Library, University of Wisconsin– land use mapping tradition. Only with innovations in aerial Milwaukee Libraries. Permission courtesy of the Geographic survey and data processing would land use maps of similar Society of Chicago. empirical richness be made at regional scales. In the fractional tographers constantly refi ned the goals, methods, and Bibliography: physical forms of their land use maps in ways that both Birch, Eugenie Ladner. 2001. “Practitioners and the Art of Planning.” refl ected and shaped the highly particular social and en- Journal of Planning Education and Research 20:407–22. Checkovich, Alex. 2004. “Mapping the American Way: Geographical vironmental contexts of their times. Knowledge and the Development of the United States, 1890–1950.” Alex Checkovich PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania. Finch, V. C. 1933. “Geographic Surveying,” and “Montfort: A Study See also: Administrative Cartography; Cadastral Map; Photogram- in Landscape Types in Southwestern Wisconsin.” In Geographic metric Mapping: Air Photos and Geographic Analysis; Planning, Surveys, ed. Charles C. Colby, 3–11 and 15–44. Chicago: For the Urban and Regional; Urban Mapping Geographic Society of Chicago by the University of Chicago Press. 754 Landsat

Also published in the Bulletin of the Geographic Society of Chi- infrared—broadened the use of aerial photography for cago 9. research and thematic mapping signifi cantly. Of partic- Fuller, R. M., J. Sheail, and Colin Barr. 1994. “The Land of Britain, 1930–1990: A Comparative Study of Field Mapping and Remote ular utility was the sensitivity of the spectrum’s near- Sensing Techniques.” Geographical Journal 160:173–84. infrared wavelengths (0.7 to 0.9 microns) to the vigor of James, Preston Everett. 1972. All Possible Worlds: A History of Geo- vegetation and the boundary between land and water. graphical Ideas. Indianapolis: Odyssey. Observations obtained from the fi rst weather satel- Matless, David. 1992. “Regional Surveys and Local Knowledges: The lites in the late 1950s and 1960s and photographs taken Geographical Imagination in Britain, 1918–39.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s. 17:464–80. by Apollo astronauts in the mid- to late 1960s demon- Robbins, Paul, and Tara Maddock. 2000. “Interrogating Land Cover strated the potential benefi t of extending observations Categories: Metaphor and Method in Remote Sensing.” Cartogra- from airborne platforms to earth orbiting satellites. The phy and Geographic Information Science 27:295–309. USGS, under the leadership of William T. Pecora, devel- United Nations Environment Program/Food and Agriculture Or- oped specifi cations for the fi rst Landsat mission in the ganization of the United Nations (UNEP/FAO). 1994. Report of the UNEP/FAO Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Land Cover and late 1960s. The National Aeronautics and Space Ad- Land Use Classifi cations: Geneva, 23–25 November 1993. Nairobi: ministration (NASA), established in 1958 and respon- United Nations Environment Programme; Food and Agriculture sible for the civilian space program, built and launched Organization of the United Nations. Landsat 1, initially called the Earth Resources Technol- Wallis, Helen. 1981. “The History of Land Use Mapping.” Carto- ogy Satellite, or ERTS, in 1972. Landsat 1 was the fi rst graphic Journal 18:45–48. nonmilitary satellite to acquire imagery of the earth and make the images available to the public. By century’s end, NASA had launched six successful Landsat satel- Landsat. Prior to the twentieth century, ground sur- lites (Landsat 6 failed to obtain orbit) with Landsat 7 veys provided the bulk of data for mapmaking. In the placed in orbit on 15 April 1999. fi rst decades of the twentieth century, controlled fl ight Table 32 lists the primary characteristics of the fi rst and camera systems suitable for use on airborne plat- seven Landsat satellites. Landsat 1 carried two instru- forms revealed the promising capabilities of overhead ments: the Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) and the Multi- surveys. Advanced fi lm emulsions and fi lters, electronic spectral Scanner System (MSS). The RBV was the pri- sensors, and more robust airborne platforms extended mary instrument and acquired video snapshots, similar these capabilities and provided a theoretical foundation to images on television. The MSS was an experimental for observations of the earth from space. four-channel imaging spectrometer that acquired digital Landsat was the fi rst nonmilitary satellite program images with a ground resolution (pixel size) of approxi- to acquire, archive, and distribute earth observations mately 80 meters for a continuous swath 185 kilometers from space for the global community. The history of the wide. Landsats 2 and 3 carried the same instruments, Landsat program illustrates both the benefi ts and the but Landsat 4’s instrument package replaced the RBV limitations of earth observations for cartography, espe- with the Thematic Mapper (TM), an imaging spectrom- cially thematic cartography. That history also illustrates eter with broader spectral coverage and fi ner ground the political, economic, and bureaucratic constraints on resolution than the MSS. In addition the TM colleced satellite remote sensing. thermal (ground temperature) data, which proved valu- The Landsat program emerged partly from govern- able in monitoring water availability, particularly irri- ment programs in the United States that used aerial gation requirements in the American West. Landsat 5 photography to collect data for mapping and public ad- duplicated the Landsat 4 payload, but Landsats 6 and 7 ministration. The systematic acquisition of large-format eliminated the MSS in favor of enhanced versions of the (e.g., 9 × 9 inch), low-to-medium altitude, panchro- TM known respectively as the Enhanced Thematic Map- matic aerial photography began in the 1930s. Typically per (ETM) and the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus collected for use as stereo pairs, these photographs were (ETM+) (fi gs. 461 and 462). The primary enhancement used primarily for topographic mapping, but were also was the addition of a higher ground resolution (15 m) employed by the Tennessee Valley Authority; the U.S. panchromatic band. Table 33 summarizes the character- Department of Agriculture (USDA), including the U.S. istics of the instruments on six Landsat systems. Forest Service (USFS) and the Soil Conservation Service The value of Landsat observations is based on several (SCS); and the U.S. Department of the Interior, includ- characteristics, not all in place with Landsat 1. These ing the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), among others, include a synoptic view; large areal coverage; regular, for thematic maps based on the interpretation or pho- repeat coverage; broad spectral coverage and a ground togrammetric measurement of land cover. In the two resolution useful for thematic mapping and related decades following World War II, the introduction of in- analysis; and global imaging. Synoptic view refers to frared fi lm—black-and-white infrared as well as color an ability to detect relationships between objects on the Landsat 755

Table 32. Characteristics of the Landsat systems

Image Launch repeat Downlink (end of Resolution Altitude (in period (in rate (in System service) Instrument(s) (in meters) Communications kilometers) days) mbps)

Landsat 1 7/23/72 RBV 80 Direct downlink 917 18 15 (1/6/78) MSS 80 with recorders Landsat 2 1/22/75 RBV 80 Direct downlink 917 18 15 (2/25/82) MSS 80 with recorders Landsat 3 3/5/78 RBV 30 Direct downlink 917 18 15 (3/31/83) MSS 80 with recorders Landsat 4 7/16/82 MSS 80 Direct downlink 705 16 85 ceased TM 30 TDRSS transmissions 1993 (6/15/01) Landsat 5 3/1/84 MSS 80 Direct downlink 705 16 85 (6/5/13) TM 30 TDRSS Landsat 6 10/5/93 ETM 15 (pan) Direct downlink 705 16 85 failed to ob- 30 (ms) with recorders tain orbit (10/5/93) Landsat 7 4/15/99 ETM+ 15 (pan) Direct downlink 705 16 150 30 (ms) with recorders (solid state)

ground by viewing a single image or a combination of formation for studying change on broad geographic and overlapping images. An intrinsic characteristic of earth temporal scales. In 2000 the USGS inaugurated the sys- imaging from airborne and space-based platforms, the tematic publication of special Landsat global data sets at synoptic view was enhanced in Landsat by the large area fi ve-year intervals as a service to the research community. encompassed by each Landsat scene—a standard TM The Landsat program had the longest history of con- image, covering approximately 18,500 square kilome- tinuous earth observations in the twentieth century, and ters, provided insights at the local to regional level in a its data were the most used of any earth observations single image. Landsat’s near-polar, sun-synchronous or- system. Even so, the program suffered from techni- bit allowed for repeat acquisitions over any spot on the cal and institutional instability. Historian Pamela Etter earth at the same time of day every sixteen days. Regular Mack (1990), who chronicled the program’s develop- data acquisition enhanced utility of the data by fostering ment from the mid-1960s through the early 1980s, ex- applications in which temporal change is crucial, most amined NASA’s diffi culties in establishing a new com- notably the monitoring of crop condition, forest growth, munity of users for its advanced technology as well as and water availability. The sixteen-day return interval assignment of operational responsibility among federal partly compensated for cloud cover. agencies with an interest in the program, notably the Global imaging, that is, the ability to acquire images USDA, the Departments of Defense and Interior, and the anywhere and everywhere on the earth, was not a mis- Offi ce of Management and Budget (OMB). The Landsat sion requirement until Landsat 7. Although the record- program, Mack argued, exemplifi ed a “social construc- ing capability of Landsat 1 allowed for acquisition of im- tion” whereby “a community of interested individuals ages, the system was not intended to collect global data and organizations negotiates a defi nition of the charac- sets systematically and periodically. The Landsat 2000 ter and goals of the new technology” (Mack 1990, 4). global data set, the fi rst global data set acquired by a sin- USGS and NASA worked diligently to spur applications gle Landsat system, demonstrated the utility of this in- worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, 756 Landsat

fig. 461. LANDSAT 7 ETM+ (ENHANCED THEMATIC Image courtesy of the USGS Earth Resources Observation and MAPPER PLUS), SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND PACIFIC Science Center (EROS). OCEAN. False color composite image using data acquired on 30 December 1999. Image display in RGB using Landsat data bands 5, 4, and 3 respectively. particularly at universities but also by civilian govern- trol over to the Earth Observation Satellite Company ment agencies and nongovernmental organizations. (EOSAT), a consortium of Hughes Aircraft and RCA, NASA and the USGS were responsible for Landsat under a contract administered by the National Oceanic until the early 1980s, when the U.S. Congress, enthu- and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The assump- siastic about privatization, turned operational con- tion that Landsat was a commercially viable system was Landsat 757

fig. 462. LANDSAT 5 IMAGE OF SAN FRANCISCO BAY– to emphasize details. Landsat 5 data acquired on 27 Septem- OAKLAND. Created by combining three bands (1 + 2 + 3 = ber 1997. true color) to make a color image in combination with a digi- Image courtesy of the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Sci- tal elevation model with a vertical exaggeration factor of three entifi c Visualization Studio.

Table 33. Characteristics of the instruments on Landsats 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 Multispectral Enhanced Thematic scanner Thematic Mapper Mapper Plus Landsat 1–5 Resolution Landsat 4–5 Resolution Landsat 7 Resolution Bands (in micrometers)* (in meters) (in micrometers) (in meters) (in micrometers) (in meters)

Band 1 (4*) 0.5–0.6 80 0.45–0.52 30 0.45–0.52 30 Band 2 (5*) 0.6–0.7 80 0.52–0.60 30 0.52–0.60 30 Band 3 (6*) 0.7–0.8 80 0.63–0.69 30 0.63–0.69 30 Band 4 (7*) 0.8–1.1 80 0.76–0.90 30 0.76–0.90 30 Band 5 – – 1.55–.175 30 1.55–1.75 30 Band 6 – – 10.40–12.50 120** 10.40–12.50 60 Band 7 – – 2.08–2.35 30 2.08–2.35 30 Band 8 – – – – 0.52–0.90 15 *Bands 1–4 in this table encompass the same wavelengths as bands 4–7 on Landsats 1–3. ** Delivered product is resampled to 60 meters. disproved when the EOSAT raised prices sixfold and Despite this instability, Landsat data were greatly ap- data sales, especially among the research community, preciated and widely used. Perhaps the prime legacy fell dramatically. With the Land Remote Sensing Policy of the Landsat program was the vast worldwide com- Act of 1992, Congress transferred responsibility for munity of technically savvy data users, most of whom Landsat back to the federal government and promised learned about remote sensing through Landsat. to maintain continuity of Landsat-type observations at Edwin J. Sheffner a reasonable price. 758 Landscape Architecture and Cartography

See also: Biogeography and Cartography; Land Use Map; National tifact, system, problem, wealth, ideology, history, place, Aeronautics and Space Administration (U.S.); Remote Sensing: or aesthetic. At different levels, landscape architects are (1) Earth Observation and the Emergence of Remote Sensing, (2) Data concerned with all of them. Handling and Information Extraction from Remotely Sensed Data; U.S. Geological Survey Like other design professionals, landscape architects Bibliography: have always valued skill in freehand sketching and the Jensen, John R. 1981. “Urban Change Detection Mapping Using crafting of three-dimensional models. Lettered by hand, Landsat Digital Data.” American Cartographer 8:127–47. their plan-view and oblique three-dimensional maps have Joyner, Christopher C., and Douglas R. Miller. 1985. “Selling Satel- a distinctive look. Indeed, the examples in fi gures 463 lites: The Commercialization of LANDSAT.” Harvard International Law Journal 26:63–102. and 464, taken from the 1904 catalog of the architec- Leimgruber, Peter, Catherine A. Christen, and Alison Laborderie. 2005. ture department at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- “The Impact of Landsat Satellite Monitoring on Conservation Biol- nology (MIT), are little different, except for their let- ogy.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 106:81–101. tering, from drawings produced a hundred years later. Lo, C. P. 2007. “The Application of Geospatial Technology to Urban Required courses in MIT’s four-year landscape archi- Morphological Research.” Urban Morphology 11:81–90. Mack, Pamela Etter. 1990. Viewing the Earth: The Social Construction tecture program, an option within the architecture de- of the Landsat Satellite System. Cambridge: MIT Press. partment, included six semesters of Freehand Drawing, National Research Council (U.S.). 2002. Down to Earth: Geographic two semesters each of Water Color and Pen and Ink, Information for Sustainable Development in Africa. Washington, a semester each of Modelling, Topographical Drawing, D.C.: National Academies Press. and Field Work and Drawing, in addition to four semes- Sheffner, Edwin J. 1994. “The Landsat Program: Recent History and Prospects.” Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing ters of Surveying (including a semester of plane tabling) 60:735–44. (MIT 1904, 75). Treitz, Paul, Philip J. Howarth, and Peng Gong. 1992. “Application of By century’s end much of the work, and collegiate in- Satellite and GIS Technologies for Land-Cover and Land-Use Map- struction as well, had shifted to computer workstations, ping at the Rural-Urban Fringe: A Case Study.” Photogrammetric on which comparatively sophisticated software tools af- Engineering & Remote Sensing 58:439–48. forded interactive analysis and design using digital ele- vation models, overhead imagery, land-survey data, and environmental databases. Improved software available Landscape Architecture and Cartography. In con- since the late 1980s not only made three-dimensional trast to architects, who design buildings, and civil engi- modeling and viewshed analysis far easier but also sup- neers, who design bridges and dams, landscape archi- ported realistic shadow effects, rapid but aesthetically tects typically plan on a much wider scale, for parks and acceptable lettering, and visual simulations showing how large gardens, the land surrounding a structure, and the a landscape might be expected to look years ahead, once layout and landscaping of offi ce campuses, housing de- planted vegetation reached maturity. What’s more, as velopments, and similar projects for which aesthetics are environmental design educator D. Dayton Reuter (2002, important. Professional landscape architects have been 91) noted, the zoom capability of interactive graphic active throughout the twentieth century, using maps workstations eliminated the “fat fi ngers syndrome” at various stages of a project, including initial and in- whereby “graphics have traditionally been drawn at a termediate discussions with the client; presentations to size determined primarily by the metrics of the human governing bodies or potential investors; research and hand.” Computer-aided design (CAD) also removed the site analysis; and the comparative evaluation of alterna- stress involved in working with very large drawings, tive designs. Detailed topographic maps are indispens- allowed several people to work simultaneously on the able in identifying possibilities and potential obstacles, same design, and enabled the ready generation of cor- including terrain features that might require reshaping. rected or revised versions. Because the contour interval on existing maps was typi- Landscape architecture’s most signifi cant carto- cally too coarse, a special survey was often necessary to graphic contribution is overlay analysis, one of the ear- assess drainage and visual impact as well as to calculate liest, if not the most fundamental, analytical functions the amount of surface material that had to be added, in the GIS (geographic information system) toolkit. The removed, or relocated to achieve the desired effect. The earliest apparent use of hand-drawn overlays occurred fi nal design always included one or more maps, dem- in 1912, when multiple maps drawn at the same scale onstrating persuasively how the fi nished project would helped planners in Billerica, Massachusetts, analyze lo- look. cal patterns of traffi c and land use (Steinitz, Parker, and Historical geographer D. W. Meinig (1976), who ex- Jordan 1976). That same year planners in Düsseldorf, amined the diverse graphic representations of landscapes, Germany, used various maps at a common scale to as- noted that maps and photographs can depict the visual sess the city’s expansion between 1874 and 1912. In the environment in ten different ways: as nature, habitat, ar- early 1960s, Ian L. McHarg and his associates developed fig. 463. SKETCH PLAN SCHLESINGER ESTATE, Size of the original: 19 × 11.2 cm. From MIT 1904, 61. BROOKLINE, MASS, 1900. Example of a landscape archi- tect’s plan-view sketch map, enhanced with watercolor. 760 Law of the Sea

Reuter, D. Dayton. 2002. Computer Graphics for Architects, Engi- neers, and Environmental Designers: An Introduction to Computer Graphics for Architects, Engineers, Landscape Architects, Land Use Planners, and Environmental Consultants. New York: Allworth Press. Steinitz, Carl, Paul Parker, and Lawrie Jordan. 1976. “Hand-Drawn Overlays: Their History and Prospective Uses.” Landscape Archi- tecture 66:444–55.

Law of the Sea. On 2 August 2007, two Russian sub- mersibles planted a Russian fl ag on the ocean floor be- neath the North Pole. Forty years earlier, at the height of the Cold War and the space race, this act would have been viewed as an expression of scientifi c achievement. But by the time the two submersibles descended beneath the Arctic ice pack, the Cold War had ended, and the space race had become a collaboration. Despite this ap- parent progress, the act of planting the fl ag triggered fears among many of Russia’s Arctic neighbors that the days of the colonial land grab had returned. These fears refl ected the evolution of the Law of the Sea in the latter part of the twentieth century. Control of nearby ocean waters has long been impor- tant for coastal states, both as a matter of national de- fense and as a means for controlling access to resources, fig. 464. BIRDS-EYE VIEW SCHLESINGER ESTATE, primarily fi sheries. Because of comparatively primitive BROOKLINE, MASS. Oblique pen-and-ink sketch map. technologies for sailing, making war, and exploiting Size of the original: 15.7 × 12.3 cm. From MIT 1904, 63. the marine resources, territorial claims had been con- fi ned to narrow strips of water adjacent to the mainland and offshore islands. In the twentieth century, however, a more advanced form of overlay analysis, illustrated improved ship design and propulsion systems, longer- with numerous examples in his classic Design with Na- range weapons, depletion of nearshore fi sheries, and an ture (1969), which was widely acclaimed by both envi- increased ability to exploit resources on or beneath the ronmentalists and other landscape architects. McHarg’s bottom of the sea spurred demand for ever-wider zones principles were an important infl uence on students and for the control of resources if not for outright sover- staff at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design, eignty. That demand eventually led to the 1982 United home to the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Nations (UN) Convention on the Law of the Sea, which Spatial Analysis, which from the mid-1960s through the in turn triggered what is arguably one of the largest ter- early 1980s fostered the development of computer-based ritorial grabs in history. mapping technology and what evolved into commercial For any coastal state, the basic challenge of determin- GIS software. Jack Dangermond, who founded Environ- ing the exact boundary between land and sea is more mental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and guided diffi cult than it might seem. The periodic rise and fall of the development of ARC/INFO and ArcGIS, received a the tide means that the position of the shoreline changes master’s degree in landscape architecture from Harvard constantly, with most places experiencing two high tides University in 1969, and numerous other infl uential GIS and two low tides each day. Tidal levels also change over professionals had a connection with the laboratory. the course of the month and year as the positions of Mark Monmonier the sun and moon (relative to earth) continually shift. See also: Historic Preservation and Cartography; Planning, Urban (Other factors affect water level, but tidal action is more and Regional; Viewshed Mapping relevant to the discussion at hand.) Changes in water Bibliography: level generally have little effect on shoreline location Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Department of Archi- where slopes are steep, but where the gradient is gentle, tecture. 1904. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston: De- partment of Architecture. Boston: Geo. H. Ellis. as it is on much of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the Meinig, D. W. 1976. “The Beholding Eye: Ten Versions of the Same United States, the distance between the positions of the Scene.” Landscape Architecture 66:47–54. shoreline at high and low tide can be substantial. Law of the Sea 761

Most mapped shorelines are based on the mean high- complexity. Where the coastline is deeply indented by water line, that is, the average position of the shoreline a bay or some other feature, or where islands are lo- at high tide, which is important to navigators because it cated near the coast, coastal states could draw straight represents the land as seen from offshore. Even so, from baselines joining appropriate points along the coast, for the standpoint of national sovereignty, maps based on example, across the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay from high-water lines needlessly forfeit potential territory— Cape Henry to Cape Charles. The 1958 convention akin to building a backyard fence a couple of feet inside mandated that baselines follow the general trend of the your property line rather than on the property line itself. coastline, and that any water included within the base- The ideal boundary is the low-water line—the position line should be near enough to the coast to be “subject to of the shoreline at low tide—because it allows a nation the regime of internal waters” (sec. 2, art. 4). Although to claim not only more land but also a greater swath baselines could take into account economically impor- of adjacent waters. Although painstaking and time- tant areas for which a coastal state could demonstrate consuming, shore-based surveys and offshore triangu- a long history of use, the 1958 convention prohibited lation could be used to map the low-water shoreline. straight baselines that might deny other coastal states The development of the airplane as a platform for aerial access to the high seas. It also allowed a state to enforce photography and remote sensing revolutionized the its laws on immigration, environmental protection, cus- mapping of the intertidal zone. A photographic mission toms, and taxation with a contiguous zone adjacent to timed for low tide could capture the land-water bound- its territorial waters but extending no more than twelve ary at its most expansive position. At the end of the nautical miles beyond the baseline of the territorial sea. century airplanes were usually more effi cient for coastal The 1958 convention failed to explicitly specify the mapping than satellites, which cannot adjust their orbits maximum width of a state’s territorial sea, which was to local tide tables. traditionally limited to three nautical miles, the range Once the shoreline is mapped, the next challenge is of a shore-based cannon and thus the distance a coastal to delineate offshore boundaries. The easiest method is state could reasonably expect to project its power and to draw a series of circles with a radius representing the exercise sovereignty. By the end of World War I the de- width of the nation’s territorial claim and centered along velopment of modern artillery, the invention of the air- the shoreline. While an infi nite number of these circles plane, and the realization of the latter’s potential as a might be drawn, it is usually suffi cient to center them long-range weapon—dramatically demonstrated by U.S. on locally prominent headlands. The maritime bound- Brigadier General William “Billy” Mitchell, whose air- ary is then delineated by the outward arcs of intersect- craft sank the captured German dreadnought Ostfries- ing circles, perhaps generalized by straight-line segments land off the coast of Virginia on 21 July 1921—rendered joined at turning points where the coast changes shape the cannon-shot principle obsolete. or where adjustment is needed to encompass offshore The international community met again in 1960 to islands. discuss the law of the sea, but reached no agreement on In 1951 the World Court in The Hague ruled that the the legal width of the territorial sea. As some nations low-water line should be used as the basis for delimiting had begun to claim twelve-mile and even wider limits, the territorial sea—the belt of water considered part of the issue could not be ignored much longer. The third a nation’s sovereign territory. In keeping with the 1951 UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, with more than decision, the 1958 UN Convention on the Territorial 160 nations participating, began meeting in 1973. After Sea and the Contiguous Zone endorsed the low-water a protracted, painstaking effort to reach an international shoreline “as marked on large-scale charts offi cially rec- consensus on the matter, in 1982 they adopted the UN ognized by the coastal State” (sec. 2, art. 3) as the base- Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which line for delineating the territorial sea. This begs the ques- went into effect on 16 November 1994. UNCLOS set tion, which low-water shoreline? Mean low water—the the width of the territorial sea at twelve nautical miles long-term average of all low tides? Or mean lower-low from the baseline and also expanded the contiguous water—the long-term average of the lowest of each pair zone to no more than twenty-four nautical miles from of daily low tides, and thus the more advantageous defi - the baseline. nition? The convention left it up to coastal nations to Two parts of UNCLOS triggered a scramble for sea- determine which datum to use. (The United States des- bed rights. Part fi ve allows coastal states to claim an Ex- ignated the mean lower-low water as the appropriate clusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending no more than datum for its territorial claims.) 200 nautical miles beyond the baseline for the territorial The UN convention recognized that most coastlines sea. Within its EEZ a coastal state has the sole right to have complex shapes and issued guidance on how car- manage—and exploit—living and nonliving resources. tographers could adjust their baselines to cope with that Where the claims of two nations overlap, as in the Gulf 762 League of Nations of Maine or the Straits of Malacca, the boundaries may ———. 1964. Interpretation and Use of Coast and Geodetic Survey be set at the midpoint between the two adjacent nations. Data. Vol. 2 of Shore and Sea Boundaries. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Otherwise, EEZ boundaries are set by treaty or settled Department of Commerce and Coast and Geodetic Survey. Shelley, Anthony F. 1985. “Law of the Sea: Delimitation of the Gulf of by litigation in the World Court. Maine.” Harvard International Law Journal 26:646–54. Part six addresses the continental shelf as the “natural Steinberg, Philip E. 2001. The Social Construction of the Ocean. Cam- prolongation” of a coastal state’s territory to “the outer bridge: Cambridge University Press. edge of the continental margin,” or out to 200 nauti- Yenikeyeff, Shamil Midkhatovich, and Timothy Fenton Krysiek. 2007. cal miles from the territorial baseline if the shelf doesn’t “The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Ex- pedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons.” Oxford Energy extend that far (art. 76.1). UNCLOS gives the coastal Comment (August). Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. Online state rights to the resources of the seabed, including liv- publication. ing resources attached to the seabed, but not resources in the waters above. The maximum area a coastal state can claim as continental shelf is either 350 nautical League of Nations. The League of Nations was estab- miles from its territorial baseline or 100 nautical miles lished under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in June outward from the 2,500-meter isobath, whichever is 1919 (Northedge 1986). The idea of a “general associa- greater. In the case of submarine ridges that extend be- tion of nations” that might ensure collective security had yond the edge of the continental shelf, the coastal state been extensively debated for decades but was formally may claim seabed rights that extend no more than 350 proposed in January 1918 in the last of the Fourteen nautical miles from the territorial baseline. The Russian Points issued by American President Woodrow Wilson fl ag planting beneath the North Pole was part of an ex- to ensure a just and lasting settlement to World War I, pedition gathering data to prove that the Lomonosov then entering its fi fth year. The League’s Covenant, which Ridge, which runs under the North Pole, was part of committed member states to the peaceful resolution of the continental shelf and thus a legitimate extension of disputes, was adopted in April 1919, and the fi rst As- Russian territory. sembly took place in Geneva in November 1920 (Ken- Seabed claims on the continental shelf promise ac- nedy 2005). The League was dissolved in April 1946, cess to potentially massive reserves of mineral and en- when its assets and responsibilities were transferred to ergy (petroleum and natural gas) resources. The Arctic the new United Nations. Ocean, for example, has proven reserves of both, and The League’s infl uence was limited from the outset. additional amounts could become accessible if climate Only forty-two nations signed the 1919 Covenant, the change causes a breakup of the Arctic ice cap. Russia’s most important absentee being the United States, which planting of its fl ag on the seabed beneath the North had refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. A further Pole—despite its denials of any territorial signifi cance of twenty-one states subsequently joined the League, in- the act—put increased pressure on the other nations bor- cluding Germany (1926) and the USSR (1934), but dering the Arctic Ocean, including the United States and seventeen states withdrew, including Germany (1933), Canada, to conduct their own oceanographic surveys Japan (1933), Italy (1937), Spain (1939), and several and prepare their own claims and counterclaims. Latin American countries; six had their memberships David M. Lawrence dissolved. The USSR was expelled in 1939. With no peace-keeping capacity of its own, the League was en- See also: Boundary Disputes; Geopolitics and Cartography; Marine tirely dependent on its fl uctuating membership to en- Chart; Marine Charting: Overview of Marine Charting force its conventions. It was also chronically short of Bibliography: cash. The annual budget was signifi cantly below $5 mil- International Hydrographic Organization. 2006. A Manual on Tech- nical Aspects of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the lion (£1 million) through the 1920s and fell in real terms Sea—1982. 4th ed. Publication S-51. Monaco: International Hy- during the economic depression of the early 1930s. drographic Bureau. The League’s principal executive agency was the Sec- Monmonier, Mark. 2008. Coast Lines: How Mapmakers Frame the retariat, based in Geneva. This was supported by several World and Chart Environmental Change. Chicago: University of auxiliary organizations concerned with economic and Chicago Press. Prescott, J. R. V., and Clive H. Schofi eld. 2005. The Maritime Political fi nancial trends, transport and communications, health, Boundaries of the World. 2d ed. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff. disarmament, labor organization, refugees, slavery, the Reed, Michael W. 2000. The Development of International Mari- mandated territories, the drug trade, and intellectual co- time Boundary Principles through United States Practice. Vol. operation. Research was facilitated by a small reference 3 of Shore and Sea Boundaries. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- library, bankrolled by the American billionaire John D. ment of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Rockefeller (Aufricht 1951, 120), which expanded from Shalowitz, A. L. 1945. “Safeguarding Our Seaways—the Modern a modest 2,000 volumes in 1920 to 95,000 volumes by Nautical Chart.” Scientifi c Monthly 61:249–64. 1928. League of Nations 763

The League had no specialist cartographic unit and of the World (IMW), an idea originally proposed in was therefore unable to challenge the dominance of na- 1891 by the German geographer Albrecht Penck under tional mapmaking agencies, most of which were con- the auspices of the International Geographical Congress trolled by the military. Even so, it developed a map li- (Pearson et al. 2006). The proposal was subsequently de- brary, which eventually comprised over 100,000 sheets veloped by the major national cartographic agencies at covering most of the globe. The League’s Statistical Year- IMW conferences in London in 1909 and Paris in 1913. Book began to appear on a consistent format after the The United States withdrew on the eve of the latter event 1928 International Convention Relating to Economic though the remaining thirty-four national delegations Statistics and included simple geographical maps show- agreed that IMW map sheets would adopt a standard ing political boundaries, the mandated territories, and 1:1,000,000 scale, a simple polyconic projection, and a the changing distribution of League membership. The- consistent set of conventions and symbols. Carried out matic maps featured in publicity materials were issued entirely by national cartographic agencies, the project to convince a skeptical public within and beyond the was facilitated by a Central IMW Bureau based at the member states that the League was a worthwhile and British Ordnance Survey in Southampton. effective organization (fi g. 465). Cartographic imagery Progress was slow before 1914 and stalled altogether reinforcing the principles of international cooperation during World War I, though the British Geographi- also appeared in architectural form in League buildings cal Section, General Staff (GSGS) prepared its own (fi g. 466). 1:1,000,000 map series for Western Europe and the The possibility of constructing a new twentieth- Middle East in the Royal Geographical Society, based century cartography consistent with the League’s guid- loosely on the IMW (Heffernan 1996). After the war, ing principles was exemplifi ed by the International Map the IMW was embraced by the League’s Commit-

fig. 465. MAP OF TRAFFIC IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN Size of the original: 11.2 × 17.3 cm. Permission courtesy of the AND ASSOCIATED LEAGUE OF NATIONS DATA ON League of Nations Archives, UNOG Library, Geneva. SOCIAL QUESTIONS. From League of Nations, The League of Nations: A Pictorial Survey (Geneva, [1929]). 764 League of Nations

fig. 466. MEETING OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS COM- Image courtesy of the League of Nations Archive, UNOG Li- MISSION ON OPIUM AND OTHER NARCOTIC DRUGS, brary, Geneva. 1939. Note the large sculpted wall map with lines radiating from the League’s headquarters in Geneva.

tee on Intellectual Cooperation (CIC), a forerunner great expense over twenty-fi ve years by the American of UNESCO (Renoliet 1999). This was established in Geographical Society. 1922 under the chairmanship of the French philosopher The ability of the League to infl uence the process of Henri Bergson to encourage international scientifi c col- global million-scale mapping was undermined by the laboration between previously hostile nations (Canales outbreak of World War II. During the war, military au- 2005). The CIC had no fi nancial resources to support the thorities in the United States, the United Kingdom, the IMW, but it ensured that the vast majority the League’s Soviet Union, Germany, Italy, and Japan commissioned member states signed the 1913 conventions. By 1926, new map series at this scale for different theaters of war. forty-four national cartographic agencies were involved The United Nations assumed responsibility for the IMW in preparing IMW sheets, over 200 of which had been in September 1951, but the early twentieth-century ide- published, though only twenty-one conformed exactly alism that had inspired both the International Map of to the 1913 specifi cations (fi g. 467). National agencies the World and the League of Nations no longer had operating outside the IMW agreement developed their much relevance in the very different circumstances of own 1:1,000,000 mapping projects, notably the Brazil- the Cold War. ian Clube de Engenharia, which produced a fi fty-sheet Michael Heffernan Carta do Brasil through the 1920s and 1930s. The most See also: Geopolitics and Cartography; International Map of the important non-IMW million-scale mapping project was World; Paris Peace Conference (1919); United Nations; World undoubtedly the Map of Hispanic America, compiled at War I; World War II Libraries, Map 765

fig. 467. INTERNATIONAL MAP OF THE WORLD, Based on Pearson et al. 2006, 156. Copyright © 2006, John 1:1,000,000, PROGRESS TO 1926. Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bibliography: Renoliet, Jean-Jacques. 1999. L’UNESCO oubliée: La Société des Na- Aufricht, Hans. 1951. Guide to League of Nations Publications: A tions et la coopération intellectuelle (1919–1946). Paris: Publica- Bibliographical Survey of the Work of the League, 1920–1947. New tions de la Sorbonne. York: Columbia University Press. Canales, Jimena. 2005. “Einstein, Bergson, and the Experiment that Librarianship. See Societies, Map Librarianship Failed: Intellectual Cooperation at the League of Nations.” Modern Language Notes 120:1168–91. Heffernan, Michael. 1996. “Geography, Cartography and Military Intelligence: The Royal Geographical Society and the First World War.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, n.s. Libraries, Map. Map libraries are collections of geo- 21:504–33. spatial information sources in various formats, not only Kennedy, David. 2005. “The Move to Institutions.” In International hard copy and digital maps but also remote sensing im- Organizations, ed. Jan Klabbers, 3–148. Aldershot: Ashgate. ages, aerial photographs, atlases, globes, cross-sections, Northedge, F. S. 1986. The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, and relief models. Most map libraries are units within 1920–1946. Leicester: Leicester University Press. Pearson, Alastair W., et al. 2006. “Cartographic Ideals and Geopoliti- organizations and agencies, such as university and pub- cal Realities: International Maps of the World from the 1890s to the lic libraries and governmental and nonprofi t agencies. Present.” Canadian Geographer 50:149–76. The major purpose of map collections is to gather carto- 766 Libraries, Map graphic materials together in one place, either at a physi- ies with more than 250,000 maps. The largest library cal location in a building or as a virtual library over (LCG&M) had almost 4 million maps, and the larg- the World Wide Web. The concentration of cartographic est air photo collection, in the U.S. National Archives, materials makes their consultation quicker and more contained 10 million images (fi gs. 468 and 469) (Cobb effi cient. It also fosters the comparison of cartographic 1990, x–xi, xiii). materials and geospatial data of various kinds and from By 2004, though, only 564 collections were listed in different times. a directory of U.S. map collections despite the fact that It was in fourteenth- and fi fteenth-century Europe, a threshold of 1,000 maps, considerably lower than for during the Renaissance period, that maps fi rst began earlier editions of the directory, had been established as to be regarded as collectible in the same way as book- the minimum number of maps for including a collec- format materials, with the fi rst map library established tion. The lesser number of map collections listed was in 1459 (Wolter 1973, 240–41). As early as the fi rst half partly due to the combination of statistics for some col- of the sixteenth century, maps were being collected in lections (held by the same agency) listed separately in Europe on however limited a basis by libraries and by the previous edition. However, the number of persons private collectors. But it was not until nearly the middle working exclusively with maps had declined. After spe- of the twentieth century that map libraries became nu- cialists retired, responsibility for map collections merged merous in the Western world. When members of the Ge- with other positions, most often in general reference or ography and Map Group, Special Libraries Association government documents. Instead, there was a substantial prepared a special feature on “Maps in the Library” for increase in the number of positions opening for geo- the Library Journal in 1950, they were consciously writ- graphic information systems (GIS) specialists in univer- ing about coping with that new phenomenon (Yonge sity libraries, positions sometimes affi liated with the map 1950). The impetus had been World War II, when the library but often with the government publications de- map holdings of libraries in America and Europe, ma- partment or the digital services department of the main terial previously considered unimportant or largely of library. In 2006 LCG&M had over 4.8 million maps, scholarly interest, became vital to carrying on warfare the largest academic collection was still that of UCLA (Hooker 1950). (614,000), the largest public library was Boston Public Map collections fl ourished in the United States, Can- Library (1,400,000), the National Archives still held the ada, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand dur- largest number of air photos and satellite images with ing the second half of the twentieth century, when map 18 million, and the largest academic library collection libraries experienced their greatest growth, both in num- of remote sensing images was that of the University of ber and in size of collections (Wolter 1973, 238–46). California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) with 4.4 million im- That growth began shortly after World War II in the ages (Thiry 2006, 1, 307, 309, 311, 312). United States with the distribution of surplus maps to Similar trends in map libraries in Australia, Canada, map libraries by the U.S. Army Map Service, a prac- the United Kingdom, and a few other countries may be tice effectively continued into the early 2000s. Another tracked through the multiple editions of each country’s growth incentive from the 1960s onward was the ex- individual map library directories. See, for example, the pansion of the depository program administered by the directory of map collections in Australia (published in U.S. Government Printing Offi ce (Cobb 1990, ix). In the paper format from the fi rst edition, Directory of Map early 1950s there were 527 map collections listed in a Collections in Australia, 1974, through the last paper directory of U.S. and Canadian collections, with 497 of edition, Map Collections in Australia: A Directory, 1991, them in the United States (Special Libraries Association and subsequently in digital format on the web), the Di- 1954, 1). By 1975 there were 743, with 684 in the United rectory of Canadian Map Collections = Répertoire des States (Carrington and Stephenson 1978, vii). By 1983 collections de cartes canadiennes (paper editions 1969– there were 919 map collections in the United States, 99) and A Directory of UK Map Collections (paper edi- ranging from 19 collections with 250,000 or more maps tions 1983–2000 and subsequently on the web). to 78 percent with less than 50,000 maps. The largest The directories of map collections worldwide compiled collection was that of the Geography and Map Division by a map-interest group of the International Federation of the Library of Congress (LCG&M) with 3.8 million of Library Associations (IFLA) could not be used in the maps, while the largest academic library was the Uni- same way here to track the growth of map library collec- versity of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) with over tions around the world. The compilers of the worldwide 506,000 maps, and the largest public library was the directories included only the largest collections from New York Public Library with almost 356,000 maps those countries having their own directories of map (Cobb 1986, x–xi). By 1989 there were 975 map collec- collections (e.g., Australia, Canada, France, Germany, tions in the United States, including twenty map librar- the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United fig. 468. USER AREA FOR PRINT MATERIALS. Map and Image courtesy of Larry Carver. Imagery Laboratory, Davidson Library, University of Califor- nia, Santa Barbara, 2007.

fig. 469. MAP CASES. Map and Imagery Laboratory, David- Image courtesy of Larry Carver. son Library, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2007. 768 Libraries, Map

States) (IFLA 1986, xiv; 1993, ix). Nonetheless, there Throughout the twentieth century the most used and was an obvious increase in number of collections over versatile materials in almost all map collections were the the years, with 285 collections reported worldwide as of many sheets of detailed topographic map series. Topo- 1972 (IFLA 1976, 8), 522 collections from 67 countries graphic map sheets could be employed in many ways in 1990 (IFLA 1993, ix) and, as of the late 1990s, 714 by different types of users and served as base maps for collections in 121 countries (IFLA 2000, vii). The general every other thematic map series. The available coverage pattern in most countries was that of governmental map of topographic maps increased due to the application of collections—often as part of national libraries, national aerial photography during World War I and even more archives, and the national topographic and geologic during and after World War II, thus speeding up data surveys—and of maps collected by university libraries collection and map compilation. Thematic map col- and by libraries in scholarly societies. One map group lecting in most libraries consisted mainly of land use in Europe—Groupe des Cartothécaires de LIBER (Ligue (cadastral and planning), transportation, geology, and des Bibliothèques Européennes de Recherche)—was ac- vegetation maps. General world atlases formed part tive during the last quarter of the twentieth century, as of almost every map collection; national atlases and was the Geography and Map Libraries Section of IFLA. thematic atlases were obtained when appropriate for The growth of map libraries was strongly infl uenced by a given map library’s users. Collections often included several factors. Primary among these were scientifi c and monographic and serial text materials on cartography. technological developments in cartography after 1700, Collection of digital geospatial data fi rst occurred in a developments that speeded up the issuance of mapping very few map libraries in the mid-1980s and became products and greatly increased the quantity produced. common only in the early to mid-1990s as U.S. govern- Not only did cartographic products become important, ment agencies, such as the U.S. Bureau of the Census, even essential, tools in times of war during the twentieth the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, century, but they also proved themselves to be valuable and the U.S. Geological Survey, began to distribute data for governance at every level, as evidenced by the pro- on CD-ROMs. liferation of GIS data sets from the world level down to Following selection and acquisition, materials were the level of city governments at the end of the century. classifi ed, generally but not always, by geographic area. Technological advances in cartography contributed The object of classifi cation, for digital as for hard copy directly in many ways to the growth of collections. The cartographic items, was to place like items together so most obvious were the use of remote sensors in airplanes they could easily be found. Each item was given an iden- and in satellites to gather information about the earth tifying call number, sometimes assigned arbitrarily and and other planets, the use of digital methods to develop sometimes encoding the map’s geographical and other mapping products, and the development of the Internet characteristics. There was no consensus in 1950 about as a method of making maps and images available. The the best method of classifying maps and the level of latter led to far more use of digital maps than had ever cataloging they should receive (Anderson 1950), a de- occurred with paper maps. bate that continued for decades without total resolution. Changing technology also infl uenced the operation The next step was to catalog cartographic items using of map libraries during the twentieth century (Lars- technology that progressed during the latter part of the gaard 1998). As in other types of libraries, map-library twentieth century from manual typing of catalog cards work began with the selection and acquisition—budget to computer-printed catalog cards, which in turn gave permitting—of materials of greatest interest to a collec- way to computer catalogs accessible for direct searching tion’s primary user groups. Finding the maps to acquire on local networks and later on the web (fi g. 470). was challenging, several articles pointed out in 1950, be- A major problem was that relatively few map collec- cause map publishers were so numerous, maps were so tions had been fully cataloged. In the late 1980s only ephemeral, and there was no centralized documentation about 60 percent of all libraries in the United States with of new maps published (although several journals did map collections had cataloged them (Cobb 1990, xiii). publish notices of new maps) (Espenshade 1950, 431, Many map libraries relied for access on direct search- 434; Felland 1950). For those reasons, map acquisition ing of uncataloged maps stored in rough geographical remained more diffi cult than the development of library arrangement. Another major problem was that 95 per- book collections through the end of the century. How- cent of most map collections was composed of large ever, identifying desiderata became less of a problem series (mainly topographic series or air-photo fl ights). when, as early as 1972, map librarians began to employ Cataloging was most often done at the series or fl ight computers to analyze map-use statistics and adjust col- level rather than at the sheet or aerial photograph level, lection development policies accordingly (Fairclough largely due to the substantial amount of work required 1972, 291). to create a catalog record for each sheet or image. In- Libraries, Map 769

fig. 470. ONLINE CATALOG INTERFACE FOR SEARCH- Image courtesy of Larry Carver. ING DIGITAL GEOSPATIAL DATA. National Geospatial Digital Archive at the Map and Imagery Laboratory, Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2007. stead, access to map series was often by means of paper world of the web as map libraries, horrifi ed by the short index maps marked up to show local holdings. life span of internet addresses (URLs) and the disappear- With the addition of digital geospatial data to map col- ance of fi les with them, began to change from merely lections from the 1980s onward (data that were rapidly pointing at a web location of a fi le to downloading fi les increasing in both number of fi les and amount in bytes), of greatest interest and saving them to local disks. the need for item-level cataloging became increasingly All libraries experienced a constant tension between acute. Many map libraries continued to catalog at series ensuring preservation of materials and providing infor- or fl ight level but began to place scans of graphic indexes mation to users. Circulation of single-sheet paper and online; examples included the map indexes of the Earth fi lm materials inevitably accelerated the physical aging Sciences & Map Library at the University of California, of the materials loaned out, so relatively few map librar- Berkeley, and the air photo fl ight indexes of the Map & ies circulated maps and aerial photographs. Even though Imagery Laboratory, UCSB. Map libraries without fully sleeving or encapsulating maps in polyester fi lm could cataloged paper maps were suddenly confronted with considerably lessen handling damage, only 36 percent the need to catalog large amounts of digital geospatial of map libraries circulated their maps in the late 1980s data. The challenge was considerable, because catalog- (Cobb 1990, xiii–xiv). Interlibrary loan of paper maps ing digital geospatial data was signifi cantly more time and images on fi lm was the exception rather than the consuming than cataloging hard-copy geospatial items. rule. Short print runs meant that maps typically went While map library users and staff were in complete out of print quickly, while original fi lm aerial photo- agreement about the utility and importance of making graphic negatives were one of a kind. Hard copies could cartographic items available in digital form and prefer- be made and mailed, but cost was a factor even though ably online, map libraries experienced some problems the photographic and photostat copy services standard associated with the collection of digital fi les. One was during the early twentieth century had given way by that fi les of digital geospatial data were much larger than the 1960s to cheaper photocopying processes (black- text fi les, meaning that a map library’s requirements for and-white, later joined by large-format and/or color). computer disk space were much larger than other library Concerns about mailing or copying irreplaceable maps departments. It was common for fi les of digital geospa- were rapidly lowered in the 1980s as technology made tial data to range from ten megabytes to several hundred it possible to send digital fi les instead, but digital lesfi megabytes. Large fi le size became even more critical in the presented other preservation problems. 770 Libraries, Map

On the positive side, digital fi les could be reused fre- public domain, they became the mainstay of websites, quently without damage, and fi les were relatively easy such as that of the Perry-Castañeda Library’s Map Col- to replace if bit rot occurred. The ability to safely send a lection at the University of Texas at Austin. However, digital copy of a cartographic item through the mail on a viewing a scan of a map substantially larger than the CD-ROM or DVD or over the web changed map-library size of a standard computer monitor, as the majority of practices. It became common to scan and send public paper maps were, proved to be unexpectedly diffi cult domain or otherwise out-of-copyright paper maps to re- for the user. At the start of a viewing session, the entire questors instead of placing the hard copies in the mail. map appeared as a very small image that the user usu- On the other hand, the preservation of digital geospa- ally enlarged immediately with the aim of viewing the tial data became a serious problem for map libraries. The area of interest in greater detail. Soon the enlargement necessity of regular and frequent backups of digital data reached a point where either the scan showed insuffi - and of migrating digital data from one digital medium cient detail because of the small fi le size (to ensure quick to another before the fi rst medium became obsolete pre- accessibility over the web) or the user no longer had suf- sented diffi culties. All too often a map librarian became fi cient context for the small geographical area shown aware too late that a digital fi le had become unusable. on the screen. Paper maps were designed to be viewed Digital image fi les usable only with certain application as a whole; even a viewer interested in only one small software, in turn usable only with a certain operating area of a given map would normally use the entire map system, doomed many CD-ROMs to the recycle bin as context. By the early 2000s map libraries began to after one or both became unavailable. Although paper consider obtaining large (4 × 3 ft) screens that could be products deteriorate over time, such deterioration tends rotated to match the orientation (landscape or portrait) to be slow and apparent to the naked eye. The same can- of a given map to assist users in viewing scans of large not be said of digital fi les, which have to be opened up maps. in order to determine the health of the fi le. The same problem did not arise with born-digital ma- It would have been highly unusual for any map library terials designed to be viewed on a computer. The layers to copy every one of its paper maps once a month, keep or “coverages” of GIS data sets were constructed in digi- three or four versions of each in case the most current tal form to enable users to view a small area at a time. version should prove faulty (and the fault faithfully cop- Other important aids for viewing digital cartographic ied for the last several versions), and then throw out any images were the fl oating scale and the north arrow, the copies more than four versions back. It was an onerous latter especially useful for viewing items not oriented task to periodically check digital fi les for file deteriora- with north at the top, such as some aerial photographs. tion (using, for example, the comparisons of checksums It was also a surprise that digital atlases, popular for at different times for each fi le), and, when fi le deteriora- home use online or on disc, were not, after the initial tion had occurred to hunt through backup tapes to fi nd novelty, of much interest to users in libraries. There, pa- a copy of the fi le in its original condition. Yet these pro- per atlases continued in frequent use and even large at- cedures became standard practice in backing up digital lases were often checked out (despite their considerable geospatial fi les on hard drives. size and weight), as evidenced by the frequent necessity Aerial photographs, usually 9 × 9 inch (23 × 23 cm) to rebind worn copies. in hard copy in the United States, were small enough Map libraries around the world entered the twenty- to be well suited to viewing in digital form on a com- fi rst century in a major period of transition as they puter. They required only the simplest image processing sought to maintain both their hard-copy collections and software to enlarge, reduce, pan, and change properties quickly expanding digital collections, often with staffi ng (e.g., change contrast or convert scan of negative to a levels the same as, or lower than, the days when maps positive image). However, preferences for using other were solely hard copy. When the online catalog listings cartographic objects in hard copy remained valid, based of a map library’s holdings were incomplete, as was of- as they were on the limits of the human senses. It was ten the case, it was impossible to search for map holdings much more informative to view, touch, and turn a three- without consulting staff members working in the map dimensional globe than to watch a video of a whirling collection. Also, the majority of map library users still globe on a computer monitor. With large maps and at- needed reference assistance to identify the best maps for lases, the benefi ts of hard copy over digital format were different purposes and to interpret map features (Millea less obvious and came as a surprise not only to users but 2005, 65, 72–73). Map libraries routinely had web pages also to map librarians. Small printed maps, such as the and were providing users with digital geospatial data, 8.5 × 11 inch (22 × 28 cm) maps of individual countries but their collections of hard-copy cartographic items re- issued by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, were well mained popular with users, especially when copyright suited to online viewing of the entire map. Being in the restrictions prevented scanning the hard-copy item or Libraries and Map Collections, National 771 when the digital equivalent was diffi cult to use. As the in 1844 of the collection at the British Museum (Lon- twenty-fi rst century dawned such hybrid map libraries don) that would become the Department of Maps and seemed likely to persist, unless the attention of research- Charts; in 1859 of the Kartenabteilung in the Königliche ers, hitherto focused on developing digital technology, Bibliothek (Berlin); and in 1897 of the Hall of Maps and were to shift toward solving the human-factor problems Charts in the main building of the Library of Congress of viewing geospatial data in digital format. (Washington). In some countries, the national collection Mary Lynette Larsgaard of maps developed within the national archives, as was the case, notably, in Canada. In other countries the map See also: Antiquarian Maps and Grand Larceny; Digital Library; Libraries and Map Collections, National; Public Access to Carto- collections in the national archives, although important, graphic Information; Societies, Map Librarianship did not have the priority of acquiring new cartographic Bibliography: publications. The maps in national archives often came Anderson, Ottilia C. 1950. “No Best Method to Catalog Maps.” Li- from archived document series, from which they were brary Journal 75:450–52. extracted for separate storage suited to cartographic Carrington, David K., and Richard W. Stephenson, comps. 1978. Map Collections in the United States and Canada: A Directory. 3d ed. formats. In some countries the national libraries were New York: Special Libraries Association. also university libraries. In any case, it was not possible Cobb, David A., comp. 1986. Guide to U.S. Map Resources. Chicago: for national map collections to be exhaustive. They were American Library Association. 2d ed., 1990. usefully complemented by map collections in other insti- Espenshade, Edward Bowman. 1950. “No One Source for Acquiring tutions for which national directories of map libraries, Maps.” Library Journal 75:431–36. Fairclough, R. H. 1972. “Original or Facsimile.” New Library World which were compiled and published during the twenti- 73:291–94. eth century, served as useful fi nding aids. Felland, Nordis Adelheid. 1950. “Periodical Aids to Map Acquisition.” The continuing development of mapmaking and Library Journal 75:438, 488. publishing throughout the twentieth century enabled Hooker, Ruth H. 1950. “Maps in the Library (Foreword).” Library national map libraries to collect increasing quantities Journal 75:429. International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA). Geogra- and varieties of maps, ranging from topographic series phy and Map Libraries Sub-Section., comp. 1976. World Direc- to thematic maps, and place them at the disposal of re- tory of Map Collections. Ed. Walter W. Ristow. Munich: Verlag searchers. Maps became incorporated into national pub- Dokumentation. lication distribution networks because entries for carto- ———. 1986. World Directory of Map Collections. 2d ed. Ed. John A. graphic publications were included in the bibliographies Wolter, Ronald E. Grim, and David K. Carrington. Munich: K. G. Saur. (or bibliographical supplements) often published by ———. 1993. World Directory of Map Collections. 3d ed. Ed. Lor- national libraries (Bell 1998) and, more recently, in the raine Dubreuil. Munich: K. G. Saur. databases of those libraries. National libraries also valo- ———. 2000. World Directory of Map Collections. 4th ed. Ed. Olivier rized their older map holdings by continuing acquisition Loiseaux. Munich: K. G. Saur. of older maps, by mounting exhibitions, and by publish- Larsgaard, Mary Lynette. 1998. Map Librarianship: An Introduction. 3d ed. Englewood: Libraries Unlimited. ing studies and catalogs. Such activities by national map Millea, Nick. 2005. “Map Library Usage in Europe: A Vision for libraries facilitated the growth of the history of cartog- the Future? An Assessment of a Questionnaire Conducted during raphy as a fi eld of study during the twentieth century. the Summer of 2003.” Journal of Map & Geography Libraries 1, The diffi culties of storing the various cartographic no. 2:51–83. formats led national libraries to form special map de- Special Libraries Association. Geography and Map Division. Map Re- sources Committee. 1954. Map Collections in the United States and partments with the capacity to store material ranging Canada, a Directory. New York: Special Libraries Association. from large sheet maps and atlases to fragile and cumber- Thiry, Christopher J. J., ed. 2006. Guide to U.S. Map Resources. 3d ed. some three-dimensional objects, such as globes and top- Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ographic models. In several national libraries, however, Wolter, John A. 1973. “Geographical Libraries and Map Collections.” manuscripts departments still retained manuscript maps. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, ed. Allen Kent et al., vol. 9, 236–66. New York: Marcel Dekker. For example, the Map Library of the British Library (the Yonge, Ena L. 1950. “How This Maps Feature Came into Being.” Li- name changed from Map Room to Map Library when brary Journal 75:430. the British Library (BL) separated from the British Mu- seum in 1973) included the Geographical Collection of King George III (Topographical Collection and Mari- Libraries and Map Collections, National. During time Collection) of printed and manuscript maps and the twentieth century, national map collections, usually views, as well as the national collection of printed maps, located in national libraries, took shape and developed but most of the BL’s manuscript map holdings remained specifi c characteristics. The nineteenth century had wit- in the Department of Manuscripts. nessed the fi rst such foundations: in 1828 of the Dépar- During the twentieth century the names of other tement de géographie de la Bibliothèque royale (Paris); national map libraries also refl ected administrative 772 Libraries and Map Collections, National changes. In France the Département de géographie of to them on the Internet. Along with deciding whether the Bibliothèque nationale (BN) became the Départe- to acquire paper or digital formats when building cur- ment des cartes et plans, while at the Library of Con- rent map collections, map librarians faced the question gress (LC), the Hall of Maps and Charts became the of whether digital reproductions of older cartographic Geography and Map Division in 1965. Maps and prints materials would replace costly paper facsimiles. were sometimes brought together, as was the case in Technical issues were debated in professional meet- Brazil and Bulgaria, while institutions in Latin America ings organized by the IFLA and its national counter- (Chili, Cuba, Mexico, and Peru) tended to adopt the parts during the twentieth century. Map librarians from name Mapoteca Nacional. national libraries who were instrumental in founding The cartographic departments of national libraries national organizations included Le Gear (LC) and the became leaders and coordinators of activities connected Geography and Map Division of the Special Libraries with their work: adaptation of sites for preservation Association, founded in 1941; Helen Wallis (BL) and and consultation of documents in different formats; the Map Curators’ Group of the British Cartographic establishment of policies regarding the acquisition and Society, founded in 1966; and Monique Pelletier (BN) cataloging of cartographic documents; publication of and the Commission documentation du Comité fran- catalogs and map bibliographies; active participation in çais de cartographie, founded in 1981. The Groupe des specialized associations (ranging from the International cartothécaires (Map Curators Group) of the European Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Ligue des Bibliothèques Européennes de Recherche [IFLA] to national and regional associations of librar- (LIBER) was founded in 1980 by map curators, many ians, geographers, and cartographers); and support of of them from European national libraries, and member- research in the history of cartography. ship was progressively expanded to Eastern and Central National map collections are inventoried in the four Europe. Meetings and seminars, combining visits to map editions of the World Directory of Map Collections, collections with reports on advances in administering drawn up by the Section of Geography and Map Librar- map collections, fl ourished in Europe and America dur- ies of the IFLA and published in 1976, 1986, 1993, and ing the second half of the twentieth century. 2000 (Loiseaux 2000). It is diffi cult to summarize their National collections typically acquire cartographic evolution, but a few selected examples will show how materials by gift, purchase, or legal deposit. Acquisition conservation has often been combined with innovation. by gift or purchase of older public or private collec- Progress in the conservation and copying of carto- tions brought spectacular growth to many map librar- graphic documents refl ected the concern of curators to ies during the twentieth century. For example, in 1924 prevent their degradation. At the LC, Clara Egli Le Gear the BN received from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs conducted one of the fi rst studies on the subject (1949, 8,700 maps collected by eighteenth-century geographer 1956). Meanwhile Myriem Foncin at the BN in Paris Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville and in 1942 and saw through to completion a project delayed by World 1947 25,000 maps from the Service hydrographique de War II, the installation of the Département des cartes et la Marine. The British Museum Library’s acquisition in plans in a new, and what was hoped to be exemplary, the 1960s of drawings compiled by Ordnance surveyors site (Foncin 1954). It is interesting to compare the stor- in the fi rst half of the nineteenth century complemented age solutions adopted by the two institutions: drawers its collection of published Ordnance Survey topographic (LC) versus portfolios (BN) and special treatment at the map series. After World War II, the transfer of super- BN for large-format maps and portolans, both valuable seded maps from military agencies became another ma- and numerous in that collection. However, both librar- jor mode of acquisition at both the BL and LC. How- ies adhered to the basic principle of fl at storage for the ever, legal deposit remained one of the main sources majority of maps and for large-format atlases. Special of growth for national map collections. The twentieth storage facilities for large formats remained a major ob- century witnessed the creation and modifi cation of nu- jective of map librarians. merous laws relating to copyright of published material, The greatest change during the twentieth century was which often specifi ed the deposit of maps, plans, globes, the way cartographic materials were consulted. Prior to atlases, and nautical charts (Jasion 1991). Maintaining World War II photostats and printed facsimiles on pa- relations with establishments that produce cartographic per served as surrogates and broadened access to car- documents and are concerned with their preserva- tographic material. The postwar shift to photographic tion became one of the accepted missions of national reproduction on microfi che and microfi lm was followed collections. by end-of-the-century projects to create digital images Philip Lee Phillips, who had been appointed the fi rst of map holdings, either from existing microformat cop- superintendent of maps at the LC in 1897, maintained ies or from the paper originals, and to provide access that the cataloging of maps differed little from that of Libraries and Map Collections, National 773 books. However, his nine-volume atlas catalog, A List Association (1961–) and the International Conference of Geographical Atlases in the Library of Congress, on the History of Cartography (1964–), the latter of- with Bibliographical Notes (Phillips 1909, 1914, 1920), ten hosted by national map libraries. Curators also continued by Le Gear (1958, 1963, 1973–74, 1992), re- published articles in relevant journals, such as Imago vealed the limitations of his approach in its requirement Mundi, and contributed essays to festschrifts honoring for constant updates. Taking a different approach, late former colleagues. In addition to national directories of twentieth-century compilers of collective catalogs and map libraries, they contributed to more focused guides map bibliographies tended to limit the geographical and (e.g., Wallis and McConnell 1994). Curators from na- chronological coverage, such as to atlases published in tional libraries were also actively involved in the His- a certain country during a particular period. However, tory of Cartography series, published by the University such researchers were reliant upon the assistance of cu- of Chicago Press (1987–). rators and the availability of good-quality reproductions During the twentieth century national map collec- in order to identify maps from different map collections tions developed into much more than map repositories. and construct their cartographic genealogies. That need As the century progressed, their curators promoted na- provided impetus for the progressive digitization of col- tional and international collaboration to improve and lections, an ongoing process in which national map col- standardize the methodology of map library adminis- lections became active in the late twentieth century. tration, especially in regard to computerization of cata- At the same time directors of map collections were loging. They led the way in disseminating information also collaborating to develop national and interna- about map collections through directories, catalogs, and tional standards for map cataloging in order to meet carto bibliographies. While establishing connections with the requirements for automation of catalogs and bib- professional colleagues around the world, the staff of liographies. The IFLA created a working group for the national map libraries also provided instruction, exhibi- standardization of bibliographic descriptions of carto- tions, publications, and websites to attract and instruct graphic documents in 1973, which resulted in the ISBD the public and make cartographic information accessible (CM) International Standard Bibliographic Description to them. In addition to staying abreast of developments for Cartographic Materials in 1977 and a revised edi- in modern mapping, national map collections became tion in 1987. Hugo L. P. Stibbe and colleagues at the centers for the growth of the history of cartography as National Archives of Canada coedited the fi rst edition a fi eld of study. of Cartographic Materials: A Manual of Interpretation Monique Pelletier for AACR2 in 1982, while Elizabeth Unger Mangan of (in consultation with Sarah Tyacke) the LC edited the second edition (2003). See also: Antiquarian Maps and Grand Larceny; Collecting, Map; Although staff of national map collections routinely Digital Library; Libraries, Map; Public Access to Cartographic In- instructed readers how to access their modern carto- formation; Societies, Map Librarianship graphic holdings as well as their older ones, the histori- Bibliography: cal depth and signifi cance of national map collections Bäärnhielm, Göran, Folke Sandgren, and Anders Burius, eds. 2003. also afforded curators with special opportunities to Accurata descriptio: Studier i kartografi , numismatik, orientalistik och biblioteksväsen tillägnade Ulla Ehrensvärd = Papers in Cartog- teach a broader range of audiences about the history raphy, Numismatics, Oriental Studies and Librarianship Presented of cartography. While displays for visiting groups might to Ulla Ehrensvärd. Stockholm: Kungl. Biblioteket. be small and informal, there were numerous large map Bell, Barbara L. 1998. An Annotated Guide to Current National Bib- exhibitions open to the public during the second half of liographies. 2d rev. ed. Munich: K. G. Saur. the century. For example, the British Museum celebrated Bracke, Wouter, ed. 2006. Margaritae cartographicae: Studia Lisette Danckaert 75um diem natalem agenti oblata. Brussels: Archives et its bicentenary in 1953 with an exhibition (organized by Bibliothèques de Belgique. R. A. Skelton of the Map Room and colleagues) of 235 Foncin, Myriem. 1954. “Les nouvelles installations du Départe- items illustrating the history of mapmaking to the eigh- ment des cartes et plans de la Bibliothèque nationale.” Bulletin de teenth century, and the BN celebrated the 1828 creation l’Association des bibliothécaires français 15:137–46. of its Département de géographie with an exhibition of Gestel–van het Schip, Paula van, and Peter van der Krogt, eds. 2007. Mappæ Antiquæ: Liber Amicorum Günter Schilder. ’t Goy-Houten: 225 items, organized in 1979, concerning ten centuries HES & De Graaf. of cartography. Curators also taught courses in the his- Jasion, Jan T. 1991. The International Guide to Legal Deposit. Alder- tory of cartography, sometimes in collaboration with shot: Ashgate. universities, such as the series inaugurated in 1989 by Le Gear, Clara Egli. 1949. Maps: Their Care, Repair and Preservation the Institut cartogràfi c de Catalunya and the Départe- in Libraries. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. Rev. ed. 1956. Loiseaux, Olivier, comp. and ed. 2000. World Directory of Map Col- ment de géographie de l’Universitat autònoma de Bar- lections. 4th ed. Munich: K. G. Saur. celona. Curators also gave presentations at conferences, Wallis, Helen, and Anita McConnell, eds. 1994. Historians’ Guide to including meetings of the International Cartographic Early British Maps: A Guide to the Location of Pre-1900 Maps 774 Lidar

of the British Isles Preserved in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Intensity recording Satellite platform London: Royal Historical Society. Wallis, Helen, and Arthur H. Robinson, eds. 1987. Cartographical In- novations: An International Handbook of Mapping Terms to 1900. Tring: Map Collector Publications in association with the Interna- Multiple-return tional Cartographic Association. First/Last return recording Continuous waveform recording return

Lidar. Light detection and ranging (lidar) is an ac- Discrete return tive remote sensing system that records the distance, or range, of a laser fi red from a platform to the earth’s sur- Small footprint Large footprint face. By converting the ranging data in different ways, accurate high-resolution elevation models can be cre- Terrestrial Lidar ated that represent bare ground, vegetation, or buildings in three dimensions. Lidar-derived products also include Bathymetric lidar measurements of vegetation features such as canopy IMU height, canopy closure, and biomass; structural features GPS Scanning mirror of urban areas such as building footprints; and three- dimensional city models. Airborne laser profiler A lidar system uses a laser to calculate the range from a Atmospheric lidar sensor to a target. In simplest terms, a laser pulse is fi red, Laser fluorosensor hits a target, and is refl ected back to the detector. Travel time of the laser pulse is recorded by a very accurate instrument. Total travel time is multiplied by the speed Laser rangefinder of light and divided by two to give the one-way distance from the refl ected target to the sensor (Lefsky et al. 2002, Laser 19). There are three general types of lidar systems: those that work over water (bathymetric lidar), those that fig. 471. HISTORY OF LIDAR DEVELOPMENT TREE. work over land (terrestrial lidar), and those that sense the atmosphere (atmospheric lidar) (fi g. 471). Because terrestrial lidar systems are the most common systems then calculating the range, or distance. Laser altimeter used for cartographic purposes, we focus on them here. systems, the predecessors of lidar, were fl own on the Lidar technology encompasses several disparate sci- Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions to record the moon’s entifi c discoveries and has several components that were surface topography. Since the 1960s, a global network of developed independently. The main components of a li- ground stations has measured ranges to satellite-borne dar system are the laser, the inertial measurement unit refl ectors, and satellite laser ranging is still an integral (IMU), the Global Positioning System (GPS), the scan- part of NASA’s space geodesy program. ning mirror (for airborne laser scanners), and the on- In the 1980s, lasers were fl own to create a single pro- board computer. fi le of the ground directly below aircraft. By the 1990s, The invention of lasers is generally credited to Ar- laser scanners could collect a swath of laser data using thur L. Schawlow and Charles H. Townes. In 1954, they a scanning mirror (Fowler 2001). Detectors could re- invented the maser (microwave amplifi cation by stim- cord the fi rst, last, or multiple returns per laser pulse or ulated emission of radiation). In 1958, they theorized could digitize the entire refl ected laser pulse waveform. about a visible laser (light amplifi cation by stimulated In the early 1990s, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center emission of radiation) that used infrared or visible light began using large-footprint scanning continuous wave- instead of microwave radiation. Schawlow and Townes form systems to measure vertical vegetation structure demonstrated that a specifi c wavelength of light could and subcanopy topography in forests (Dubayah and be concentrated into a very coherent narrow beam and Drake 2000). aimed at a target. In the 1990s, the development of position and attitude The history of laser ranging began in 1964 when the technologies enabled precise and accurate mapping with National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) aerial lidar. The distance from the aircraft to the tar- launched the Beacon-B satellite. This was followed by a get could be accurately measured with the laser, but this mission to determine the distance from the earth to the distance was meaningless without a way to determine moon by fi ring a laser beam from the earth to a refl ector the position and attitude of the aircraft. Two additional placed on the moon during the Apollo 11 mission and components were necessary: the IMU and the GPS. Lidar 775

Inertial technology is based on two well-known laws tem. From this emerged the Navstar (Navigation System of physics: an object spinning very rapidly will main- with Timing and Ranging) GPS. In February 1978, the tain its relative orientation, and on the earth, a rapidly fi rst operational Navstar satellites were launched. Civil- spinning object typically aligns itself with gravity. IMUs ian access to the GPS signal was formally guaranteed in contain rapidly spinning gyroscopes inside a gimbal 1984. The GPS constellation of twenty-four satellites was or cage. If the cage is attached and aligned to the laser declared to be in initial operation in December 1993 and head, the angle of the laser can be measured. IMUs also in full operation in July 1995 (French 1996, 15–17). contain accelerometers to measure the velocity of the GPS operates on the principle of trilateration, in which aircraft. Incorporating a high-precision clock and a way the position of an unknown point is determined by mea- to measure angles, the accelerometer measures the speed suring the lengths of the sides of a triangle between the and direction of aircraft movement. The IMU is usually unknown point and two or more known points (the composed of three accelerometers and three gyros, with satellites). Each satellite transmits a unique radio signal electronics to record the data. The accelerometers are ar- code. A GPS unit on the ground receives a signal from ranged in an orthogonal triangle that measures the force every satellite in range and measures the time it takes for applied to the IMU. The gyros are similarly arranged each signal to travel to the receiver. The distance to each and measure the angular movement of the IMU. satellite is then computed and the receiver’s position can However, no accelerometer in use as of the beginning be determined. of the twenty-fi rst century could remain accurate after Over the past forty years, the use of lidar sensors and long periods of movement; directional accuracies start data has transitioned from research and development to drift with travel time. The GPS was incorporated into into a cost-effective means of generating dense, accu- the lidar system as a way to periodically reset and up- rate digital models of topography and associated fea- date the accelerometer’s true position. tures (fi g. 472). Lasers can pulse up to 150,000 times per During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the U.S. Navy second and record multiple returns per pulse. As of the sponsored two satellite-based navigation systems, Transit beginning of the twenty-fi rst century, waveform systems and Timation. At the same time, the U.S. Air Force was were primarily restricted to the NASA research sector, conducting studies on a system called System 621B. In but their public use is increasing. Improvements in GPS April 1973, the Air Force was asked to combine Timation and IMU technology enable more accurate calculations and 621B into a single Defense Navigation Satellite Sys- of position and attitude.

fig. 472. LIDAR IMAGE FOR AN AREA IN SOUTH U.S. Geological Survey EROS Center, Sioux Falls, South DAKOTA. A combination of elevation and laser intensity Dakota. information from lidar data collected in 2005 over the Image courtesy of Jason M. Stoker. 776 Linguistic Map

Lidar allows rapid, cost-effective, accurate mapping French, Gregory T. 1996. Understanding the GPS: An Introduction of linear corridors such as power utility rights-of-way, to the Global Positioning System, What It Is and How It Works. gas pipelines, railroads, highways, and telecommunica- Bethesda: GeoResearch. Froome, K. D., and L. Essen. 1969. The Velocity of Light and Radio tions. A survey that would take months with ground in- Waves. London: Academic Press. struments can be completed in hours using lidar. Results Lefsky, Michael A., et al. 2002. “Lidar Remote Sensing for Ecosystem vary, but generally lidar provides very accurate eleva- Studies.” BioScience 52:19–30. tions: within or better than fi fteen to twenty centimeters Schawlow, Arthur L., and Charles H. Townes. 1958. “Infrared and in the vertical and around fi fty centimeters (depending Optical Masers.” Physical Review, 2d ser., 112:1940–49. Stoker, Jason M., et al. 2006. “CLICK: The New USGS Center for Li- on operating conditions) in the horizontal (Stoker et al. dar Information Coordination and Knowledge.” Photogrammetric 2006, 613). For many cartographic applications, lidar Engineering & Remote Sensing 72:613–16. systems are deployed in conjunction with other sensors, such as aerial fi lm or digital cameras, multi- or hyper- spectral scanners, or hybrid imagery. Linguistic Map. The term linguistic map encompasses Lidar is a more fl exible way to obtain bare earth eleva- two broad categories: maps that show the distribution tion models in forests than photogrammetry or extensive of the different language communities in a region and ground surveys. Because it can record multiple returns those that help the reader visualize linguistic variety of the laser pulse, airborne lidar, unlike radar or satellite within a language area. The former offer a more com- imaging, can simultaneously map the ground beneath prehensive approach to the geography of language and the tree canopy as well as tree tops. Lidar has been used can be called ethno-linguistic maps, whereas the latter for estimating forest biomass and timber volume. Lidar document the spatial patterns of specifi c linguistic phe- surveys are cost-effective in areas of limited contrast and nomena and can be called dialect maps. width, such as beaches and coastal zones, where tradi- tional photogrammetry is diffi cult to employ. Lidar has Ethno-linguistic Maps improved fl ood models by more accurately delineating Because it is more diffi cult to discern variation within watersheds and yielding the friction coeffi cients over the a language than between languages, the dialect map fl oodplain. As part of its Map Modernization plan, the is more recent than the ethno-linguistic map. The fi rst Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) began maps delineating areas inhabited by speakers of differ- using lidar to create digital fl ood insurance rate maps ent languages emerged in the sixteenth century, and the (DFIRMs) for the National Flood Insurance Program fi rst scientifi cally systematic linguistic maps appeared in (NFIP). These are just a few examples. New applications the eighteenth century. Ethno-linguistic mapping fl our- are appearing every day. ished in nineteenth-century Europe in response to multi- Lidar has become the technology of choice for rapid, ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary as well as the rise accurate three-dimensional mapping. Contour lines and of nationalism in the early nineteenth century and the spot elevations that were once derived from stereo pho- appearance of censuses in which inhabitants were asked togrammetry can now be measured directly with lidar. to state their mother tongue. An example of language Information about the structure of vegetation cano- mapping as a form of nationalism is the map of the pies and models of urban buildings are also important Slavonic peoples of Europe, published in 1842 in Prague products of lidar. In the past, cartographers portrayed by Pavel Jozef Šafárik, Slovanský zemeˇvid. An example a three-dimensional world solely on fl at paper. Lidar of state-inspired language-mapping based on censuses is enabled them to create immersive, interactive, three- the 1855 ethno-linguistic map of the Habsburg Empire, dimensional representations that vividly depict the real Ethnographische Karte der Österreichischen Monarchie, world. 1:864,000, by Karl von Czoernig. Jason M. Stoker and Susan K. Greenlee When the era of multiethnic empires drew to a close early in the twentieth century, and language maps were See also: Hazard and Risk, Mapping of; Hydrographic Techniques: used to determine the boundaries—or indeed the fate— Sounding; Photogrammetric Mapping: (1) Feature Extraction and of nation-states, it became common to show one’s own Photointerpretation; (2) Orthophotography and Orthophoto Map- ping; Remote Sensing: Data Handling and Information Extraction language group as covering as large an area as plausible. from Remotely Sensed Imagery; Terrain Analysis and Cartography What might be termed map wars ensued when parties to Bibliography: the post–World War I peace conferences at Versailles ex- Dubayah, Ralph O., and Jason B. Drake. 2000. “Lidar Remote Sensing changed maps that favored their own claims with vivid for Forestry.” Journal of Forestry 98, no. 6:44–46. colors backed by biased methodologies. Fowler, Robert. 2001. “Topographic Lidar.” In Digital Elevation Model Technologies and Applications: The DEM Users Manual, ed. This type of linguistic map evolved from simple David F. Maune, 207–36. Bethesda: American Society for Photo- qualitative maps showing the extent of language areas, grammetry and Remote Sensing. which often overlapped neighboring linguistic regions, Linguistic Map 777 to quantitative maps based on census results and us- reconfi gured the country’s boundaries using qualitative ing color tints in various intensities to show in increas- choropleth maps showing presence or absence rather ing detail—for countries, provinces, judicial districts, than intensity. and individual municipalities—the percentages of the Soviet ethno-linguistic cartography from the 1930s population speaking a specifi c language. Color sym- onward recognized the signifi cance of population den- bols also allowed the joint portrayal of two or more sity. Areas densely and more or less continuously occu- languages on a single map. Mixed areas, urban ag- pied by a specifi c language group were shown by color glomerations, and uninhabited areas posed problems of that fi lled the area, while linguistic minorities inhabit- graphic complexity and cartographic reliability, as did ing intervening territory were indicated by open colored the presence of language minorities, often dealt with by point symbols. In sparsely settled areas, only colored representing them on a separate map or with colored point symbols were used. Soviet ethno-linguistic maps outlines. (as, for instance, the Karta narodov SSSR 1:5,000,000, Aside from the challenge of representing different per- 1951) distinguished three levels of habitation: uninhab- centages of different nationalities living in the same area ited areas (left white), sparsely settled areas (shown in there was the added factor of different religions. This gray), and more densely settled areas (shown with col- problem was particularly acute in the Balkans, home ored bands for four classes—under 40, 40–60, 60–80, to Catholic and Orthodox Serbo-Croatian-speaking and over 80 percent). communities, Muslim and Christian (Gagauz) Turkish A later refi nement, possibly inspired by the work of peoples, and Orthodox and Muslim (Pomaks) Bulgar- Teleki, occurred in the 1940s, when Wilfried Krallert ians, among others. Because the various religions could produced 1:1,000,000 language maps of Eastern and be classifi ed together with major language groups in di- Southeastern Europe for the German army using the In- verse ways—for example, the Pomaks could be included ternational Map of the World, 1:1,000,000, as a base with either the Bulgarians or the Turks—a variety of map. Language communities were represented using the different ethno-linguistic maps were possible. This po- dot map technique instead of quantitative or qualita- tential complexity and confl icting political motives ac- tive choropleth methods with their boundaries based on count for the many language maps of this area produced administrative subdivisions. Here the resulting images since the 1850s showing different distribution patterns of the patterns were no longer defi ned by administra- (Wilkinson 1951). tive boundaries, and density variation was taken into Cartographic refi nements introduced between 1900 account as well. Krallert also gave special attention to and 1920 also took account of uninhabited areas, a cat- the base map, which in his view should also act as an egory that included very sparsely inhabited territory as explanation of the distribution of the different language well as areas occupied only seasonally, such as parts of communities. He included the hydrography in blue and the otherwise uninhabited Carpathian mountains vis- the contour lines and names printed in gray. He included ited in summer by Romanian shepherds. In the latter religious affi liation, shown using differently shaped sym- case, sparse seasonal occupancy by shepherds and their bols such as crescents for Muslims and squares for Or- sheep had been suffi cient to show the entire Carpathian thodox Christians (fi g. 475). The prime issue remained mountain range as Romanian-speaking. In 1920 the the use of color, which usually favored the language geographer Count Pál Teleki, twice prime minister of community that produced the map. Hungary (1920–21 and 1939–41), addressed this is- Geographer Henry Robert Wilkinson, in his 1951 sue on his ethnographical map of Hungary by making study of ethnic mapping in Macedonia, and Krallert, in colored areas proportional to the number of speakers a 1961 article, stressed the importance of data collec- of a specifi c language group (fi gs. 473 and 474). Simi- tion. Differences in the relative prominence of specifi c lar in principle to the value-by-area cartogram, every language groups, as shown by consecutive censuses, colored square millimeter on his 1:1,000,000 map de- could depend heavily on the phrasing of questions about noted 100 inhabitants. Gradually the notion took hold nationality and language. Nationality could be loosely that population density should be taken into account self-identifi ed or tied to parentage, place of birth, or in order to present a meaningful image of the distri- the dominant nationality of the neighborhood or vil- bution of speakers of different languages. Recognition lage, whereas the language enumerated in the census that population cartograms could play a decisive role could refl ect the respondent’s colloquial language used in visualization led to the search for other methods, but at home or the more formal language used outside the this came too late for Hungary, which lost many areas home in business, education, and dealings with public predominantly inhabited by urban Hungarians in spring authorities. In a bi- or trilingual area, how the question 1920 at the peace negotiations in Trianon, on the pal- was asked was no less important than the fear of pos- ace grounds at Versailles, where Allied cartographers sible political repercussions. 778 Linguistic Map

fig. 473. PÁL TELEKI’S ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAP OF Size of the original: 65.7 × 83.7 cm. Image courtesy of HUNGARY ACCORDING TO THE 1910 CENSUS. On Te- the American Geographical Society Library, University of leki’s Magyarország néprajzi térképe a népsu˝ru˝ ség alapján (Bu- Wisconsin–Milwaukee Libraries. dapest, 1919), one square millimeter represents 100 speakers of a specifi c language.

Dialect Maps Linguistic maps showing variation within a language did not emerge until the second half of the nineteenth century, when scholars in Europe began to systemati- cally collect information on dialects. For their planned “Sprachatlas des Deutschen Reichs,” Georg Wenker and Ferdinand Wrede collected data on sounds and forms of words between 1876 and 1887 from over 45,000 loca- tions and produced manuscript maps for the atlas be- tween 1888 and 1923. Eventually Walther Mitzka and Bernhard Martin published generalized versions of Wen- fig. 474. LEGEND FROM FIGURE 473. Size of detail: 9.5 × 17.8 cm. Image courtesy of the Ameri- ker’s maps in their Deutscher Sprachatlas (1927–56). can Geographical Society Library, University of Wisconsin– Jules Gilliéron initiated research in France on spatial dif- Milwaukee Libraries. ferences in dialects, and his colleague Edmond Edmont Linguistic Map 779

fig. 475. DETAIL FROM THE WELTKARTE 1:1,000,000 Size of the entire original: 57.6 × 53.8 cm; size of detail: 11.6 × SONDERAUSGABE VOLKSTUM. Vienna, 1943, by Wil- 17.3 cm. Image courtesy of the American Geographical Society fried Krallert, sheet K 34, Sofi a. Library, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Libraries. collected and checked the dialect data for the 600 loca- syntactic, or semantic—can be represented cartographi- tions he had selected. Together they published the At- cally. On a dialect map isoglosses thus serve as word las linguistique de la France (1902–10). Jakob Jud and boundaries, separating communities that use different Karl Jaberg used the methods pioneered by Gilliéron for words for the same concept, pronounce the same word their Sprach- und Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz differently, or refl ect notable syntactical variations. Sev- (1928–40). eral isoglosses, each referring to a single linguistic vari- Dialect mapping projects were massive endeavors re- able, can coincide to form an isogloss bundle, which quiring many years of data collection and many years Wenker treated as a dialect boundary, useful in delineat- of cartographic analysis and map production. Wenker ing distinctive speech areas. In this way linguistic maps initiated data collection by sending a questionnaire to describe the geographic extent of particular dialects, and the schoolmasters of all primary schools in Germany. the width of these isogloss bundles can be used to de- The instrument contained sentences that had to be con- vise a hierarchy of dialect groups, useful in showing the verted to the local dialect by someone the schoolmas- geographic structuring of language across space (Kurath ter deemed representative of the dialect. The data thus 1949). In the next step, Wenker combined related items collected were rendered on over 1,500 maps. The next or different words for the same concept on the same step consisted of interpreting these maps, and plotting map. He also experimented with plotting word endings boundary lines known as isoglosses, which look like iso- on transparent overlays so that the ensuing maps could lines but do not link points of equal value (Lameli 2010, easily be compared. 574–75). These maps are based on the assumption that Gilliéron, who also used questionnaires to collect data, language varies spatially in a continuum of sorts so that introduced the practice of using a single expert to col- individual changes in dialect—morphological, phonetic, lect and process the data, thereby guaranteeing greater 780 Linguistic Map uniformity than if schoolmasters or other laic data col- lectors were used, as Wenker had done. Gilliéron color- coded the results on the map and scrupulously docu- mented the age, sex, profession, and other key traits of informants. And unlike Wenker, he used a phonetic tran- scription system. Apart from selecting a phonetic notation system (usu- ally the International Phonetic Alphabet), the project director needed an overall methodology that included a strategy for selecting informants who were represen- tative of speech within the regional speech as well as a particular social level of interest to the researcher. Both Wenker and Gilliéron developed standard sentences that informants would render in accord with the local dialect as well as lists of concepts for which each informant was to supply a local word. When data were collected for the fi rst German dialect atlas, the social standing of the informants had not been recorded. In the United States, Hans Kurath, who initiated the systematic study of geographic variation in American English, was largely responsible for starting a series of atlases collectively known as the “Linguistic Atlas of the United States.” He perpetuated the tradition of Gilliéron insofar as the latter’s pupil Jud contributed to the theory and methodology of the fi rst planned atlas, a pilot study of New England that evolved into the Linguistic Atlas of New England (1939–43), which in turn provided a fig. 476. DETAIL AND LEGEND FROM A 1961 LINGUIS- model for later atlases covering the Middle and South TIC ATLAS MAP. Three of fi ve common pronunciations of Atlantic States, the North Central States, the Gulf States, “library.” These three are especially common in New England the Upper Midwest, the Pacifi c Northwest, the Pacifi c and, except for “laibri,” are relatively rare in the rest of the Coast, and the American West. Kurath, who was well Atlantic states. Size of the entire original: 22 × 19 cm; size of the detail: 10.9 × informed on the various European approaches to lin- 8.5 cm. From Hans Kurath and Raven I. McDavid, The Pro- guistic mapping, initiated fi eldwork in 1931 to uncover nunciation of English in the Atlantic States (Ann Arbor: Uni- geographical differences in grammar, vocabulary, and versity of Michigan Press, 1961), map 162. pronunciation. Fieldwork consisted of interviews—two per county—using informants who met strict require- ments regarding their education and social status. The grammatical forms or constructions employed in a given respondents were chosen to represent one of three cate- situation (e.g., “has” in contrast to “has got,” as in “he gories—folk, common, and cultured—and also two age has/has got warts”). All responses were recorded in pho- groups: aged/old-fashioned and middle-aged/modern. netic notation on preprinted worksheets, and for each Because respondents had to have lived locally their entire item mapped, the key word was stated, often with a de- life, researchers often sought out members of the oldest scription of context. local families. In areas where data collection depended Since the 1970s colors rather than isoglosses were used heavily on agricultural terms, the maps mostly refl ected increasingly to visualize the occurrence of individual the speech of older respondents. In general, respondents variables. At the century’s end the investigation of other were selected to provide an even geographic distribution linguistic levels (syntax and morphology) had become representative of both older and more recent settlements more prominent (Lameli 2010, 582), and surveys no within the region. longer focused largely on nonmobile older rural males. Each map in these American dialect atlases is either a Later American dialect atlas projects addressed linguistic lexical map showing the use of different words for the differences related to ethnicity, race, and gender. same thing (e.g., pants and trousers), a phonetic map The infl uence of the computer became increasingly showing the varying pronunciation of a particular word apparent in the collection, processing, and storage of (e.g., “tom-ah-toe” rather than “tom-ay-toe”) (fi g. 476), the data as well as in their visualization. The Atlas Lin- or a morphological map contrasting differences in the guarum Europae (ALE), the fi rst installment of which Linguistic Map 781 was published in 1975, was the largest and most ambi- fi g. 477), and print, CD-ROM, and online versions were tious linguistic atlas. Although its maps were computer released in 2006. Moreover, as records of the fi rst dia- plotted, rather than drawn by hand, from the 1980s on- lect surveys were being digitized, a second generation ward, the main contributions of digital techniques were of studies, based on follow-up surveys and comparisons the interactive linguistic database, or language corpus, with previous data, was under way to examine dialect often available online, and the integration of data from change. diverse sources (as with the ALE). In addition, electronic Ferjan Ormeling scanning was providing fuller access to older material such as the Wenker atlas, notably through the Digital See also: Ethnographic Map; Geopolitics and Cartography Bibliography: Wenker Atlas Project, in Marburg. And digital data were, Krallert, Wilfried. 1961. “Methodische Probleme der Völker- und of course, more readily amenable to statistical analysis. Sprachenkarten dargestellt an Beispielen von Karten über Ost- und Electronic technology also offered increased effi ciency Südosteuropa.” International Yearbook of Cartography 1:99–120. in both data collection and the dissemination of exam- Kretzschmar, William A. 2003. “Linguistic Atlases of the United States ples of differences in pronunciation. For example, some and Canada.” In Needed Research in American Dialects, ed. Den- nis Richard Preston, 25–48. Durham: Duke University Press for the data for the Atlas of North American English (Labov, American Dialect Society. Ash, and Boberg 2006) were collected by telephone, the Kurath, Hans. 1934. “The Linguistic Atlas of New England.” Proceed- maps for publication were generated electronically (e.g., ings of the American Philosophical Society 74:227–43.

fig. 477. THE URBAN DIALECT AREAS OF THE UNITED From William Labov, Sharon Ash, and Charles Boberg, A STATES. The map is based on the acoustic analysis of the National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English, vowel systems of 240 informants in the Telsur Project. map 1 (online publication). 782 Literature and Cartography

———. 1939. Handbook of the Linguistic Geography of New En- tion and poetry yet exists. A unifi ed history would need gland. Providence: Brown University. to accommodate not only the various literary genres but ———. 1949. A Word Geography of the Eastern United States. Ann also the cultural, historical, and (auto)biographical con- Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Labov, William, Sharon Ash, and Charles Boberg. 2006. The Atlas of texts of each signifi cant text and its map(s) in the many North American English: Phonetics, Phonology and Sound Change: literatures of the world. Essential critical tools would A Multimedia Reference Tool. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. include sensitivity to literature and iconography, famil- Lameli, Alfred. 2010. “Linguistic Atlases—Traditional and Modern.” iarity with literary and critical theories, and knowledge In Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic of geography and cartographic science and history. The Variation, Volume 1: Theories and Methods, ed. Peter Auer and Jür- gen Erich Schmidt, 567–92. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. cost of permissions, the explosion of literary maps that Meynen, Emil, ed. 1938. “Volks- und Sprachenkarten Mitteleuro- accompanied resistance to the established “canons,” and pas.” Deutsches Archiv für Landes- u. Volksforschung 2:240–62, the blurring of genres in the latter part of the century all 963–1011. help explain why few critics have focused on more than Mitzka, Walther. 1952. Handbuch zum Deutschen Sprachatlas. Mar- a single map-inspired work. What follows, then, is one burg: Elwertsche Universitätsbuchhandlung. Teleki, Pál. 1935. “Un système de cartes ethnographiques et son em- provisional map of sources and salient examples. ploi pour des régions de densités différentes.” In Comptes rendus du Congrès international de géographie, Varsovie, 1934, 1:279–83. Maps as Illustrations Warsaw: Kasa im. Mianowskiego. Though rarely mentioned within the texts themselves, Wilkinson, Henry Robert. 1951. Maps and Politics: A Review of the illustrative maps are prominent in several genres. J. B. Ethnographic Cartography of Macedonia. Liverpool: University Press. Post’s Atlas of Fantasy (1973, 1979) reproduces over 100 maps from fantasy and science fi ction. Jules Zanger (1982) critiques signifi cant maps in classic novels like Literature and Cartography. The twentieth century Ross Lockridge’s Raintree County (1948). Jeffrey C. eclipsed all previous periods in the number, range, and Patton and Nancy B. Ryckman (1990) focus on large- dissemination of literary works involving maps. From scale maps in children’s literature. And Leslie Edwards the proliferation of public libraries to the advent of (2000) presents mystery maps that help the detective electronic databases on the web, the past century ex- or orient the reader. Just as the worlds illustrated range panded exponentially the readership of earlier map- from “realistic” to overtly fi ctitious, so the maps them- inspired literature (John Donne, Madeleine de Scudéry, selves vary in detail, scale, level of abstraction, and their Jonathan Swift, Robert Louis Stevenson) and produced success in communicating with the reader. Perhaps the its own exemplars. Entering keywords like “map(s),” most infl uential example to date has been the small-scale “mapping(s),” “mapmak*,” “cartograph*,” and “atlas” map of Middle-earth that appeared as the frontispiece in into online collections like the Chadwyck-Healey Lit- J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings (1954–55). The erature Collections, Columbia Granger’s World of Po- complexity and appeal of Tolkien’s Secondary World en- etry, LitFinder, NoveList, and MLA International Bibli- couraged other writers and their publishers to include ography reveals thousands of poems and fi ctional works cartographic images. in which these terms appear and hundreds of scholarly Conventionally, the map occupies the frontispiece or publications that, since the 1970s, have used such terms endpaper of a work, so that readers view the author’s to critique poetry and fi ction. world before savoring its verbal description. We admire As was the case for earlier map-inspired works, the mapped layout of Umberto Eco’s fi ctitious abbey, for twentieth- century literary maps appear as illustrations example, even before Adso, the youthful narrator in Il and objects of discussion. Their metaphorical connota- nome della rosa (1980; trans. The Name of the Rose, tions, use as plot elements or thematic motifs, and re- 1983), compares the abbey’s harmonious proportions to lationship to those who create or view them are what the universe’s. Ursula K. Le Guin’s science fi ction clas- make them memorable. Two infl uential novels frame the sic The Dispossessed (1974) opens with illustrations of century. In Heart of Darkness (1902), the blank spaces the twin planets Anarres and Urras. But Le Guin, who and colors on imperialist maps seduce Joseph Conrad’s included maps in works as varied as the Earthsea series alter ego, Marlow, into exploring the Belgian-controlled (1968–90) and Always Coming Home (1985), also placed Congo. In Michael Ondaatje’s The English Patient simplifi ed copies of the maps within the text’s original (1992), an apolitical Hungarian cartographer whose edition to help readers locate her physicist/protagonist maps of the Sahara fall into Nazi hands becomes the in time and space: alternating chapters offer maps of patient whose burned body loses its mappable features. Urras (the story site) or Anarres (the fl ashback site). Because the fi eld is vast and analyzing maps in lit- Mysteries and historical novels commonly feature erature is as interdisciplinary as cartography itself, no maps “hidden” within the text. Because the library in comprehensive history of maps in twentieth-century fi c- Eco’s Name of the Rose remained out-of-bounds, Brother Literature and Cartography 783

Maps often grace book jackets and covers. From 1942 to 1951, the multigenre Dell paperbacks known as “mapbacks” featured on their back covers a map of either a crime scene or the story’s principal location (Lyles 1983, 83–118) (see fi g. 1115). Furthermore, since the 1980s, maps have often appeared on covers of po- etry collections like Robert Bringhurst’s Pieces of Map, Pieces of Music (1986). Some authors created successful and infl uential maps of their own. Fourteen years after The Wonderful Wiz- ard of Oz, L. Frank Baum published his map of the Land of Oz in Tik-Tok of Oz (1914) (see fi g. 606). Tol- kien drew Thror’s map for The Hobbit (1937); William Faulkner included a Yoknapatawpha County map in Absalom, Absalom! (1936), and later updated it for The Portable Faulkner (1946); and Juan Benet inserted his topographical “Mapa de Región” (1983) in one of his Región novels (Padrón 2007, 280–83). As a rule, how- ever, someone other than the author creates or modi- fi es the maps for publication. Consider two celebrated maps, those of Thomas Hardy’s mythical Wessex and Tolkien’s Middle-earth. The frontispiece of The Return of the Native (1878) displayed one of Hardy’s own fig. 478. THE LIBRARY MAP IN THE NAME OF THE maps; and, based on another of Hardy’s maps, in 1912 ROSE BY UMBERTO ECO. Perhaps the most important and Emery Walker engraved the iconic “Map of the Wessex least ambiguous of Brother William of Baskerville’s victories of the Novels and Poems” for The Life and Death of in The Name of the Rose is his realization that the library is ordered like a world map, with corridors of rooms bearing the the Mayor of Casterbridge. Tolkien assembled a work- Latin names of countries and Biblical sites: e.g., FONS ADAE ing sketch map of Middle-earth over many years, yet (“Adam’s Birthplace”), IUDAEA, AEGYPTUS, YSPANIA, and gave the job of drawing its publishable form to his son. HIBERNIA. Christopher Tolkien also drew the remaining maps × Size of the original: 13.2 11.8 cm. From Umberto Eco, The for Tolkien’s publications and, after his father’s death, Name of the Rose, trans. William Weaver (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), 321. Copyright © 1980 by Gruppo gathered Tolkien’s unpublished maps in the twelve- Editoriale Fabbri-Bompiani, Sonzogno, Etas S.p.A., English volume History of Middle-earth series (1983–96). An translation copyright © 1983 by Houghton Miffl in Harcourt Atlas of Fantasy (Post 1979, 209) contains a brief list Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of Houghton of map illustrators, including Ernest H. Shepard (A. A. Miffl in Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Milne’s Winnie-the-Pooh, 1926) and cartoonist Jules Feiffer (Norton Juster’s The Phantom Tollbooth, 1961). Though many maps remain unsigned and unacknowl- William of Baskerville and Adso began mapping it after edged, Ruth Belew is credited with drawing at least 150 their fi rst incursion, halfway through the story (Haft of the 577 Dell mapbacks (Lyles 1983, 84–85). 1995). Yet readers do not encounter Eco’s illustration Visual and concrete poets have taken special delight in until their second entry, after William has recognized mapping (Haft 2000). After World War II, several drew that each corridor is named for a country and that the upon the graphic arts to create poems shaped like re- library is designed like a medieval world map (fi g. 478). gional maps, including Eugen Gomringer’s “Geographic Paul Auster’s “maps,” on the other hand, parody maps Europa” (1960), Earle Birney’s “up her can nada” that appeared in classic mysteries written between 1920 (1967) (fi g. 479), Richard Kostelanetz’s “The East Vil- and 1950. In City of Glass (1985), part of The New lage” (1970–71), Paul Muldoon’s “[Ptolemy]” (1989), York Trilogy, Auster’s writer-turned- detective plots on a and geographer/poet Howard Horowitz’s “Manhattan” street grid the walks taken by a man just released from (1997). Along with poetic collections-as-maps, such prison. Buried within the novella are the mapped shapes as Charles Olson’s The Maximus Poems, written over that the protagonist decides must represent “O” “W” two decades (Olson 1983, esp. 150–56), and C. S. Gis- “E” and combines with the shapes of other walks he’s combe’s Giscome Road (1998), all these critically ac- mapped to deduce that the sequence spells “The Tower claimed works reveal the generalizing, simplifying, and of Babel.” selective nature of the process of mapping. 784 Literature and Cartography

fig. 479. EARLE BIRNEY’S “UP HER CAN NADA” (1967). Although this visual poem like/as a map shows the boundaries of present-day Ontario, its title and details also allude to Up- per Canada, the offi cial name of Ontario from 1791–1841. Size of the original: ca. 12.3 × 19.6 cm. From Earle Birney, Rag and Bone Shop (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1971), n.p. Permission courtesy of Wailan Low, executor of the estate of Earle Birney.

Besides locating the story, map illustrations serve many functions. Some are genre specifi c. In children’s lit- erature, maps often teach map-reading skills (fi g. 480); fig. 480. NICHOLAS GARLAND’S ILLUSTRATION AC- in historical fi ction, they stop time; in science fiction, COMPANYING “GEOGRAPHY LESSON.” “Geography Les- they suggest a future; in fantasy, they provide veri- son,” a rhymed children’s poem by John Fuller (1983), turns similitude; in mysteries, they offer clues to the puzzle a geography lesson into a game of associating geographical ( Muehrcke and Muehrcke 1974; Zanger 1982). Most regions with places on the nurse’s body. An extreme form of map illustrations fulfi ll such functions while simultane- the pictorial maps common in children’s literature, Garland’s anthropomorphic map complements Fuller’s “Geography Les- ously stimulating the imagination. They offer readers a son” in depicting England as a “sloppy nurse” who drops baby sense of control and order. They establish imaginative Ireland into the Irish Sea. hierarchies based on size and centrality, boundaries Size of the original: 10.2 × 10 cm. From Come Aboard and and margins, and, depending on the work, they suggest Sail Away: Poems by John Fuller, illustrated by Nicholas Gar- relationships: between the story and the “real” world, land (Edinburgh: Salamander Press, 1983), 8. Permission cour- tesy of Nicholas Garland. between one edition and another, between the mapped work and other works by the author, or between the map itself and the narrative. To introduce what maps “mean” as objects of discus- Maps as Objects of Discussion sion in twentieth-century literature, Phillip and Juliana Maps are discussed in literary texts far more than they O. Muehrcke (1974), followed by Jules Zanger (1982), are illustrated. Some overlap may occur when the car- explained how maps function as metaphors and iden- tographic image is part of the plot, as is the case with tifi ed the following recurring motifs: the lure of blank Stevenson’s Treasure Island (1883) and Tolkien’s The spaces, the artifi ciality of mapping conventions, the si- Hobbit, both of which exhibit a rare map that inspires lence of maps with regard to many landscape features, their hero’s adventures. Occasionally an author credits and the use of maps to distance generals from a strike’s a character with creating the map that accompanies the human toll. Two decades later, Graham Huggan’s ambi- story (Arthur Conan Doyle’s “The Adventure of the Pri- tious Territorial Disputes (1994) surveyed the map topos ory School,” 1904; Ko¯bo¯ Abe’s Moetsukita chizu [1967; in “postcolonial” Canadian and Australian fi ction from trans. The Ruined Map, 1969]). Even when maps are 1975 to 1990. His opening chapters offer an analytic central to their plot (J. R. L. Anderson’s Death in a High framework that incorporates a range of critical theory Latitude, 1981) or characterization (Maya Sonenberg’s infl uenced by, and infl uencing in turn, twentieth-century story “Cartographies” in Cartographies, 1989), most literary maps with feminist, ethnic, or regional perspec- works contain no illustrative map. tives. After considering the map as a model, document, Literature and Cartography 785 or claim, Huggan argues that literary maps are often red spots on the globe. Spender’s “An Elementary School metaphors “of guidance and transformation” (xv), “of Classroom in a Slum” (1939) sees false promises in an structure (arrangement, containment) or of control (or- “open-handed” school map. To James Reaney, “The ganization, coercion)” (24); and that “literary cartogra- School Globe” (1949) represents the lost paradise of phy” must investigate “territorial strategies” that char- childhood. Don Gutteridge’s “My Story: Maps” (1977) acterize mapping (31)—“strict codifi cation, defi nition, recalls memorizing a township-naming song. Karl enclosure, exclusion” (12). More recently, Peta Mitch- Kirchwey’s “The Geographer’s Line” (1990) compares ell’s Cartographic Strategies of Postmodernity (2008) his coming of age to the map of the continental United highlights ten twentieth-century novels that demon- States in 1803. Gloria Oden’s “The Map” (ca. 1961) ex- strate how “the map metaphor functions to suggest not poses the political and racial ideologies underlying the the boundedness of knowledge and the objectivity of the Rand McNally Cosmopolitan World Map, while Fiona author-cartographer, but rather the impermanence of Pitt-Kethley’s “Geography” (1986) criticizes the Philips’ boundaries, and the experiential and subjective nature New School Atlas and urges teachers to use classic ad- of understanding” (Mitchell 2008, xi). venture stories instead. But what drives poets and other writers to discuss Furthermore, maps encourage adventure, actual and maps? War is a great popularizer. The Spanish Civil War imaginative. In “A Map of Verona” (1942), a mapped inspired Stephen Spender’s poem “A Stopwatch and an city becomes Henry Reed’s future beloved. In “A Map Ordnance Map” (1939). During World War II, Randall of . . . Essex in England,” Levertov admits to having Jarrell’s duties as a fl ight instructor informed his poem “traced voyages/indelibly all over the atlas” (Levertov “Losses” (1945), while Henry Reed’s “Judging Dis- 1986, 35). Surveyor/mapmaker Wilson Harris (The tances” (1943) satirized maps in army manuals. During Secret Ladder, 1963) turned his experiences into fi c- the Cold War, Birney scrawled “incoming missilesss” [sic] tion; Frank G. Slaughter’s The Mapmaker (1957) and across “up her can nada” (fi g. 479 above). Ciaran Car- James Cowan’s A Mapmaker’s Dream (1996) focus on son’s collection Belfast Confetti (1989) emphasizes the Venetian cartographers Andrea Bianco and Fra Mauro, map’s inability to keep pace with Belfast’s bombs. As for respectively; while Andrea Barrett’s title story in Ser- novels, the paranoid world of Thomas Pynchon’s Grav- vants of the Map (2002) follows an English surveyor to ity’s Rainbow (1973) opens with two maps of wartime Kashmir. London eerily coinciding: Tyrone Slothrop’s star map of Poets and writers often see themselves as mapmakers. his sexual exploits and Roger Mexico’s map of bomb Elizabeth Bishop’s “The Map” (1935) was revolutionary strikes. Nuruddin Farah’s Maps (1986) focuses on the in bridging artifi cial divides between poetry and cartog- 1977–78 Ogaden War between Somalia and Ethiopia to raphy; Bishop recognized that poets and mapmakers are demonstrate the distortions and destructive potential of kindred spirits in their powers of observation, technical maps, but also their power to unite and heal. expertise, and artistry. In The Lion of Boaz-Jachin and Antique maps also trigger inspiration. Because they Jachin-Boaz (1973), novelist Russell Hoban turns his don’t mirror “reality,” such maps are seen as cultural fi ctionalized alter ego into a cartographer who steals the “texts” that reveal much about the human condition. map he’d made for his son—a map of all maps and de- Birney’s “Mappemounde” (1948) uses images from me- sires. Alan Sillitoe, who foregrounds mapmaking in his dieval world maps to explore love and loss. Grevel Lin- novels, argues that his training in navigation and study dop’s “Mappa Mundi” (1987) interprets the Hereford of surveying and mapmaking helped him structure his world map. Lucia Maria Perillo’s “The Oldest Map with writing (1975, 71–73). Peter Turchi’s Maps of the Imagi- the Name America” (1999) is inspired by Martin Wald- nation: The Writer as Cartographer (2004) quotes other seemüller’s 1507 map; Marianne Moore’s “Sea Unicorns writers for whom mapmaking “describes” the creative and Land Unicorns” (1924), by Olaus Magnus’s Carta process and examines links between maps and fi ction. marina; and Kenneth Slessor’s “Post-roads” (1932), John Vernon explores the “map structure of the novel” by John Ogilby’s Britannia. Vladimir Nabokov’s short (1973, 41). story “Perfection” (1932) celebrates the Peutinger map; At least two authors have extended the novelist-as- and Eco’s Baudolino (2000), Cosmas Indicopleustes’s mapmaker metaphor even further. William Least Heat tabernacle world map. Moon describes PrairyErth: (a deep map) (1991) as a Twentieth-century maps can unlock memories. De- “topographic map of words that . . . open[s] inch by inch nise Levertov opened her “A Map of . . . Essex in En- to show its long miles” (quoted in Russell 2000, 132). gland” (1961) to fi nd poetic inspiration in the names Focusing on Chase County, Kansas, near the geographic of her youthful haunts. Poets often recall the maps they center of the United States, Heat Moon emphasizes how encountered at school. G. K. Chesterton’s “Songs of Ed- knowledge of a place involves the making and reading of ucation; ii. Geography . . .” (1919) parodies England’s maps. Like many regional writers, Heat Moon restores fig. 481. “RELIEF MAP B ‘OUR MOUNDING’S MASS’ rative map representing (1) nighttime Dublin as dreamed by its (8.1): ‘NOVO NILBUD BY SWAMPLIGHT’ (24.1),” IL- hero and also (2) the interior anatomy of its sleeping giant— LUSTRATING JOHN BISHOP’S STUDY OF FINNEGANS accompanies Bishop’s Joyce’s Book of the Dark: Finnegans WAKE, BY JAMES JOYCE. The most infl uential twentieth- Wake (1986), 34–35. century novelist-as-cartographer, Joyce used maps to organize Size of the original: 23.2 × 38 cm. © 1986 by the Board of Ulysses (1922) and Finnegans Wake; yet he, like most writers, Regents of the University of Wisconsin system. Reprinted by illustrated neither monumental novel. This illustration—a nar- permission of the University of Wisconsin Press. Lobeck, Armin K(ohl) 787

“depth”—history and intimacy—to a prairie landscape Eco, Umberto. 1984. Postscript to The Name of the Rose. Trans. Wil- that air travel and maps reduce to a two-dimensional ab- liam Weaver. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Edwards, Leslie. 2000. “Maps in Detective Fiction.” In Atlas of Crime: straction. Part Native American, Heat Moon draws anal- Mapping the Criminal Landscape, ed. Linda S. Turnbull, Elaine ogies between maps and stories, between maps imposed Hallisey Hendrix, and Borden D. Dent, 199–207. Phoenix: Oryx from without and those generated from within, between Press. Western and Aboriginal mapmaking, and between repre- Ellmann, Richard. 1959. James Joyce. New York: Oxford University sentations and the place itself. In The Atlas (1996), on the Press. Haft, Adele J. 1995. “Maps, Mazes, and Monsters: The Iconography other hand, William T. Vollmann creates a verbal atlas of the Library in Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose.” Studies in from fragments of journalistic encounters throughout the Iconography 14:9–50. world and structures them palindromically to represent ———. 2000. “Poems Shaped Like Maps: (Di)Versifying the Teaching the outward and return journeys from the central chap- of Geography, II.” Cartographic Perspectives 36:66–91. ter/core of his work and “life” (Russell 2000, 170–72). ———. 2001. “The Poet as Map-Maker: The Cartographic Inspira- tion and Infl uence of Elizabeth Bishop’s ‘The Map.’” Cartographic Maps are referenced when one work speaks of an- Perspectives 38:37–65. other. In 1955, Elizabeth Bishop opened Poems: North Hart, Clive, and Leo Knuth. 1975. A Topographical Guide to James & South with “The Map.” No sooner had that collec- Joyce’s Ulysses. 2 vols. Colchester, U.K.: A Wake Newslitter Press. tion won the Pulitzer Prize than it encouraged other Huggan, Graham. 1994. Territorial Disputes: Maps and Mapping poets to critique maps (Haft 2001). That maps and Strategies in Contemporary Canadian and Australian Fiction. To- ronto: University of Toronto Press. mapping are central to Eco’s novels derives not only Levertov, Denise. 1986. Selected Poems. Newcastle upon Tyne: from his training in medieval studies and semiotics but Bloodaxe Books. from the map-inspired authors he admires: James Joyce, Lyles, William H. 1983. Putting Dell on the Map: A History of the Dell Jorge Luis Borges (“Of Exactitude in Science,” 1946), Paperbacks. Westport: Greenwood Press. and Italo Calvino (Invisible Cities, 1972). Eco’s timing Mitchell, Peta. 2008. Cartographic Strategies of Postmodernity: The Figure of the Map in Contemporary Theory and Fiction. New York: of his characters’ conversation to fi t precisely the dis- Routledge. tance traversed (Eco 1984, 25) is a trick associated with Muehrcke, Phillip, and Juliana O. Muehrcke. 1974. “Maps in Litera- Joyce—perhaps the archetypal twentieth-century writer- ture.” Geographical Review 64:317–38. as-cartographer. Joyce’s father once remarked, “If that Olson, Charles. 1983. The Maximus Poems. Ed. George F. Butterick. fellow was dropped in the middle of the Sahara, he’d Berkeley: University of California Press. Padrón, Ricardo. 2007. “Mapping Imaginary Worlds.” In Maps: Find- sit, be God, and make a map of it” (quoted in Ellmann ing Our Place in the World,” ed. James R. Akerman and Robert W. 1959, 28). Although composed during his self exile in Karrow, 255–87. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. “Trieste-Zurich-Paris,” Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) so accu- Patton, Jeffrey C., and Nancy B. Ryckman. 1990. “Maps in Children’s rately describes Dublin’s topography that it serves as Literature.” Cartographic Perspectives 6:3–12. a literary guidebook and as a way to reconstruct—as Post, J. B., comp. 1973. An Atlas of Fantasy. Baltimore: Mirage Press. ———. 1979. An Atlas of Fantasy. New rev. ed. New York: Ballantine Joyce himself had hoped (Hart and Knuth 1975, 1:13)— Books. the Dublin of 1904 that he had re-created with the help Russell, Alison. 2000. Crossing Boundaries: Postmodern Travel Litera- of maps and a timepiece (esp. episode 10, “The Wander- ture. New York: Palgrave. ing Rocks”). Finnegans Wake (1939) is a narrative map Sillitoe, Alan. 1975. “Maps.” In Mountains and Caverns: Selected Es- representing (in part) nighttime Dublin as dreamed by says, 59–73. London: W. H. Allen. Turchi, Peter. 2004. Maps of the Imagination: The Writer as Cartogra- its hero and also the interior anatomy of its sleeping gi- pher. San Antonio: Trinity University Press. ant (Bishop 1986) (fi g. 481). Vernon, John. 1973. The Garden and the Map: Schizophrenia in After surveying the seminal texts and genres, a truly Twentieth-Century Literature and Culture. Urbana: University of unifi ed history would embrace Graham Greene’s Jour- Illinois Press. ney without Maps (1936), Louise Bogan’s “Cartogra- Zanger, Jules. 1982. “‘Harbours Like Sonnets’: Literary Maps and Cartographic Symbols.” Georgia Review 36:773–90. phy” (1941), Kenzaburo¯ Oˉ e’s Kojinteki na taiken (1964; trans. A Personal Matter, 1968), Georges Perec’s Es- pèces d’espaces (1974), Russell Hoban’s Riddley Walker (1980), Brian Friel’s Translations (1981), and Bruce Lobeck, Armin K(ohl). Armin Kohl Lobeck was born Chatwin’s The Songlines (1987) and expand the search in New York City on 16 August 1886. He attended Co- for undiscovered terrains and masterworks. lumbia University, where he earned AB and AM degrees Adele J. Haft in 1911 and 1913. From 1914 to 1917, he was a teach- ing assistant and doctoral candidate under Douglas Wil- See also: Marketing of Maps, Mass; Narrative and Cartography; son Johnson in the Department of Geology. Travel, Tourism, and Place Marketing Bibliography: In years following World War I, while serving fi rst Bishop, John. 1986. Joyce’s Book of the Dark: Finnegans Wake. Madi- with the Inquiry and later with the American delegation son: University of Wisconsin Press. to the Paris Peace Conference, Lobeck prepared block 788 London Underground Map and physiographic diagrams depicting the physiography See also: Physiographic Diagram; Raisz, Erwin (Josephus); Relief De- of Western Europe, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the piction: Relief Map Bibliography: Balkans, Lorraine, Trentino, and Trieste-Isonzo. While Grandinetti, Fred S. 1973. “The Life and Thought of Armin K. Lobeck.” in Italy, Johnson praised Lobeck’s work in letters to Master’s thesis, Southern Connecticut State College. Isaiah Bowman, director of the American delegation: ———. 2003. “Armin Kohl Lobeck, 1886–1958.” Geographers: Bio- “Don’t fail to send me Lobeck’s Isonzo diagram”; “the bibliographical Studies 22:112–31. people over here . . . have nothing to approach them Johnson, Douglas Wilson. 1925. “Graphic Illustration in Earth Sci- ence.” Review of Block Diagrams and Other Graphic Methods in detail and excellence of execution” (1918; quoted in Used in Geology and Geography, by Armin K. Lobeck. Geographi- Grandinetti 2003, 115). cal Review 15:693–94. During World War II, Lobeck’s cartographic skills were employed by the U.S. military in preparing detailed topographic maps of Africa’s northwest coast, France, London Underground Map. The most infl uential and Italy, Spain, and the Balkans. His relief map of France famous twentieth-century map probably is the offi cial was used in planning the Allied invasion at Normandy diagrammatic map of the Underground, London’s sub- on 6 June 1944. He prepared a similar relief map of terranean railway network. The exhibition “Modernism: Spain in the event a second invasion of Europe was to Designing a New World 1914–1939” at the Victoria and take place through that country. Albert Museum (6 April–23 July 2006) highlighted this Notwithstanding Lobeck’s pedagogical ability span- map, known as the Diagram, as the epitome of modernist ning nearly forty years at the University of Wisconsin design. By 2007 many experts hailed the Diagram as a (1919–29) and Columbia University (1929–54), his most product of genius, the standard for effi cient subway maps, signifi cant contribution to the fi eld of cartography was and many other subway system maps imitated its style. At the production of more than thirty Geographical Press the same time the populace developed a positive affection publications, which by 1954 had been adopted by ap- for the Diagram. It became a universal symbol of London proximately fi ve hundred colleges and universities in the and came to adorn every kind of English souvenir. United States, Canada, and overseas. With the publica- Opened in 1863, London’s Underground railway is tion of the Physiographic Diagram of South America by the world’s oldest, as well as one of the longest and Guy-Harold Smith (1935), and then Lobeck’s own Phys- most complex: thirteen lines connect 306 stations via iographic Diagram of Europe (fi rst large-scale edition, 272 miles of track (Ovenden 2007, 20). Subway lines 1944), Asia (1945), Africa (1946; see fi g. 720), North crisscross under irregular city streets, numerous inter- America (1948), and Australia (1951), Lobeck realized change stations serve two or more lines, and in the hinter- a plan, conceived at the University of Wisconsin in 1921, land the tracks rise to the surface and run far outside for worldwide coverage. These physiographic diagrams the city. The need for a map is obvious, but, as demon- yielded abundant examples for his popular book Things strated by the one in use in 1932 (fi g. 482), it is diffi cult Maps Don’t Tell Us (1956). to make a conventional topographic map of the system Despite the earlier use of block diagrams by Wil- that is complete, clear, and accurate (Garland 1994, 13). liam Henry Holmes, Albert Heim, G. K. Gilbert, Wil- The author of the London Underground Diagram liam Morris Davis, Emmanuel de Martonne, Douglas was Henry Charles (Harry) Beck. In 1931, at the age Wilson Johnson, and others, it remained for Lobeck to of twenty-eight, while employed as a temporary drafts- publish the only extensive treatise on the subject, Block man by Underground Group, he conceived the idea of Diagrams and Other Graphic Methods Used in Geology streamlining and clarifying the existing Underground and Geography (1924). Of this book, Johnson (1925, route map by converting its twisting route lines and un- 693) wrote: “To say that Professor Lobeck’s book on evenly spaced symbols and names into something more ‘Block Diagrams’ is the best work of its kind would be “tidy.” He worked out the design at home and submitted inadequate. It is the only work of its kind and a most a hand-drawn prototype to the transport agency’s Pub- excellent work at that.” licity Department, which handled maps and posters. Ini- Later, Lobeck’s Geomorphology: An Introduction to tially, reviewers rejected it as “too ‘revolutionary,’” but the Study of Landscapes (1939) established his preemi- a resubmission in 1932 succeeded (Garland 1994, 17). nence in the art of graphic representation. It was largely No copy survived the trial printing in the fall of 1932 through his concerted efforts that the construction of (500–800 copies of the ephemeral, pocket-size map), but block and physiographic diagrams evolved as an effec- the response must have been encouraging: the print run tive scientifi c tool for portraying the multifarious fea- in January 1933 was 750,000, plus another 100,000 in tures of nature. Lobeck died in Englewood, New Jersey, February (fi g. 483) (Garland 1994, 19). on 26 April 1958 (Grandinetti 1973). Several factors may have promoted rapid popular Fred S. Grandinetti acceptance. Comparing the 1932 topographic map London Underground Map 789

fig. 482. F. H. STINGEMORE, UNDERGROUND RAILWAYS Size of the original: 14.4 × 16.2 cm. © TfL from the London OF LONDON, 1932. This is the folding map in conventional Transport Museum Collection. topographic style that was in offi cial circulation when Beck de- signed his Diagram; it was Beck’s inspiration and source.

and the Diagram shows that Beck repeated many fea- had a reputation for successful and innovative designs; tures from the traditional map, including its orienta- riders may have expected new maps to be good ones. tion (north), stations located on the correct sides of the Last was aesthetics: Beck’s composition pleases the eye. River Thames, color-coded routes, lack of scale, and As Ken Garland wrote, Beck’s Diagram “achieved both lack of other features except the Thames. Second, Beck’s visual distinction and proven usefulness in equal mea- changes improved readability: he rearranged symbols sure” (Garland 1994, 62). and names and identifi ed stations with tick marks in- That is not to say Beck failed to create a new map. stead of solid circles; the ticks clarifi ed connections to By itself, limiting all lines to verticals, horizontals, and names (all names arranged horizontally) and increased 45-degree diagonals—Beck’s principal stylistic legacy to the number of outlying stations and names plotted on mapmakers and artists everywhere—produced an origi- the map. Third, some riders probably became familiar nal, dramatic image. Of course, rearranging symbols and with the diagrammatic style from route diagrams that names ad hoc to open the crowded parts near the city some English railways used in their signs (Dow 2005, center and condensing them for the suburbs threw off 21–43; Ovenden 2007, 8–9). Fourth, the Underground the correspondence between stations and related places 790 London Underground Map

fig. 483. HENRY CHARLES BECK’S MAP OF LONDON’S Size of the original: 16 × 22.8 cm. © TfL from the London UNDERGROUND RAILWAYS, 1933. This folding map was Transport Museum Collection. the fi rst version of Beck’s diagram for offi cial general distribution; compare to Stingemore’s 1932 topographic map (fi g. 482). on the surface. As Edward R. Tufte (2002) observed, Many commentators have reinforced the Publicity whereas the topography of greater London had orga- Department’s initial judgment of the Diagram as too nized earlier maps, Beck’s Diagram organized London radical by focusing on the Diagram’s topological quali- for the riders. (Janet Vertesi’s 2008 study of how Under- ties and on the theoretical impossibility of inferring any- ground riders fi nd their way around London reported thing about the surface from the diagram of the Under- that most regular riders used the Diagram to conceptu- ground. There is no evidence that Beck ever heard of alize and navigate the city on the surface.) Technically, topology, and it is clear that he tried to minimize the Beck had converted a conventional topographic repre- distortions. There is no evidence of Beck weighing those sentation of the Underground into a semitopological design choices, so he probably acted instinctively. one. On a pure topological surface, only the connections For regular Underground riders, those distortions among stations and routes would remain correct, and may not have mattered because they learned the rela- apparent distances and directions would be meaningless. tionships between underground stations and places on On his Diagram, Beck distorted positions of stations and the surface that were important to them, but for tourists lines, but only as needed to reduce crowding and maxi- and other strangers, there could be a serious problem. mize legibility. His distortions were not systematic, as In the United States, for example, travel writers warned they would have been if generated by a projection. Also, London-bound Americans to beware of the misleading he maintained a rough correlation between the under- Diagram. ground network and the geography of the surface, e.g., After he introduced the diagrammatic map, Beck re- north orientation for the map, stations plotted on the mained an employee of London Transport—transferred correct sides of the river. to the Advertising Department but not made permanent London Underground Map 791 staff until 1937—but in matters related to his Diagram it was Frank Pick. Pick became manager of the Under- he became a freelancer. The agency agreed that Beck ground railways in 1908 and was promoted to chief ex- would retain control of the map and perform or oversee ecutive of the newly organized London Passenger Trans- future modifi cations, but that arrangement was not for- port Board (London Transport for short) in the summer malized in writing. Beck continually experimented with of 1933, just months after Beck’s Diagram was adopted the Diagram to improve it. In the 1940s he prepared a by the Publicity Department. In addition to his role as diagram of the Paris Metro, a clear, attractive composi- a successful manager, Pick was a patron of the arts, tion, but the French rejected it. He left the Advertising founding chairman of the Council for Art and Indus- Department in 1947 to teach full time at the London try (1934), and prominent in the modernist movement. School of Printing and Kindred Trades. In 1960, the He dedicated himself to excellence in every facet of the Publicity Department issued a new, confusing, and less Underground and to making it an institutional leader graceful version of the London Diagram drawn by the in modern design, particularly the applied arts. In 1913 head of the department. Harry Beck protested at length he had persuaded Britain’s leading calligrapher, Edward but in vain; he never regained control of his creation Johnston, to design a typeface especially for the Under- (Garland 1994, 50–53). ground’s signs and posters. Known as Johnston Sans, a Paul E. Garbutt, a London Transport administrator, variant of that face remained in use by the Underground rescued the Diagram in 1962. He fi xed the problems into the twenty-fi rst century and continued to infl uence with the 1960 version and for the next decade guided designers worldwide (Howes 2000, 25–29, 60–70). Pick all updates. In the process he introduced a feature that commissioned posters that introduced many Londoners became permanent: the “vacuum fl ask” confi guration of to abstract art and built stations that exemplifi ed the lat- the eastern end of the Circle Line. Garbutt worked on est architecture, yet he never mentioned Beck’s Diagram the Diagram in addition to his regular job as Assistant in his public remarks about modern map design. Some- Secretary and New Works Offi cer, but he was less in- how, Harry Beck and his Diagram never found standing terested than Beck in drawing and tinkering with the in Frank Pick’s fi eld of artistic vision. graphics. Early in the 1970s, London Transport fi nally The fi rst major public recognition of Harry Beck’s transferred care of the Diagram from its latest amateur work came in 1969 when London designer and jour- to an outside fi rm of professional artists and mapmak- nal editor Ken Garland wrote an illustrated article for ers. Garbutt’s name remained on the map until 1984, the Penrose Annual. There was nothing more until the but his role was advisory (Garland 1994, 56–59; Rob- 1980s, when the map was mentioned in a comprehen- erts 2005, 25–49). sive history of graphic design (Meggs 1983), a book Although Beck’s name appeared on the Diagram on information graphics, and a few articles concerning for nearly three decades, he was practically unknown topology and cartography. In 1987, as part of a tele- throughout his working years. His Diagram may have vision series on British design, the British Broadcasting been ahead of its time and the men who ran London Company broadcast a thirty-minute show about the Transport may have failed to appreciate qualities that Diagram and its creator. Twenty years after Beck died, later seemed so obviously important, but other factors Garland published a book-length biography (1994). By also contributed to his lack of recognition. For example, that time, interest in Beck and the map had acquired he neither wrote nor lectured about his work, and his momentum of its own, but it was not until 2004 that the working arrangements—freelance, part time, at home, Dictionary of National Biography carried a biography outside regular hours—resembled those of a hobbyist im- of Harry Beck. mersed in a pet project of modest consequence. Ephem- The theme of Mark Ovenden’s Transit Maps of the era lack status, and Beck’s most common products were World (2007) is that the success of Beck’s Diagram in disposable folding pocket maps. In a hierarchical society London is the standard for other cities. None surpassed like England’s, a novel product conceived outside an es- London and only a few, like the 2007 maps of Boston tablished institution or profession (cartography was in and Paris, came close to measuring up. New York’s its professional infancy) by an uncredentialed, unproven struggle to produce a useful map exemplifi ed one ob- amateur and perfected part-time as a second job drew stacle. That system, the largest and most complicated in little serious attention. What recognition Beck might the world, commissioned a striking abstract diagram— have earned had to come from other graphic artists, but Massimo Vignelli’s 1972 beauty—but riders rejected it at that time “information graphics” was an unknown because it did not adequately relate the underground term of the future, and even the graphic arts needed system to the surface streets. Its 1979 replacement was a more development before many practitioners could give topographical map that appears too dense and cluttered the Diagram its due (Garland 1994, 42). but in 2007 still worked for the riders (Ovenden 2007, If anyone should have appreciated Beck’s Diagram, 32–35). 792 Lunar and Planetary Mapping

One of the implicit lessons to be drawn from Oven- By 1900 fi ve solid-surfaced worlds beyond Earth den’s collection is that too much information can had been mapped: Mercury, Venus, the Moon, Mars, weaken a diagram. For example, the 2007 diagram for and Ganymede, a satellite of Jupiter. A century later the Berlin combined its underground and surface transit number had grown to about sixty-fi ve—an uncertain systems, a practice followed by other German cities. The count because the defi nition of map at cartography’s results were clear but dense and more complicated than fringes raises questions about what qualifi es. While it the London Diagram. Similar problems of density bur- seems reasonable to exclude an unmodifi ed astronomi- dened maps for Tokyo and other cities that used two cal observation, should a composite or annotated ver- languages or alphabets on each diagram. So few other sion be considered a map? And even though a sketch underground maps worked as well as London’s that the of possible surface features is appropriately considered reader may agree with Tufte’s conclusion that Beck’s Un- a map, can some sketches be too simple to justify the derground Diagram is less a model for others than it is term? Moreover, should maps derived from wholly er- a brilliant solution to the problem of handling a unique roneous interpretations or maps invented to illustrate set of data. works of fi ction be included? Fictional maps are maps, John H. Long to be sure, but it seems misleading to add them to a list of See also: Cartogram; Wayfi nding and Travel Maps: Public Transpor- mapped worlds. Objects without solid surfaces (the sun, tation Map other stars, and gas planets such as Jupiter) have been Bibliography: mapped, including in 2006 the fi rst planet orbiting an- Baigent, Elizabeth. 2007. “Beck, Henry Charles [Harry] (1902–1974).” other star. Adding these brought the number of mapped In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford Uni- bodies to over 200. Over thirty worlds, including many versity Press. Online edition. Dow, Andrew. 2005. Telling the Passenger Where to Get Off: George satellites of the planets, have been charted systematically Dow and the Evolution of the Railway Diagrammatic Map. Har- in considerable detail relative to the size of the body. The row, U.K.: Capital Transport. last proviso is necessary because these worlds vary in Garland, Ken. 1969. “The Design of the London Underground Dia- diameter from less than 1 kilometer (small asteroids) to gram.” Penrose Annual: The International Review of the Graphic over 12,000 kilometers (Venus). Localities observed by Arts 62:68–82. ———. 1994. Mr Beck’s Underground Map. Harrow Weald, U.K.: landed spacecraft on the Moon, Mars, and Venus have Capital Transport. been mapped at scales as large as 1:20. In contrast to Howes, Justin. 2000. Johnston’s Underground Type. Harrow Weald, terrestrial mapping, which evolved from local to global U.K.: Capital Transport. scales, planetary maps tend to progress in the opposite Letch, Anne. 2004. London Transport Maps & Guides: A Collectors’ direction. Reference Guide. Hailsham, U.K.: Anne Letch and L.B.R.T. Meggs, Philip B. 1983. A History of Graphic Design. New York: Van Almost no lunar or planetary mapping was under- Nostrand Reinhold. taken in the fi rst half of the twentieth century. Noth- Ovenden, Mark. 2007. Transit Maps of the World. 2d rev. ed. Ed. ing was to be gained by replicating nineteenth-century Mike Ashworth. New York: Penguin. lunar cartography (Whitaker 1999), but variable mark- Roberts, Maxwell J. 2005. Underground Maps after Beck: The Story ings on Mars were remapped as it approached Earth at of the London Underground Map in the Hands of Henry Beck’s Successors. Harrow, U.K.: Capital Transport. two-year intervals, and three large satellites of Jupiter Tufte, Edward R. 2002. Review of Ken Garland, Mr Beck’s Under- were added to the list above. The pace of mapping ac- ground Map. Online publication. celerated in later decades, greatly expanding the reach Vertesi, Janet. 2008. “Mind the Gap: The London Underground Map of cartography. Four factors contributed to this increase. and Users’ Representations of Urban Space.” Social Studies of Sci- New analytical techniques (rotational lightcurve and ence 38:7–33. occultation analyses, modeling of cometary activity) re- vealed features on heretofore unresolved objects includ- ing Pluto, asteroids, and comet nuclei. Higher angular Lunar and Planetary Mapping. Before the 1960s lu- resolutions achieved by successive innovations (speckle nar and planetary maps were merely syntheses of astro- interferometry, adaptive optics, and orbital telescopes) nomical observations. Many, perhaps most, have now resolved smaller or more distant objects, including Pluto become tools to help select landing sites, plan expedi- and several large asteroids. Infrared and radar observa- tions, and portray the scientifi c results of exploration, tions extended the reach of imaging to new targets such largely in the context of geology and other planetary as Venus, Titan, and small asteroids. Finally, spacecraft sciences rather than astronomy. The U.S. National Re- obtained close observations of remote objects beginning search Council (1978) has asserted that global maps are with the fi rst images of the lunar far side in 1959. basic to any advance in understanding the planets, and The long-neglected Moon attracted new attention in indeed cartography has played a substantial role in the the 1960s when Gerard Peter Kuiper (University of Ari- exploration of the solar system. zona) and colleagues assembled a series of photographic Lunar and Planetary Mapping 793 atlases, and the U.S. Army and Air Force, contemplat- drawn in 1967 under the supervision of Yu. N. Lip skiy ing military lunar bases, began independent mapping at the Sternberg astronomical institute, Gosudarstven- projects (Kopal and Carder 1974). Noteworthy prod- nyy astronomicheskiy institut imeni Shternberga, Mos- ucts included 1:1,000,000-scale Lunar Astronautical cow. Later editions used U.S. data to improve the far Chart (LAC) series by the U.S. Air Force Aeronautical side portrayal. The Moskovskiy institut inzhenerov Chart and Information Center, portraying much of the geodezii, aerofotos”yëmki i kartografi i (MIIGAiK) also near side of the Moon with airbrushed relief. Another produced lunar maps. Soviet lunar cartography included infl uential development was the preparation of geologi- global geomorphologic maps, coverage at 1:1,000,000 cal maps by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), plotted scale of the near side equatorial zone for possible use on LACs using methods of image interpretation devised by cosmonauts, special maps of the Lunokhod 2 land- by Eugene M. Shoemaker and colleagues (Shoemaker ing area and the region photographed by Zond 8, and and Hackman 1962; Greeley and Batson 1990). Ear- large-scale charts of two landing sites and the routes of lier maps had shown supposed systems of fractures in two rovers. Beyond the Moon, the only world mapped the lunar crust, but these new maps based on strati- systematically by Soviet cartographers was Venus in the graphic principles were more useful for classifying and late 1980s. Russian work since then has included an at- interpreting surface materials. High-resolution images las of the terrestrial planets and their satellites (fi g. 485) enabled large-scale mapping of selected areas, essential and a series of multilingual maps of the same subjects for the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- for educational purposes, much of this work being per- tion (NASA) Apollo landing site selection and mission formed at MIIGAiK. Soviet maps were not widely dis- planning. Ranger spacecraft impact sites (1964–65) and tributed and remain poorly documented. most Surveyor landing sites (1966–68) were mapped us- Every mapped world has a unique cartographic his- ing Lunar Orbiter images at scales up to 1:500. Similar tory refl ecting the evolution of astronomical innovation maps were used for Apollo crew training and carried to and exploration. Mars has a long history, from the fi rst the Moon to assist orbital and surface operations. These map drawn by William Herschel published in 1784 to were not widely distributed or well documented. Small- large-scale charts used to plan surface activities by ro- scale mapping extended coverage to the region never botic rovers (Flammarion 1892; Blunck 1982; Blunck visible from Earth. and Zögner 1993). Astronomers still map Mars at A later generation of maps and orthophotomosaics each opposition (close approach to Earth) to document was compiled using Apollo data (fi g. 484) with system- changes in its surface markings, clouds, and polar caps. atic topographic mapping at 1:250,000 scale by the U.S. The fi rst in situ images of a restricted region from the Defense Mapping Agency. The Department of Defense U.S. spacecraft Mariner 4 in 1965 resulted in the fi rst abandoned this work in the late 1970s and planetary maps showing topographic features. Since then succes- mapping was taken up by the USGS. Feature loca- sive missions including Mariner 9 (1971, the fi rst orbiter) tions were determined by measuring networks of con- and Viking 1 (1976, the fi rst successful lander) have re- trol points on images, especially by Merton Davies at vealed the entire surface, permitting several generations the RAND Corporation before the work passed to the of global maps at many scales and the compilation of USGS. Lunar elevations, initially derived from a combi- image mosaics and depictions of geology and elevation. nation of weak stereoscopy from Earth and numerous These have supported the selection of spacecraft landing shadow measurements, were greatly improved in later sites and future mission planning. years by stereoscopic imaging and orbital altimetry from Another example illustrates a contrasting cartographic the Apollo and Clementine missions. The International history. Although a cartoon-like map was used in 1940 Astronomical Union (IAU) standardized lunar nomen- to illustrate the adventures of the fi ctional “Captain Fu- clature in 1935, a function continued and extended to ture” (Post 1973, 274), the fi rst true map of Pluto was other worlds by their Working Group for Planetary made in 1977 by observing changes in the brightness of System Nomenclature and documented online by the the planet’s unresolved disk as it rotated and as chang- USGS. Another IAU Working Group (Cartographic Co- ing seasons revealed different latitude zones. Several re- ordinates and Rotational Elements) documented rota- fi nements to this study appeared in the 1980s. Another tional and shape data and defi ned prime meridians in its method involved transits of the large satellite Charon triennial reports (e.g., Seidelmann et al. 2005). across the planet’s disk, which occurred between 1985 Soviet lunar data emphasized physical or chemical and 1990. As Charon moved in front of Pluto it covered measurements over systematic imaging and contributed different parts of the surface at different times, allow- less to cartography than its American counterpart. Early ing the brightness of the hidden portion to be estimated. images of the far side resulted in the fi rst complete map By this means maps of the still unresolved disk could of the Moon, Polnaya karta luny, at 1:5,000,000 scale, be compiled. Maps have also been made from low- 794 Lunar and Planetary Mapping

fig. 484. DETAIL FROM MARE UNDARUM, LUNAR MAP ing site of the Soviet Union’s Luna 24 robotic sample return LM 62, SCALE 1:1,000,000, 1st ED., SEPTEMBER 1978. mission. This lunar chart by the U.S. Defense Mapping Agency Aero- Size of the entire original: ca. 56 × 74 cm; size of detail: ca. space Center is typical of U.S. lunar mapping of the 1960s and 15.2 × 15.6 cm. 1970s. It incorporates Apollo orbital data and shows the land-

resolution Hubble Space Telescope images (fi g. 486). becomes the planning map for the next. For any one NASA’s plans for the New Horizons spacecraft, launched world, maps record the growth in knowledge over time in 2006, included the fi rst close observation of Pluto in as successive spacecraft missions have extended sur- 2015 and the promise of further data for a new genera- face data coverage or increased the resolution or type tion of maps. Chronologies like this could be compiled of data available. Although the mapping of the Moon for many worlds. has been well documented and that of Mars has been For each spacecraft mission, maps are used for plan- summarized, the whole fi eld has never been subjected to ning purposes before the fl ight, for operational support thorough scholarly documentation and analysis. Ronald during the mission, as a record of new observations, and Greeley and Raymond M. Batson (1990) briefl y sum- as scientifi c tools to help synthesize geological and other marized its history from the USGS perspective. Terres- interpretations. Often the fi nal map from one mission trial atlases often included lunar maps during the Apollo fig. 485. KARTA POVERKHNOSTI FOBOSA, 1:200,000. Size of the original: ca. 20.3 × 32 cm. From Atlas planet zem- Russian map of the surface of Phobos, a small (roughly 20 noy gruppy i ikh sputnikov (Moscow: MIIGAiK, 1992), 44. by 30 km) satellite of Mars, based on U.S. image data and il- Permission courtesy of the Moskovskiy institut inzhenerov lustrating a map projection devised by Lev M. Bugayevskiy for geodezii, aerofotos”yëmki i kartografi i. such irregularly shaped bodies.

fig. 486. COMPARISON OF THREE MAPS OF PLUTO. Marcialis; S. A. Stern, M. W. Buie, and L. M. Trafton, “HST These maps were made using three different methods: light- High-Resolution Images and Maps of Pluto,” Astronomical curve inversion (left), direct imaging by the Hubble Space Tele- Journal 113 (1997): 827–43, pl. 26, © American Astronomical scope (middle), and occultations by Pluto’s satellite Charon Society, reproduced with permission; and Eliot F. Young, Rich- (right), showing increasing detail provided by improvements ard P. Binzel, and Keenan Crane, “A Two-Color Map of Pluto’s in astronomical methods. Sub-Charon Hemisphere,” Astronomical Journal 121 (2001): From left to right: Robert L. Marcialis, “Spotting Pluto,” Sky 552–61, fi g. 7, © American Astronomical Society, reproduced and Telescope 75 (1988): 6, permission courtesy of Robert L. with permission. 796 Lunar and Planetary Mapping period, and some map publishers prepared their own by the Cold War superpowers, Europe, Japan, India, and maps. Since 2000, readily available computer software China have become active in the twenty-fi rst century. and Internet access to data have replicated the long his- Because cartographers will no doubt continue to map tory of amateur involvement in astronomy by allowing new worlds and support further space exploration, a enthusiasts to prepare and distribute maps for monitor- dedicated effort is needed to preserve this aspect of car- ing planetary exploration missions. The geographic in- tographic history in an age of ephemeral digital maps, formation system (GIS) became an important mapping fragmented international efforts, and expanded interest tool late in the twentieth century for planning missions in space exploration in popular culture. and selecting landing sites—apparently without a sys- Philip J. Stooke tematic effort to archive these digital maps for future historical studies. See also: Astrophysics and Cartography; Geodetic Surveying: For the Planets; Geographic Names: Gazetteer; Mathematics and Cartogra- Many satellites, asteroids, and comet nuclei smaller phy; National Aeronautics and Space Administration (U.S.) than about 400 kilometers in diameter have very irregu- Bibliography: lar shapes. Novel map projections have been devised for Blunck, Jürgen. 1982. Mars and Its Satellites: A Detailed Commentary mapping of these objects at MIIGAiK (fi g. 485 above), on the Nomenclature. 2d ed. Smithtown: Exposition Press. USGS, Cornell University, and the University of West- Blunck, Jürgen, and Lothar Zögner. 1993. Der Rote Planet im Karten- bild: 200 Jahre Marskartographie von Herschel, Beer und Mädler ern Ontario (Stooke 1998). Several cylindrical and azi- bis zur CD. Gotha: Justus Perthes. muthal projections have been modifi ed for this purpose, Flammarion, Camille. 1892. La planète Mars et ses conditions some truly conformal or equivalent and others designed d’habitabilité: Synthèse générale de toutes les observations. Paris: to portray global shape at the expense of local distor- Gauthier-Villars et Fils. tion. Some worlds are so irregular that a radius may Greeley, Ronald, and Raymond M. Batson, eds. 1990. Planetary Map- ping. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. intersect the surface more than once, thereby confus- Kopal, Zdeneˇk, and Robert W. Carder. 1974. Mapping of the Moon: ing the meaning of latitude and longitude and possibly Past and Present. Dordrecht: D. Reidel. requiring nonplanetocentric coordinate systems. Much National Research Council (U.S.). 1978. Strategy for Exploration of remains to be done in this fi eld. the Inner Planets: 1977–1987. Washington, D.C.: National Acad- Another neglected genre of planetary mapping con- emy of Sciences. Post, J. B., comp. 1973. An Atlas of Fantasy. Baltimore: Mirage Press. cerns its relationship to works of science fi ction by au- Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, et al. 2005. “Report of the IAU/IAG Work- thors such as Edgar Rice Burroughs and Kim Stanley ing Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: Robinson. Maps may appear in the original texts or in 2003.” Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 91:203–15. related fan publications, refl ecting popular conceptions Shoemaker, Eugene M., and Robert J. Hackman. 1962. “Stratigraphic of the planets such as canals on Mars earlier in the twen- Basis for a Lunar Time Scale.” In The Moon, Proceedings of Sympo- sium No. 14 of the International Astronomical Union, ed. Zdeneˇk tieth century or oceans on a terraformed Mars (made Kopal and Zdenka Kadla Mikhailov, 289–300. London: Academic Earthlike) in later decades. Some examples are included Press. in J. B. Post’s Atlas of Fantasy (1973), an eclectic gallery Stooke, Philip J. 1998. “Mapping Worlds with Irregular Shapes.” Ca- of maps in fi ction. Similar maps are used as backgrounds nadian Geographer 42:61–78. for some space-themed role-playing games, and a further Whitaker, Ewen A. 1999. Mapping and Naming the Moon: A History of Lunar Cartography and Nomenclature. Cambridge: Cambridge category might include maps of purported artifi cial struc- University Press. tures on Mars and elsewhere (e.g., the “face on Mars”). Wilhelms, Don E. 1993. To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist’s History of Although space exploration was initially dominated Lunar Exploration. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.