BORNEO RESEARCH BULLET11

Vol. 11, No. 1 April 1979

Notes frool the Editor: UNESCO Grant for En-t Drive; Contributions for the Support of the BRC --Research Notes Ecological Determinism: Is the Appell Hypothesis Valid? ...... Joseph B. Weinstock An Efko-history of the Kelabit Tribe of Sarawak: A Brief Look at the Kelabit Tribe Before World War I1 and After . . Robert Lian - Robert Saging Brief Cammications Indonesian Forestry at a Glance ...... Distribution and Status of the Asian Elephant: Borneo ...... --News and Announcements lhmn Ecology and ?kcmmic Developnent in Kali- mantan and Sunntra ...... Andrew P. Vayda Royal Geographical Society's Symposium on Gunong WuNational Park, Sarawak . . A. Clive Jenny

--Book Reviews, Abstracts, Bibliography

The Borneo Research Bulletin is published twice yearly (April and Septemb-the Research Council. Please address all inquiries and contributions for publications to Vinson H. Sutlive, Jr., Editor, Borneo Research Bulletin, Department of Anthapolo College mliaman .liamsburg, Vir- ginia, 231g: U. S. A. Single issu:s% available at US$ 2.50. --hVI"dS -FROM ?HE q RESZARCH NOTES

1 The Borneo Research Counci~maownent Fbna 1s ar: hehalf-way mark our projected goal of US$ 10.000. In Nwember 1978. James F. rivitt, "camending the efforts of the Borneo Research Council in ECOLOGICAL LNzmmmISM: producing the twice yearly bulletin," encouraged the Division of Ecological Sciences, United Nations Educational, Scientific and IS THE APmHYPOTHESIS VALID? Cultural Organization, to provide contractual support towards the Endomcent hdof the Council. In his letter of January 19, 1979, Malcolm Hadley of the Division of Ecological Sciences, writing that Joseph A. Weinstock his division was "iqressed with the presentation and content of Come11 University the Bulletin," notified the editor of a one-time grant of $800 for ' the En-t Fund. On behalf of themembersof the Council, Fellows, In an attempt to explain the differences in patterns of land terolre used and subscribers, I want to express our appreciation to those persons by swidden cultivators of Borneo, Appell (1971) proposed his hypothesis responsible for this grant. of ,ecological determinism. While studying the Rungus Dusun of Sabah, Appell encountered a system of land tenure dike that reported for mst We have received the first payment of interest frcm the Endowent other tribal groups who practice swidden cultivation in Borneo. hking W. This payment, together with the mmrous genesous contri- at selected environmental factors for three areas of the island, those butions noted below, have repaid the advance defor publication of the Rungus, the Iban and the Bidayuh, Appell found what he thought to of the September 1978 issue, and should be adequate for the produc- be significant envirmtal differences that would affect swidden culti- tion of the 1979 issues. vation and hence land tenure practices. Using these emrimmental factors Appell put forth an hypothesis proposing envimnmntal factors as deter- Although we are half-way taJard the goal of the Endoment F'und, it minants in shaping land tenure patterns. Replies to Appell's hypothesis still is necessary for us to reach the mmmt proiected in order to by Dixon (1974) and King (1975) have questioned this position. ensure the financL1 future of the Bulletin. TO -this end, gifts to the fimd will still be welcom. The problem with Lippelits hypothesis, as well as Dixon's and King's 4 replies,has heenaconspicuous lack of qirical data. Other than rain- Our appreciation is due the following persons for their contributions fall statistics used by Appell and King, and a little geological data to the support of the Gnmcil: Dr. and Ws. George Appell, Martin used by Dixon, very little actual enviromental data is proffered either Baier, Stanlpy Beidler, Supriya Bhar, Dr. and Mrs. P. A. Burrough, in defense or criticism of the hypothesis of environmental determinism. P. K. Cassels, Matthew Charles, Chin See Chung, William Collier, F'requently, value judpmts such as "poor soil" or "relatively fertile" E. J. H. Corner, the Earl of Cranbrook, C. H. Crisswell, Richard or "soils of poor quality" have been made by each author to support his Fidler and Ruth Barnes, Wayne Frank, Jack Golson, Linda Wall, position without any actual study of edaphic conditions of these areas. Dietrich Kiihne, &aig Lockard, MdMcCredie, A. R. G. Pbrrison, Rodney The objective of this study is to examine the actual enviromimtal data, Needhian, Carsten and Inge Nimitz, Robert Nicholl, H. Arlo particularly the edaphic, for the three areas cited in Appell's (1971) Nk,RDbert M. Pringle, Robert Reece, A. .T. N. Richards, J& article (the bngus IXlsun of the Kudat Peninsula of Sabah, the Baleh Rousseau, Mr. and Mrs. Paul Sack, Dr. and Mrs. Clifford Sather, Iban of the Rejang River of Sarawak, and the Bidayuh Land Dayak of the Barbara Smith, Ch%ille Smith, David and Cristina Smton, T. Watabe, Kedup River of Sarawak) as well as the additional two mentioned by King C. H. H. Wake, James Warren, Joseph Weinstock, William D. Wilder. (the Maloh of the Einbaloh region of the Kapuas River of West Kalhtan and Inger Wulff . and the Padiu Euat Ma'anvan of the Barito River of Central Kalimantan) . 2HE BORNEO RESEARCH COUNCIL The enviro&enth data f6r these five areas will then be analyzed to ---- ascertain the possible validity of the hypothesis of ecological determinism. The Borneo Research Council was founded in 1968 and its membership .-3- consists of Fellows, an international group of scholars who are professionally engaged in research in Borneo. The goals of the The rrajor difficulty encountered using this approach has been the lack Mlare (1) to promote scientific research in the social, bio- of detailed edaphic informtion for the five areas. General data exist for the island as a whole, but the quality of detailed edaphic data for logical and medical sciences in Borneo; (2) to permit the research the connamity, interested Borneo govennnent _departments and (cont. p. 36) specific areas of concern here range from reasonably good for the Rungus and Land Dayak areas to &st nonexistent for the Maloh area. Part of this problem lies in my inability to obtain saw agronomic materials, but mre iqortant is the absence of agrondc research for rmch of the island. The data available however should be sufficient for our purposes. (A) Appell's Hypothesis It is important first to recapitulate briefly Appell's position (1971), and the points made b Dixon (1974) and King (1975) in refuting ell. Appell noted (1971:177 that the concept of village territoriality was recognized by the Iban, the Land Dayak, and the Rungus. Similarly, King (1975:214) found the sme to be true of the &'anyan and the Maloh. The point of divergence in pattems of land tenure mmg the five groups was whether there was permanent tenure or ternrre of limited duration. The lbanb, Land Dayak, l%loh and Ma'anyan all practice what Appell calls "pe-rnwnent tenure." Under this system, pemanent use rights to a parcel of Land are established by the felling of primary forest. Tkis right is vested in the individual or household that has done the clearing; the parcel- is used jointly by members of the household. Even after this property has reverted to jungle, the individual or household maintains primary use rights to it. While under government law no "legal" title has been issued, according to adat law (traditional law) no one else use this property without prior permission from the use rights holder7. After the death of theoriginal clearer, his descendants inherit use rights to this parcel of land, thus, theoretically, maintaining tenure in perpetuity. In contrast to the system of pement tenure, the Rungus have a system of "tenure of limited duration." A Rungus household (*tic family is Appell' s term) clears a new area of forest for use as a swidden, but unlike the aforementioned groups, th Xungus household does not establish pemment use rights over this land.? Instead, they retain use of this property only until all the crops planted are harvested. The land is alla~edto grw back to jmgle, but once the forest fallow has been suf- ficient to allm the land to be cultivated again, any resident household in the village may use it for its swidden. In this mer, land is redistributed annually ammg resident households of the village (Appell 1971: 17).

Curious as to wtry patterns of land tenure varied between the RLlngus and the Land Dayak and Ban, Appell looked to environmental differences in the three areas for a possible solution. Finding what he considered significant Eactors in the envimruwntal data, he hypothesized that MAP I . . . the increased rainfall. in Sarawak .areas in con- junction with mre productive soils tends to encourage Location of the Five Groups the regeneration of tree species in a midden and dis- courage the growth of weeds in ccsnparison to the Rungus area. Thus, because of fewer weeds invading the swidden after the first year's harvest, and because young forest has a better chance for a good burn than pr- forest in the Iban and Land Dayak areas, there is greater economic value in secondary forest which results in the development of pement use rights aver swidden areas (Appell 1971: 19) . Table 1. Precipitation statisticsa

The primary data upon which Appell relied in formulating his hypothesis Month Ihrngus Land Dayak Iban Ma'anyan Maloh was that of rainfall. King (1975) found tbat by including the Maloh and the Ma'anyan in the ccmparison, Appell's interpretation of rainfall statistics appeared to be erroneous. Dixon (1974), while adding nothing Januar~ 16.20 15.45 16.87 11.77 15.35 to the rainfall issue, noted what he considered to be significant geo- February 7.80 12.83 12.07 10.59 14.92 logical formations in the Land Dayak area of Sarawak which contradicted March 7.54 12.08 13.28 12.40 14.96 Appell's characterization of that area as having mre productive soils. April 5.31 12.86 12.54 9.06 16.85 (B) Precipitation Statistics May 5.80 8.48 13.40 7.52 13.43 Inasmuch as precipitation statistics were the cornerstone of Appell's June 5.69 7.17 8.36 4.96 10.59 hypothesis, I wish to &scuss these first. Since I am including the J~Y 3.92 8.61 8.94 3.58 8.70 Malch and the k'anyan, I have composed a rainfall table (page 6) using Appell's data for the RungJs, Iban and Land Dayak with the addition of August 4.25 7.30 9.57 2.72 10.12 data for the Maloh and Ma anyan areas. Like Appell's data, the statis- tics given are from the closest recording stations. These statistics Sep tenher 4.79 11.86 11.83 3.03 11.18 can be assumed to be relatively reliable, but it must be kept in mind October 6.61 12.79 13.64 4.76 18.27 that variance in annual precipitation can be significant in these areas 9.29 18.58 just as can variance in precipitation from one river valley to another Novaher 6.99 12.55 11.72 within a single area and year. December 16.15 10.61 13.36 12.13 16.65 Using the statistics in Table 1, let us look at what King has said Totals 91.05 132.59 145.58 91. 81b 169.60 regarding the Maloh and Ma'anyan areas. King states (1975: 13) that the mean annual rajnfall on the coast of Pontianak is approximately 125 inches and that this decreases tmards the interior, where the Maloh aAll data given in inches (original data for Kalimantan in mn). live, due to the sheltering effect of the upland ranges bordering the b~orthe village of Tamianglayang which is about 9-10 miles frun Won's upper Kapuas River basin. The figure he gives for the atmual rainfall Ma'anyan village of Telang the annual precipitation was recorded as 90.6 at Pontianak'c elates well with the data from the old htch weather inches (Driessen et al., 1976:13). station there,%t lookingat figures for weather stations in the upper Kapuas River basin we find that the figures are appreciably higher than as Note: hngw, Iban and Land Dayak precipitation statistics taken frcxn at Pontianak, not luwer expected by King.3 Looking at what King has actual said about the Ma'anyan area, we see a reverse error. Citing Hudson. Appell (1971~19). The recording stations are as follws: King (1975:13) uses the figures of LOO to 140 inches of rainfall per Rungus: Lmgkon Estates, Sabah; Land Dayak: T-, Sarawak; Iban: Kapit, Sarawak. annum for the Barito River basin. Again, looking at the records of the old Dutch weatheystat 'ons, we find that the actual rainfall is lower Ma'anyan and Maloh precipitation statistics taken from bhr than reported by King. t (1944:387-8). The actual recording stations are as follows: Amentai (Amuntai) , Kalhantan Selatan; Maloh: With this data in hand we can see that the Ma'anyan area and the Rungus Ma'anyan: area have nearly the same annual rainfall and the Maloh area has even Poetoessibau (Putussibau) , Kalimantan Barat. mre annual rainfall than either the Iban or Land Dayak areas. Taking just the July to Septder period, which is the critical period for burning the acdated slash in preparation for planting, we can see the same relationships as with the annual figures. Thus, as noted by King (1975:13-14), the Maloh have meproblem achieving a satisfactory burn than do the Rungus. This tends to support Appell's hypothesis. Contrarily, King notes that the Ma1anyanan;areahas Low rainfall during the burning season similar to that of the F&mgus area and thus would in the first eight years (Sanchez 1976 :351-3) . It can be presuud contradict Appell's hypothesis. Even'with sanewhat erroneous data, that in some soils the 90 percent plateau will be reached sooner and King has still pointed out an inmistency in Appell's hypothesis. in others later. For specific areas of Borneo, the point at which this 90 percent plateau is reached will have to be determined. The It is interesting to point out that the dole issue of variance in point to be made here is that without actual agronomic studies, a 12 rainfall as it is used here is rot particularly relevant. The lmst or 15 year fallow should not be considered as necessarily much better rainfall area stil has over 90 inches of precipitation annually with than an eight year fallow. no tm dry mth,l and the tqerature range is similar in all five areas. Thus, considering the rainfall data given here alone, with Appell, in his hypothesis (1971: 19), states that " . . . mxe productive all other factors being considered equal, the vegetation and regrowth soil tends to encourage the regeneration of tree species in a swidden in all five areas should be approximately the sam. In fact, the ':and discourage the growth of weeds. . . ." Looking to edaphic research lower rainfall in the Rungus and Padju Epat areas is probably a posi- done elsewhere on the island, Appell's correlation of weed growth with tive factor in that it indicates the probability that nutrient losses poor soils can be seen to be unwarranted. Driessen et a1 (1976:13) in £ram the soil due to leaching will be less than the other three areas. their study of Tamianglayang, a village quite near the site of Hudson's Ma'anyan research in Central Kalktan, investigated the belief that (C) Forestry Regrowth weedy swiddens were abandoned because of poor soils. Their studies fdthat these soils were even richer in plant-available nutrients fist individuals writing about swidden cultivation have been concerned than those newly cleared of forest fallow. with the length of the fallow period. This is a justified concern; it is well knom that when the fallow period becoroes too short, ecological (D) Edaphic Conditions degradation sets in, in direct relationship to the degree to which the fallow has been shortened. The shorter the fallow period, the quicker So far it has been seen that precipitation and vegetative regrowth the ecological degradation. What has not been fully explored is the has not indicated the poorer emkrmt that Appell believed deter- critical point at which swidden cultivational practices change from mined the land tenure practice of the -. This leaves just the being in balance with the ecosystem to being ecologically destructive. edaphic conditions of the Rungus area as the possible envircmmtal In the case of Borneo, all sorts of figures have been used to establish determinate to validate Appell's hypothesis. In approaching the issue the derof years necessary to mintain an ecological balance. Dimn of edaphic conditions. of the five areas of concern here, I wish to (1974:9) sumned up this problem &en he stated that "in scm places first look at an assqtion that I believe is -licit in the writing eight years my be quite adequate for soil and vegetation regeneration, of Appell, Dixon, and King. Just as there is the assmption that a in another place a short distance away, fifteen years may be too short." fair degree of bgeneity exists ammg all the people of one tribal While this is quite true, we are provided with no clue as to where we group, say, the Iban, Appell, Dixon and King appear to assume that a might find the critical point between ecologically sound and ecologi- fair degree of hoapgeneity in tenm of soil exists in the "Iban area" cally unsound swidden fallowing. or the "Land Dayak area." A group such as the Iban or the Land Dayak carers a large territory; this assqtion can easily be seen to be A basic asamption -licit in the writing of Appell, Dixon, and King, fallacious. Even in the case of the Rungus who inhabit a relatively as well as mst articles on forest swidden, is that the difference dlarea of northeast Sabah, there is a tranendous anrnmt of varia- between land left fallw for a short time (me- seven or eight years tion in soils and agricultural potential. Thus, when I refer to the as in the case of the Rmgus) and land left fallow for a period 50 Ibsol I mean only the dlarea in the vicinity of the Sut River where percent longer (lY or so years as reported for the Bidayuh) is great. Reeman did his actual research; for the bb'anyan I will mean only the In absolute terms, land left fallow for 12 years will have developed a Telang area where Hudson worked; for the Land Dayak I will mean the greater biomass of forest components than land which has been fallow upper Kedup River region where Geddes did his research; for the Maloh only eight years. Likewise, the accmdation of mst, but not all, I will mean the Waloh basin region where King worked; and for the nutrients in the ecosystem of a 12-year regrowth forest will be slightly Rungus I will man the upper Matmgp-g River region where Appell did higher than that of an eight-year regrowth forest. The important question, his research. Even restricting the scope of this study in such a however, is whether it is economically reasonable to allw land to lie manner is insufficient to insure total accuracy in evaluating the eda- fallow for 12 or 15 years instead of only seven or eight years. While phic conditions of these areas. Within these general villagelites little study of this problem has been undertaken in Borneo, we ehtlook edaphic conditions vary greatly from one micro-envirmt to another, at research done in Zaire %ere the major soils group and climate (a tro- such as riparian land to foothills to mxrntain slopes all within the pical udic mistme regime) are similar to those of Borneo. Studies in sam square mile. area of swidden cultivation in Zaire shp.that approldmately 90 percent of the raucimrm bims and nutrients of seamdary regrowth is attained To account for his belief that the Rugus area had less agricultural potential either the Iban or Land Dayak areas, Appell (1971:19) maps are =,far east as the Kedup River area where Geddes did his % Land Dayak research (1954a). In the areas that do have limestone, stated that . . . it wuld appear that the Rungus area is chayterized the by mre sandy soil than either the Iban or Land Dayak areas. For the it is just as likely to be a boon as bane suggested by Dixon. Ma'anyan area, Hudson (1967) claimed poor soils characterized by a high Unless the limestone is in the form of surface rock outcroppings, proportion of sand. Are these claims of sandier soil in the Rungus and it could be a favorable factor in the soil as it would raise the Ma'anyan area borne out by actual edaphic studies? Tbmhg first to pH level in otherwise low pH soil. the soil map of Borneo prepared by FAOIUNESCO (1972: Sheet IX) , we find that the predaninant soil in the Rungus, Ban, Land Dayak, and Maloh . One last point to look at here is the edaphic conditions in the King areas is the same, an Orthic Acrisol. While there is slight difference Ma'anyan area. (1975:13) cited Hudson's description of poor soils in the Padju Epat region, coupled with- .- - - - rainfall.- - - as contra-- --~-- between the associated soils and inclusions in the b,Moh, and lm I dictory of Appell's hypothesis. Rungus areas and the Land Dayak area, there is no indication of sandier The precipitation issue &s already soils in one of these areas over the others. Since the FAO/UNESCO soil been discussed, but what of the edaphic conditions in the Padju Epar. Borneo region. In his doctoral dissertation Won (1967: 108) shows a mp map of is at a scale of 1:5,000,000, it cannot be relied upon to of the 'Padju Epat region with swamp Lands west of Telang and a dry provide conclusive evidence that sandier soil does not exist in one of land area east of Telang. these four areas. The purpose of mentioning this map is that wen at He characterized the soils of Padiu E~at as having eight to ten inches of sandy topsoil lying on a b&e o'f red such a small scale it shows the area near Telang as having inclusions IX) of Ferric Arenosols which are characterized by quartz sands, thus veri- lateritic clay. According to the FAO/UNESCO soil map (1972: Sheet fying what Hudson has said about the soil in the Ma'anyan area. the Padju Epat area of the Barito River is in the intersection of three major soil groups. As already mentioned, one of the soil groups high quartz 'Runing to other soil maps of greater detail, what can be discerned has been reported to have a sand content. Analysis of the about these areas? hoking at just the Ihrngus and Land Dayak areas, sand fractions of various profiles from Tamianglayang, a village about 10 miles Telang, gives a quartz content of 95 to 99 percent the only tm areas for which I was able to obtain detailed edaphic from studies, I found no greater Likelihood that there would be a larger (Driessen et a., 1976:4). The swampy area near Telang is reported to sand component in the soil of one area aver the other. The soil map of have inclusiw of Thionic Flwisols, mre ccmmnly luiuwn as acid sul- Kudat (Belsham 1969), at a scale of 1:125,000, showed the Rungus area fate soils. The peculiar characteristic of acid sulfate soils is that to be mixed allwium and marine terrace soils in the riverine plains they have a low pH level which gets extremely low if exposed to air and sandstone and minor shales in the upland regions. For the Land for any lemgth of time.8 This would make these soils difficult to Dayak area, the parent materials are sandstone, conglomerates, and manage, especially for a group such as the Ma'anyan who do not be pleistocene sands and gravels (Andriesse 1972: Map 5 at a scale of the technical expertise necessary to handle acid sulfate soils. For the 1:500,000) . The soils are mixed allwiun in the riverine plains and dry land area, the FAOIUNESCO soil map indicates inclusions of plin- shales, phyllites, dstones, and sandstone in the upland areas (Andri- thite; this wuld account for the red lateritic clay reported by Hudson. esse 1972: 168, 172, and Sheet 2 at a scale of 1:100,000) . While Appell In short, the conditions reported for Tamianglayang by Driessen et al. may have encomtered particular Rungus swiddens that had a high sand (1976) appear applicable to the Telang area. In their report, they content, the evidence cited here indicates that the area in general has stated that chemically the soils of Tamianglayang were extremely poor no greater sand conpnent in the soil than does the Land Dayak area. with weatherable minerals virtually absent. In addition they noted the physical instability of the soils; they slake easily and are easily Dixon (1974: 9) , in his reply to Appell, noted geological formations in eroded. the Land Dayak area of the First Div$iion that he believed to be %or- tant to this isae. He stated that . . . the limestone base of this area my be responsible for different soil and drainage conditions wkich naturally support a forest with a relatively limited nmber of As can be seen by the emironmental data presented here, Appell's hyp- species." I question Dixon's perception of the forests being me thesis of ewlogical deterininism appears to be warranted. The data limited in the nuher of species than other areas of Borneo, but this is presented here are not perfect since, as mentioned earlier, the micro- not the point of cancern here. Dixan intimates that a geological envirommats within a single village territory can vary widely. Never- formation of lbstone in the Land Dayak area causes this area to be as theless, all indications are that Appell's hypothesis is inva5id. "poor" agriculturally as Appell claims is the case in the R.ungus area. According to the envirmtal data, the Ma'anyan area would appear the Soil maps of the First Division of Sara& (Soil of Sarawak at a one group mst likely to develop a different form of land tmeif scale of 1:500,000 and Andriesse 1972: Sheetzt a ~~1~00,000) ecological determinism were valid. do indeed show limestone, but only in dlpockets in the western portion of the First Division. Limestye: is not the underlying base of Although Appell's explanation of ecological factors as determinants in the region as a whole and none of the limestone deposits shown on the All five areas mst likely have udic variations in land tenure does not fit the areas now inhabited by the Ma'anyan area. these groups, one might propose that these patterns were established misture reg-. in the past in another envirollnu2nt and are followed today only out of tradition. Rungus 6. An udic misture regime is defined as one in which the mtrol I do not knowwhere the originated, so I cannot section of the soil is not for methan 90 days a year. speculate whether this might be the case. Possibly the Ihmgus' dry ancestral bland was situated in an enviromm~tme conducive to note that the ccmmmal mership of land rather than individual ownership of parcels 7. It is interesting to level of potassim 6) of land. While this might be the case, I have serious doubts since actually decreased after eight years. this does not wrk with the Kayan and the Kenyah. 8. "When these deposits are exposed to air idthe soil is low in According to Rousseau (1974:118-20) the Kayan have commrnal ownership ' calcim carbonate, FeS2 is oxidized to ferric sulfate and free of land similar to that of the Rungus. sulfuric acid, producing pH values on the order of 2 or 3" The Kayan claim the Apo Kayan (Sanchez 1976: 86) region of East Kalimantan as their ancestral hameland. Whittier . b reports (1973: 57-62) that the Kenyah have a systen of pemment tenure has similar to that of the Ban and the hdDayak. The Kenyah, too, claim 9. Laterite is a rather loose term which been applied to soils the Apo Kayan region of East Kalfmmtan as their ancestral homeland. in the tropics. The term plinthite has replaced it in referring In fact, members of both groups have villages still located in the Apo to a soil that hardens irreversibly upon exposure to the air. Kayan as well as living in close proximity to each other in several places in Sarawak such as in the upper Baram River region. If both Blblio raph Andriesse, J.P., 1972, The Soils of West-Sard, 2 Whittier and Rousseau are correct in their reports regarding land '&&, Governmat Printer; ~p~~G3.77~~- tenure practices, then any ecological explanation for variation in of Land Tenure in Borneo: A Problan -in Ewlogical Detenrdnism, patterns of land tenure ddbe invalid. he0Research Bulletin, 3: 17-20; Belsham J., 1969 Soil S --Publication; ~lron:G. , 1974: Envirmtal conditions do not provide an adequate explanation for Tenure: An Alternative to Ecological Determinism," Borneo Research variance in patterns of land tenure among the swidden cultivators of Bulletin, 6: 5-15; Driessen, al, , 1976, "The Influence ow% Borneo. An explanation for this variance 1611 have to be found in the Cultivation on a 'Podzolic' Soil frm Central Kalimantan," Seminar cultural and social aspects of these cdties. Envirmtal ATA 106, Soil Research Institute, factors do play an important role in Dayak agriculture, but as of yet --of the World, Sheet IX; Freeman, we do not fully understand the interaction of the enviromtal and Colaua~earchStudies No. 18; sociological spheres of swidden dties. of Sarawak, London, Colonial Research D6muE at Ethno a h and Social Structure of a Ma an an Notes o & & hthwestem Ez,~.~~~sertatimii~~agy, - &l&v=sity; King, Vm5, 'hnfher Pmbl- in Bomean Land 1. While the R~~~LEIhousehold as a social entity does not "awn" land Tenure Systems: Carmrents on an Argummt, Borneo Research Bulletin it does have per-imnent tenure rights through the village corporate 7:1:12-16; Mohr, E.D. Jul., 1944, Soilso uatomions entity. As a umber of the village corporate entity it holds Arbor, Michigan, Edwards Brothers, &zseau, J. .kk? pment use rights to village land as a whole rather than to Social Or anization of the Bal -, Ph.D. dissertatian, Czidge separate parcels. ESI~Z~P.A.,~,F'rop5ties :dk%-t of Soils ." -in the Tropics, New York, John Wiley an Sons ttler, H.c,m. 2. With 52 years of observation the figure of 3261 mn (128.4 in.) is Socm Or anization and S Is of Social Differentiation: An Ethno- given for Pontianak (Mhr 1944: 387) . sche-&~o- &limntan (BodFEE dissertation, Michigan State University; Soil Map of Sad,Kuching, 3. With 29 years of observation the figure of 4308 w (169.6 in. ) is Gov~tPrinter. given for Poetoessibau (Putussibau) and figures only slightly lower are given for other recording stations in the upper Kapuas River - 2 basin @bhr 1944: 387) . 4. With 52 years of observation the figure of 2332 om (91.8 in.) is given for AoPeuntai (hmtai) O%hr. 1944: 388) . 5. The lowest is 2.72 inches of rainfa1 for the mmth of August in VII AN EXWW-HISTORY OF THE KELABIT mBE OF SARA~~AK' Chapters and VIII consider and discuss tw~major aspects of the change in the Kelabit. First is the adoption of Christianity and the resultant loss of many customs and traditions considered pagan. Second fi BRIEF LOOK AT THE KELABIT TRIBE is the development of education and educational facilities, and the BEFORE WRLD WAR I1 AND AFTER tremendous impact of education. The paper concludes with a brief, alnust nostalgic resune of the Robert Lian - Robert Saging Kelabit history as it leads into the future. Jabatan Sejarah, University of Maya

It would be nice if they could write for themselves, The relatively recent crystallization of the term Ke1abit"nad the subtly but until early 1946, when we opened the first school, dramatic effect of giving an identity to a loose regionally inherent none of them could write. Now, four of then have ethnic group, bringing than together as a single tribe. Previous to travelled a urmth to the coast and then to the capital, this, the Kelabits were considered as part of the httribe. Evidence Kuching, for a teachers training course. In a few for this exists in the obvious connxmality of the Kelabit and ht years, they, KIIOare natural orators, singers, bards, languages. These points are discussed in Chapter I. and mndders of mds (as of iron and ivory, harhod and horn), may well be able to tell their own tale. The origins and migration of the Kelabit tribe are still matters of Meanwhile, willy-nilly, it falls to m, the only white anthropological speculation. Chapter I1 discusses this topic. Have man so far to live ammg and get to lamw them. the Kelabit been long established in the highlands or have they came merecently? Did they cane up the BararnRiver fnxn Brunei in the - Tom Harrisson northwest, or £ran Indonesian Borneo @limntan) in the East? Were they driven by wars, f;mdne, or by the aggressiveness of the local Kayan These are the mds of the late Tom Harrisson, the first white man to and Kenyah? study and write extensively on the,,Kelabit. This was in 1949 in an article, "The Uplanders of Borneo, which appeared in Asian Horizon Chapters 111 and IV take the reader to kioand its surrounding valley. Vol. 11. Today, twenty-seven years later, the ~elabit=w The longhouse slnd consequent life styles, the traditions, customs and finally begin to write for themselves about thenselves. rituals of the Kelabit as existed prior to 1945 are described. High- lighted are the initiation and burial customs. The Kelabits' social I have always been interested in the history of the Kelabit tribe to structure i+ also described and discussed. It is shown that basically which I belong. The Kelabit tribe is a very small tribe, if mt the the tribe consists of three classes. At the apex is the Paran or the smdllest tribe in Sarawak, nunbering only about 3,000 out of the Sarawak high class aristocrats; the bulk of the population, the upa-upa or population of mre than 1,000,000. The Kelabit are quite progressive, "half-half' belaw the Paran; and at the bottom of the pyramid are the and it is interesting to how their past, especially their origins, Anak ~atuor followers, and a small number of slaves who do not form a migration, and culture. I have been interested to look into the class. This social class structure was rigid and had its impact on factors which have caused so much change in such a small and isolated marriage-contracts, tribal rights, and responsibilities. tribe. heof the mst Ztriking and outstanding aspects of the tribal tradi- The reason why the above topic was taken was mainly because of interest tions is the nature of responsibilities and appoin-t of tribal and the realization of the need to write a history of the Kelabit tribe, leaders. Chapter V atternpts to capture this significance and four however brief, before it vanishes altogether. Every society must have recent penghul u are discussed. smpast, and the Kelabit's past is really fast disappearing as the mries are vanishing under the "bleaching" effect of the present. The Having established a clear idea of the original Kelabit tribe in its Kelabit are progressive people, easily adaptible to new things, and envimmmt, the paper goes on to show how foreign influences came in, discarding old ones as fast as nm ones come. As it is, alretTay there and began to wile their presence felt. Chapter VI describes the visits is only a handful of the Kelabit old people who have experiences and of Europeans, officials, and missionaries. It shows the establishent laww of the past life of the Kelabit. So there is a real need to cap- of the first school, airfield, and health centre. In this chapter, the ture whatever we can before it goes with these people. Besides for mere first changes cam to the Kelabit and the stage is set for firrther interest and recordings, I also sincerely hope and wish that this work future change. of mine will arouse the interest of other Kelabit, to write and do saw research on at least sune aspects of the Kelabit past. Indeed, I do are many books written on natives of Sarawak, mst only mention the not have only Kelabit in mind, but also the other neighboring tribes Kelabit in passing. There is one book, krld Within, written by with whom the Kelabit have had contacts since time iummrial. I Tan Harrissa in 1959, and some articles-ten specifically about believe they too need to write about their past so that future writers the Kelabit. While these are good records of the Kelabit past, they and researchers may have "two sides of the story" for better under- were written by western writers. The writings of Westerners are not standing. Finally, I would like 3 possible to expose the hitherto bad intrinsically, but one cannot ignore the fact that these writers c~nparatively&own Kelabit to my readers as one of the tribes aeong were people who visited the Kelabit only briefly, and my not really the many societies of Sarawak. I am aware of the danger of digressing have understood the Kelabit. All of thm mrked through interpreters, £ran the topic since the history of any group cannot be confined to a and there is always the problem of mistranslation, misinterpretation, few topics, especially when not even a general history of the people and other inevitable bias. Very few of the writings fall before 1945, concerned has been written before. r so that what was written after 1945 was done when the Kelabit were in I the transitional period between Paganism and Christianity. There is In the course of my work, I came face to face with sane of the problems also the problan of lack of interest by the local people, especially of historiography, such as finding sources and dealing with the sources, the Kelabit themselves, on the writings of the Kelabit past. This is which include both manuscripts and non-written materials. The year 1945 shown by the fact that all writers except for two, Galih Balang and is chosen as a dividing point because events which effected great Malam Maran, both Kelabit, are western foreigners. changes in the lives of the Kelabit occurred around that time. It marks the turning point when Kelabit discarded paganism for Christianity; it The problan of the na-mmuscript sources ms mre complex. The non- preceded the year when the first school was introduced amag the Kelabit muscript sources consisted of oral evidence and visual remains of (February 1946). and mre accurate and comprehensive records of the Kela- the past. The problan with oral sources was myin the locating of bit were kept after this date. the right people to interview and in getting the necessary information from them. Although there are myKelabit *o experienced the pre- Objective Christian era of Kelabit life, few of them remaher or care to relate very much of their qeriences. There are many things which mst of The objective of this Graduation Exercise is to try to record part of than do not lam, leaving only a very few, mstly very old Kelabit, the Kelabit past before it disappears altogether. The people whu how who how sething. king the course of interviewing people, I was the history of the Kelabit--their customs, practices, traditions, songs, directed to a few selected people considered to be suitable. The legends, etc. --are generally old, from 60 to 80 years. The people who problem with these people was that they were mstly very old and were cane after &an are not very interested to lam and learn about these suffering from failing mn~ry.They were illiterate and had m concept things, since they are no longer practiced nor appropriate for the of dates of events; thus, as stated above, it is necessary to keep 1945 present society. Sorne details, such as names of persons and places, as a rough dividing point in Kelabit history, as it is only after 1945 are included to enable future researchers to locate these people and that dates cw be mre accurately determined. A further problem was places for mre information. getting people to confine their explanations to the topic in question. This is mainly because of their misunderstanding of what is wanted. Scope of Study There is also the problem of their inability in saying the names of white visitors properly, such names being a good indicator for dates. An Tnis paper covers generally the origins of the Kelabit and their develop- example here is "'ban Plesud" and 'Tuan W." Whtle 'Tuan Mm-ud" has ments to the present. This includes hfmtion about the Kelabit thenr- been identified as Mr. Eric Mjoberg, the first white man on bunt m, selves, their crrs toms, practices, ,langhouses, leaders, and the factors "Tuan Plesud" remains the obscure first missionary to visit the Kelabit- that have brought changes in Kelabit society. Prior to 1945, very little Kerayan highlands. There is, of course, the question of how reliable was kmwn about the Kelabit by outsiders, hence, very little was written the infarmtion given is, because while attempting to relate the past to about them. They were rarely visited by govermmt officials and their today's context for the young Kelabit interviewer, the informants face visits to toms were infrequent. The Kelabit had no concept of dates the problem of presenting facts accurately since the use of "deeper" nor did they keep proper calendars. Since 1945, meaccurate records and more comprehensive Kelabit language is not very well understood by have been kept and nuch mewritten about the Kelabit. the younger generation. The language spoken &day by the yo.% is quite mixed with new terms from Malay and wen English, thus not all of the --Research Problems vocabulary of the original language is used. &st informants also feel that they have related everything to other researchers earlier. but we The problws of historiography, alluded to above, derived from both do not see nuch of this information published as yet. Many stories, written and non-written sources. I encountered considerable difficulty songs and chants have been forgotten because of the lack of use of thgn in locating books and articles concendng the Kelabit. Although there with their pagan pre-Christian themes. All Kelabit today are staunch Christians. As for visual evidence, this includes archaeological remains left by legends from one informant. This proved to be a uLL.WDLIy. lILLLI= I the people of the past. There are marry such ramins to be found I could not interview ewqone, correspondence was mde with rany mre ; throughout the Kelabit highlands, but it is impossible to visit all and informants, especially on toplcs after 1945. &st of these informants to do so would mean making some excavations, as mst are covered by were literate. This method proved to be a partial success, because dergrowth, trees and bushes. while mny responded to inquiries, others had no time to do so. Replies cam in gradually over a long period of time, and this in some way Another problem I faced in the course of my research was my own personal hindered the work. This mthod proved a bit costly as stamped, self- inexperience. I am new to this field and do not have the experience to addressed envelopes had to be sent, as there was no post office in go about the research mre adequately. Other problems were lack of Bario where these could be purchased. On the whole, it proved mst financial support and lack of time. I did mch of my research in the worthwhile and useful. As for books and articles. much use was made Sarawak kern Library and the Archives, and at the Sarawak State of articles in the Sarawak Museum Journal. The ~&awakGazette, Jol Library in Kuching . This is mre than 500 miles from my longhouse, and of the Mala an Branma-tic Society, new-smette while doing it I had to find lodging and board which is quite expensive. ~Fq*~aar~ mces. On the second stage of my research, I was detained at Miri for three weeks because of transportation problems. The plane was fully booked by As this work might be the first of its kind, it is hoped that it can holiday-makers, and the rainy spell in March and April forced scheduled provide a basis for future research on the history of the Kelabit. Only flights to Bario to be cancelled. This may be passed off as ill fortune, the late lk. Tom Harrisson has written quite extensively about the but it should be noted by future researchers because this happens every Kelabit. His nuwrous articles and his book, World Within, mke good year, April being the mth of the important Easter Convention for the and interesting reading. Kelabit. As a mthwas spent in Kuching and three weeks in Miri, and another week of inactivity at Bario as far as research is concerned -Note because of the Easter Convention, there was little time for research. I had only three weeks to do my research. In the Kelabit highlands, the 1. This paper was the Graduation Fxercise submitted to the Jabatan main problem is the travel between longhouses which may take a day of Sejarah, University of Malaya, in partial requirement for the mre of jungle trekking. Work on the first night in each longhouse is fulfillment of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts, Horns, 1976-77 out of the question since, besides being tired, one has to converse with the villagers on various unrelated topics for courtesy's sake. Even if an infomt was present, one had to find an opportune nrm~ntin which he was free, unl&ss one paid him for losing the day's work. It is respectful BRIEF COMIIUNICATIONS to give "courtesy payments" in the form of small articles such as soap, sarong, shirts, and other such itm. To cover all the Kelabit longhouses Glance 1 would have Laken mre than a mnth yd would have been costly, thus only Indonesian Forestry at a nearby longhouses of. one to two days travel were visited. To avold getting really "stranded" in the highlands because of the rainy season, pbre than 60 percent of Indonesia's total land mass is tropical forests-- I had to catch the earliest plane after some the, to come back for the approximately 300 million acres. As the richest nation in forest opening of the 1976-77 session. The personal problems I faced may also resources in Sou+east Asia, the Republic's forestry is often called a be faced by other undergraduate researchers on the Kelabit in the future. "green gold mine, and, if fully exploited, could provide both enomus It could be wen worse it he were a non-Kelabit, mainly because of the revenues and mre than one million jobs. language barrier,and the problem of striking relationships with the local people. Forest product exports--primarily to Japan, Singapore, Taiwan and Italy-- are already the nation's second largest foreign exchange earner, after Research Methodology etrolem products. Gross earnings rose from $101.8 million in 1970 to 5951.2 million in 1977. The main nlethod used, besides reading and note-taking, was personal interviews with myKelabit informnts in the longhouses of the Bario Forest Investment area, Pa' Lungan, Long Dano, Pa' Dalih, and Batu Patong. There was no than fixed questionnaire used, because all the interviews were carried out Ibre 440 national and foreign cqanies--including American, British, infomlly. This was so because at the time of interviewing the farming Japanese and Australian firas--have been granted licenses to develop mre season had started and the informants could not afford to stay away for rlnte from Indonesia Develo t Kews , Vole 2, Nuher 2, October a long period of time and at night they had to retire early for rest. In $8; p. d5, by kind permideifor. at least one case, I was able to tape s-btements, Mystories and than 100 million acres of forest, at an aggregate total investment value - Meranti is fdin abundance in Swtra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan and the of approximately $1.3 billion. Moluccas. . - Agathis is in Java, Madura and Kalirnantan. Foreign invesmt--valued at -approximately $575 million--accounts for - Keruing is found- throughout Kalimantan and Sumtra. ahst half the total capital invwted in forestry. Major investors are - Tall pines grow.in Sumtra and Java. canpanies £ran the Philippines ($306 million). South Korea ($62 million), - Rimdn is found in Kalimantan, exclusively. Japan ($49 million), Malaysia ($49 million), Hong Kong ($38 mlllion) and the United States ($34 million). This invesmt in forestry represents Teak is Java's specialty wood and nearly all the nation's furniture is some 8 percent of the total value of all approved non-oil foreign invest- mde of teakmod. ment projects of year-end 1977. Meranti and ramin are used in the manufacture of plymod and veneer. In 1975, the Guvennn?nt reassessed the heavy reliance of the timber These buoyant dsare resistant to insect and £imgi damage and are industry on foreign investment. Under a May 1975 decree, foreign parti- easily transportable. Other Indonesian woods are used mainly for the cipation was excluded from new tinber developments and foreign companies producEion of mixed hardmod chips, paper, fiber and chipboard. holdim Forest Utilization Rights were oblipated to transfer a miority equityVblding to national biders within t& years. The Gove&t ' Growth Prospects still, however, offers considerable incentives to foreign investors wishing to invest in timber related industries, such as-pulp and paper. E$ 1960, log production is projected to reach 25 million cubic meters and Since the passage of the hstic Imresbm~tLaw of 1968, the Guvennnent foreign exchange earnings could surpass $1.5 billion. has also approved 278 domestic irrvesment projects with an wegate invesmt value of Rp. 186 billion as of the end of 1975. During the same period, sawed timber output could reach four million cubic meters, half of which would be exported to European, Middle Eastern and Foreign companies operate under contract-of-work agreements, which re- Asian markets. quire them to share a certain percentage of their profits with the Govenanent. Certain incentives have been prwided in the form of tax A total of 1,000 mdim and small-scale sawmills and 16 plywood mills were holidays and duty-free import of project goods. in production during 1977. Ten additional plywood facilities are under construction. Types of Forests and Woods Currently, some three-quarters of all Indcinesia's damestic paper needs are Of the 300 million acres of forest in Indonesia, about 47 million acres imported. %st danestically produced paper and pulp is produced by five or 16 percent is accessible for imnediate harvesting. Saw 34 percent of State-owned corporations. In addition, Indonesia's per capita consqtion these forescs are located in Kalirnantan, 31 percent in Sulawesi, the of paper--at 12 kilograms per annum--is relatively low by mrld standards Moluccas, and Irian Jaya, 23 percent in Sumstra and the rest in Java, (United States per capita cormmption is approximately 290 kg. per annun). Madura, and Nusa Tenggara. Conservationtsts report that no less than 20- This, then, is another part of the forestry sector with considerable 25 million cubic mters of timber could be harvested annually, without growth potential. damaging the country's forest reserves.

According to the Forestry Directorate General of the Agriculture Ministry, the country's'fol;ests break dam like this: Distribution and Status - Approximately 130 million acres of the forested acres are classified as ---of the Asian Ele+t: ~orneo' production forests ready for exploitation. - Approximately 60 million acres are protected forests. The history of elephants in Borneo is samething of a mystery. It is - Approximtely 9 million acres are name preservation forests. thought that those present today originated frcmi elephants given in - Pbre than 100 million acres are reservation forests. 1750 to the Sultan of Sulu by the East India Ckmpany and then liberated in North Borneo. The peculiar distribution today, limited entirely to The largest productive forests, totalling about 54 million acres, are the north-east corner (see map in de Silva 1966,. ,for qle).supports located in Kalbtan. Of the reminder, 22 million acres are in Sunatra, this view. Hcwever, there seem little doubt that elephants occurred in 5 million in Sdawesi, 4 million in Java, 3 million in the Moluccas, 1,475,000 in Irian Jaya and 172,000 acres in Bali and Nusa Tenggara. Reprinted by kind.permission of the Editors of ORYX, Zoological These forests prodwe various kinds of odd species: Society of London, from ORyX, Novaher 1978, pp . 405706. Borneo before 1750. While Pigafetta's account of tame elephants at the of the Lawlpd Rain-forest of North Borneo," Bulletin of -National time of Magellan's visit to Bnmei in 1521 and Iaufer's reference to a Museum of S apore, 31:118; De Silva, G.S., 1968.1@hants of Sabah, ,, China-Borneo ivory trade in the Middle Ages are not in themselves conclu- ~S~~Joml,34: 169-181; Habbew, D. , 1934. "Olifanten in sive pmf, mch stranger evidence of wild E. maximus during the Plei- Borneo, + Tr- Natuur, 23(9) :167-171; Harrisson, T. , 1961. stocene comes from Hooijer (1972) . The elephant would therefore join the "Prehistoric~~e~andLosses in Borneo." in J. Watt-Smith and ranks of Borneo's strange losses of mxlern species that were native to the P. R. Wycherley (eds .) ,-~atureConservation in western t&ia sia,--Kuala region in prehistoric times, along with the tiger, tapir and others. As Lumpur, Malayan Nature Society; Hooiier, D.A~m'prF'Ef&Zric evi- Harrisson (1961) who also quotes a possible Bornean fossil of E. maximus, dence for Elephas maximus Lh. in Borneo." Nature, 239:228; Jentinck, points out, man was once mre numerous and pawerful in Borneo than has F.A., 1884. "De olifant en rhinoceros op Borneo,,, Ti'dschr. h.Ned. usually been supposed, and had an often decimating influence on the local Aardri.ksk Gamts 2:554-559; Keith, 1949. kbt~ b6Eh fauna. This may explain the demise of these species. .&ep~FOrester; Laufer , B. , 1925. "Ivory in China," 1 Field beum of Natura 'mparartment of Anthropology, Chicago, In 1961 Ekugess published the first account of the mdern distribution in Leaflet No. 21; Medway, Lord, 1965. M~IIKM~Sof Borneo, Malaysian Branch, North Borneo and noted that elephants were being seen finsther west than Royal Asiatic Society; Muller, W. C. , ~~~op Borneo," Kolon. previously, probably due to humm disturbance. Davis (1962) and Medway Weekblad No. 5; Van der Pker bhr, J .C. , 1932. "Olifanten op Borneo- (1965) give the same distribution--the east coast south of the Sugut i De Tro ische Natuur 21:211; Westerrhan, J. , 1939. "Natlun in Zuid en Oost River and south into Kalimantan, with limits in this direction inprecisely ~rn-aren~ndisch Natu~~leven,~'N&. w. &. tot Nat. Besch knm. Western limits were also indefinite, but. records of elephants. at 334-411; WiLkmp, H., 1932. 'Wet workmen van eenige~~rd Penangah on the Kinabatangan were described as recent' by Burgess (1961) landschap Koetai, " @ Tropische Natuur 21: 169-177. who also said they were occasiodly seen near Pensiangan, perhaps hving come frcm Kalimantan. De Silva (1968) largely concurs with this distri- bution, but extends the range north beyond the Sugut to Paitan. These NEWS AND ANNOUNCE-MENTS references to expansion are additional evidence for an original distri- bution localised in the north-east . Various Dutch sources--Jentinck (1884), Miller (1916), Witkanp (1932), Van der Meer bbhr (1932). fIabb- (1934) and particularly Westenram (1939)--report a limited distribution in the extreme north-east of Kalimantan also Before 1934 Kalimmtan's few elephants lived only in the upper-Sembalarng River in Tindq district. Andrew P. Vayda Wortunately there is no recent informtion on Sabah or Kalimmtan for Cook College, Rutgers lhiversity comparison or to show whether expansion has continued, as sews likely. The elephant 'has had some sort of protection since the 1936 Wild Animals The notion of problems was featlned in the assignmznt ven to me for the and Birds Preservation Order, but development inland from the prime mrkshop at which this paper was originally presented, Pand there will lowland sites near the coast appears to have displaced the elephants. indeed be discussion of problems in the paper. It wt, however, be said De Silva (1968) records that nmbers in such areas have dropped since at the outset that there are problems about the definition of problems the early post-war years; while herds of 100 were recorded in 1946, Davis (cf. Vayda and &Cay 1977). A great deal depends on whose standpoint is (1962) mentions herds of only 20 or mre as not uncommn. Throughout Sabah used and what goals are sought. Shifting or swidden cultivation, for crop damage has increased along with increased development, as have deaths exauple, may be regarded as a problem from the standpoint of forestry due to crop proteaion. Six thus died in 1964, 20 in 1965, and 30 in 1966. interests insofar as it wastes valuable timber, but, from the standpoint of the shifting cultivators, their practices my be answers to problems of wresting livelihoods fran poor-soil areas wbere mre intensive des of land use muld thwselves be problemtic. Interventions to promote In 1949 Keith estimated Sabah's elephant population as 2000, the sa~ I econdc development (for example, increased production of timber for rarmber Burgess gave in 1963, and de Silva (1968) accepted this with reser- I export or increased cclmnercial food crop production) may be extolled as vations. It my be that no reliable estimate has been made since 1949, if paths to a better life for shifting cultivators in Kalimmtan. and else- ever. If the distribution in north Borneo were better hm, an estimate wheze. However, it mw.t be recognized that such interventionil'can also could be computed fran densities in similar habitats in Pklaya, but until bring problems, including the disruption of traditional coping mechanisms proper surveys are done 2000 has to stand. i and the displacaent of people from their familiar envhmmnts to new ones where new hazards present themselves. Bibliography: Burgess, P .F. , 1961. 'Wildlife Conservation in North Borneo," in J. Wyatt-Smith and P .R. Wycherley (e& .) , Nature Conservation in Western Recognition that development efforts can create problems for local Malaysia, Kuala hmpm, Malayan Name ~ociety;Das, D.D., 19627- , populations should not be taken to imply, however, that people wuld be better off without such efforts. But it does point to the desirability there are well established patterns of making long journeys, what the of basing the efforts on authentic understanding of the people's actual Kenyah call peselai, to sell forest produce and handicrafts and to buy situation and their real problans, needs, and capabilities. Wortunately, salt, cloth, kerosene, iron and other goods. bdern camercial patterns as noted in recarmendations for developmt of programs by the new United are thus not unfamiliar even to such people. Since the early 19501s, a Nations University in Tokyo, the present push thmught the Third World desire to facilitate their participation in these patterns has induced to develop rural areas is being hindered by a lack of understanding of myof the people to mxre pennmently from their upriver homelands to ecosystem and bwledge systans at the local level, and there is an dawnriver areas. A government program to Wrwe the living mnditions urgent need for research to correct this state of affairs (The Wited . of resettled people in fourteen downriver cammities was instituted in Nations Wversity; Recomendations from the Rector to the United Nations 1972 (Rasyid 1976; Kartawinata 4. 1977; cf. Whittier 1973:222-224). University Council, 9 January 1976). In smparts of Mimantan and Smtra, the rural population has been In the present paper, I will use illustrations from Indonesian Borneo I aqtedin recent years by govermnent-ved migrants £ran Java and (hereafter referred to as 'Xalimantan") and from Smatra to indicate three Bali (see the references in Iteyer and MacAndrews 1978, chapters 4 and 5). broad categories of subject matter in which research is especially needed. Although the sites of goverrmmtal transmigration projects have oftq Befare discussing these categories, I shall provide some background infor- been in marginal lh with poor soils (largely because this has been the mtion on patterns of land use by local populations. 2 land not already settled and qloited by indigenes or so-called sponta- neaus migrants) or in land whose fertility can be maintained only with irrigation mrks that the government has often been slow to develop, the economic circmstances and quality of life in the transu&gration areas Within Sunatra and Kalimantan, there is considerable variation in patterns. nevertheless constitute an improvmt for many migrants m what they Amng the contrasts is that between agricultural mdes of production and previously hew in densely populated rural Java, where mst of them, the hunting and gathering which are still the main subsistence activities according to surveys, had little or no land tofarm. Thus, the govern- of a few bands of Punan in the Kalimwtan interior and the scatter of so- ment's offer of land, even if only one or two hectares, and its assistam called Kubu in Smtra's eastern lowlands and foothills. Broad contrasts with various services are unquestionably attractive to the poor Javanese within the category of agricultural patterns are those between penument wbjoin the transmigration program. Of interest for us to note in and shifting cultivation, between growing armuals and growing perennials, connection with variations in patterns of land use is that in same areas, and between rainfed and irrigated fanning. In addition, special methods such as parts of Lmpung, there are developing new symbiotic patterns of growing rice or other crops or practicing animal hsbandry have whereby local people with extensive land holdings hire Javanese trans- developed in a&ord with enviromtal constraints and opportunities in migrants to tap rubber trees and cultivate rice or cassava for them. such distinctive habitats as the tidal swamps along Kalimantan's southern These local people regard Javanese patterns of intensive cultivation with and western coast and Sumatra's eastern coast, the shallow lake (lebak) som antipathy, since their ownuore extensive patterns of land we, not- area of Soutlr Smtra, and the freshwater Alabio swaq~of South Kalimantan. withstanding the smaller labor inputs, give them better .returns on poor soils and unirrigated lands. The opportunities for wage labor or for Besides the variations from place to place, there may be variations through sharecropping or share-tapping on the land of the local people my be time in any one place. Thus, in both the coastal swqs and the central welccrmed by Javanese migrants as supplmts to the often mger in- and southern Smntran uplands, some farmers initially cultivate rice and to be derived £ram working their own farms. In parts of East Kalinwntan, other armuals in particular plots of land and then, with decline in the many migrants have turned to ironmod-cutting for additional inccrrre. yield of the annuals, use the land mainly for perennials such as coconuts, rubber, coffee,' and pepper. Clearly inapplicable to such farums are assqtions favored by some development experts to the effect that rural people's agricultural practices are governed primarily by tradition and are What I have indicated about variations of land use in the preceding therefore essentially static and unresponsive to fluctuations or other paragraphs presents formidable challenges for research. I want now to kinds of changes in the enviromt. Indeed, unlike farmers in s- of the consider the three broad categories of subject matter in which research other tropical rainforest regions of the mrld, most of the rural people of needs to be pucsued. Summa, including those of the interior uplands, have long had corrmercial production as a substantial component of their agricultural activities (Pelzer 1978) and most have been able to switch from one crop to another in response to changes in external mkets. Because of being isolated by extensive river rapids, scme people of the Mimantan interior, such as the Kenyah Dayaks of the Apo Kayan (the plateau at the Kayan River headwaters), As remarked in the final report of UNESCO's 1974 Regional Meeting on Inte. have been less involved in producing cad crops. But even amxg such people, grated Ecological Research and Training Needs in the SouthEast Asian Regit local people have often evolved, presmbly through trial and error, intensive means that the Indonesian goverrnnent and various developat viable solutions to problems of land use in so-called mginal areas and agencies have tended to favor is the system used by the Banjarese and some of these solutions may provide better bases for development than Wlginese people for gruwing rice, coco~uts,and other crops in the tidal muld the solutions proffered by experts having little familiarity with manp areas of Kalimantan and Smatra. Research scientists mrking with local conditions (UNFSCO 1975:19; cf. Qlambers 1978; GLass and Thurston the Soil Research Institute in Bogor have characterized the system as 1978). Rather than taking the view that the local people are necessarily follows: backward or ignorant and incapable of fodating their needs, diagnosing their problems and devising solutions, we might in fact regard them, as Adapted agricultural practices, plant varieties and water suggested in a recent article on upland "problem soils" in Indonesia, as management are blended in a highly sophisticated agricul- qualified consultants on how develgolent in the marginal areas can proceed tural system which - in its traditional fonn - combines (Driessen g al. 1976). Indeed, the authors of the article state that ingenious soil conservation with the highest possible pro- during severar~earsof work in the ladang areas of Kalimantan and Smtra, ' duction. A close relation exists between enviromental they became firmly convinced that shifting cultivation is a very sophisti- conditions and local cwp and cultivation techniques cated system, drawing its strength from the fact that it does not combat (Driessen and Isomgun 1972 :347) . the "ever-aggressive jungle" (as might seen to be the case to outsiders watching farmers bum the forest) but rather uses limited resources in a The Buginese and Banjarese themselves, as spontaneous migrants, have way which, in canparison with demmechanized agriculture, causes little bqen extending their system along the tidal swamps of Sumatra's eastern damge to the &mt. coast. At least in the last few years, they have sometimes been doing this in competition with the govenmnent's program of building canals to Evidence of definite conservation practices was found by Kartawhata and develop the swamps for permanent settlanent and rice cultivation by me arrong the Kenyah shifting cultivators that we interviewed at Iang Javanese and Balinese transmigrants, arrong whom a cropping system invol- Nawang in the Apo Kayan in 1978. For example, the people were making ving new, high-yielding rice varieties and agrochtmiical inputs is being their swiddens at some distance (s.6 Ian.) fran their longhouses but prmted (Hanson and Koesoebiono 1977). Observations that I made in were deliberately avoiding cultivation of nearby 'northern slopes because the tidal swamp areas of Jambi in 1977, as well as reports that crop the primary forest there was, they said, needed as a reserve and as a failures led government-sponsored transmigrants in tidal swamp areas of source of house-building materials. These people do xiot at all conform South Sumtra to forsake their farms and settl&ts, suggest that the to the conrmn characterization of shifting cultivators as "m-settled" traditional system of the Banjarese and Buginese my have some advan- farmrs who continually mve on to new areas of forest and leave unpro- wes in comparison to the government system (cf. Hardjono 1977:74). ductive alanq-alanq lindrica) grassland in the wake of their Fbreover, the fact that some Javanese seen by me in Jambi and by other migrations (see, for . On the contrary, there has been investigators in South Kalimantan (Soeratman et d . 1977 : 32) have a permanent settl-t at Zang Nawang for about a centmy (Whittier 1973: learned the traditional techniques from the BaJn Gse and are now 3lff.), and: by mans of a judicious alternation of cropping and fallowing, successfully applying them suggests a relative absence of cultural as the people have not turned their territory into grassland but rather have well as enviromtal constraints to using the traditional system not maintained mst of it in secondary forest. only for the development of the tidal swamps but also for better meeting the needs of govermmt-sponsored transndgrants to the tidal sr~~anpareas Similarly, in the case of the locally evolved system of farming and (cf . Pelzer 1945: 223-224) . fishing the shallow lakes (lebak) dong the Ogan and Kamering rivers in South Smtra, such features as the careful scheduling of activities in Mention may also be rrade here of the unique, elegant, and ingenious accord with chafges in the water levels of the lakes or the use of tradi- system that Banjarese farmers have developed for the production of eggs tional mechanisms for the adjudication of disputes between fanners and by mre than half a million ducks in approximately 100 square kilo- fish- (Vaas et al. 1953) are answers to distinctive local problems to meters of the Alabio swq in South Kalimantan. In this system, the which such agencGsx Indonesia's Central Research Institute of Agri- birds are carefully managed and are provided with feed that includes culture and the agricultural extension senrice have hardly addressed than- fresh sago palm, cooked fish, and finely chopped fresh snails. A laying selves. Before attempts are made to introduce new systans of land use and duck produces 200 to 250 eggs annually, and a farmer's net incane fran resource mmagewnt in these shallow-lake areas (see, for example, the his flock may be higher than U.S. $2,400 per year. Besides the swamp large-scale , capital intensive drainage and irrigation schgne reamended farmers who omand manage the laying ducks, there are vario~'specia1ists in FA0 1976). there needs to be research on the system already there and associated with the system, including hatchery operators and sago vendors. its present effectiveness, viability, and potential for hqmmt. Some recent reports on the system are notemrthy for the close attention they pay to an indigenous industry and to the possibilities of using it as Another wleof a traditional systei dealing effectively with envlron- a wdel for development elsewhere (Robinson 1977 :36-37 ; Robinson @. ments that have thus far proved diffidt to develop with the mre capital- 1977; Kingston g &. 1978 and n.d.) . there is a need for better infonmtion on what those problans are. For example, although all who are familiar with the Kayan River in East Kalimentan know that travel by perahu (canoe) from the Apo Kayan to the mast is difficult, it is not generally recognized that the difficulty In the case of land use and agricultural develganent by Buginese in has been increasing for the Kenyah in recent years. The route involves the tidal sw;rmp areas, it my be significant that their migrations (as from going on foot for 25 miles past the falls and rapids, but the country in distinct, for exsnple, the meindividualistic and more urban- which this walk is made is too rough for portage to be feasible. Accord- oriented migrations of the Minangkabau of West Smtra) are charac- teristically made by groups of kinsmen and friends who have previously ingly, the Kenyah fomly built new perahu at the end of the walk or else Labor used perahu left from previous trips. The Mshing availability of mked together or exchanged their (Lineton 1975~1,chapter 6; these options has been described as follows: cf. Lineton 1975b). The migrants thus arrive in new tidal swamp areas with already established bases for mbilizing the labor necessary for The first of these options is beconring very difficult; s&eral felling forest and digging canals. Probably mst conducive to effective generations of travelers on the route have raved mst of the pioneering is the fact that Buginese social networks are geographically nehby trees suitable for canoe hulls. Storage of canoes is extensive (no doubt as a result of past Buginese pioneering and maritime beccadng risky. Kenyah mld not take a canoe stored at one and trading activities) and that infonmtion about opportunities in new end of the rapids without the explicit pdssion of the mer, lands can therefore be quickly transmitted to would-be pioneers. Such but coastal peoples are now beginning to venture upriver as far social factors my be as critical as any technical ones for success in as the rapids, and, according to the Kenyah, their appearance econnnic development. coincides with the disappearance of stored Kenyah canoes (Whittier 1973: 116). As noted in the Asian Developnmt Bank's recent Asian agricultural survey (1977 :227-228) , an important traditional obstacle to socially The early history of plantation agriculture in Smtra provides an sod and equitable development is the widespread institutionalization ample of disruption and problems arising from the advent of foreign of patron-client relationships whereby poor fmrsdepend on richer entrepreneurs and may serve to warn us of similar dangers for Dayak ones for obtaining employment or credft, for selling their harvest, and shifting cultivators in connection with present timber concessions in sometiries for getting land to farm. In same Indonesian cultures, such Kalimntan. Malay rulers granted land concessions to the first planta- relationships date from the precolonial past, but the relationships no tions without rmch regard for the rights of the local populations in doubt were fqther promoted by such features of Dutch colonialism as North Sumatra. The initial contracts between the rulers and plantations the systen of forced cultivation established in Java and West Smtra from (the so-called "Culture System") and the rewards and responsibilities referred only vaguely to ''village lands" which were to be excluded given to village leaders part of the systen. At present, out- the land concessim, but there was no heed paid to the fact that the as even local people, as shifting cultivators, needed mch mre that the lands siders my 'become clients. Thus, it has been noted that the "village level mrker, who is supposed to channel Gov-t help and service to designated as "village lands." The people revolted and the htch the poorer rural strata, often becames a client of the rich farmers and govemt had to intervene to make same adjusmts, but the region naturally favors his patron" (T. Scarlett Epstein in a report cited in became a major food-deficit area (Thee 1977). The extent to which present-day shifting cultivators in Kalimentan face similar diffhlties Asian Development Bank 1977 :228) . Horizontal groupings of the poorer farmers are needed to countervail this hierarchical structure and to is unclear, but the Kenyah in a "resettlanent" village on the Telen ensure that npre of the benefits of development reach the lower strata River in East Kalirnantan did ccnplain to me in 1978 that the Land left (cf. Collier 19R and 1978). As the Asian Developnent Bank's survey to them after the granting of concessions to timber companies was so notes, a basis for such groupings often exists in the form of infomnl little as to require them to re-use the same plots after fallow periods groups such as labor exchange teanx for various agricultural operations. of five years or less rather than after the desired 10-year periods. Research is needed to determine har these informal groups work in parti- cular societies (for exqle, anvng the mtrilineal Minangkabau of West Wther pies of the kinds of problem that may arise and that need to be studied and better defined have become available as a result of Sumaha as compared with the patrilineal Batak of North Sunatra) and to I deterrrdne what possibilities they afford for meformalized collective the Indonesian garemment's transmigration program. Thus, a major efforts in development and in gaining its rewards. problan for Javanese migrants in the upland site of Sitiung in West Sunatra are the depredations comnitted in their gardens by tS free- ranging cattle of neighboring Minangkabau indigenes. These people ?he problgas that arise frm specific interactions between people I marplaces. fence their gardens and say that the Javanese should do likewise, but, for some mknom reason, this solution has not seed practicable to the If solutions are to be found to the pr6bl- that people actually have. Javanese. When I interviewed then in 1977, the Javanese were calling for a ban on the free mement of cattle and were planning to have meet* about it. U.S. Agency for International Developrent consdtancy on the develop- ment of agricultural research in htra. The purpose of my four In the case of the transmigration project near Buginese settlenents and visits to East Kalhmtan in 1976-78 was to help in the development fanns in the Upang Delta of South Sumtra, a serious pest problan has of MAB projects concerned with changes in the hmm use of the resulted from the fact that the Buginese have been planting traditional provinces tropical forest (see Kartawinata g. 1977). slowmturing rice varieties and the Javanese and Balinese migrants have been planting fast-maturing, inipraved varieties with a low resistance to 3. A proposal for a rural ecology curriculun to be offered by hlawannm area pests and diseases. Because of different harvesting times for the. University in Samarinda was presented at the East Kalinwtan EZln and different rice varieties, a continuous food supply has been available Biosphere Program Workshop in March 1978. for such pests as the stinkbug tocorisa varicornis and thts has enabled than to build up their b&ngemw levels (Hamon and iBibliography: Asian Development Bank, 1977. Asian i~~l~alS Koesoebiono 1977 :21-22, 32) . 1976. bra1 Asia: Qlall rtmi ; %s, ert,% ~le~ophisticaid9 F~TW~~JUL~~. 6 ,%, 6, pp .I-*; Another way in which transmigration projects are leading to disruptions Collid, William L. , 1977. sgyxeasantRobrtion: A ~t.' of established patterns of land use in Smtra and Kalbtan is by Develo t and Change 8: 351-362 ; Collier, William L. , 1978. 'Nasalah inking shifting cultivators to return to farm some sites prematurely, pangan~enganggran,dan gerakan penghijauan di pedesaan Jawa" (Ed i.e. , before long emugh periods of fallow for the sites. The shifting Problems, Unemployment, and the Green Revolution in Rural Java) , Prism, cultivators are doing this in order to establish their c1ain-s to land Jakarta. Februarv. Vol. 7. No. 1. PP. 20-35; Driessen. P.M.. P. m. and compensation in areas horn to be planned for development for and penkdhy, 1976. "~he'~nflu&& of Shifting Cultivation on a 'Podzolic' transmigration. Soil from Central Kalimmtan," Peat g& Podzolic Soils and Their Potential in Indonesia, SToResea-itute, Bogomletin 3. All of these qlesof problems in transmigration projects illustrate PP . messen, P.M., and Ismagun, 1972. "Pyrite-containing Sedi- the dangers of developing programs for particular groups without taking &ts of Southern Kalimantan, Indonesia," Procee s. Acid Sulphate Soils into account the larger system within which those groups will have to S osim. Wageningen, pp. 345-358; FA0 (F&i=e Orgamm- operate (cf. Wade 1976 on "target group" thinking) . The problems thus htedNations), 1976. Land and Water Resources Devel generated, like other problems arising from specific interactions in Southeast S-tra Indonesia. Plan of ~xet, AG;D&8: particular places, are apt subjects for investigation. Technical -5, Rcne; G~ass~zdDmid Thurston, 1978. 4 "Traditional and Modern Crop Protection in Perspective," BioScience 28: At present, there is, unfortunately, a deficiency of personnel trained 109-115; Hanson, &thuc J., and Koesoebiono, 1977. Settlin Coastal to conduct the needed research in the three broad categories of subject Swaniplyds in Slwtra: A Case Study for Inte ated Resourcegkma ement, matter which I have indicated. I want to close therefore by expressing Center or Na~ms6kceManage~~&-bl Stuhr the hope that universities in Indonesia and in other developing Agricultural University, Bogor; Hardjono, J.M., 1977. Transmi ation in countries will develop humm ecology or rural ecology curricula for the Indonesia, Kuala Lmpur, Oxford University Press; KarWLa.%W< training of professionals competent to conduct research on the inter- Andrew P. Vavda. and R. Sambas Wirakummh, 1977. "East Kalimmtan and action of rural people with their envirmts and to evaluate economic the Man and biosphere Rogram," Berita Ih%dw T*;?:: dwelopmt programs and research activities with respect to their Jakarta, 21 (2) :16-27 (reprintedmmeo Researc Bu =,V0 likely effects on rural ecosystems and their effectiveness in reaching No. 1. April 1978; Kingston. D.J.. D. Kosas'ih, and ~rkdi,1978. and benefiting .a broad spectrum of people. 3 The use bf the Mlsco bk-far -f Alabio hrck in & I" s adi-tre or 7 Researcm Devemnt, -Notes 1. The original, shorter version of this paper was entitled ''Human Ecology and Hmm Settlewnts in Kalimantan and Sumtra: Patterns and Problem" and was presented at the East Kalimantan Man and Biosphere Program Workshop on 24 March 1978 in Samarinda, Indonesia. The original version is being published (as part of the Workshop Proceedings) by Lembaga IhPengetahuan Indonesia (the Indonesian Institute of Sciences) in Jakarta.

2. I visited Swtra in 1975 in connection with the Indonesian Man and Biosphere (MAB) program and again iL 1977 in connection with a settlement-in the Asiatic ~rbpics:Studies in Land Utilization@ icultural Colonization Southeastern Asia. New York: American land form and meteorological programw was directed by Dr. Marjorie %Geographi Society; Pelzer, Karl J., 1978.Swidden Cultivation in Sweeting of Oxford University. With three assistants and eleven Southeast Asia: Historical, Ecological, and Economic Perspectives ," collaborators, her team established a mmber of experhats to test Emsin the Forest: EcOMRic he1 t and Mar inal iculture in the gmrphology, hydrology, and slope stability in the very inter- LbrthernThaiTannter Xma ta-@b?i?i;hiT esting limestone formtions around Q.mong muand Ckmmg Api. eds.. Hm-versitv Press of Hawaii. DD. 271-286: Rasvld. M. Yunus. To counter-balance the work done on the surface, the speleblogical team, directed by Dr. A.C. Waltham of Trent Polytechnic, sus-veyed and mapped saw 50 kilomtres of unexplored caves, discovering caverns ~ndonehia,centre for Animalubsearch &d Dev&lopmt,I3ogor, Repor- and a cave passage which, in international opinion, are regarded as D.W.. Anam Usman. Eddy Dartoio. and E.R. Chavez. 1977. The ,possibly the largest so far discovered anywhere in the wrld. of aabio bcks & south Kal&tan lands, centre for -MSG- ~0~6gor,Report- oeratman, bsri Singa- A soil survey jointly directed by Lim Chin Pang, Chief Soil Surveyor, rjmbun, and Patrick Guirmess. 1977. The Social and Econcsnic Conditions SardDepartmnt of Agriculture, Kuching, was carried out with a of Transmi ants in South Kalimantan and ~S~wes~,Po ation Insti- team of collaborators from the Departments of Agriculture and Forestry. tut&%iity, Yogy .ta,-+ sag. No. 9 ; On the biological front, a vegetation survey already begun by the Forestry Department of Sarawak was qleted by Dr. J.A. R. Anderson. formerly Assistant Conservator of Forests, Sarawak, and now a forestry consultant in Singapore. M. Paul Chai, Forest Botanist in Kuching, was directly concerned with this aspect of the Espedition while at the same tim acting as General Scientific Liaison Officer. Throughout Ecology and Fisheries of Some Inland Waters al the Rivers 9 zd- the Expedition, 20 botanists have collected flowering plants, ferns, Kaner' in South-Ea~t~~a~r~mo tEIWF1s erG bryophytes, fungi and lichens, the top set to be lodged in the Forest Resm2 &tiom, No. mr;Vayda, Andrew P., and Banie J. McCay. Herbarium, Kuching, and other sets in the Aarhus, British Museum, 1977. "Problems in the Identification of Envirmtal Problans . " Subsis- Copenhagen, Edinburgh, Kew and Leiden as appropriate. --tence and Survival: ma1 Ecology_ in the Pacific, T.P. Bayliss-&it- R.G.A. Feachem.. eds.. Landon: AcadfZiZTr-. 411-418; Wade. Robert, A fadstic survey was also carried out under the general direction of 1976. "How No? to Redistribute with growth:.^; Case of India's Cannand the Ehrl of Cranbrmk who, as Lord Meclway, was a former lecturer at the University of Malaya, Kuala Lmipur, and an authority in ummls of Borneo. Here, 33 specialists in varying groups from spiders to insects to birds and 1n3rnna1s have added to the knowledge of what is living in the Park. Already over 240 species of any have been identified, sm 600 species of spiders, and as marry as 5,000 beetles have been esti- mated for the entire Park. Just over 60 mmmls and 264 birds have Royal Ceosphi~+7~2 been recorded. Symposium on Gunong I u Nationa Par Sarawak Ecological wrk was orientated around a sstudy of the nutrient balance

I" A. Clive Jenny in three major forest formations: alluvial, hill dipterncarp, and Department of Botany kerangas forests. Dr. John Proctor of Stirling University directed British Museum (Natural History) this programne and with the collaboration of eight scientists, two of whom were, with Proctor, in mufor over 12 mth. On 12 - 14 Septder, 1979, in London, the Society will hold a Symposiun to discuss the results of their five nrmth expedition to study, at the The Symposium aims to discuss the results of these programns and will irnritation of the Sarawak Government, the tm hundred square miles of this show how such baseline inforuntion can be used for the innx=diate and newest and largely unexplored National Park in Saraw&. For 15 months, mst tangible aim of the Expedition, namely to draw up a Mana&znt from June. 1977 to Septanbes, 1978, 115 scientists fmm swen countries Plan for the Park. This aspect of the mrk was funded by World Wildlife participated in what amxrnted to 10,000 my-days of scientFfic survey Fund both locally in Malaysia and at international level. It is intended and recording. that the papers given at the Symposium together with other baseline data will be published by the Sarawak Museun in a special volw as Hand-Book The research carried out fell under the seading of five prugrms. The -to Gunong KCLu National Park. In this way, we hope the results of the -edition are presented for others to build upon. kom the many RITA M4NWJNG is in Edhbwgh, at the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, nansparencies taken, a filmstrip will be prepared for use in Malaysia where she will be -king for mst of this year on vegetative propa- and other Southeast Asian schools. gation of tropical trees with Dr. K. Lmgmn. The overall scientific progrm has been coordinated by A. C. Jermy, Following the death of his father, LCI(D IEtWAY has succeeded to the Botany Department, British M~eum(Natural History), Crolnwell Road, title of (5th) Earl of Cranbrcok and in future wishes to be lrnom Londan SW7 5BD, England, from whom further particulars concerning the by this name. His hame address and his interest in all things Symposiwn, mterial collected, and forthcoming publications my be Bornean remin unchanged. obtained . BOOK REVIEWS, ABSTRACTS

& BIBLIOGRAPHY BORNEO NEWS G. N. dppell. Ethical Dilemmas in Anthropological Izuiry: A Case Regional News ~mk.Waltham. Massachusetts 02154. U.S.A.. Crossroa Press. Tnose interested in joining the NEWATION& SOCIETY OF TROPICAL ECOLOGi should contact Professor William Hoe, Deparmt of Botany, University of Hawaii, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96822, U.S.A. This book consists of 90 cases contributed by anthropologists and Annual subscription is U. S. $10.50 for those from developed countries, sociologists to serve as the basis of organizing case discussion and-~ U.S. $5.50 for others. and this ~rovidesa subscri~tionto the sessions of ethical issues in social inquiry. The case mterials journal TI& ical Ecologl~,'which has ;ecently been reorganized and are organized into sections based on the mjor social relationships wt *te. involved: Relations and Responsibilities to Host cmmmity; Rela- tions and Responsibilities to Respondents and Infortmnts; Relations The first issue of SEAS NEWS, the newsletter of the Centre of South- with Host Govenmmt; Relations with Representatives of (Xltside East Asian Studies, Schl of Oriental and African Studies, University Agencies and the Public with Respect to the Host Ckmmmity (including of London (&let Street, Lanb WlE 7HP), is issued this October. missionaries) ; Relations with Other Social Scientists and Responsibi- It will be produced once a term in the future, and copies may be lities to the Profession; Elarmas in the Use and Mirmse of Social obtained fromrthe Centre Secretary. Sciace -ledge; Publication: Responsibilities and Liabilities; Relations and Responsibilities to lbnding Agencies; and Issues in --Sarawak News Teaching. IAN EMLLE/has successfully gained his Ph.D. with a thesis entitled introduction "Studies of soil-forest relationships in the Dipterocq forests of Each section includes an to the cases, references to Sarawak." This work, which was ccmpleted as Research Scheme R3018 relevant literature, and a list of related case materials from othex sections. The Introduction to the book includes a discussion of the of the Ministry of Overseas Developnaent, was based on field mrk ethical undertaken in 1963-66 by Peter Ashton and in 1969-72 by Baillie and value of the case nethod in developing skills in decision U.N.D.P. survey team under the auspices of the Forest Department, making and provides instructions on how to use the case method. The Sarawak. Mr., Baillie now works at the Polytechnic of North Indon. appendices include references to longer case materials, a biblio- *" graphic discussion of the major ethical issues inherent in social RICK FLDLER is back in WeIsland after participating in an inter- inquiry, and a cross-referencing of cases to that the ins-tor can national, interdisciplinary institute on cross-cul~al/dti-cultural select cases illustrating these issues. research at the East-West Center in Honolulu. During a three-nmth field survey on the Big Island of Hawaii, following the institute, Individual cases or series of cases are available separately. Fidlre collected data for the drafting of future proposals to study the adaptive organization of ethnicity in ~WJ dti-ethnic mmmities. Hawi in North Kohala and Naalehu in Windward K'au. HElwaii and Borneo Adisowarto, S. , 1977, "wanding Horizon of Entomology: ~nddnesian Malaysian share similar causal factors in the historical develop- Insects as Non-conventional Source of Food." In P ers Presented mt of their dti-ethnic societies; thus, the fomprovides a social Co laboratory to continue these studies when research in the latter is not --atIndoms~Institute~enc~ecial the 13th Pacific Science ess, pp. Publication.23-28. *ta : currently viable. - Asian Pers ectives 2011, "In Mem,ry of Tom Harrisson," 1979, Ibnolulu, -btyPress of Hawaii. and so forth. Research Notes differ from other contributions in that the mterial carered should be based on original research or the use of judgment, qerience and personal knowledge on the part of the Guirmess, ~atricE;ed. 1977. Transmi ants in Kalimantan author in the preparation of the rnaterial so that an original conclu- --and south Sdamsi: ~nter-&-t Sponswed t~c- sion is reached. ta. -tion in Indonesia. Report=~ No. 15. Togy In - nesla, Population Institute, Gadjah Ma& Ihuversity. Brief flmmmications: These differ from the foregoing in that no __Iorlglnal conclusions are drawn nor any data included based on original King, Victor T. Essa s on Borneo Societies. Hull Monographs on South-East Oxford University Press. research. They also differ in consisting primarily of a statement of Meyer, Paul A. and Colin MacAndrews, 1978. Transmi ation in research intentions or a sumnary of news, either derived from private Indonesia: Annotated Bibliography. -ak2L, Wnesia. sources or mizedfrom it- appearing in other places that may Gadjah Mada Wversity Press. not be readily accessible to the readers of the Bulletin but which have an interest and relevance for them. Tney will be included with THE BORNEO FWEARCH COUNCIL (contd. from p. 2) the contributor's name in parentheses following the itan to indicate ---- the source. Swnnaries of news longer than one or bm paragraphs will others to keep abreast of ongoing research and its results; (3) to appear with the contributor's narrr! under the title and prefaced by serve as a vehicle for drawing attention to urgent research problem; "kmll. (4) to coordinate the £low of information on Borneo research arising fran many diverse sources; (5) to disseminate rapidly the initial Biblio hic Section: A Bibliography of recent publications will results of research activity; and (6) to facilitate research by &-iE%Fof the W111etin. and, consequently, reprints reporting on ment conditions. 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