Acta Oecologica Carpatica VII

THE CONGLOMERATE HILLS OF TĂLMACIU-PODU OLT (TRANSYLVANIA, ROMANIA), A REMARKABLE HABITAT COMPLEX OF BIOGEOGRAPHICAL IMPORTANCE

Erika SCHNEIDER-BINDER 1

KEYWORDS: xerothermic conditions, xero- and thermophilous species, relicts, biogeographical interest, rare species and habitat types.

ABSTRACT The conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu- present. Some of the rare species are Podu Olt demonstrate, as a result of their highlighted and discussed in more detail. geomorphological structure and their The characteristic habitat types of the geographical position on the Southern edge conglomerate hills are presented as well and of the Transylvanian Tableland in the discussed from the point of view of ecology contact area with the Southern Carpathians, and nature conservation. Considering the a mosaic of various xerothermic habitats high level of biodiversity present in a with many species of biogeographical relatively small area and its biogeographical relevance. Apart from the European floral relevance, it is proposed that these elements, a remarkable number of Pontic, conglomerate hills be included as a new Site Pontic-Mediteranean, Pontic-Pannonian, of Community Interest in the Natura 2000 Balkan and Submediterranean elements, as network. well as endemic species of the area, are

REZUMAT: Conglomeratele de la Tălmaciu-Podu Olt (Transilvania, România), un remarcabil complex de habitate de importanţă biogeografică. Dealurile de conglomerate de la specii endemice. Câteva dintre speciile rare Tălmaciu-Podu Olt prezintă, datorită sunt scoase în evidenţă şi discutate mai în stucturii geomorfologice şi a poziţiei lor detaliu. Prezentate sunt şi tipurile de habitat geografice la marginea sudică a Podişului caracteristice, fiind discutate din punct de Transilvaniei în zona de contact cu Carpaţii vedere ecologic şi al importanţei lor din Meridionali, un mozaic de diferite habitate punct de vedere al conservării mediului. xeroterme, cu numeroase specii de relevanţă Luându-se în considerare biodiversitatea fitogeografică. Pe lângă grupul elementelor ridicată şi relevanţa biogeografică a zonei, floristice europene în aria conglomeratelor aceasta este propusă pentru a fi inclusă ca un este prezent un număr mare de specii nou sit de importanţă comunitară în reţeaua pontice, pontic-mediterane, pontic-panonice, Natura 2000. specii balcanice, submediterane, precum şi

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Die Konglomerate von Talmesch-Podu Olt (Transilvanien, Rumänien) ein bemerkenswerter Komplex an Lebensräumen von biogeographischer Bedeutung. Die Konglomerate von balkanischen, submediterranen und der Tălmaciu/Talmesch-Podu Olt weisen endemischen Arten hervorzuheben. Einige bedingt durch ihre geomorphologische der seltenen Arten werden ausführlicher Struktur und ihre Lage am südlichen Rand dargestellt. Die charakteristischen des Siebenbürgischen Hochlandes im Habitattypen werden vorgestellt und aus Kontaktgebiet zu den Südkarpaten ein ökologischer und naturschutzfachlicher Mosaik an xerothermen Lebensräumen mit Sicht besprochen. Unter Berücksichtigung einer Vielfalt von Arten von seiner hohen Biodiversität auf relativ biogeographischer Relevanz auf. Neben den kleinem Raum und seiner europäischen Arten ist vor allem die biogeographischen Relevanz wird das Vielzahl der pontischen, pontisch- Gebiet zur Aufnahme in das Natura 2000- mediterranen, pontisch-pannonischen, Netzwerk vorgeschlagen.

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INTRODUCTION The conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu station of Podu Olt (Sibiu County) and and Podu Olt (Sibiu County) located in the upstream a few hundred metres from the confluence area of the rivers Sadu, Cibin station along the Olt River, the Cetate Hill and Olt near to the break-out valley of the (“Landskrone”) of Tălmaciu on the right site Olt through the Southern Carpathians, are of of the Sadu and Cibin rivers, and near to Tortonian age (Curtean-Bănăduc, 2005). Măgura Boiţei (“Wartberg”) situated at the The conglomerate forms a layer of a few mouth of the Cibin into the Olt. They hundred metres thickness, opened and present mostly steep slopes of Western, formed by river erosion (Alexandrescu and Southern and South-Eastern aspect and are Şoigan, 1962). They are exposed in the form famous for their xerothermic habitats and of three parts which are: the conglomerate numerous xero- and thermophilous species hills on the left river bank of the Cibin River (Fig. 1). between the locality Tălmaciu, the railway

Figure 1: Conglomerate hills near Podu Olt railway station.

The hills with the largest extent on schist, quartzite, chlorite schist, amphibolits, the left side of the Cibin River form the ocular gneiss and pegmatites, and from extreme Southern part of the Transylvanian sedimentary rocks such as limestones similar Tableland which separates like a ridge the to those of the Mesozoic era, organogenic Cibin Depression from the Olt Depression, limestone, nummulitic limestone, grey the so-called “Ţara Oltului/Olt Land”. The micaceous sandstones and grey-blackish Tortonian deposits enter in the Northern part marl. The cement is marly, calcareous and under Bentonitic shale/clay, Dacitic tuff and sandy and is varying in the vertical and sandy clay layers, which in their turn are horizontal direction (Alexandrescu and covered by layers of Sarmatian age. The Şoigan, 1962). This diverse geological structure of the polygenic conglomerates composition is responsible for the formation between Tălmaciu, Podu Olt and Boiţa is of different geomorphological structures given by component elements of different such as very steep slopes, shelves, rock size from a few centimetres to about one m prominences and channels as well as diameter and a diverse petrographical particular soil conditions, most of them – in composition originating from crystalline the stony open area – skeletal soils.

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Due to these exceptional plan the idea of “an exact and geomorphological and soil conditions comprehensive study” of the conglomerate creating varied microhabitats, this relatively hills near Tălmaciu/Talmesch. Following small area with steep slopes, in particular this plan, Phleps and Henrich (1894) those of Southern aspect, has been colonised published the results of their geological and probably in interglacial ages and the botanical studies in the area. The geological postglacial warm age by different species of studies resulted in a geological map, but the Southern, i.e. Mediterranean, Sub- botanical studies remained at the level of a Mediterranean or Balcanic, origin in plant list. From that time no researches have competition with species of Pontic origin been undertaken in the area until the last from continental steppes. The interlocking decades of the 20th century, when the area point of species with different origins came more in the scientific interest from the presents great interest from the ecological and phytocoenological point of phytohistorical, ecological, biocoenological view (Schneider-Binder, 1970, 1975, 1994; and biogeographical point of view. Drăgulescu, 2010 unpublished data), as well This is why from the end of 18th and as for complex biocoenological studies the beginning of the 19th century onwards including vegetation and macroinvertebrates the area has been visited by botanists and (Weiß, 1980; Ceuca et al., 1983; Schneider zoologists from Sibiu/Hermannstadt. First unpublished field data and data included in data about the area are included in the plant the entomological collection of the Museum collection of Joseph V. Lerchenfeld from the of Natural Sciences at Sibiu/Hermannstadt). end of the 18th and beginning of 19th These complex studies have been conducted century that exists at the Museum of Natural with the aim to realise a data base for the Sciences in Sibiu. Also from the area and to show its high biodiversity conglomerates (“Nagelflue”) plants are intended as the basis for a proposal as a mentioned by Peter Sigerus in his protected site. Unfortunately the designation manuscript “Verzeichnis meiner Pflanzen of a protected area was not realised. gesammelt seit 1789” (Index of my plants For the conglomerate hills one of the collected from 1789 ongoing). Further most interesting questions from the information about the flora of the area is phytogeographical as well from the included in the botanical works of Fuss zoogeographical point of view is, from (1866) and Schur (1866). which time we can consider the species of In its “Plan for research of different geographical origin being in the Hermannstadt County”/“Plan zur area, and which are the ways these species Durchforschung des Hermannstädter spread into this area. To these questions Stuhles”, Reissenberger (1874) recognising scientists have tried to find answers, but the importance of the area, included in his there still exist many unclear questions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS During recent field researches and elements included in the alphabetical using my own field data from earlier checklist of the species from the researches, a list of taxa identified in the conglomerate hills is used according to the area of the conglomerate hills has been European standards presented in different compiled (Annexe I). As basis for a floristic works (Oberdorfer, 2001; Oprea, phytogeographical analysis for each species 2005; Ciocârlan, 2009; Sârbu et al., 2013). included in the list the flora element is The flora elements have been categorised derived according to Ciocârlan (2009), and represented in a graphical form, Sârbu et al. (2013), but also for comparison showing the different groups and the and clarification of details from Oberdorfer proportion of each to the other (Fig. 2). (2001), Ellenberg et al. (2001) and Sanda et Some species of particular biogeographical al. (1983). The abbreviations for the flora interest have been analysed and discussed in

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more detail. The flora of the whole types according to those listed in the EU conglomerate hills area is recorded in the Habitats Directive and the Manual of Annexe as an alphabetical checklist, with European Union habitats (EUR 27, 2007; indication of the flora element, the life form EUR 28, 2013). The Natura 2000 − related and the family name for each species. publications including habitat types of The phytocoenological data from my Romania also have been taken into account own unpublished field sampling and (Doniţă et al., 2005; Schneider and publications about the area were analysed Drăgulescu, 2005; Gafta and Montford, and the associations related to the habitat 2008).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The flora elements analysis. The The Central-European flora elements flora of the conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu group include as main part the Central- and Podu Olt presents a manifold European flora element (Ec) and also the spectrum of species of different Central-European-South-European (Ec-Eur- geographical distribution and origin. The South), Central-European-Submediterranean analysis shows a predominance of species (Ec-Submed) and Central-European- belonging to the Euro-Asian flora element Mediterranean (Ec-Med) flora elements group (179), followed by species of (Fig. 2). European (79) and Central-European (80) From the Euro-Asian flora elements flora element. Due to the climate conditions group prevailing are the Euro-Asian on the edge of the transition from elements (Eua), followed by Euro-Asian- the Central-European-Eastern Carpathian Continental (Eua-Ct) flora elements and Province to the Balcano-Moesian Province some Euro-Asiatic-Sub-Mediterranean (Eua- (Borza and Boşcaiu, 1965), as well the Subm), Euro-Asian-Mediterranean (Eua- special edaphic-microclimatic conditions Med) and Euro-Asian-Subatlantic (Eua- on the steep slopes of the conglomerate Subatl-Subm) flora elements (Fig. 2). The hills, a remarkable number of thermophilous Circumpolar species (Cp) are also and xero-thermophilous species of represented following as species number the Mediterranean, Sub-mediterranean and European, Central-European and Euro-Asian Balcanic origin and also species from the elements. Pontic flora elements group, are well The particularity of the area is given represented in the area. The concentration by flora element groups represented with a of thermophilous elements of Southern lower number of species, but very and Eastern European origin has been characteristic and important from the highlighted earlier also for the bordering biogeographical point of view. These are the hills of the Cibin Depression, the Pontic, the Balcanic, the Dacic-Balcanic conglomerate hills being also included in (Dac-Balc) and the Carpathian endemic this area and situated on the Southern flora elements group. In the Pontic group are edge of the Transylvanian Tableland and included the Pontic (P), Pontic- the Cibin Depression (Schneider-Binder, Mediterranean (P-Med), Pontic- 1974, 1979). Mediterranean-Central-European (P-Med- In the European flora elements group Ec), Pontic-Central-European (P-Ec), are included the European (Eur), European – Pontic-Balcanic (P-Balc), Pontic-Pannonian Continental elements (Eur-Ct), European – (P-Pan) and the Pontic-Pannonian-Balcanic Submediterranean (Eur-Submed), European- (P-Pan-Balc) flora element. Also have to be Eastern-Mediterranaen flora elements (Eur- mentioned the Balkan flora elements group East-Med), European South-Eastern (Eur-S- including Balcanic (Balc), Balcanic- East) and European-Continental-Sub- Pannonian (Balc-Pan) and Pannonic- Mediterranean (Eur-Ct-S-Med) flora Balcanic (Pan-Balc) flora elements (see elements (Fig. 2). Annexe, checklist of species).

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200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Ec Cp Eur Eua Atl Dac End Adv Medit Pont Balc Cosm Submedit Carp-Balc Cp Eur Eur-Ct Eur-Ct-Submed Eu-Submed Eur-East-Med Eu- S- Eas t Ec Ec-Eu-South Ec-Submed Ec-Medit Eua Eua-Ct Eua-Submed Eua-subatl -submed Eua-Medit Atl-Medit A tl- Eur Atl-Ec-Medit Submedit Medit Medit-Eua Pont Pont-Medit Pont- Ec Pont-Ec-Medit Pont-Medit-Ec Pont-Pan Pont-Pan-Balc Pont-Balc Balc Balc-Pan Pan-Balc Dac Dac-Balc Apen-Balc-Dac Carp-Balc Carp-Balc-Cauc. Alp-Carp-Balc Carp-Balc-Pont Carp. Endem Cos m Adv

Figure 2: Flora elements of the Conglomerate hills area.

The Dacic endemic element, the together with the above mentioned flora Dacic-Balcanic flora element and the elements represented as number of species Carpathian endemic flora element contribute on a smaller scale, but partly with a as well to the particularity of the flora on relatively high abundance, the special this crossing point of various macro- and characteristics of the flora of the microclimatic influences, which constitutes conglomerate hills near Tălmaciu and Podu the base for the high biodiversity of the Olt (Tab. 1, Fig. 2). conglomerate hills. These last are giving,

Table 1: Flora elements giving the special character of the conglomerate hills. P-Pan- Pontic P P-Med P-Ec P-Ec-Med P-Med-Eu P-Pan P-Balc Balc 1 8 1 1 1 4 8 3 Carp- Apen- Carp- Carp- Balc Balc-Pan Pan-Balc Carp-Balc Balc- Balc-Carp Balc-P Balc-Cauc Anat-Cauc 1 3 1 1 4 1 3 1 Alpin- Subend- Carp End Dac Dac-Balc Carp-Balc Carp 1 8 1 3 1 Central Ec-South- Eua- Eu- Eua- Med Atl-Med Submedit Eu- East Submed/ Submed Continent Submed Eu Eua-Med 7/ 1 2 5 24 5 8 42 2

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The distribution area of many and emerged probably after the time of southern xero- and thermophilous species once-existing connections between shows in the Southern part of Transylvania a Carpathians, Anatolian and Caucasus concentration around the valley of the Olt Mountains. River crossing the Carpathians and suggests In the study area the species a migration, i.e. a geographical expansion, identifies, together with other thermophilous of the species from South to North through species such as Sesleria heufleriana, Melittis the Olt break. The Olt Valley as a possible melissophyllum, Galium kitaibelianum, the migration way has been documented by herbaceous layer of phytocoenoses of the Ciurchea (1968) with detailed distribution association Galio kitaibeliani-Fagetum studies of some species. Later the problem Sanda et al. 1970 (Sanda et al., 1970), was also considered for the area with flora included sometime in the assocation and vegetation studies in Southern Carpino-Fagetum Paucă 1941. Transylvania by Schneider-Binder (1970, The name-giving species of the 1971, 1979 and later observations). A above association, Galium kitaibelianum typical example of distribution around the Schultes, a Carpathian-Balcanic flora Olt break valley is represented by species element (Sârbu et al., 2013), is a relatively such as the Southern Carpathian endemic rare Carpathian-Balcanic species (Oprea, Galium bailloni Brândză, the Carpathian- 2005) occurring in beech forests of Southern Balcanic Galium kitaibelianum Schultes, the Carpathians, but it is mentioned also from Atlantic-Submediterranean Dioscorea isolated localities in the Eastern Carpathians communis (L.) Caddick and Wilkin (= area, the most Northern site being Bârgău, Tamus communis L.), the sub-Mediterranean followed by the Hăşmaş Mountains (Oprea, Manna or flowering ash Fraxinus ornus L., 2005; Nechita, 2003). The species is also and the Balcanic-Pannonian Silver lime mentioned from the arc of the Carpathians in Tilia tomentosa Moench and others. the Siriu Mountains (Dihoru, 1975) and Galium bailloni Brândză, Galium Bârsei Mountains at Piatra Mare valantioides M. B. var. bailloni (Brândză, (Buiculescu, 1971). The species is Paucă and Nyárády), found on Piatra concentrated around the valleys crossing the Chiorului in the area of conglomerate hills Carpathians, in particular the Olt Valley. For near to Podu Olt (Schneider-Binder, 1971), many thermophilous Carpathian-Balcanic its unique locality in Transylvania, is a rare and Submediterranean species – both plants endemic species of the Southern Carpathians and animals – it constitutes an expansion (Ciocârlan, 2009; Sârbu et at., 2013), being route to the Transylvanian basin (Ciurchea, distributed around the Olt break valley and 1968). Galium kitaibelianum occurs around west of the Olt River in some points on the the Olt break-out valley (Pasul Turnu Roşu) foot of the Mehedinţi Mountains (Schneider- in the Southern part of the Sibiu Depression, Binder, 1971). The occurrence on the and the surrounding mountains of Sadu conglomerate hills is the most northern in its Valley and tributaries, for example in the distribution area, and the only locality in the Tălmăcel Valley, a right tributary of the inner Carpathian basin from where the Sadu River (Drăgulescu, 2010; Schneider- species has been mentioned. It is closely Binder, unpublished field data from 2010). related to Galium valantioides M. B., an Another remarkable plant species in endemic species of the Caucasus Mountains the studied area from the phytogeographical (Pobedimova, 1958). The fact that Galium point of view is Genista januensis Viv. var. bailloni Brândză is a generic diploid taxon spathulata (Spach) Ciocârlan (considered (analysed by Krendl in 1970), indicates its before as an independent species Genista high stability. The two species Galium spathulata Spach), an Apenninic-Balcanic- valantioides of Caucasus and Galium Dacic flora element, the variant Genista bailloni from the Carpathians represent spathulata being an Carpathian-Balcanic disjunct vicariant species, which separated element (Fig. 3). Genista januensis var.

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spathulata is distributed as well around Transylvanian area the North-Eastern border the Olt Valley break-out growing on a of its distribution area. On the conglomerate stony, open, dry area, the Southern part of hills it occurs on the open cliff Cibin Depression and the Făgăraş phytocoenoses together with Teucrium Depression (Schneider-Binder, 1979). As montanum, Thymus comosus, but also in the well the species reaches in its distribution Feathergrass (Stipa pulcherrima) and the area the South-Eastern part of the Apuseni Sesleria heuffleriana communities Mountains (Oprea, 2005). (Schneider-Binder, 1970, 1994). In the Genista januensis is a characteristic neighbouring sites north from the plant species for Dinaric dolomite Scots pine conglomerate hills on stony open area near forests (Genisto januensis-Pinetum), habitat Mohu the species denotes characteristic type 91R0 of the Natura 2000 network phytocoenoses included in the association (EUR 28, 2013) in the Illyrian beech forest Genisto spathulatae-Agrostietum coarctatae zone. The variety – formerly Genista Schneider-Binder, 1975 (Schneider-Binder, spathulata Spach – reaches in Southern 1975).

Figure 3: Genista januensis Viv. var. spathulata (Spach) Ciocârlan (photo Schneider Eckbert).

The habitat on rendzina soils of thermophilous species Onosma heterophylla the conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu and Griseb. (= O. viride (Borb., Jáv.), a Balcanic Podu Olt has similarities with the described flora element, occurring in the area on Dinaric habitats, occurring in company steep slopes of the locality named “On with species such as Teucrium chamaedrys, the stone” (“La Piatra”/“Zum Stein”). This Carex humilis, Anthericum ramosum, rare species is characteristic of the Hepatica nobilis, Geranium sanguineum open phytocoenoses of the association and Epipactis atrorubens, which are Seseli gracilis-Festucetum pallentis (Soó mentioned also in the Dinaric open Scots 1959) Coldea, 1991 (Syn. Festucetum pine forest. pallentis transsilvanicum (Soó 1950; Worthy of mention from the Gergely 1957) (Schneider-Binder, 1970, biogeographical point of view is the xero- 1974).

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For Sesleria heuffleriana Schur the Anthericum ramosum, Dianthus giganteus, conglomerate hills constitutes the locus Peucedanum oreoselinum and P. cervaria, classicus, from where this species was first interlaced and in contact with shrub and tree described by Schur (1866). It is a Carpathian vegetation represented by thermophilous species with a predominantly peri-montane species such as Rhamnus tinctoria, Fraxinus distribution (Meusel et al., 1965; Schneider- ornus, Sorbus torminalis and Staphylea Binder, 1994), being strongly related to pinnata. Only at one locality (Crăpătura) Sesleria calcaria from the Alps and Tatra also occurs Steppe almond (Amygdalus mountains. Indeed, the species is considered nana), a Euro-Asiatic continental to be a vicariant of S. calcaria (Deyl, 1946; sylvosteppic bush. Different types of xero- Meusel et al., 1965). It identifies thermophilous rocky grasslands form larger phytocoenoses included in the association or smaller patches, the most representative Phleo montani-Seslerietum heufflerianae being the Feathergrass communities (Soó 1927) Coldea and Sârbu (2012), identified by Stipa pulcherrima. These can described for the conglomerate hills as be found at Podu Olt on the Piatra Chiorului Seslerietum heufflerianae austro- and as well on the steep slopes of Măgura transsilvanicum Borza 1959 and Stipo- Boiţei. Characteristic for the area are also Seslerietum heufflerianae Schneider-Binder the communities of Festuca pallens and 1994. those of Sesleria heuffleriana (Schneider- On the steep slopes of the Binder, 1994). conglomerate hills in Feathergrass The plant communities (Schneider- phytocoenoses (Stipetum pulcherrimae) Binder, 1970, 1976, 1994) existing in the occurs frequently Iris aphylla L. ssp. area belongs partly to habitat types included hungarica, a Euro-Asian-Continental flora in the Annex I (Schneider and Drăgulescu element listed on Annexe II of the EU 2005; Doniţă et al., 2005) of the EU Habitats Habitats Directive. Directive and are of community interest as The plant communities are disposed rare habitat types (EUR 27, 2007; Gafta and on the slopes along ecological gradients, Montford, 2008). On Eastern, North- being represented in Southern aspect by Western and South Western aspects, smaller thermophilous oak forests on the top of the stands of beech forests of the associations hills, and by tall herbaceous vegetation of Galio kitaibeliani-Fagetum and Carpino- Geranion sanguinei type on the edge of the Fagetum occur. forests in which occur frequently

Habitat types of community interest

40A0* Subcontinental peri- 1964 (Schneider-Binder 2009). On the other Pannonic scrub hand small relict patches of the Euro-Asian In the area this habitat type is continental Steppe Almond (Prunus represented by two scrub communities tenella/Amygdalus nana) were found on the which are of great phytogeographical border of the “Crăpătura”. They identify a interest and important for the European characteristic association Prunetum tenellae network of Natura 2000 habitats. These are Soó 1947 (syn.: Prunetum nanae Borza, on the one hand thermophilous scrubs (and 1931 Amygdaletum nanae Soó 1927 trees) of the Submediterranean Manna or 1959). Flowering Ash Ash (Fraxinus ornus), which Manna Ash bushes on the on the steep slopes of the conglomerate hills conglomerate hills constitute the between Tălmaciu and Podu Olt, on the characteristic habitat for the Mediterranean Piatra Chiorului and on the Măgura Boiţei Ash Cicada (Cicada orni Linné). The (Wartberg), identifies characteristic nymphs of the species are living on the phytoceonoses included in the association roots of the ash over several years Corno-Fraxinetum orni Pop and Hodişan, (observed, studied and monitored by

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Mr. Schneider Eckbert). On other species Seslerietum heufflerianae Borza 1959) bound to the dry sites with Manna ash of Popescu and Sanda (1992), Seslerietum the Măgura Boiţei is the Nightjar heufflerianae austro-transsilvanicum Borza (Caprimulgus europaeus L.). This bird 1959, Stipo-Seslerietum heufflerianae species is breeding on open, stony areas Schneider-Binder (1995) is distributed between the ash bushes and constitutes a on the Bătătura, Crăpătura and Piatra rare species for the area. Chiorului as wall as on the slopes of

6110* Rupicolous calcareous or Măgura Boiţei, where it is interlacing basophile grasslands of the Alysso-Sedion with coenoses of Stipa pulcherrimae on albi the one side and with the bushes of Corresponding to the habitat number Fraxinus ornus in the other side; R3503 of the Romanian habitats (Doniţă et Thymio comosi-Festucetum rupicolae al., 2005). (Csürös and Gergely 1959) Pop and Small patches of this habitat type Hodişan 1985 (Syn. Festucetum sulcatae occur in southern aspects on dry rendzinic calcicofilum Csürös 1959) occurs on soils with finer sized gravel on the so-called Piatra Chiorului and the coenoses of “Piatra” near Tălmaciu being represented by Feathergrass Stipetum pulcherrimae fragments of the phytocoenoses of the calcicolum Pop and Hodişan 1960 have association Saxifrago tridactylitis-Poëtum a large extension on Măgura Boiţei with compressae (Kreh 1951) Géhu and Leriq, the characteristic species Epipactis 1957 (syn.: Sclerantho-Poëtum compressae atrorubens (unpublished field data) and Borza, 1959). as well on Piatra Chiorului (Schneider- On the top of the hills of Piatra and Binder, 1970). The syntaxonomy of on Bătătura occurs also on dry stony area these phytocoenoses have to be clarified phytocoenoses of the alliance Thero-Airion as they differ from those included Oberd. 1957 represented by the association newly under the name of ass. Violo joói- Filagini-Vulpietum Obrd. 1938 (Tălmaciu, Stipetum eriocaulis (Pop and Hodişan, 1960) Coldea and Sârbu 2012. Bătătura) (Schneider, 1975).

6190 Rupicolous Pannonic 6210* Semi-natural dry grasslands grasslands (Stipio pulcherrimae- and scrubland facies on calcareous Festucetalia pallentis) substrates (Festuco-Brometea) (*important The habitat type is represented in orchid sites) the area by characteristic associations of This habitat type includes the natural steep dry xeric slopes with extreme and semi-natural dry grasslands on rendzina conditions of insolation. The phytocoenoses soils of the more or less steep slopes of of the included association Seseli gracilis- the area. Included are the associations Festucetum pallentis (Soó 1959) Coldea Thymo comosi-Caricetum humilis 1991 (Syn. Festucetum pallentis (Zólyomi 1931) Morariu and Danciu 1977 transsilvanicum Soó 1950) (Gergely, 1957) (Syn. Caricetum humilis transsilvanicum have their largest extent on the steep Zólyomi 1934) interlaced on Piatra slopes of the “Piatra” near to Tălmaciu Chiorului with the phytocoenoses of (Schneider-Binder, 1970, 1975). Melico- Feathergrass (Stipa pulcherrima) and those Phleetum montani Boşcaiu et al. 1966 was of Melico-Phleetum, Brachypodio pinnati- monitored with larger extend on the slopes Festucetum rupicolae Ghişa 1962 occuring of Piatra Chiorului near Podu-Olt near Tălmaciu on the Bătătura; Carici (Schneider-Binder, 1970, 1975 and 2010 humilis-Brachypodietum pinnati Soó unpublished data). The phytocoenoses of 1947. the association Phleo montani-Seslerietum heufflerianae (Soó 1927) Coldea and Sârbu, 2012 (Syn.: Helianthemo cani-

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8120 Calcareous and calcaschist 9130 Asperulo-Fagetum beech screes of the montane to alpine levels forests (Thlaspietea rotundifolii) The habitat type includes different The habitat type is represented in the beech forests which in the area are area only by phytocoenoses of the represented by the association Galio association Thymo comosi-Galietum albi kitaibeliani-Fagetum (Sanda et al., 1970) Sanda and Popescu 1999 (syn.: Thymetum and Carpino-Fagetum Paucă 1941 comosi Pop and Hodişan 1963, Galietum praemoesicum Vida 1963. Representative erecti Pop and Hodişan 1964, Teucrietum and characteristic for the area are the species Montana Scyros 1958) as pioneer vegetation Galium kitaibelianum and Galium bailonii. on open rendzinic soil. Thymus comosus is Transition stages can be observed also to the an endemic Carpathian species and occurs Dacian oak-hornbeam forests (habitat type on the low mountain level on stony and dry 91Y0) and the Moesian Silver lime woods area. On the conglomerate hills Thymus (habitat type 91Z0). comosus frequently forms stands identified 91V0 Dacian Beech forests only by Thymus comosus, or together with (Symphyto-Fagion) Teucrium montanum. Smaller stands of the area’s beech 8210 Calcareous rocky slopes with forests can be considered to be part of the chasmophytic vegetation Dacian beech forests which include the Small rocky crevices with calcareous association Pulmonario rubrae-Fagetum conglomerate components are the habitat of (Soó 1964) Täuber 1987 Symphyto cordati- typical plant communities well adapted to Fagetum Vida 1959 and Phyllitidi-Fagetum extreme conditions. The phytocoenoses of Vida (1959) 1963. Characteristic stands of these pioneer colonizers, which thanks to the these associations are present in the study steep slopes remain as a durable open area. community represents the associations 91Y0 Dacian oak-hornbeam Asplenio-Cystopteridetum fragilis Oberd. forests (1936) 1949 and Asplenietum trichomanis- The habitat of Sessile oak (Quercus rutae-murariae Kuhn 1937, Tüxen petraea) and Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) 1937/syn.: Tortulo-Asplenietum Tüxen 1937 is well represented in the area by (Schneider-Binder, 1976). phytocoenoses of the association Galio 8230 Siliceous rock with pioneer kitaibeliani-Carpinetum Coldea and vegetation of the Sedo-Scleranthion or of Pop, 1988, which includes in the tree the Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii layer, apart from Quercus petraea and The habitat type occurs in the Carpinus betulus, some thermophilous studied area by small patches on open, species such as Sorbus torminalis, Tilia dry, rounded conglomerate rocks, located tomentosa, in the shrub layer species such on the uppermost part of the slopes. as Rhamnus tinctoria, Staphylea pinnata, The communities with small degree of and in the herb layer at high frequency cover belong to the associations species such as Galium kitaibelianum, Polytricho piliferi-Scleranthetum perennis Melittis melisophyllum and Genista Moravec 1967 and Vulpio-Airetum ovata. Well represented in the area as well capillaris Paucă 1941 described also as is the liane-like thermophilous Dioscorea Filagini-Vulpietum Oberdorfer 1938 communis, an Atlantic-Submediterranean (Schneider-Binder, 1970). species at the North-Eastern edge of its distribution. Similar phytocoenoses

are mentioned from the Olt break valley (Ciurchea, 1966).

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CONCLUSIONS These studies demonstrate the The basic data for a documentation complexity of the habitat conditions and the to declare the conglomerate hills as a high biodiversity of species with different protected area i.e. a Natura 2000 site, have geographical origin and ecological been realised with the complex systematic requirements. The habitat types of and ecological above mentioned studies. The community interest represented in the area flora list including Red List species and as well are showing a high diversity, with species as well as important habitats listed in changes of habitat types in relatively small the Annexes of the EU Habitats Directive, area and overlapping of different habitat underlines the importance of the area. Due types in relation with soil conditions and to its geomorphological structures with very conglomerate composition materials as well steep slopes, a basic protection is partly the size of the stones included. The assured. But the protection of the whole area conglomerate area presents apart from the including the plateau and its forests, the European flora elements many Sub- slopes with the vegetation disposed along mediterranean, Pontic, Balcanic and ecological gradients from forests, through endemic elements which all together makes scrub to thermophilous fringes and open the area of great interest from the rocky steppe areas, as well as the foot of the biogeographical point of view. Some of the hills, where human intervention occurs, Southern species are well represented along needs more attention from the point of view the Olt Valley and reach their limit on the of nature conservation. More attention is Northern part of the Olt break-out valley in also required for the surrounding area which the area of the conglomerate hills of has to act as a buffer zone to safeguard the Tălmaciu and Podu Olt. Different studies on conglomerates area with its high the distribution of these species shows, that conservation value. the Olt Valley is an important point for species migration from south to North.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to Mr. Weiß I. and Mr. Schneider E. for joint field research interesting activities and also for many fruitful discussions concerning the biogeographical importance of this specific area.

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REFERENCES Alexandrescu G. and Şoigan P., 1962 – Ciurchea M., 1970 – Vegetaţia stâncăriilor Geological observations in the de pe Valea Călineşti (jud. Vâlcea), region Tălmaci-Sibiu, Dările de Contribuţii Botanice, Cluj, X, 145- seamă ale Comitetului Geologic 165. (in Romanian) XLVII 1959-1960, 233-238, Coldea G. (ed.), Oprea A., Sârbu I, Sîrbu C. Bucureşti. (in Romanian) and Ştefan N., 2012 – Les Bălăceanu V., 1971 – Conditions naturelles associations végétales de Roumanie, et sols de la Dépression de 2, Presa Universitară Clujeană, 482. Sibiu/Condiţiile naturale şi solurile (in French) Depresiunii Sibiului, Institutul Curtean-Bănăduc A., 2005 – Râul Cibin – Geologic, Studii Tehnice şi caracterizare ecologică, Edit. Economice, Seria C, Pedologie, 17, Universităţii “Lucian Blaga” din Studii Pedologice, VII, 17, 135-187, Sibiu, ISBN 973-739-195-0, 240. (in Bucureşti. (in Romanian) Romanian) Borza A. and Boşcaiu N., 1965 – Deyl M., 1934 – Study of the genus Sesleria, Introducere în studiul covorului Opera Botanica Cehica, 3. vegetal, Edit. Academiei Republica Dihoru G., 1975 – Învelişul vegetal din Socialistă România, Bucureşti, 340. Muntele Siriu, Edit. Academiei (in Romanian) Republicii Socialiste România, 216. Braun-Blanquet J., 1964 ‒ (in Romanian) Pflanzensoziologie, 3, Auflage, Doniţă N., Popescu A., Paucă-Comănescu Wien, 865. (in German) M., Mihăilescu S. and Biriş I.-A., Buiculescu I., 1971 – Taxoni noi din flora 2005 ‒ Habitatele din România, Edit. Masivului Piatra Mare, Studii şi Tehnică Silvică, Bucureşti, 496. (in Cercetări de Biologie, Seria Romanian) Botanică, 23, 6, 469-475. (in Drăgulescu C., 2010 ‒ Cormoflora judeţului Romanian) Sibiu, Edit. Universităţii „Lucian Ceuca T., Schneider E. A. and Weiss I., Blaga”, Sibiu, 831. (in Romanian) 1983 – Ökofaunistische Drăgulescu C., 1995 – Flora şi vegetaţia din Untersuchung der Diplopoden am bazinul Văii Sadului, Edit. Constant, Konglomerat von Podu Olt, Sibiu, 355. (in Romanian) Südsiebenbürgen, Muzeul Ellenberg H., Weber H. E., Düll R., Wirth Brukenthal, Studii şi Comunicări, V. and Werner W., 2001 – Indicator Științe Naturale, 25, 261-272, Sibiu. values of plants in Central Europe, (in German) Scripta Geobotanica, 18, 1-264, Ciocârlan V., 2009 – Flora ilustrată a Erich Goltze, Göttingen. (in German) României. Pteridophyta et European Commission DG Environment. Spermatophyta, Edit. Ceres, Nature and biodiversity, 2007 ‒ Bucureşti, 1141. (in Romanian) Interpretation Manual of European Ciurchea M., 1966 – Aspecte din vegetația Union Habitats EUR 27, 142. de pe valea Oltului între Gura Văii și European Commission DG Environment. Cornetu (R. Rîmnicu-Vîlcea), Nature ENU B. 3, 2013 ‒ Contribuții Botanice, II, 127-140. (in Interpretation Manual of European Romanian) Union Habitats EUR 28, 144. Ciurchea M., 1968 – Bemerkungen über die Fuss M., 1866 – Flora Transsilvaniae termophilen Elemente aus dem Olt- Excursoria, Cibinii, Sibiu, 864. Tal zwischen der Cozia und der Gafta D. and Montford O. (coord.), 2008 – Turnu-Roşu, Revue Roumaine de Manual de interpretare a habitatelor Biologie, Serie Botanique, 14, 3, Natura 2000 din România, Risoprint, 199-204. (in German) Cluj-Napoca, 101. (in Romanian)

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Meusel H., Jäger E. and Weinerth E., 1965 – Sanda V., Popescu A., Doltu M. I. and Vergleichende Chorologie der Doniţă N., 1983 – Ecological and zentraleuropäischen Flora, Fischer phytocoenological characterization Verlag Jena, 583. (in German) of the wild plants of the Romanian Nechita N., 2003 – Flora şi vegetaţia flora/Caracterizarea ecologică şi cormofitelor din masivul Hăşmaş, fitocenologică a speciilor spontane Cheile Bicazului şi Lacul Roşu, Edit. din flora României, Studii şi „Constantin Mătasa”, Piatra Neamţ, Comunicări, 25, supliment, Muzeul 383. (in Romanian) de Istorie Naturală Sibiu, 126. Oberdorfer E., 2001 – Pflanzensoziologische Sanda V., Popescu A., Serbănescu G, Doniţă Exkursionsflora für Deutschland und N. and Roman N., 1970 – die angrenzenden Gebiete, 8, Contribution à l’étude Auflage, Ulmer Stuttgart, 1051. (in phytocénologique des forêts de la German) plaine alluviale et des hêtraies du Oprea A, 2005 ‒ Lista critică a plantelor défilé de l’Olt, Revue Roumaine de vasculare din România, Edit. Biologie, Série Botanique, 15, 3, Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 159-172, Edit. De l’Académie Iaşi, 668. (in Romanian) Roumaine, Bucarest. (in French) Phleps O. and Henrich C., 1894 – Sârbu I., Ştefan N. and Oprea A., 2013 ‒ Durchforschung des Zibinsgebietes Plante vasculare din România, bei Talmesch nebst einem Determinator ilustrat de teren, Edit. Verzeichnis der dort gesammelten Victor, Bucureşti, 1320. (in Pflanzen, Verhandlungen und Romanian) Mitteilungen des siebenbürgischen Schneider-Binder E., 1970 – Zur Flora und Vereins für Naturwissenschaften zu Vegetation der Konglomerate von Hermannstadt, 43, 86-90. (in Tălmaci-Podul Olt, Aspecte din flora German) şi vegetaţia conglomeratelor de la Pobedimova E. G., 1958 – Rod Galium Tălmaci-Podul Olt (jud. Sibiu), L./The Genus Galium, Flora SSSR, Muzeul Brukenthal, Studii şi XXIII, Izdatelstvo Akademija Nauk Comunicări, Ştiinţe Naturale, 15, SSSR, Moskva-Leningrad, 287-381. 161-186, Sibiu. (in Romanian) (in Russian) Schneider-Binder E., 1971 – Zur Reissenberger L., 1874 – Plan zur Verbreitung von Galium valantioides Durchforschung des Hermannstädter M. B. var. bailloni (Brândză) Paucă Stuhles, Verhandlungen und et Nyár, Muzeul Brukenthal Sibiu, Mitteilungen des siebenbürgischen Studii şi Comunicări, Ştiinţe Vereins für Naturwissenschaften zu Naturale, 16, 113-122. (in Hermannstadt, 24, 10-14. (in Romanian) German) Schneider-Binder E., 1974 ‒ Flora și Sanda V., Öllerer K. and Burescu P., 2008 – vegetația Depresiunii Sibiului şi a Fitocenozele din România. dealurilor marginale, Teză de Sintaxonomie, structură, dinamică şi doctorat, Universitatea Babeş- evoluţie, Ars docendi, Universitatea Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, 513. (in Bucureşti, 570. (in Romanian) Romanian)

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Schneider-Binder E., 1975 ‒ Flora şi zur Flora, Vegetation und Fauna vegetaţia Depresiunii Sibiului şi a von Siebenbürgen hrsg. von H. dealurilor marginale, Rezumatul Heltmann and G. Wendelberger, tezei, Cluj, 25. (in Romanian) Böhlau Verlag Köln Wien, 107-131. Schneider-Binder E., 1976 – Caracterizarea (in German) generală a vegetaţiei depresiunii Schneider-Binder E., 2009 – The Flower Sibiului şi a dealurilor marginale, Ash (Fraxinus ornus) on hills of the Muzeul Brukenthal, Studii şi Southern part of Transylvanian Comunicări, Ştiințe Naturale, 20, 15- Tableland (Romania), Acta 45. (in Romanian) Oecologica Carpatica, „Lucian Schneider-Binder E., 1979 ‒ Analiza florei Blaga” University, Sibiu, II, 49-60. din depresiunea Sibiului şi dealurile Schur F., 1866 – Enumeratio plantarum marginale, Muzeul Brukenthal, Trassilvaniae, Vindobonae, 984. Studii şi Comunicări, Ştiințe Weiss I., 1980 – Ökofaunistische Naturale, 23, 99-119, Sibiu. (in Untersuchung der Spinnen und Romanian) Weberknechte am Konglomerat von Schneider-Binder E., 1994 – Die Blaugras- Podu Olt, Südsiebenbürgen, Muzeul Gesellschaften Hügelland Brukenthal, Studii şi Comunicări,

Naturwissenschaftliche, Forschungen Științe Naturale, 24, 369-412, Sibiu. über Siebenbürgen V: Beiträge (in German)

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AUTHOR:

1 Erika SCHNEIDER-BINDER

[email protected], [email protected]

KIT – University of Land Baden-Württemberg, National Research Centre of the Helmholtz Society, Institute for Geography and Geoecology, Division WWF-Institute for floodplains ecology, Josefstrasse 1, Rastatt, Germany, D-76437.

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Annex I Alphabetical checklist for the flora of the conglomerate hills based on own observations and research activities Acer campestre L., P, Eur, Aceraceae Aposeris foetida (L.) Less., H, Ec, Acer platanoides L., P, Eur, Aceraceae Asteraceae Achillea collina J. Becker, H, Eur-cont, Arctium tomentosum Miller, Ht, Euras, Asteraceae Asteraceae Achillea distans Willd., H, Alp-Carp-Balc, Arenaria serpyllifolia L., T, Circ, Asteraceae Caryophyllaceae Achillea millefolium L., H, Euras (Eua), Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. ex J. and Asteraceae Presl, H, Euras (Subatl-Smed, acc. to Acinos arvensis (Lam.) Dandy (Calamintha Oberdorfer, 2001), Poaceae acinos (L.) Clairv.), T-Ht, Eur, Lamiaceae Artemisia campestris L., Ch, Cont Euras, Actaea spicata L., G, Euras, Ranunculaceae Asteraceae Adoxa moschatellina L., G, Circ, Adoxaceae Artemisia vulgaris L., H, Circ, Asteraceae Aegopodium podagraria L., H (G), Euras, Asarum europaeum L., H, Euras, Apiaceae Aristolochiaceae Agrostis capillaris L. (Agrostis tenuis Asperula cynanchica L., H, Ec-Medit, Sibth.), H (G), Circ, Poaceae Rubiaceae Agrostis stolonifera L. ssp. stolonifera, H, Asperula tenella Heuffel ex Degen in A. Circ (Cp) Kerner, H, Pont-Balc, Rubiaceae A. vinealis Schreber (Agrostis coarctata Asplenium ruta-muraria L., H, Euras, Ehrh.), H, Euras, Poaceae Polypodiaceae Ajuga genevensis L., H, Euras, Lamiaceae Asplenium scolopendrium L. (Phyllitis Ajuga reptans L., H, Eur, Lamiaceae scolopendrium (L.) Newman), G, Circ, Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara and Polypodiaceae Grande (Alliaria officinalis Andrz.), Ht-H, Asplenium trichomanes L., H, Cosm, Euras, Brassicaceae Polypodiaceae Allium flavum L. ssp. flavum, G, Ec- Aster amellus L., H, Cont Eur, Asteraceae Submedit, Alliaceae Astragalus cicer L., H, Eua-Cont, Fabaceae Allium lusitanicum Lam. (Allium senescens Astragalus glycyphyllos L., H, Euras-Smed, L. ssp. montanum (Pohl) Holub; A. Fabaceae montanum Schmidt), G, Ec-Submedit Astragalus monspessulanus L., H, Pont- (mont), Alliaceae Med, Fabaceae Alyssum alyssoides L., T-Ht., Euras Cont Astragalus onobrychis L., H, Euras-Cont, (Eua-Ct), Brassicaceae Fabaceae Anchusa officinalis L., H (Ht), Cont- Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth, H, Cosm, (Eastmed); Podu Olt, Cetate, Boraginaceae Polypodiaceae Anemone nemorosa L., G, Circ, Ballota nigra L., H, Ec, Lamiaceae Ranunculaceae Betula pendula Roth (Betula verrucosa Anemone ranunculoides L., G, Eur, Ehrh.), Ph, Eua, Betulaceae Ranunculaceae Botriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng Anthemis tinctoria L., H, Euras-Cont-Smed (Andropogon ischaemum L., Dichanthium (Oberdorder, 2001), Asteraceae ischaemum (L.) Roberty), H, Euras Anthericum ramosum L., H, Ec (moderate (Submedit), Poaceae Cont-Smed), Liliaceae Brachypodium pinnatum (L.) Beauv., H, Anthoxanthum odoratum L., H, Euras, Euras (Cont), Poaceae Poaceae Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) Beauv., Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm., Ht-H, H, Euras, Poaceae Euras, Apiaceae Briza media L., H, Euras, Poaceae Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm. ssp. Bromus inermis Leysser, H, Cont-Euras, trichosperma (Schult.) Arcang., T, Pont- Poaceae Medit, Apiaceae Bromus hordeaceus L. (Bromus mollis L.), Anthyllis vulneraria L., H, Eur, Fabaceae T-Ht, Euras (Submedit), Poaceae

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Bromus sterilis L., T, Euras (Submedit), Carlina biebersteinii Bernh. ex Hornem., Ht, Poaceae Ec (Mont), Asteraceae Bruckenthalia spiculifolia (Salisb.) Carlina vulgaris L., Ht, Euras, Asteraceae Reichenb., Ph (Ch), Carp-Balc, Ericaceae Carpinus betulus L., Ph, Ec, Corylaceae Buglossoides purpurocaerulea (L.) I. M. Centaurea phrygia L. ssp. indurata (Janka) Johnston (Lithospermum purpurocaeruleum Stoj. and Acht. (Centaurea indurata Janka), L.), H-G, Ec-Submed, Boraginaceae H, Dac, Asteraceae Bupleurum falcatum L., H, Alp Eur, Centaurea scabiosa L. ssp. scabiosa H, Eur, Apiaceae ssp. spinulosa (Spreng.) Arcang (Rochel) Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth, H, Dostál (Centaurea spinulosa Spreng.), H, Cont Euras, Poaceae Ec-SE, Asteraceae Campanula abietina Griseb. (Campanula Centaurea stoebe L. ssp. australis (A. abietina Grisebach and Schenk), H, Carp- Kern.) Greuter (C. biebersteinii DC.), Balc, Campanulaceae Centaurea micranthos (Griseb.) Hayek, Ht- Campanula cervicaria L., Ht, Cont Euras, H, Pont-Pan-Balc, Asteraceae Campanulaceae Centaurium erythraea Rafín. ssp. erythraea Campanula moravica (Spitzner) Kovanda, (C. umbellatum auct.) T-Ht, Med, (Campanula rotundifolia L. var. stricta Gentianaceae Schum.), H, Circ, Campanulaceae Cephalanthera longifollia (L.) Fritsch Campanula patula L., Ht, Eur, (Cephalanthera longifolia (Huds.) Fritsch), Campanulaceae G, Eur, Orchidaceae Campanula persicifolia L., H, Euras, Cephalanthera rubra (L.). L. C. Rich., G, Campanulaceae Eur, Orchidaceae Campanula rapunculoides L., H, Euras, Cephalaria uralensis (Murr.) Roem. and Campanulaceae Schult., H, Pont.-Balc, Dipscacaceae Campanula sibirica L., H, Eua-Ct, Cerastium holosteoides Fries (C. Campanulaceae caespitosum Gilib.), H-Ch, Cosm, Campanula trachelium L., H, Euras, Caryophyllaceae Campanulaceae Cerastium semidecandrum L., T, Eur, Cardamine impatiens L., Ht, Euras, Caryophyllaceae Brassicaceae Chaerophyllum temulum L., H, Ec-S, Cardaminopsis arenosa (L.) Hayek, T-Ht, Apiaceae H, Ec, Brassicaceae Chelidonium majus L., H, Euras, Dealul Carex caryophyllea Latourr, G, Euras Cetăţii (Landskrone), Papaveraceae (Submedit), Cyperaceae Cichorium intybus L., H, Euras, Asteraceae Carex digitata L., H, Euras, Cyperaceae Circaea lutetiana L., G, Euras-Medit, Carex distans L., H, Euras (Subatl- Onagraceae Submedit), Cyperaceae Cirsium pannonicum (L. f.) Lk., H, Pont- Carex divulsa Stokes, var. guestphalica Pan, Asteraceae (Boenn) F. Schultz, H, Circ, Cyperaceae Clematis recta L., H, Ec, Ranunculaceae Carex humilis Leysser, H, Eua-Ct, Clematis vitalba L., Ph (liana), Ec, Cyperaceae Ranunculaceae Carex michelii Host, H, Ec, Cyperaceae Clinopodium vulgare L. (Calamintha Carex montana L. (f. emarginata Schur), H, vulgaris (L.) Halácsy, Calamintha Cont Euras, Cyperaceae clinopodium Bentham), H, Circ, Lamiaceae Carex ovalis Good. (Carex leporina L.), H, Conium maculatum L. (Cetate/Landskrone), Circ, Cyperaceae Ht, Euras, Apiaceae Carex pairei F. W. Schultz, H, Eur, Convallaria majalis L., G, Eur, Liliaceae Cyperaceae Cornus sanguinea L., Ph, Ec, Cornaceae Carex pallescens L., H, Circ, Cyperaceae Coronilla varia L., H, Ec-Submedit, Carex remota L., H, Circ bor, Cyperaceae Fabaceae Carex spicata Huds., H, Circ, Cyperaceae Corylus avellana L., Ph, Eur, Corylaceae Carex sylvatica Huds., H, Circ, Cyperaceae Crataegus monogyna Jacq., Ph, Eua, Carex tomentosa L., G, Euras, Cyperaceae Rosaceae Carex vulpina L., H, Euras, Cyperaceae

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Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. and Kit., Ph, Dioscorea communis (L.) Caddick and Pont-Pan-Balc, Rosaceae Wilkin (Tamus communis L.), G, Atl- Crepis praemorsa (L.) F. W. Walther, H, Submedit, Dioscoreaceae Euras Cont, Asteraceae Diplotaxis muralis (L.) D. C., T-H, Ec-Med, Crocus banaticus Gay, G, Subend (Carp). Brassicaceae (Cetate Hill), Iridaceae Dorycnium herbaceum Vill., Ch, Ec-EuSE, Cruciata glabra (L.) Ehrend. (Galium Fabaceae vernum Scop.), H, Euras, Rubiaceae Dryopteris filix mas (L.) Schott, H, Euras, Cypripedium calceolus L., G, Euras, Polypodiaceae Orchidaceae Echinops exaltatus Schrader (E. commutatus Cytisus albus (Hacq.) Rothm. Jur.), H, Ec, Asteraceae (Chamaecytisus albus (Hacq.) Rothm.), Ph, Elymus hispidus (Opiz) Melderis (Elytrigia Pont-Pan-Balc, var. pallidus (Schrad.) Grnt., intermedia (Host) Nevski, Agropyron Fabaceae intermedium (Host) Beauv.), G, Cont Euras, Cytisus austriacus L. (Chamaecytisus Poaceae austriacus (L.) Link), Ph, Pont-Pan-Balc, Elymus repens (L.) Gould. (Elytrigia repens Fabaceae (L.) Nevski), Agropyron repens (L.) Cytisus hirsutus L. ssp. hirsutus (C. Beauv.), G, Circ, Poaceae hirsutissimus K. Koch, (Chamaecytisus Epilobium montanum L., H, Euras, hirsutus (L.) Link, ssp. hirsutus (L.) Link), Onagraceae Ph, Ec, Fabaceae Epipactis atrorubens (Hoffm.) Besser, G, Cytisus hirsutus L. ssp. leucotrichus (Schur) Euras, (Măgura Boiţei/Wartberg), A. and D. Löve (= Cytisus leucotrichus Orchidaceae Schur), Ph, Balc-Pan, Fabaceae Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz, G, Euras, Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh., H, Cosm, Orchidaceae Polypodiaceae Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. (E. maximum Cytisus nigricans L. (Lembotropis nigricans Lam.), G, Circ, Equisetaceae (L.) Griseb.), Ph, Ec-SE, Fabaceae Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. ssp. annuus Dactylis polygama Horvátovszky, (Dactylis (Stenactis annua (L.) Less), T, Ht-H, Adv, aschersoniana Graebner), H, Ec, Poaceae Asteraceae Dactylis glomerata L., H, Eua, Poaceae Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers ssp. Dactylorhiza maculata (L.) Soó (Orchis septentrionalis (Fernald and Wiegand) maculata L.), G, ssp. transsilvanica (Schur) Wagenitz strigosus (Mühl ex Willd) Soó, G, Ec-SE, Orchidaceae Wagenitz (Stenactis ramosa (Walter) Dactylorhiza maculata (L.) Soó ssp. schurii Domin), T, Ht-H, Adv, Asteraceae (Klinge) Soó (Dactylorhiza maculata ssp. Eryngium campestre L., H, Pont-Med, elodes (Griseb.) Soó, G, End Carp, Apiaceae Orchidaceae Erysimum odoratum Ehrh. (E. pannonicum Danthonia decumbens (L.) DC (Sieglingia Crantz), H, Pont, Brassicaceae decumbens (L.) Bernh.), H, Eur, Poaceae Erysimum virgatum Roth (E. hieracifolium Daucus carota L., H, Eua, Apiaceae Jusl.), Ht-H, Eur, Brassicaceae Cardamine bulbifera (L.) Crantz, (Dentaria Erythronium dens-canis L., G, Eur- bulbifera L.), G, Ec, Brassicaceae Submedit Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin., H, Circ, Euphorbia amygdaloides L., Ch, Ec-Subatl- Poaceae Submed, Euphorbiaceae Dianthus armeria L., T, Eur, Euphorbia angulata Jacq., H, Pont-Med, Caryophyllaceae Euphorbiaceae Dianthus carthusianorum L., H, Eur, Euphorbia cyparissias L., H, Euras, Caryophyllaceae Euphorbiaceae Dianthus giganteus D’Urv. ssp. giganteus, Euphorbia platyhyllos L., T, Ec, H, Dac-Balc, Caryophyllaceae Euphorbiaceae Dictamnus albus L., ssp. albus, H, Ec-Med, Euphorbia epithymoides L (E. polychroma Rutaceae Kerner), H, Pan-Balc, Euphorbiaceae Digitalis grandiflora Miller, H, Ec, Euphorbia salicifolia Host, H, Pont-Pan, Scrophulariaceae Euphorbiaceae

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Euphrasia stricta J. P. Wolff ex. J. F. Lehm, Galium schultesii Vest, G, Ec, Rubiaceae T, Eur, Scrophulariaceae Galium verum L., H, Euras, Rubiaceae Evonymus europaeus L., Ph, Eur, Genista germanica L., Ch, Ec, Fabaceae Celastraceae Genista januensis Viv. var. spathulata Fagus sylvatica L., Ph, Ec-Atl, Fagaceae (Spach) Ciocârlan (Genista spathulata Fallopia dumetorum (L.) Holub. Spach), Ch, Apen-Balc-Dac, Fabaceae (Polygonum dumetorum L.), T, Circ (Cetate Genista ovata W. and K., Ch, Ec EuSE, Hill, Landskrone) East-Medit (Oberdorfer, 2001), Fabaceae Ferulago sylvatica (Bess.) Rchb., H, Pont- Genista tinctoria L., Ch, Eur, Fabaceae Med, Apiaceae Genista sagittalis L., (Genistella sagittalis Festuca arundinacea Schreb., H, Ec, (L.) Gams), Ch, Atl-Ec-Med, Fabaceae Poaceae Geranium dissectum L., T, Euras, Festuca drymeja Mert. and Koch, H, Ec- Geraniaceae EuSE, Poaceae Geranium phaeum L., H, Ec, Geraniaceae Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill., H, Euras, Geranium pratense L., H, Euras-Ct, Poaceae Geraniaceae Festuca heterophylla Lam., H, Ec-Submed, Geranium pussilum L.,T, Eur, Geraniaceae Poaceae Geranium robertianum L., T-Ht, Cosm, Festuca pallens Host, H, Ec (Mont), Geraniaceae Poaceae Geranium sanguineum L., H, Eur, Cont- Festuca pratensis L., H, Euras, Poaceae Smed, Geraniaceae Festuca rubra L., H, Circ, Poaceae Geum urbanum L., H, Circ, Rosaceae Festuca valesiaca Schleich ex Gaudin, H, Glechoma hederacea L., H (Ch), Euras, Ct-Eua, (incl. var. banatica (Deg.) Beldie), Lamiaceae Poaceae Glechoma hirsuta Waldst. and Kit., H (Ch), Festuca stricta Host ssp. sulcata (F. sulcata Pont-Medit-Ec, Lamiaceae (Hack) Nyman, F. rupicola Heuff.), H, Ct- Glyceria nemoralis (Uechtr.) Uechtr. and Eua, Poaceae Koernicke, H, Ec, Poaceae Filago arvensis L., T, S-Euras, Asteraceae Gymnadenia conopsea (L.) R. Br., G, Eur, Fragaria vesca L., H, Eua, Rosaceae Orchidaceae Fragaria viridis L. (F. collina Ehrh.), H, Gypsophila muralis L., T, Eua, Eua, Rosaceae Caryophyllaceae Fraxinus excelsior L., Ph, Eur, Oleaceae Helianthemum canum (L.) Homem., Ch, Fraxinus ornus L., Ph, Submed, Oleaceae Atl-Med, Cistaceae Galanthus nivalis L., G, Ec-Submed (Cetate Helianthemum hirsutum (Thuill.) Mérat., Hill) Cistaceae Galeopsis speciosa Miller, T, Euras, Helianthemum hirsutum var. grandiflorum Lamiaceae (Scop) Schinz and Thell Galium album Mill. ssp. album (Galium Helianthemum nummularium (L.) Miller, mollugo L. ssp. erectum Syme), H, Eur, ssp. nummularium, Ch, Eur, Cistaceae Rubiaceae Helianthemum nummularium (L.) Miller Galium bailloni Brândza (G. valantioides ssp. obscurum (Celak.) Holub (H. hirsutum Bieb. var baillonii (Brândză) Paucă and E. I. (Thuill.) Mérat), H. obscurum Pers., Ch, Ec, Nyár.), Ch, End S Carp, Rubiaceae Cistaceae Galium mollugo L., H, Euras, Rubiaceae Helianthemum nummularium (L.) Miller Galium lucidum All. (G. mollugo ssp. ssp. grandiflorum (Scop.) Schinz and Thell. erectum (Hudson) Briq.), H, Ec-Medit, Helianthemum grandiflorum (Scop.) Lam., Rubiaceae Ch, Eur Alp, Cistaceae Galium glaucum L. (Asperula glauca (L.) Helleborus purpurascens Waldst. and Kit., Bess.), H, Ec-Submedit, Rubiaceae H, Carp-Balc-Pan, Ranunculaceae Galium kitaibelianum Roem. and Schult. Hepatica nobilis Schreber, H, Circ, Schultes and Schultes fil., H, Carp-Balc, Ranunculaceae Rubiaceae Heracleum sphondylium L., Ht-H, Eua, Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. (Asperula Apiaceae odorata L.), G, Med-Euras, Rubiaceae Hieracium murorum L., H, Eur, Asteraceae

The conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu-Podu Olt; 1/24 pp. - 19 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Hieracium racemosum W. and K. f. Lapsana communis L., T-H, Euras, eriocalycinum (Hausskn.) Nyár., H, Ec- Asteraceae EuSE, Asteraceae Laserpitium latifolium L., H, Eur (Mont), Hieracium umbellatum L., H, Circ, Apiaceae Asteraceae. Lathyrus niger (L.) Bernh., G, Ec, Fabaceae Hierochloe australis (Schhrad.) R. and Lathyrus pannonicus (Jacq.) Garcke Schult., H, Ec, Poaceae (Lathyrus lacteus (M. Bieb.) E. D. Wissjul. Holcus lanatus L., H, Cosm, Poaceae var. versicolor auct. p.p., Lathyrus Humulus lupulus L., H, Eua, Cannabaceae versicolor auct.), H, Ec, Fabaceae Hypericum maculatum Crantz, H, Euras, Lathyrus sylvestris L. var. platyphyllus Hypericaceae (Retz) Aschers., H, Eur, Fabaceae Hypericum perforatum L., H, Med-Euras, Lathyrus tuberosus L., H, Euras, Fabaceae Hypericaceae Lathyrus venetus (Mill.) Wohlf., G, Pont- Hypericum richeri Vill., ssp. Medit, Fabaceae transsilvanicum (Celak.) Ciocârlan Lathyrus vernus (L.) Bernh., G, Euras, (Hypericum transsilvanicum Celak.), End. Fabaceae E. and S. Carp, Hypericaceae Leontodon crispus Vill. ssp. crispus (L. Hypochaeris maculata L., H, Euras, asper (W. and K.) Poir., non Froskal), H, Asteraceae Cont Euras, Asteraceae Inula conyza D.C., H, Ec, Asteraceae Leontodon autumnalis L., H, Euras, Inula ensifolia L., H, Pont-Pan-Balc, Asteraceae Asteraceae Leontodon hispidus L., H, Euras, Asteraceae Inula hirta L., H, Euras-Ct (incl. var. Leonurus cardiaca L., H, Euras, Asteraceae oblongifolia Beck), Asteraceae Leucanthemum vulgare Lam., Iris aphylla L. (I. hungarica W. and K.), G, (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.), H, Eur-Ct, Iridaceae Euras (Euras-Subozean acc. to Oberdorfer, Iris ruthenica Ker.-Gawl., G, Euras-Ct, 2002), Asteraceae Iridaceae Ligustrum vulgare L., Ph, Eur (Submed), Isopyrum thalictroides L., H, Ec, Oleaceae Ranunculaceae Lilium martagon L., G, Euras, Liliaceae Juglans regia L., Ph, subspontaneous, Ec- Linaria genistifolia (L.) Miller, H, Cont- Balc-Cauc, Juglandaceae Euras, Scrophulariaceae Juncus compressus Jacq., G, Euras, Linaria vulgaris Miller, H, Euras, Juncaceae Scrophulariaceae Juncus tenuis Willd., G, Adv (N Am), Linum flavum L., H, Pont-Pan-Balc, Juncaceae Linaceae Jurinea glycacantha (Sm.) DC (J. mollis Listera ovata (L) R. Br., G, Euras, (L.) Rchb. ssp. macrocalathia (K. Koch) Orchidaceae Soó), H, Balc-Pan, Asteraceae Lonicera caprifolium L., Ph, Submedit, Jurinea mollis (L.) Reichenb., H, Pan-Balc, Caprifoliaceae Asteraceae Lotus corniculatus L., H, Euras, Fabaceae Kengia serotina (L.) Packer (Cleistogenes Luzula campestris (L.) Lam. and D.C., H, serotina (L.) Keng., Diplachne serotina (L.) Circ, Juncaceae Link), G, Ec-Medit, Poaceae Luzula luzuloides (Lam.) Dandy and Knautia arvensis (L.) Coulter, H, Eur, Willmott, H, Ec, Juncaceae Dipsacaceae Lychnis viscaria L. (Viscaria vulgaris Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) Schultes (K. Bernh.), Ch (H), Euras, Caryophyllaceae gracilis Pers. nom illegit.), H, Circ, Poaceae Lysimachia nummularia L., Ch, Euras, Petrorhagia prolifera (L.) P. W. Ball and Primulaceae Heywood (Kohlrauscjia prolifera (L.) Lysimachia vulgaris L., H, Euras, Kunth, Tunica prolifera (L.) Scop.), T, Atl- Primulaceae Med, Caryophyllaceae Maianthemum bifolium (L.) F. W. Schmidt, Lamium album L., H, Euras, Lamiaceae G, Euras, Liliaceae Lamium maculatum L., H (Ch), Euras, Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill., Ph, Eur, Lamiaceae Rosaceae

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Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. Bip. Peucedanum carvifolium Vill., H, Ec (M. inodora L., Matricaria perforata (Ciocârlan, 2009), Ec Smed (Oberdorfer, Mérat), T-Ht, Euras, Asteraceae 2002), Apiaceae Medicago falcata L., H, Eua, Fabaceae Peucedanum cervaria (L.) Lapeyr., H, Eu- Medicago lupulina L., T-H, Eua, Fabaceae Ct, Apiaceae Medicago minima (L.) L., T, Submedit, Peucedanum oreoselinum (L.) Moench, H, Fabaceae Eu-Ct, Apiaceae Melampyrum bihariense A. Kerner, T, Dac, Phleum montanum C. Koch, H, Carp-Balc- Scrophulariaceae Cauc-Anat, Poaceae Melampyrum nemorosum L., T, Ec, Pilosella cymosa (L.) F. W. Schultz and Scrophulariaceae Sch.-Bip. (Hieracium cymosum L.), H, Melampyrum sylvaticum L., T, Euras, Euras-Ct, Asteraceae Scrophulariaceae Pilosella officinarum Vaill. (Hieracium Melica ciliata L. ssp. ciliata, H, Ec-Med, pilosella L.), H, Euras, Asteraceae var. flavescens Schur, Poaceae Pilosella piloselloides (Vill.) Sojak ssp. Melica uniflora Retz, H, Centr Eu-Submed, bauhinii (Schult.) S. Bräutigam and Greuter Poaceae (Hieracium bauhinii, Besser), H, Eu-Ec, Melilotus albus Medik., Ht, Euras, Fabaceae Asteraceae Melilotus officinalis Lam., Ht, Euras, Pimpinella major (L.) Hudson, H, Eu, Fabaceae Apiaceae Melittis melissophyllum L., H, Ec, Pimpinella saxifraga L., H, Euras (Submed), Lamiaceae Apiaceae Mercurialis perennis L., G (H), Pinus sylvestris L., Ph, Cult Euras Euphorbiaceae Plantago altissima L., H, Balc-Pan Milium effusum L., H, Circ, Poaceae Plantago lanceolata L., H, Euras, Moehringia trinervia (L.) Clairv., T-H, Eua, Plantaginaceae Caryophyllaceae Plantago major L., H, Euras, Plantaginaceae Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench., H, Euras, Plantago media L., H, Euras, Plantaginaceae Poaceae Platanthera bifolia (L.) L. C. M. Richard, G, Monotropa hipopitys L., G, Circ, Pyrolaceae Euras, Orchidaceae Mycelis muralis (L.) Dumort, (Cicerbita Poa angustifolia L. (P. pratensis L. ssp. muralis (L.) Wallr.), H, Eur, Subatl-Smed angustifolia (L.) Gaudin), H, Euras, Poaceae (Oberdorfer, 2002) Poa annua L., T-H, Cosm, Poaceae Myosotis scorpioides L. (M. palustris (L.) Poa compressa L., H, Euras-Ct, Poaceae hill), H, Euras, Boraginaceae Poa nemoralis L., H, Circ, Poaceae Nardus stricta L., H, Euras (Circ), Poaceae Poa palustris L., H, Circ, Poaceae Neottia nidus avis (L.) Rich., G, Euras, Poa pratensis L., H, Circ (Cosm), Poaceae Orchidaceae Poa trivialis L., H, Euras, Poaceae Oenothera biennis L., Ht, Adv (N. America), Polygala comosa Schkuhr, H, Eur, Onagraceae Polygalaceae Onobrychis viciaefolia Scop., H, Eua, Polygala major Jacq., H, P-Med, Fabaceae Polygalaceae Onopordon acanthium L., Ht, Euras, Polygala vulgaris L., H (Ch), Eur, Asteraceae Polygalaceae Onosma heterophylla Griseb. O. viride Polygonum aviculare L., T, Cosm, (Borb.) Jáv., H, Balc, Boraginaceae, La Polygonaceae Piatra Polygonum hydropiper L., T, Circ, Orobanche teucrii Holandre, G, Ec, Polygonaceae Orobanchaceae Polygonum lapathifolium L., T, Cosm, Oxalis acetosella L., H (G), Circ, Polygonaceae Oxalidaceae Polypodium vulgare L., G, Circ, Oxytropis pilosa (L.) D.C., H, Eua-Cont, Polypodiaceae Fabaceae Populus tremula L., Ph, Euras, Salicaceae Pastinaca sativa L. ssp. pratensis (Pers.) Portulaca oleracea L., T, Cosm, Celak., Ht, Euras, Apiaceae Portulacaceae

The conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu-Podu Olt; 1/24 pp. - 21 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Potentilla argentea L., H, Eua, Rosaceae Rhinanthus alectorolophus (Scop.) Pollich Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch, H, Eua, (R. major L. nom. Ambig.), T, Euras, Rosaceae Scrophulariaceae Potentilla heptaphylla L. (P. rubens (Crantz) Rhinanthus minor L., T, Euras Zimmeter, non Vill.), H , Eur Cont, Rhinanthus rumelicus Velen., T, Pont-Pan- Rosaceae Balc Potentilla cinerea Chaix ex Vill. (Potentilla Robinia pseudoacacia L., Ph, Adv, Fabaceae arenaria Borkh.), H, Eur, Rosaceae Rosa canina L., Ph, Eur, Rosaceae Primula veris L., H, Euras, ssp. veris Rosa micrantha Borrer ex Sm., Ph, Ec-Sud, Primula veris L. ssp.columnae (Ten.) Lüdi Rosaceae (Primula columnae Ten.), H, Medit, Rosa spinosissima L. (Rosa pimpinellifolia) Primulaceae L., Ph, Euras, Rosaceae Prunella grandiflora (L.) Jacq., H, Eur, Rubus caesius L., N, Ph, Eur, Rosaceae Lamiaceae Rumex acetosa L., H, Cosm, Polygonaceae Prunella laciniata (L.) L., H, Ec-Med, Rumex acetosella L., H, Eur, Polygonaceae Lamiaceae Rumex sanguineus L., H, Eur, Polygonaceae Prunella vulgaris L., H, Cosm, Lamiaceae Salix caprea L., Ph, Euras, Salicaceae Prunus tenella Batsch (Amygdalus nana L.), Salix purpurea L., Ph, Euras, Salicaceae Ph, Euras-Cont, Rosaceae Salvia glutinosa L., H, Euras (Mont), Prunus avium (L.) L. (Cerasus avium (L.) Lamiaceae Moench), Ph, Submed, Rosaceae Salvia pratensis L., H, Eur-Submed, Prunus spinosa L., Ph, Eur, Rosaceae Lamiaceae Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, G, Cosm, Salvia verticillata L., H, Ec-Medit, Polypodiaceae Lamiaceae Pulmonaria officinalis L., H, Eur, Sambucus ebulus L., H, Euras (Submedit), Boraginaceae Caprifoliaceae Pulmonaria rubra Schott, H, Carp-Balc, Sambus nigra L., Ph, Eur, Caprifoliaceae Boraginaceae Sanicula europaea L., H, Euras, Apiaceae Pulsatilla montana (Hoppe) Rchb., H, Eur, Saponaria officinalis L., H, Eua, Ranunculaceae Caryophylaceae Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd., Ph, Eur, Saxifraga tridactylites L., T, Euras, Rosaceae Saxifragaceae Quercus dalechampii Ten., Ph, Eur-Medit- Scabiosa columbaria L. ssp. columbaria, H, Carp-Balc, Fagaceae Eur, Dipsacaceae Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Ph, Eur, Scabiosa ochroleuca L., Ht-H, Euras-Ct, and Fagaceae var. polymorpha (Baumg.) Simk., Quercus polycarpa Schur, Ph, Carp-Balc- Dipsacaceae Cauc, Fagaceae Scilla bifolia L., G, Ec-EurSE, Liliaceae Quercus robur L., incl. var. glabra (Godr.) Scleranthus perennis L., H, Eur, Schwz, Ph, Eur, Fagaceae Caryophyllaceae Ranunculus acris L., H, Eua, Ranunculaceae Scleranthus uncinatus Schur, T, Carp-Balc- Ranunculus auricomus L., H, Eua, Cauc-Anat, Caryophyllaceae Ranunculaceae Sedum acre L., Ch, Eua, Crassulaceae Ranunculus ficaria L., H, Eua, Sedum album L., Ch, Eua, Crassulaceae Ranunculaceae Sedum telephium L. ssp. maximum (L.) Ranunculus polyanthemos L., H, Eur, Krock., H, Eur, Crassulaceae Ranunculaceae Selaginella helvetica (L.) Spring., Ch, Euras, Ranunculus repens L., H, Eua, Selaginellaceae Ranunculaceae Senecio ovatus (Gaertner et al.) Willd. (S. Rhamnus catharticus L., Ph, Eua, fuchsii Gmel.), H, Ec-Submed, Asteraceae Rhamnaceae Senecio jacobaea L., H, Euras, Asteraceae Rhamnus saxatilis Jacq. ssp. tinctorius (W. S. nemorensis L. ssp. jaquinianus (Rchb.) and K.) Nyman (Rh. tinctoria W. and K.) Celak. (Senecio germanicus Wallr.), H, Ph, Ec-Medit, Rhamnaceae Euras-Submedit, Asteraceae Solidago virga-aurea L., H, Circ, Asteraceae

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Seseli annuum L., Ht-H, Eur-Ct, Apiaceae Teucrium montanum L., Ch, Ec-Submedit, Seseli libanotis (L.) W. D. J. Koch Lamiaceae (Libanotis montana Crantz), Ht-H, Euras-Ct, Thesium linophyllon L., H, Ec, Santalaceae var. major Hagenb., Apiaceae Thymus comosus Heuff. ex Griseb. and Seseli libanotis (L.) Koch ssp. intermedium Schenk incl. f. transsilvanicus Schur, Ch, (Rupr.) P. W. Ball (Seseli libanotis subsp. End Rom Carp, Lamiaceae sibiricum Thell. p.p. non S. sibiricum (L.) Thymus pannonicus All. (Th. Garcke), H, Pont-Centr-Eu, Apiaceae marschallianus Willd.), Ch, Pont-Pan, Seseli pallasii Besser (S. varium Trevir), Ht- Lamiaceae H, Pont-Pan-Balc, Apiaceae Thymus pulegioides L., Th. pulegioides ssp. Sesleria heuffleriana Schur, H, End Carp, montanus (Waldst. and Kit.) Ronniger, Ch, Poaceae Eur (Mont), Lamiaceae Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv., T, Euras Cosm, Tilia cordata Miller, Ph, Eur, Tiliaceae Poaceae Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Ph, Ec, Tiliaceae Silene armeria L., T-Ht, Ec, Tilia tomentosa Mnch., Ph, Balc-Pan, Caryophyllaceae Tiliaceae Silene bupleuroides L. (Silene longiflora Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Lk., T, Ec, Apiaceae Ehrh.), H, Pont-Ec-Med, Caryophyllaceae Torilis japonica (Houtt.) DC (T. rubella Silene nutans L. ssp. dubia Herb. (Silene Moench.) Apiaceae dubia Herb), H, End Carp, Caryophyllaceae Tragopogon dubius Scop., T-Ht, Ec-Medit, Silene viridiflora L., H, Ec, Caryophyllaceae Asteraceae Silene vulgaris (Mnch.) Garcke, H, Eua, Tragopogon pratensis L. ssp. orientalis (L.) Caryophyllaceae Celak. (T. orientalis L.), Ht-H, Ec and East Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz, Ph, Eur, Trifolium aureum Pollich (= T. strepens Rosaceae Crantz), T-H, Eur, Fabaceae Stachys germanica L., H, Pont-Med, Trifolium alpestre L., H, Ec-EuSE, Fabaceae Lamiaceae Trifolium arvense L., T, Eur, Fabaceae Stachys officinalis (L.) Trev. (Betonica Trifolium campestre Schreb., T, Eur, officinalis L.), H, Euras, Lamiaceae Fabaceae Stachys recta L., H, Pont-Medit-Ec, Trifolium hybridum L., H, Atl-Eur, Fabaceae Lamiaceae Trifolium medium L. var. typicum A. and G. Stachys sylvatica L., H, Euras, Lamiaceae f. eriocalycinum (Hausskn.) Nyár., H, Euras, Staphylea pinnata L., Ph, Ec-South Eur, Fabaceae Staphyleaceae Trifolium montanum L., H, Eua-Cont, Stellaria graminea L., H, Eua, Fabaceae Caryophyllaceae Trifolium medium L. var. typicum A. and G. Stellaria holostea L., H, Eua, f. eriocalycinum (Hausskn.) Nyár., H, Euras, Caryophyllaceae Fabaceae Stellaria media (L.) Vill., T-Ht, Cosm, Trifolium ochroleucon Huds., H, Ec, Caryophyllaceae Fabaceae Stipa pulcherrima C. Koch, H, Ec-Medit, Trifolium pannonicum Jacq., H, Pont-Med, Poaceae Fabaceae Succisa pratensis Mnch., H, Euras, Trifolium pratense L., H, Eua, Fabaceae Dipscacaceae Trifolium repens L., H, Eua, Fabaceae Symphytum tuberosum L., ssp. nodosum Ulmus glabra Hudson (Ulmus montana (Schur) Soó, H, Ec-SE, Boraginaceae With., Ulmus scabra Mill.), Ph, Eua, Tanacetum corymbosum (L.) Sch. Bip. Ulmaceae (Chrysanthemum corymbosum L.), H, Euras Urtica dioica L., H, Cosm, Urticaceae (Sârbu et al., 2013), Smed-Euras Valeriana officinalis L., H, Euras (Oberdorfer, 2002), Asteraceae (submedit), Valerianaceae Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wiggers, E, Verbascum lychnitis L., Ht, Eur, Euras, Asteraceae Scrophulariaceae Teucrium chamaedrys L., Ch, Ec-Submedit, Verbascum phoeniceum L., H, Euras-Ct, Lamiaceae Scrophulariaceae

The conglomerate hills of Tălmaciu-Podu Olt; 1/24 pp. - 23 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Veronica chamaedrys L., H-Ch, Euras, Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Schreb., T, Eua, Scrophulariaceae Fabaceae Veronica officinalis L., Ch, Euras, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria Medikus, Scrophulariaceae (Cynanchum vincetoxicum (L.) Pers.), H, Veronica spicata L., H, Cont-Euras, Euras-Cont, Asclepiadaceae Scrophulariaceae Viola alba Bess., H, Ec (Submedit), Veronica teucrium L., Ct-Euras, Violaceae Scrophulariaceae Viola ambigua W. and K., H, Pont-Pan, Veronica urticifolia Jacq., H, Ec-Submedit Violaceae (mont), Viola canina L., H, Eua, Violaceae Scrophulariaceae Viola collina Besser, H, Euras, Violaceae Viburnum opulus L., Ph, Circ, Viola hirta L., H, Euras, Violaceae Caprifoliaceae Viola reichenbachiana Jordan ex Boreau (V. Vicia angustifolia L., T, Eua, Fabaceae sylvestris Lam.), H, Euras, Violaceae Vicia cracca L., H, Eua, Fabaceae Vulpia myuros (L.) Gmel., T, Ht, Euras Vicia hirsuta (L.) Gray (V. dumetorum L.), (Cosm), Poaceae T, Eua, Fabaceae Xeranthemum annuum L., T, Pont-Medit, Asteraceae

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CLIMATIC INFLUENCE ON SOME GRAPES VARIETY IN ALBA VINEYARD (TRANSYLVANIA, ROMANIA)

Letiţia OPREAN 1

KEYWORDS: Alba Vineyard, global heat balance, active heat balance, Transylvania, Romania.

ABSTRACT This scientific paper aims to temperature, global heat balance, annual analyse important data regarding the heat balance, thermic balance in the growth climatic framework of the Alba Vineyard cycle, useful heat balance and useful heat through a three-year monitoring of the balance during the growth cycle. climatic parameters which contribute to The analysed data showed that the intensifying grape flavours and the year 2013 was the best in regard to the accumulation of substantial quantities of quantity and quality of grapes in the Alba carbohydrates. Vineyard, as climatic conditions were most To this end, a series of parameters favourable. were calculated, such as: average annual

REZUMAT: Influenţe climatice asupra unor soiuri de struguri în Podgoria Alba (Transilvania, România). Prezenta lucrare științifică își medie anuală, bilanțul termic global, bilanțul propune să analizeze date importante privind termic anual, bilanțul termic în perioada de elemente de climă al Podgoriei Alba, prin vegetație, bilanțul termic util și bilanțul monitorizarea pe o perioadă de trei ani a termic util în perioada de vegetație. parametrilor climatici ce concură la Din datele analizate reiese că anul potențarea aromelor în struguri și la 2013 a fost cel mai benefic în ceea ce acumularea de cantități substanțiale de privește cantitatea și calitatea strugurilor din carbohidrați. Podgoria Alba, condițiile climatice fiind din În acest scop, au fost considerați o cele mai favorabile. serie de parametri precum: temperatura

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Klimatische Einflüsse auf einige Rebsorten in den Weinbergen von Alba Iulia (Transylanien, Rumänien). Die vorliegende Arbeit, hat zum Wärmebilanz, die jährliche Wärmebilanz, Ziel, die für die Weinberge von Alba die thermische Bilanz während der wichtigen Daten betreffend die ökologischen Vegetationsperiode, die nutzbare und Hanglage bedingten Klimaelemente Wärmebilanz sowie die nutzbare zu analysieren und zwar anhand Wärmebilanz während der eines dreijährigen Monitorings der Vegetationsperiode. Klimaparameter, die zur Verstärkung des Aus den analysierten Daten geht Aromas in den Weintrauben sowie die hervor, dass das Jahr 2013, das beste Speicherung bedeutender Mengen von bezüglich Menge und Qualität der Kohlenhydraten beitragen. Weintrauben aus den Weinbergsanlagen von Zu diesem Zweck wurde eine Reihe Alba war, da die Klimabedingungen sich am von Parametern berechnet so wie: günstigsten erwiesen. durchschnittliche Jahrestemperatur, globale

Climatic influence on grapes variety in Alba Vineyard 25/30 pp. - 25 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

INTRODUCTION A vineyard is a complex ecosystem, plantations are situated in at the 46°00’ resulting from the association of several (Vinţu de Jos) and 46°14’ (Stremţ) North biotic and abiotic elements, i.e. soil, climatic parallels, as Alba Iulia is situated at the conditions, plants (variety and rootstock) intersection of the 46°04’ North latitude and the decisive factor, man (Cotea et al., parallel with the 23°35’ East longitude 1985; Cotea et al., 2010; Tița, 2004). Man meridian (Popa et al., 2010; Cotea et al., contributes to manufacturing superior wines 2003). to the same extent as soil, climate and This consists of the Trascău Hills to variety (Tița et al., 2006; Pomohaci, 2001). the West and the Secaşelor hills to the East, The Alba Vineyard is situated in the separated by the Mureş River. Here, we can center of Romania (Fig. 1), on the terraces, also find the extensions of the Trascău Hills slopes and glacis on the banks of the Mureş descending from 600-500 metres to 400-300 River, near the confluence with Ampoi metres: the extensions have reduced slopes, River (Curtean-Bănăduc et al., 2001). These wide valleys and are hilly.

Figure 1: Romanian wine regions (http://vinpenet.blogspot.ro/2014/03/regiunile-viticole-ale-romaniei.html).

The creeks which spring from the favourable for grape ripening. The mist at Trascău Mountains and the Târnava and the end of summer is prolonged until Sebeș Rivers flow into the Mureş River. The October – November, as a specific fact of groundwater in the area provides enough the area. This climate is very favourable for water to cover the grapevines’ needs, even the slow ripening of the grapes, as they though volumes vary over time. accumulate a lot of flavours while the The general climate is moderate medium temperatures are 23°C during the continental, with cold winters and relatively day, which results in an increased content of warm and humid summers; continued by sugars and constant acidity (Cotea et al., warm, long autumns lasting until October ‒ 2006; Pop, 2003; Ţârdea, 2007).

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MATERIAL AND METHODS A series of specific indicators the grapevines are much less resistant to were used in order to characterise the low temperatures than during winter eco-climatic conditions in the experimental season: harmful thresholds differ: ‒ 0.1°C period: average annual temperature (Fig. 2), for the tender vines tipes, ‒ 0.2°C for green global heat balance (GHB), active heat grapes and adult leaves and 5°C for ripe balance (AHB), and useful heat balance grapes. (UHB). During the active growth cycle,

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Global heat balance is calculated by average difference of 200°C between the adding average temperatures above 0°C. In three years studied. It can be explained figure 3, we can see that in the eco-climatic through a prolonged autumn and through conditions in Alba Vineyard, the global heat temperatures over 0°C for a longer period of balance was 3,798.5°C in 2011, 3,535.2°C time. in 2012 and 3,902.7°C in 2013. There is an

Figure 2: Annual average temperature calculated in the Alba Vineyard in 2011, 2012 and 2013.

Figure 3: Global heat balance calculated in the Alba Vineyard for the years 2011, 2012, 2013.

Climatic influence on grapes variety in Alba Vineyard 25/30 pp. - 27 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Figure 4: Active heat balance calculated in the Alba Vineyard for the years 2011, 2012, 2013.

Figure 5: Useful heat balance calculated in the Alba Vineyard for the years 2011, 2012, 2013.

The active heat balance results from In 2011, the active heat balance was adding average daytime temperatures higher 3,972.5°C, 3,681.4°C in the growth cycle; than 10°C, which are considered the lower than in 2012 when the active heat biological thresholds of grapevine growth balance was 3,979.1°C, 3,668.7°C in the (Fig. 4). The lowest biological threshold for growth cycle. In 2013, the active heat biological processes to be triggered in balance was 3,992.9°C, 3,705.8°C in the grapevines is over 10°C. Temperatures of growth cycle, this value being 4.5% lower 30-36°C represent the upper limit, which than in 2012. cause leaves to wilt.

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The useful (efficient) heat balance 1,605.7°C in the growth cycle. We can results from adding average daytime notice that the year 2012 has the lowest heat temperatures from which the biological balance; it is close to that of 2011, but 11.3 threshold temperature of 10°C (t-10°C) had lower than ‒ 2013. been subtracted. Figure 5 shows that in 2011 We also established the sugar the annual value of useful heat balance was concentrations in the grapes harvested 1,593.2°C, with a value of 1,336.5°C in the during the three years under monitoring. The growth cycle. In 2012, the sum of annual results are as follows: useful temperatures was 1,568.3°C and 2011 ‒ total sugars: 197-221g/l; 1,362.4°C in the growth cycle. In 2013, the 2012 ‒ total sugars: 182-212g/l; useful heat balance was 1,775.4°C and 2013 ‒ total sugars: 198-239g/l.

CONCLUSIONS The vital process of grapevines takes differs from year to year; the highest was in place under the influence of heat. Each 2013, which led to a bumper grape crop. phenomenon is conditioned by a Active heat balance, which is temperature optimum which can be higher important in the growth cycle, recorded or lower, and the phenomenon itself can close values during the three years; the most determine certain physiological and beneficial was that of 2013. biological thresholds. Due to a more balanced climate, During the three years monitored, slightly higher temperature, and a lack of annual average temperature oscillates by precipitation at the beginning of autumn, the units due to warmer summers and colder amount of sugar accumulated in grapes was winters. extremely high in all three years, with minor Global heat balance, i.e. the sum of oscillations, which led to a production of average temperatures higher than 0°C, superior wines without the need of corrective interventions.

REFERENCES Cotea V. D., 1985 – Tratat de oenologie, I, Curtean-Bănăduc A., Bănăduc D. and Sîrbu Edit. Ceres, București, 43-53. (in I., 2001 − Oameni şi râuri împreună. Romanian) Impactul antropic asupra Târnavelor Cotea V. D. and Barbu N., 2010 – şi Ampoiului, Edit. Mira Design Podgoriile și vinurile României, Edit. Sibiu, ISBN 973-8232-32-5, 15-67, T Iași, 27-35. (in Romanian) 86. (in Romanian) Cotea V. D., Barbu N., Grigorescu C. C. Croitoru C., 2009 − Tratat de știință și and Cotea V. V., 2003 – Podgoriile inginerie oenologică, Produse de și vinurile României, Edit. elaborare și maturare a vinurilor, Academiei Române, București, 27- Edit. AGIR, București, 5-9. (in 35. (in Romanian) Romanian) Cotea V. D. and Sauciuc J. H., 1988 – Pomohaci N., 2001 − Oenologie, II, Edit. Tratat de oenologie, II, Edit. Ceres, Ceres, București, 10-21. București, 104-108. (in Romanian) Pomohaci N., Stoian V., Gheorghiță M., Cotea V. and Cotea V. D., 1996 – Sîrghi C., Cotea V. V. and Viticultură, ampelografie și Nămoloșanu I., 2000 – Oenologie, I, oenologie, Edit. Didactică și Prelucrarea strugurilor și producerea Pedagogică, București, 17-32. (in vinurilor, Edit. Ceres, București, 7- Romanian) 12. (in Romanian) Cotea V. and Cotea V. D., 2006 − Pop N., 2003 − Viticultură, Edit. Academic Tehnologii de producere a vinurilor, Pres, Cluj Napoca, 18-36. (in Edit. Academiei Române, 21-36. (in Romanian) Romanian)

Climatic influence on grapes variety in Alba Vineyard 25/30 pp. - 29 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Popa A. and Dicu C, 2010 − Viticultura și Tiţa O., 2004 − Tehnologii de obţinere a vinurile României, Edit. Alma, vinurilor, Edit. Universităţii „Lucian Craiova, 21-32. (in Romanian) Blaga” din Sibiu, 17-39. (in Țârdea C., Sârbu G. and Țârdea A., 2010 − Romanian) Tratat de vinificație, Edit. Ion Tiţa O., Oprean L., Tiţa M., Oancea Ionescu de la Brad, Iași, 14-27. (in S., Păcală M., Lengyel E. and Romanian) Gaspar E., 2006 – Acţiunea Țârdea C., 2007 − Chimia și analiza vinului, factorilor de mediu în conducerea Edit. Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iași, fermentaţiei alcoolice la vinurile 289. (in Romanian) roşii, Analele SNBC, XI, 717-719. (in Romanian)

AUTHOR:

Letiția OPREAN 1 [email protected] “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu Dr. Ioan Raţiu Street 7-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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HELLENO-BALCANO-CARPATHIAN SILICEOUS CLIFF VEGETATION IN THE SOUTHERN CARPATHIANS

Constantin DRĂGULESCU 1 and Erika SCHNEIDER-BINDER 2

KEYWORDS: rock crevices, pioneer colonisation, chasmophyte vegetation, relict species, regional habitat subtype, vegetation, Silenion lerchenfeldianae, Romanian South- Carpathians.

ABSTRACT The habitat type of Community their distribution area and their ecological Interest 8220 Siliceous rocky slopes with requirements. Research results of the authors chasmophytic vegetation presents many are presented and discussed in comparison regional sub-types, among them the with data published by other authors from Helleno-Balcano-Carpathian subtype that the Southern Carpathian area resulting as includes the plant communities of the well in a synthetic table with the Carpathian-Balcanic alliance Silenion associations included in the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae Simon 1957. The lerchenfeldianae, regional subtype of the associations belonging to this alliance are habitat type 8220 with relevance for the presented with their characteristic species, European Natura 2000 network.

REZUMAT: Vegetaţia casmofitică eleno-balcano-carpatică a stâncăriilor silicatice din Carpaţii Meridionali. Tipul de habitat de importanţă de răspândire, precum şi cerinţele lor comunitară 8220 Versanţi stâncoşi silicatici ecologice. Rezultatele cercetărilor sunt cu vegetaţie casmofitică prezintă câteva prezentate şi discutate în comparaţie cu subtipuri regionale între care şi subtipul informaţiile publicate de alţi autori din eleno-balcano-carpatic reprezentat prin Carpaţii Meridionali, sintetizate într-un tabel alianţa Silenion lerchenfeldianae Simon al asociaţiilor alianţei Silenion 1957, având un areal carpato-balcanic. lerchenfeldianae, subtip regional al Asociaţiile cuprinse în această alianţă sunt habitatului 8220 relevant pentru reţeaua descrise cu speciile lor caracteristice, cu aria europeană Natura 2000.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Die Helenisch-Balkanisch-Karpatische Vegetation der Silikatfelsspalten in den SüdKarpaten. Der Lebensraumtyp von Verbreitungsareal und ihren ökologischen gemeinschaftlichem Interesse 8220 Ansprüchen vorgestellt. Die Silikatfelsen und ihre Felsspaltenvegetation Untersuchungen werden mit denen von umfasst eine Reihe regionaler Sub-Typen zu anderen Autoren aus den Südkarpaten denen auch der Helenisch-Balkanisch- veröffentlichten Daten verglichen und in Karpatische Subtypus gehört, der durch den einer synthetischen tabelle der karpatisch-balkanischen Verband Silenion Gesellschaften des Silenion lerchenfeldianae lerchenfeldianae Simon 1957 vertreten ist. Verbandes zusammengefasst, Sub-Typus Die Gesellschaften dieses Verbandes werden des Lebensraumtyps 8220, der für das mit ihren charakteristischen Arten, ihrem Natura 2000 Netzwerk von Bedeutung ist.

Helleno-Balcano-Carpathian cliff vegetation in the Southern Carpathians 31/48 pp. - 31 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

INTRODUCTION The habitat type 8220 Siliceous kitaibeliana (Carex laevis) for Bulgaria rocky slopes with chasmophytic vegetation, (EUR 28, 2013). including European rocky habitats with Communities included in this “vegetation of fissures of siliceous inland alliance are mostly characteristic of the cliffs with many regional subtypes”, is siliceous rock crevices of the montane to the represented in the Carpathians area by the alpine levels, colonising rocks of various regional subtype 62.25 Helleno-Carpathian- gradients and aspects. If crevices are on Balcanic siliceous cliff vegetation of the vertical cliff-faces, without possibilities for a alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae (EUR 28, larger accumulation of soil particles and 2013; Gafta and Mountford, 2008) with a organic matter, they form open communities known distribution in the Southern of high stability, remaining in the state of a Carpathians area. Characteristic for this durable pioneer vegetation with species well habitat subtype is firstly the name-giving adapted to extreme ecological conditions. In species of the alliance Silene the case of rock crevices on rocks with lerchenfeldiana Baumg., a Carpathian- various slope gradients and possibilities for Balcan species of rock crevices distributed evolution of skeletal soils, the pioneer in the Southern Carpathians of Romania, communities are developing to grassland also the Rila (Horvat et al., 1937) and Pirin communities of small rock belts identified at mountains (Simon, 1958) of Bulgaria, the alpine level mostly by Juncus trifidus, extending south into northern Greece. Festuca supina and other rock colonisers. Besides S. lerchenfeldiana should be Due to the geographical position, the mentioned as characteristic for the Helleno- geomorphology and related climatic Balcano-Carpathians subtype of the conditions, as well as the phytohistorical siliceous rocky fissure habitat type – which evolution of the area, some specific is congruent with the alliance Silenion Carpathian aspects of the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae – the species Symphyandra lerchenfeldianae are emerging. wanneri, Silene dinarica, Potentilla Considering the particularities of this haynaldiana, Saxifraga pedemontana ssp. type of rock crevices vegetation the aim of cymosa, Senecio glaberrimus, Jovibarba this paper is to present the Silenion (Sempervivum) heuffelii, Veronica lerchenfeldianae alliance, based on our older bachofenii, Dianthus henteri. To these and recent research data, to analyse the data species should be added Saxifraga in comparison with other published data juniperifolia ssp. juniperifolia (Saxifraga concerning the alliance in the Carpathian pseudosancta), Minuartia bulgarica, area, and to discuss the different units and Haberlea rhodopensis and Carex regional communities.

MATERIAL AND METHODS This study is based on observations, phytocoenological tables with indication of field researches and sampling over a longer site conditions, degree of cover, number of period of time, complemented by new species in each sample, and locality. The research in recent years. All the samples nomenclature used for the species is given together allows an analysis and synthetic according to Oprea (2005) and Sârbu et al. view of the different sampled phytocoenoses (2013). identified by Silene lerchenfeldiana, The characteristic species of the Symphyandra wanneri, Silene dinarica and alliance and the associations are presented other characteristic or differential species for with their distribution area in the regional units of the communities and for Carpathians, including the field data of both the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae. Field authors, but also based on literature and plant samples were taken following the method of collection data. The sign “!” indicates that Braun-Blanquet (1964) and included in the author observed these plants or

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phytocoenoses in the location mentioned. 3: mesotherm, 4: moderate thermophilous, 5: For the overview of associations described, thermophilous, 0 amphitolerant. The the tables from different authors are given indicator values for the soil reaction/pH (R) with the number of samples and frequency are: 1 pronounced acidophilous species, 2: classes. As well, the characteristic species of acidophilous species, 3: acido-neutrophilous the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae are species, 4: light acido-neutrophilous species, analysed from an ecological point of view 5: neutron-basiphilous species, 0: euriionic using the indicator values of Humidity (U), plant species (amphitolerant). These Temperature (T) and pH/soil reaction (R) indicator values gives a general orientation according to Sanda et al. (1983). The for the ecological requirements of the humidity indicator values (U) are: 1: species, which are strongly related to the xerophyte, 2: xero-mesophyte, 3: mesophyte, geomorphology, aspect, slope gradient and 4: meso-hygrophyte, 5: hygrophyte, 6: soil conditions as well as climate and hydrophyte, 0 amphitolerant. The indicator microclimate conditions of the particular values for temperature degrees (T) are: 1: macro- and microhabitats. hechistotherm (criophilous), 2: microtherm,

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The characteristic species of Silenion Bârcaciu Peak (Fuss, 1846; Simonkai, 1886; lerchenfeldianae and their distribution in the Fuss, 1866; Herbarium Fuss; Guşuleac, Southern Carpathians. 1953), Berevoescu (Guşuleac, 1953), The distribution area of Silene Negoiu Peak (Herbarium Schneider-Binder). lerchenfeldiana Baumg., as a characteristic Recent data about the distribution of Silene species of the Carpathian-Balcanic alliance lerchenfeldiana in the Făgăraş Mountains on of siliceous rock crevices Silenion the Southern slope of the mountain crest, are lerchenfeldianae covers the siliceous rock mentioned from near to the Vidraru Lake massifs of the Southern Carpathians and i.e. the Buda – Râiosu mountains (Stancu mountains of Bulgaria (Guşuleac, 1953, sampling 2000, published 2005). South of Stoianov et al., 1966, 1967; Simon, 1958). the Făgăraş Mountains near to the Olt break In the Carpathians area the species is Valley Silene lerchenfeldiana is reported mentioned for rock crevices from the from the Cozia Mountains (Guşuleac, 1953; Făgăraş, Lotru, Parâng, Vâlcan, Retezat, Nyárády, 1955; Oprea, 2005). Mehedinţi and Ţarcu-Godeanu mountains For the Cindrel Mountains Silene (Guşuleac, 1953). lerchenfeldiana has to be considered a very At a detailed level it can be stated rare species, being recorded from Mr. Grosu that the largest number of localities are (Drăgulescu, 1980, 1995 and plant collection mentioned from the Făgăraş Mountains. Drăgulescu in the Herbarium of the They are listed with literature and herbaria Botanical Institute of the University of Cluj- data for Sibiu County by Drăgulescu (2010) Napoca and Herbarium Drăgulescu at from Arpaş Mountains/Munţii Arpaş (Schur, Museum of Natural Sciences Sibiu, !). At 1866; Fuss, 1866; Simonkai, 1886; Tuzson, the same site var. lotriensis (Grec.) Borza 1934; Herbarium of the Transylvanian has been found (Drăgulescu, 1995; Society of Natural Sciences/Sibiu), Bâlea Herbarium Drăgulescu at Museum of Valley/Valea Bâlea on the Transfăgărăşan at Natural Sciences Sibiu, !). 1,480 m altitude (Drăgulescu, 2010, !), For the Lotru Mountains the species Şerbota Valley (Puşcaru-Soroceanu, 1981), is mentioned from Boarneşu (Buia et al., Avrigelului Valley (Schneider-Binder and 1963), Cataractele Lotrului (Drăgulescu, !, Voik, 1976), Sărăţii Valley (Schneider- 2013, unpublished field data), Câlcescu Binder and Voik, 1976; Puşcaru-Soroceanu, (Buia et al., 1963 and obs. Schneider-Binder 1981; Herbarium Schneider-Binder), Arpaşu E., 1979), Dengheru-Cioara (Ploaie et al., Peak (Guşuleac, 1953; Ungar, 1925), 2004), Mogoşul (Buia et al., 1963), Mohorul

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(Buia et al., 1963), Muntinu Mic (Buia et al., Carpathians. At a detailed level, for the 1963), Găuri Mountain (Ploaie, 1999; Ploaie Southern Carpathians comprehensive and Ionescu, 2011), Păpuşa 1,900 m (Pócs, distribution data, including literature and 1961, 1962, 1967), Părăginosu (Buia et al., herbaria data, are presented for mountains of 1963), Voineasa (Grecescu, 1909; Sibiu County (Drăgulescu, 2010) including a Drăgulescu, !); var. lotriensis (Grec.) Borza: large part of the Făgăraş and Cindrel Voineasa on V. Jidoaia (Grecescu, 1909; mountains and part of the Lotru Mountains. Guşuleac, 1953). From the Făgăraş Mountains Symphyandra The species is recorded as well from wanneri is known from Muchia Buteanu the Parâng Mountains (Guşuleac, 1953; (Ghişa, 1964), Buteanu Peak (Fuss, 1866; Coldea, 1991), Parâng/Badea rocks and Ungar, 1913; Drăgulescu, 2000; Herbarium Mândra circus (Simon and Pócs samples Fuss at Museum of Natural Sciences Sibiu), from 1956 published in 2012); Vulcan Turnurile Podragului (Botsch, 1991), Arpaş Mountains in the Jiu break valley at Lainici Mountains/Munţii Arpaş (Schur, 1852, towards Vama Păiuşu on Ciocane 1857; Simonkai, 1886; Ghişa, 1964; Schur, (Guşuleac, 1953); Retezat Mountains: at 1857), Arpaş Valley/Valea Arpaşu Mare Zănoaga Lake/Lacul Zănoaga and Piciorul (Herbarium G. A. Kayser, Museum of Colţului (Guşuleac, 1953), Judelui Natural Sciences Sibiu), Cârţişoarei Valley/Valea Judelui and Muchia Ascuţită Mountains (Ghişa/Flora R. P. R. 1964), (samples Boşcaiu et al., 1970; Boşcaiu et al., Arpaşu Peak/Căldării Valley (Fuss, 1846; 1977), Laboratory house/Casa laborator Negrean and Drăgulescu, 2005), Arpăşel Gemenele and cliff above Ana Lake/Lacul (Drăgulescu, 1999, Herbarium Drăgulescu at Ana (samples Boşcaiu et al., 1972; Boşcaiu, Museum of Natural Sciences Sibiu, !), et al., 1977), Circus of Gemenele Lake Căprăreasa (Fuss, 1866), Bâlea (Hayek, (sample Drăgulescu, 1993); Mehedinţi 1916; Tuzson, 1934; Ghişa, 1964/Flora Mountains: Bulzu Mountain on the Culmea R.P.R., Delectus seminum Horti Bot. Univ. Scăriţii and on the rocks named “Biserici” Clujensis 1927, Drăgulescu 2000, !), V. (Grecescu, 1898; Guşuleac, 1953); Ţarcu- Doamnei (Prodan, 1939; Ghişa, 1964), Godeanu Mountains on Ţarcu and Baicu Glăjăria Cârţişoarei (Herbarium of the mountains (Guşuleac, 1953; Boşcaiu, 1971), Transylvanian Society of Natural Sciences Ţarcu (Jávorka, 1925; Prodan, 1939), Piga Sibiu), Negoiu Mountain (Herbarium and Bulzu (Borza et al., 1967); Ţarcu- Schneider-Binder), Sărăţii Valley Godeanu (Beldie, 1967); Zeicu Mountain (Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976; Puşcaru- (Boşcaiu, Exs. Herbarium University of Soroceanu, 1981), Şerbota Valley (Puşcaru- Cluj, leg. Boşcaiu, 1946), Baicu (leg. Soroceanu, 1981), Negoiu Peak (Ungar, Boşcaiu 1946 Delectus Seminum Horti 1913; Herbarium Barth and Herbarium Botanici Cluj). Ungar at Museum of Natural Sciences In Bulgaria Silene lerchenfeldiana is Sibiu), Suru Peak (Baumgarten, 1816; Fuss, recorded from the Stara Planina, Vitosha, 1846; Fuss, 1866; Ungar, 1913; Simonkai, Rila, Osogovo and Pirin mountains, as well 1886; Ghişa, 1964), Tătaru Peak (Ghişa, from the Western and Northern Rodopi 1964). Mountains (Stoianov et al., 1966). In the Cindrel Mountains the species The distribution of Symphyandra has been mentioned from the Cibin wanneri (Rochel) Heuffel, a Carpathian- Gorge/Cheile Cibinului Ungar, 1913; Balcanic-Anatolian species (Boşcaiu, 1971), Drăgulescu, 1995; Herbarium Heltmann, is mentioned in the Romanian flora from the Ungar: Herbarium of the Flora of Rodna Mountains (only locality in the Păltiniş/Hohe Rinne, Drăgulescu own field Eastern Carpathians), Făgăraş, Parâng, observation and sampling, !, Caprei Hill Retezat, Ţarcu, Vulcan, Lotru and Cozia (Fuss, 1846; Simonkai, 1886; Fuss, 1866; mountains (Ghişa, 1964), the main Ungar, 1913; Herbarium Fuss), Sadu distribution area being in the Southern Valley/Valea Sadului (Herbarium G. A.

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Kayser at Museum of Natural Sciences Mohorului (Guşuleac, 1956). In Bulgaria the Sibiu), Râu Sadului (Drăgulescu, 1995; species is mentioned from the Northern and Herbarium Drăgulescu at Museum of Western Stara Planina, from Rila Mountains, Natural Sciences Sibiu, !). Western and Northern Rodopi Mountains, For Lotru Mountains Symphyandra Osogova and Pirin mountains (Stoianov et wanneri is mentioned from Sădurel al., 1966). (Drăgulescu, 1995; Herbarium Drăgulescu at Compared to the above-mentioned Museum of Natural Sciences Sibiu), species of the alliance Silenion dowstream the lake Oaşa (Drăgulescu, !), lerchenfeldianae, all Carpathian-Balcanic Căprăreţ Valley (Drăgulescu and Benedek, elements, Silene dinarica Spreng., an 2005; Herbarium Hermann Schobel, and endemic element of Southern Carpathians field observations and sampling has a restricted area in the central part of Drăgulescu), Lotrioara Valley/Valea Făgăraş Mountains. The distribution map of Lotrioara (Drăgulescu, 1997, !), at Boarneşu the species well indicates the concentration (Buia et al., 1963), from Cataractele Lotrului of the species in the Făgăraş Mountains, (Drăgulescu, 2013; unpublished field data, with a small area in the Ţarcu-Godeanu !), Cheile Latoriţei (Drăgulescu, !), Cheile Mountains (Schneider-Binder and Voik, Rudăresei (Drăgulescu, !), amonte Ciungetu 1976). From the Făgăraş Mountains area the (Drăgulescu, !), Coasta lui Rusu 1,700 m following distribution data are recorded: (Pócs, 1961, 1962, 1967), Culmea Arsura Breaza Mountains (Schur, 1851, ap. south of Malaia (Drăgulescu, !), Dengheru- Simonkai, 1886; Andrae, 1853), Colţii Cioara (Ploaie et al., 2004), Ciocanele Brezei (Guşuleac, 1953); Piscului Peak, alt. Mountain (Grecescu, 1889; Guşuleac, 1953), 1,800 m (Ghişa, 1940); Zîrna, 1,800 m Cârligele Mountain (Grecescu, 1898; (Ghişa, 1940; Nyárády, 1941); Trăsnita Guşuleac, 1953), Latoriţei Muntains (Nyárády, 1941); Bîndea (Csató Exsiccata, (Delectus seminum 1973), Jidoaia Valley, ap. Szücs 1943); Sâmbăta Valley, alt. 2,000 1,200 m alt. (Drăgulescu, unpublished field m (Kotschy, 1853); Viştea Mare (Nyárády, data 2013), Voineşiţa Valley downstream 1911); Tărâţa (Fuss, 1866; Simonkai, 1886; the confluence with Jidoaia Valley Herbarium Ungar at Museum of Natural (Drăgulescu unpublished field data, !). Sciences Sibiu, 1906 and Herbarium Barth In the Bulgarian flora, Symphyandra leg. Ungar 1906, Museum of Natural wanneri is mentioned from the Northern and Sciences Sibiu); Arpaşul Mare (Fuss, 1846; Western part of the Stara Planina, Rila and Schur, 1866; Simonkai, 1886; Csató, 1890; Northern Rodopi (Smolijansko) Mountains. Tuzson, 1934; Guşuleac/Flora R. P. R. 1953, Symphyandra wanneri f. wanneri is Herbarium Fuss leg. Reissenberger 1855 and mentioned from the Western Balkan, at leg. Schur (without data), Herbarium Ungar, Kom, Togorini kukli Midshur and cliffs at leg. Reissenberger 1855, Exs. Bielz, Csató, Belogradshik, Symphyandra wanneri f. Kotschy, Simonkai ap. Szücs 1943, Flora pumila Stef. from Karlovski Balkan at Romaniae Exsiccata no. 1685, leg. Gürtler); Smolijansko and Symphyandra wanneri f. Podrăgel (Fuss, 1846; Schur, 1866; hirsuta from the Western part of the Rila Herbarium of the Transylvanian Society of Mountains, in particular the Valleys of the Natural Sciences at Sibiu); Vârtop (Tuzson Rila and Urdina rivers (Stoianov et al., 1934, Index Horti botanici Budapest, 1967). Herbarium Fuss leg. 1861 and Herbarium Another characteristic species for the Ungar leg. Fuss 1861); Capra Budei, alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae is the including Piciorul Caprei, Faţa Iezerului, Carpathian-Balcanic species Potentilla Groapa Mieilor (Guşuleac/Flora R.P.R. haynaldiana Janka, mentioned from 1953); Vânătoarea lui Buteanu, 2,508 m “siliceous rocks in the alpine region of (Hayek, 1916; Tuzson, 1934; Guşuleac, Parâng Mountains between 1,600-2,150 m” 1953); Vârful Netedu 2,351 m (Tuzson, and in Mehedinţi Mountains at Gaura 1934); Căprăreasa (Fuss, 1846; Herbarium

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Fuss 1840, Herbarium Ungar at Museum of In the Ţarcu-Godeanu Mountains the Natural Sciences at Sibiu); Bâlea species is mentioned from Scărişoara below Valley/Valea Bâlii (Csató, 1888; Guşuleac, Godeanu (Heuffel, 1858; Grecescu, 1898; 1953, Herbarium of the Botanical Institute Szücs, 1943; Guşuleac, 1953; Boşcaiu, of University Cluj-Napoca: leg. Bielz, 1971), Godeanu Mountain (Beldie, 1967; without date, leg. Gürtler, 1908, 1912, leg. Boşcaiu, 1971) and Pârâul Şes (Heuffel, Richter 1908, leg. Nyárády 1927); leg. 1858; Guşuleac, 1953; Boşcaiu, 1971). Schneider-Binder 1974, Herbarium at Distribution according to altitude and Museum of Natural Sciences Sibiu, Exs. ecological requirements of the characteristic Csató, Entz, Kárpáti, Trautmann, Zsák ap. species. (Szücs, 1943); Paltina (Guşuleac, 1953); Comparing the distribution data Negoi (Fuss, 1862), Herbarium Normale for Silene lerchenfeldiana, Silene dinarica, Transsilvanicum no. 98 leg. Reissenberger, Symphyndra wanneri and Potentilla Simonkai, 1886; Hayek, 1916; Guşuleac, haynaldiana in the Southern Carpathians, 1953; Herbarium Fuss and Museum of one can distinguish two species groups, Natural Sciences Sibiu, leg. Reissenberger the first with a distribution more at the 1844, Herbarium of the Transylvanian montane to subalpine level, including Society of Natural Sciences leg. Symphyandra wanneri and Silene Reissenberger, Herbarium of the Botanical lerchenfeldiana, the other with a distribution Institute of University Cluj-Napoca leg. more at the subalpine and alpine levels of Reissenberger; Strunga Ciobanului/ the Carpathians, and including mainly Silene Bergerscharte, altitude 2,330 m and 2,348 m dinarica. This last species is present at (leg. Schneider-B. and Voik 1973); Sărata the alpine level, the highest mentioned Valley/Valea Sărata/Drachensteig-Poteca occurrence point being on the Vânătoare Zmeului, altitude 1,550 m (leg. Schneider- lui Buteanu at 2,502 m (Hayek, 1916), but Binder 1971, leg. Schneider-Binder and this information is not confirmed. The Voik 1973); Muchia Şerbotei, altitude 1,850 highest registered point during own field m, 2,050 m, 2,060 m, 2,080 m, 2,100 m, researches was on the Negoi at 2,348 m and 2,180 m (leg. Schneider-Binder and Voik, on the ridge of Şerbota at 2,332 m. But the 1972); Şerbota Peak, alt. 2,332 m (leg. species also descends to the subalpine level Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1,073); and at least to that of the spruce forests Mâzgavul/Şerbota Mică, alt. 2,200 m (leg. (1,520-1,550 m) as it has been observed on Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1973); Puha the left side of Sărata Valley on the ridge of Crest/Creasta Puha, alt. 2,040 m, 2,050 m Şerbota. These occurrences at high altitude (leg. Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1972); and also at lower levels corresponds for the Gârbova, alt. 2,000 m and Avrigel Valley, Făgăraş Mountains, where this alt. 1,520 m, 1,700 m (leg. Schneider and differentiation according to altitude, Voik, 1973); Bârcaciu (Fuss 1846); Clăbucet exemplified for Silene lerchenfeldiana and – Muchia Racoviceanu (Csató, 1892); Surul Silene dinarica, is clearly visible. In this Fuss ap. Grisebach and Schenk, Iter Hung. area there exists a small overlap of both no. 55, alt. 1,920 m, (leg. Voik 1973). species at the altitude of 1,520-1,620 m (Fig. At the Herbarium of the Museum of 1, lines I and II), including phytocoenoses Natural Science at Sibiu there are also some with both species (Schneider-Binder and samples with the citation “Transylvanian Voik, 1976). From the southern part of Alps” (meaning Făgăraş Mountains), Făgăraş Mountains, at Capra Budei without any other specification collected by and Râiosu Mountains near to the storage Schur 1851, probably on the Arpaş lake of Vidraru, Silene lerchenfeldiana is Mountains, and collected by Kladny 1837 mentioned at an altitude of 700-750 m also probably from Arpaş Mountains as (Stancu, 2005). botanical researches of these authors are known from this area.

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On the Cindrel Mountains Silene can be observed that Silene lerchenfeldiana lerchenfeldiana has been observed at Grosu is present at the upper montane level, Mountain in the Sadu Valley on the altitude the subalpine and as well the alpine of 970 m (Drăgulescu, 1995, Fig. 1) and level (Fig. 1, line V, Parâng; line VI Retezat; in the Lotru Mountains around the altitude line VII Ţarcu-Godeanu) reaching altitudes of 955 m (Drăgulescu, 2013; unpublished of 2,040 m in the Retezat Mountains field data, Fig. 1). As one goes further (Boşcaiu et al., 1977) and about 2,160 m in West in the Carpathians to the Parâng, the Ţarcu-Godeanu Mountains (Boşcaiu, Retezat and Ţarcu-Godeanu mountains, it 1971).

Figure 1: Altitudinal distribution (600-2,400 m) of Silene dinarica in the Făgăraş Mountains (I) and Silene lerchenfeldiana in Făgăraş- (II), Lotru- (III), Cindrel- (IV), Parâng- (V), Retezat- (VI) and Ţarcu-Godeanu (VII) Mountains.

With regard to the ecological lerchenfeldiana, Symphyandra wanneri and requirement of the main characteristic Silene dinarica, all being xero-mesophytes, species of the alliance Silenion and different for Potentilla haynaldiana, lerchenfeldianae, these are almost the same which is a mesophilous species (Tab. 1). for Silene lerchenfeldiana and Symphyandra With regard to soil reaction the main wanneri, and very nearly so also for characteristic species are those that are Potentilla haynaldiana, but somewhat acido-neutrophilous. Dianthus henteri and different for Silene dinarica. Considering Senecio glaberrimus, differential species for temperature, the first three are microtherme regional communities have partly also species, but the last, Silene dinarica, is a similar ecological requirements concerning typical hechistothermic (criophilous) species humidity and temperature (Tab. 1). Different adapted to the conditions of the alpine level are the requirements of Saxifraga in the Carpathians. The indicator values for pedemontana subsp. cymosa, which denotes humidity are the same for Silene also communities included in the alliance

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Silenion lerchenfeldianae at the subalpine to Drăgulescu) having at this level other alpine level, where the species colonises wet temperature requirements as at the alpine crevices of siliceous rocks together with the level of the Carpathians. This fact bryophytes Polytrichum juniperinum and P. demonstrates that the ecological amplitude formosum (Schneider-Binder and Voik, of Saxifraga pedemontana ssp. cymosa is 1977). But the species were found also at greater than known at present and further the montane and even at the lowest montane studies are needed to clarify the ecology of level in the Lotru and Cindrel Mountains, the species and subspecies and as well the in other species combinations (obs. phytocoenological data.

Table 1: Ecological and distribution data for the main characteristic species of Silenion lerchenfeldianae. Flora Name of the Ind. value Ind. value Ind. value Altitudinal Bioform element species U T R level Silene montan- H (Ch) Carp-Balc 2 2 3 lerchenfeldiana subalpine Symphyandra Montan- H Carp-Balc 2 2 3 wanneri subalpine Montan- Potentilla H Carp-Balc 3 2 3 subalpine- haynaldiana (alpine) Subalpine- H Carp. End Silene dinarica 2 1 0 alpine Dianthus H Carp. End. 2 3.5 4 montane henteri Senecio Subalpine- H Carp-Balc 3 1.5 4.5 glaberiimus alpine Saxifraga (Montane) Ch Carp-Balc pedemontana 4 1.5 3 Subalpine- ssp. cymosa alpine

Phytocoenological characteristics of observed in the Parâng Mountains (Simon the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae and and Pócs, 2012), Lotru Mountains at their associations. Cataractele Lotrului (Drăgulescu, 2013) and The alliance including the Făgăraş Mountains at Sărata Valley on the chasmophytic vegetation of siliceous so called “Drachensteig” area (Schneider- rocks is limited in its distribution to the Binder and Voik, 1976). Southern Carpathians, the main It is known that from the Southern characteristic species for the alliance Carpathians area the following associations Silenion lerchenfeldianae there being of the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae Silene lerchenfeldiana, Symphyandra have been mentiond in the specific wanneri, Potentilla haynaldiana, Silene scientific literature (Simon, 1958; Simon dinarica and, according to Simon and Pócs and Pócs, 2012; Borza and Boşcaiu, 1965; (2012), also Thymus praecox Opiz ssp. Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976, 1977; polytrichus (A. Kern ex Borbás) Jalas (= Boşcaiu et al., 1977; Coldea 1991; Thymus balcanus Borbás) identifying Drăgulescu, 1995; Stancu, 2002, 2005; phytocoenoses of different associations. Sanda et al., 2008): They form “curtain-like” communities, – Sileno lerchenfeldianae-Potentilletum hanging out from the crevices on the haynaldianae (Horvat et al., 1937) Simon perpendicular rock walls, as has been 1958, first mention from Parâng Mountains

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(Simon, 1958; Simon and Pócs, 2012 with Mică Peak (Schneider-Binder and Voik, five samples), below Parângul Mic at Barbu 1977; Puşcaru-Soroceanu et al., 1981). Mountain (Schneider-Binder ap. Heltmann Due to the open character of these rel. 1970 mscr., Coldea, 1991). phytocoenoses, locally being developed only – Senecioni glaberrimi-Silenetum fragmentally and with low degree of cover, lerchenfeldianae Boşcaiu et al., 1977: the classification and delineation of the Retezat Mountains (Boşcaiu et al., 1977) phytocoenological units is difficult and table with five samples. possible only through comparison of a large – Asplenio septentrionali-Silenetum sample of material (Tab. 2). lerchenfeldianae Horvat 1936; groups of On the basis of the samples from Silene lerchenfeldiana-Symphyandra different mountain massifs of the Southern wanneri from Râu Sadului-Dl. Grosu, 670- Carpathians such are Făgăraş, Lotru, 1,000 m (Drăgulescu, 1995); Cindrel, Parâng, Retezat and Ţarcu-Godeanu symphyandretosum: Râu Sadului-Fundu mountains the units can be delineated on the Râului and Sădurel (Drăgulescu, 1995) base of characteristic species and as well – Diantho henteri-Silenetum differential species which are characteristic lerchenfeldianae Stancu 2002 (overlapping for some area (Tab. 2). Silene partially with groupings of Silene lerchenfeldiana occurs in different species lerchenfeldiana-Symphyandra wanneri and combinations and abundance-dominance Silene lerchenfeldiana-Symphyandra values. For Lotru, Cindrel and Făgăraş wanneri symphyandretosum). mountains the species combination of Silene – Silene lerchenfeldiana-Symphyandra lerchenfeldiana with Symphyandra wanneri wanneri groupings: Sărata Valley is characteristic, in particular at the montane (Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976 and and as well the subalpine level. The two 1977), Şerbota Valley (Schneider-Binder species frequently occur together, but also and Voik, 1976 and 1977). independent of one another, so that typical Coenoses with Silene symphyandretosum subunits have been lerchenfeldiana: Avrigel Valley (Schneider- delineated (Drăgulescu, 1995). On the lower Binder and Voik, 1976), Sărata Valley altitudes of Lotru Mountains and Făgăraş (Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976) Mountains at Vidraru (Capra Budei and – Silenetum dinaricae Schneider-Binder Râiosu mountains) there occurs as a and Voik, 1976 was first described on the differential species Dianthus henteri, a basis of 20 samples taken at altitudes from Southern Carpathian endemic species and 1,850-2,400 m in the area of Şerbota and other species more characteristic of the Negoi (Schneider Binder and Voik 1976 and montane level (Tab. 2, column 1 and 2). 1977) from the following sites: Strunga This is why an association identified by Ciobanului (Schneider-Binder and Voik, Silene lerchenfeldiana and Dianthus henteri 1976, 1977; Puşcaru-Soroceanu et al., 1981), has been described (Stancu, 2005). But Avrigel/Avrig Valley (Schneider-Binder and Dianthus henteri occurs as well in Voik, 1977; Puşcaru-Soroceanu et al., 1981), phytocoenoses that are classified as part of Sărata Valley (Schneider-Binder and Voik, the association Asplenio septentrionalis- 1977, Puşcaru-Soroceanu et al., 1981), Silenetum lerchenfeldianae, being strongly Şerbotei Valley (Voik, 1976, with sampling, interlocked (Drăgulescu, 1995). Schneider-Binder and Voik 1977, Puşcaru- At the subalpine level of the Făgăraş Soroceanu et al., 1981), Ciortea Peak, Mountains a typical combination of Silene Gârbova Peak (Schneider-Binder and Voik, lerchenfeldiana with Symphyndra wanneri 1977; Puşcaru-Soroceanu et al., 1981), occurs (Tab. 2, column 3). This is where Paltinu Peak at 2,380 m (Drăgulescu, !), also an interlocking with stands of Silene Suru Peak pe Fruntea Moaşei (Schneider- dinarica has been observed and described Binder and Voik, 1977; Puşcaru-Soroceanu (Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976). The et al., 1981), Şerbota Mare Peak and Şerbota phytocoenoses of Silene lerchenfeldiana and

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Sympyhandra wanneri at the subalpine level 2012). From the Retezat Mountains can be considered as good delineated units have been described on the base of which can be considered on the basis of five the species combination of Silene samples to be an association under the lerchenfeldiana and Senecio glaberrimus, provisional name Symphyandro wanneri- the association Senecio glaberrimi- Silenetum lerchenfeldianae. Further material Silenetum lerchenfeldianae Boşcaiu et al. would be needed to confirm this proposal. 1977 (Boşcaiu et al., 1977). In the studied At the subalpine, but mainly at the phytocoenoses Senecio glaberrimus occurs alpine level typical phytocoenoses of Silene with high constancy, together with Silene dinarica occur. This species takes part of lerchenfeldiana (Tab. 2, column 7). those endemic Carpathian species which are It seems that Senecio glaberrimus is used for the delineation of like Dianthus henteri a differential species phytogeographical subunits of the for the association, but it has to be studied Carpathians (Borza and Boşcaiu, 1965), and confirmed on the basis of future studies being recognised already by Pax (1908) as a derived from more comprehensive “Character species of the Transylvanian phytocoenological material, whether they Alpes”. The identifying species can occur can be considerated only as regional variants together with species of alpine grasslands, if of the Asplenio septentrionali-Silenetum the inclination of the rocks is lower than lerchenfeldianae, or have to be considered as 80°. As a differential species for the independent phytocoenological units. For a community there occurs Veronica clarification also the area of Symphyandra baumgarteni (Tab. 2, columns 4 and 5). wanneri has to be further studied as a very For the Parâng Mountains is characteristic characteristic species of the alliance which the association Sileno lerchenfeldianae- has the same ecological requirements as Potentilletum haynaldianae (Horvat et al., Silene lerchenfeldiana. As Symphyandra 1937) Simon 1958, a rare relict community, wanneri occurs on lower altitudes frequently which occurs in the Carpathians only in without Silene lerchenfeldiana, further the Parâng Mountains (Tab. 2, column 6), researches have to confirm whether or not other occurences being only in the Bulgarian the delineation of a new phytocoenlogical Rila and Pirin mountains (Simon and Pócs, unit would be justified.

Table 2: Plant communities of the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae. Number of column 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lo- Fa Fa Fa Fa Pa Re Ci Number of samples included 8 5 5 20 10 5 6

Silenion lerchenfeldianae Silene lerchenfeldiana III V V II ‒ IV V Symphyandra wanneri IV ‒ IV ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Potentilla haynaldiana ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ V ‒ Silene dinarica ‒ ‒ I V V ‒ ‒ Saxifraga pedemontana ssp. cymosa I ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒

Differential species Veronica baumgarteni ‒ ‒ ‒ II II ‒ ‒ Thymus praecox ssp. polytrichus ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ V ‒ Dianthus tenuifolius ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ IV ‒ Dianthus henteri II V ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Alyssoides utriculata var. graeca ‒ I ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Senecio glaberrimus ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ V

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Table 2 (continued): Synthetic presentation of plant communities of the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae. Number of column 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lo- Fa Fa Fa Fa Pa Re Ci Number of samples included 8 5 5 20 10 5 6

Asplenietalia septentrionalis Asplenium septentrionale IV ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Asplenium trichomanes II III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Asplenium x alternifolium II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Jovibarba heuffelii II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Poa nemoralis IV II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Polypodium vulgare IV I ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒

Asplenietea rupestris Cystopteris fragilis II II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Asplenium ruta-muraria - III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Thymus comosus I III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Veronica bachofeni I IV ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Saxifraga paniculata I III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Valeriana tripteris ‒ III III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Alyssum saxatile I II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Silene nutans ssp. dubia II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Sedum hispanicum II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Saxifraga cuneifolia ‒ ‒ IV ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒

Other species Juncus trifidus IV I IV IV IV V V Festuca airoides I ‒ ‒ IV V V ‒ Luzula spicata ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ V ‒ Polytrichum formosum II ‒ II I ‒ ‒ ‒ Huperzia selago ‒ I ‒ II III ‒ ‒ Phyteuma nanum ‒ I ‒ III III ‒ ‒ Solidago virgaurea III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ IV Rhododendron myrtifolium ‒ ‒ ‒ II II ‒ ‒ Carex curvula ‒ ‒ ‒ II I ‒ ‒ Campanula alpina ‒ ‒ ‒ II - ‒ ‒ Primula minima ‒ ‒ ‒ III IV ‒ ‒ Grimmia apocarpa ‒ ‒ ‒ II - ‒ ‒ Alectoria ochroleuca ‒ ‒ ‒ II III ‒ ‒ Thamnolia vermicularis ‒ ‒ ‒ III IV ‒ ‒ Oreochloa disticha ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ II ‒ ‒ Vaccinium gaultherioides ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ II ‒ ‒ Vaccinium vitis-idaea ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ II ‒ ‒ Cnidium silaifolium I I ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Phegopteris connectilis II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Sedum telephium ssp. maximum II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Galium kitaibelianum II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒

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Table 2 (continued): Synthetic presentation of plant communities of the alliance Silenion lerchenfeldianae. Number of column 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lo- Fa Fa Fa Fa Pa Re Ci Number of samples included 8 5 5 20 10 5 6

Spiraea ulmifolia II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Galium lucidum ‒ IV ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Centaurea rhenana ‒ III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Scrophularia heterophylla laciniata ‒ III ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Festuca rupicola ssp. saxatilis ‒ II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Sempervivum marmoreum ‒ II ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ Column 1: 5 samples from Lotru Mountains and 3 from Cindrel Mountains (Drăgulescu) Column 2: Făgăraş-Mountains: 5 samples Capra Budei-Râiosu/Vidraru (Stancu, 04.08.2005) Column 3: Făgăraş Mountains, 5 samples from Valea Sărata (Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976) Column 4: Făgăraş Mountains, 20 samples around Şerbota and Negoi (Schneider-Binder and Voik, 1976) Column 5: Făgăraş Mountains, 10 samples from Şerbota area (Voik, 1976) Column 6: Parâng Mountains, 5 samples (Simon and Pócs, 2012) Column 7: Retezat Mountains, 5 samples (Boşcaiu, Täuber and Coldea, 1977) and one sample from Gemenele (Drăgulescu, 1993 unpublished data) Species with frequency I in one site: column 1: Asplenium adiantum-nigrum Campanula glomerata, Epilobium collinum, Melica ciliata, Hieracium sabaudum, Veronica urticifolia; column 2: Inula ensifolia column 5: Carex sempervirens, Agrostis rupestris, Thymus pulcherrimus column 7: Asplenium viride, Cystopteris regia, Campanula kladniana, Gentiana punctata Lo-Ci = Lotru and Cindrel Mountains, Fa = Făgăraş-Mountains, Pa = Parâng Mountains, Re = Retezat Mountains.

As we have stated, there are clear Dianthus henteri, an endemic species for differences between communities denoted the Southern Carpathians, but also species by Silene lerchenfeldiana at the higher of the higher syntaxonomical ranges of levels of the mountains compared to those of the Asplenietalia septentrionalis and the lower montane levels, descending in the Asplenietea rupestris gives a different gorges of the rivers to an altitude of 880 m picture of the phytocoenoses in comparison in the Cibin Valley Gorge/Cindrel with those of the higher mountain levels. Mountains or an altitude of only 635 m at With high frequency occurs Asplenium Călineşti Valley in the Lotru Mountains septentrionale, Polypodium vulgare and (Fig. 1, Tab. 2). Recent researches and Poa nemoralis. The interlocking with sampling in the Lotru Mountains realised in phytocoenoses identified by the above- 2013 (Drăgulescu, unpublished data) is mentioned species has also to be studied, as showing a species combination of Silene well as the rocky phytoceonoses in which lerchenfeldiana with other characteristic Veronica bachofeni occurs. species at lower altitude. Species such as

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Table 2 (continued): Phytoceonoses of the Silenion lerchenfeldianae alliance from the Lotru and Cindrel mountains (field sampling by C. Drăgulescu). Number of sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cindrel and Lotru mountains Ci Lo Ci Lo Lo Lo Lo Ci

Silenion lerchenfeldianae Silene lerchenfeldiana 2 1 1 1 . . . . III Symphyandra wanneri . . . + 2 3 1 2 IV Saxifraga pedemontana cymosa . . . . + . . . I Dif. Dianthus henteri . . . + . + 1 . II

Asplenietalia septentrionalis Asplenium septentrionale + . 1 . 1 + 1 + IV Poa nemoralis + . . 1 + . 1 + IV Polypodium vulgare . + . + + . + + IV Asplenium trichomanes . + . + . . . + II Asplenium x alternifolium 1 . 1 . . . . . II Asplenium adiantum-nigrum . . . + . . . . I Jovibarba heuffelii . + . + . + . . II

Asplenietea rupestris Cystopteris fragilis . + . + . . . + II Thymus comosus . + ...... I Veronica bachofeni ...... + . I Silene nutans ssp. dubia . . + + . . . + II Sedum hispanicum . + . + . + . . II Alyssum saxatile . . . . . 1 . . I

Varia syntaxa Juncus trifidus 1 . + + + + . . IV Solidago virgaurea . . . + + . + + III Phegopteris connectilis . + . + . . . + II Sedum telephium ssp. maximum . + . + . . . . II Veronica urticifolia . + . . . . . + II Galium kitaibelianum . + . . . . + . II Spiraea ulmifolia . . 1 . . . . + II Cnidium silaifolium . . . + . . . . I Campanula glomerata . . . + . . . . I Epilobium collinum ...... + . I Melica ciliata ...... + . I Hieracium sabaudum ...... + . I Festuca airoides . . . . . 1 . . I Polytrichum formosum 1 1 . . . + . . II

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Locality and date of sampling: 1. Cindrel Mountains, Sadu Valley on 20%, Drăgulescu 01.08.2013, Diantho Grosu Hill, 970 m alt, aspect E-SE, henteri-Silenetum lerchenfeldianae; slope 80°, S. sample 6 m2, cover 20%, 5. Lotru Mountains, Sadu River valley at Drăgulescu, 02.08.1978; Fundu Râului 670 m alt., asp. N, slope 2. Lotru Mountains, Cataractele Lotrului, 80-90°, S. sample 6 m2, cover 20%, latitude 45°27’38.3” longitude Drăgulescu 03.08.1978; 23°53’36.3, altitude 952 m, asp. SW, 6. Lotru Mountains at Sădurel 770 m alt., slope 90°, S. sample 20 m², cover asp. NE, slope 85°, S. sample 4 m2, 35%, Drăgulescu, 01.08.2013; cover 15%, Drăgulescu, 03.08.1978; 3. Cindrel Mountains, Sadu Valley on Mr. 7. Lotru Mountains, Călineşti Valley, 635 Grosu 950 m, asp. E, slope 90°, S m alt., geographical position latitude sample 4 m2, cover 15%, Drăgulescu, 45°23’35”, longitude 24°13’22”, asp. 08.07.1980; E slope 60°, S. sample 6 m2, cover 4. Lotru Mountains, Cataractele Lotrului, 25%, Drăgulescu, 05.04.2014; latitude, 45°27’43.5”, longitude 8. Cindrel Mountains, gorge of the Cibin (degrees, minutes, seconds) River/Cibin Gorge, 880 m alt., latitude 23°52’30,7”, altitude 955 m, asp. SW, 45°42’00”, longitude 23°54’00”, asp. slope 85°, S. sample 10 m², cover E, slope 85°, S. sample 9 m2, cover 20%, Drăgulescu, 26.07.1989.

CONCLUSIONS The alliance Silenion aspects laying in the Tertiary, but also in lerchenfeldianae with all its included the interglacial ages and the postglacial associations – most of them relict, rare and periods. with a small distribution area – are of With all their aspects the associations outstanding interest from the phyto- integrated into the alliance Silenion geographical and phyto-historical point of lerchenfeldianae form an essential part of view. There are regional differences the Helleno-Balcano-Carpathian subtype of between the above-mentioned communities the habitat type 8220, an important regional with interlockings between the contribution for the European Natura 2000 phytocoenoses, which according to the network. authors are included in different units. These For a larger overview it is of crucial phytoceonological units and subunits are importance to continue the studies with dependent upon the geo-morphological and additional sampling which can assure the climatic conditions, i.e. changing confirmation of the present association temperature and humidity according to classification, to delineate in detail regional the altitude at which the phytocoenoses units and subunits within the frame of occur, but also in relation to phytohistorical associations.

SELECTIVE REFERENCES Baumgarten J. C. G., 1816 – Enumeratio Borza A. and Boşcaiu N., 1965 – stirpium Magno Transilvaniae Introducere în studiul covorului Principatui praeprimis indigenarum, vegetal, Edit. Academiei R. S. R., t. I. Vindobonae. Bucureşti, 340. (in Romanian) Beldie A., 1967 – Endemismele şi Borza A., Boşcaiu N. and Raţiu F., 1967 – elementele dacice din flora Systematische und anatomische Carpaţilor româneşti, Comunicări de Betrachtungen über Silene Botanică, A V-a consfătuire de lerchenfeldiana Baumg, Revue geobotanică, 113-120, Bucureşti. (in Roumaine de Biologie, Série Romanian) Botanique, 12, 267-271. (in German)

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Boşcaiu N., 1971 – Flora şi vegetaţia Drăgulescu C., 1997 – Flora şi vegetaţia Munţilor Ţarcu, Godeanu şi Cernei, Văii Lotrioara, Munţii Lotrului Edit. Academiei Române, Bucureşti, (Ştefleşti), Acta Oecologica 494. (in Romanian) Carpatica, University “Lucian Boşcaiu N., Täuber F. and Coldea G., 1977 – Blaga”, of Sibiu, IV, 1-2, 31-45. (in Asociaţii vegetale rupicole şi petrofile Romanian) din Munţii Retezatului, Studii şi Drăgulescu C., 1999 – Flora şi vegetaţia comunicări de Ocrotirea Naturii Cheilor Cibinului (jud. Sibiu), Suceava, 253-264. (in Romanian) Agresses, Studii şi Comunicări, Botsch J.-H., 1991 – Flora und Vegetation Muzeul judeţean Argeş, Piteşti, VII, des Podragu-Tales im Fogarascher 73-80. (in Romanian) Gebirge (Südkarpaten), Naturwiss. Drăgulescu C., 1999 – Flora şi vegetaţia Forschungen über Siebenbürgen, IV circului glaciar Arpăşel (Munţii Böhlau Verlag Köln, Weimar, Wien, Făgăraşului), Agressis, Studii şi 121-176. (in German) Comunicări, Ştiinţe Naturale, Braun-Blanquet J., 1964 – Muzeul judeţean Argeş, Piteşti VIII, Pflanzensoziologie, 3. Auflage, 79-89. (in Romanian) Springer Wien, New York, 865. (in Drăgulescu C., 2000 – The flora of the Bâlea German) glacial circus, Acta Oecologica, Buia A., Păun M., Maloş C. and Olaru M., Sibiu, VII, 1-2, 5-24. 1963 – Materiale pentru flora Drăgulescu C., 2010 ‒ Cormoflora judeţului Masivului Parâng, Lucrările Sibiu, Edit. Universităţii “Lucian Grădinii Botanicie din Bucureşti, Blaga”, Sibiu, 831. (in Romanian) 1961-1962, 1, 267-297. (in Drăgulescu C., 1995 – Flora şi vegetaţia din Romanian) bazinul Văii Sadului, Edit. Constant, Coldea G., 1991 – Prodrome des Sibiu, 355. (in Romanian) Associations Vegetales des Carpates Drăgulescu C. and Benedek A.-M., 2005 – du Sud-Est (Carpates Roumaines), The flora and vegetation of Valea Documents Phytosociologiques, Vadului (Căprăreţ Valley), Lotru Nouvelle Serie, 13, 1-540. (in French) Mountains, Romania, Acta Csató J., 1890 – Füvészeti kirándulás az Oecologica Carpatica, XII, 1-2, Arpásra (Botanical excursion on the Sibiu, 45-54. Arpaş Mountain), Magyar Fuss M., 1866 – Flora Transsilvaniae Növénytani Lapok, 14, 5-12. (in Excursoria, Cibinii, 864. Hungarian) Fuss M., 1846 ‒ Verzeichnis derjenigen Delectus seminum Horti Botanici Pflanzen, welche entweder Universitas Napocensis, Cluj, 1973. ausschließlich oder doch Dihoru G. and Negrean G., 2009 – Cartea hauptsächlich in Siebenbürgen roşie a plantelor din România. wildwachsend angetroffen werden, Bucureşti, Edit. Academiei Române, nebst Angabe des Fundortes und der Bucureşti, 630. (in Romanian) wichtigsten Synonymen. Archiv des Doniţă N., Popescu A., Paucă-Comănescu Vereins für Siebenbürgische M., Mihăilescu S. and Biriş I.-A., Landeskunde, Alte Reihe II, 349- 2005 – Habitatele din România, Edit. 391. (in German) Tehnică Silvică, Bucureşti, 496. (in Ghişa E., 1940 – Contribuţii la studiul Romanian) fitosociologic al Munţilor Drăgulescu C., 1980 – Note floristice din Făgăraşului, Buletinul Grădinii bazinul Vaii Sadului, Studii şi Botanice Cluj, 20, 127-141. (in Comunicări, Științe Naturale, Romanian) Muzeul de Istorie Naturală Sibiu, 24, 119-130. (in Romanian)

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Ghişa E., 1964 – Genul Symphyandra A. Jávorka S., 1925 – Flora Hungarica, DC, 128-131, in Nyárády E. I. (red.), Budapest, A “Studium” kiadása, Flora Republicii Populare Române, 1307. Edit. Academiei Republicii Populare Kotschy T., 1853 – Beiträge zur Kenntnis Române, 996. (in Romanian) des Alpenlandes in Siebenbürgen, Gafta D. and Montford O. (coord.), 2008 – Verhandlungen der Zoologisch- Manual de interpretare a habitatelor Botanischen Gesellschaft Wien, 3, Natura 2000 din România, Risoprint, 271-276. (in German) Cluj-Napoca, 101. (in Romanian) Nyárády A., 1941 – A Brazai Grecescu D., 1898 ‒ Conspectul Florei havasokflórájárol és növényzetéröl României, Bucureşti, 836. (in (Flora and vegetation of Breaza Romanian) Mountains), Acta Botanica Grecescu D., 1909 ‒ Supliment la Hungarica, 4, 241-264. (in Conspectul Florei României, Hungarian) Bucureşti, 220. (in Romanian) Nyárády E. I., 1911 – Kirándulás a Făgăraş Guşuleac M., 1953 – Fam. Caryophyllaceae: Havasokba (Excursion in the Făgăraş genurile Behen, Polyschemone, Mountains), Magyar Botanikai Silene, Heliosperma, 131 – 186, in Lapok, 10, 77-83. (in Hungarian) Săvulescu T. (red.), 1953 – Flora Nyárády E. I., 1955 – Vegetaţia muntelui Republicii Populare Române, Edit. Cozia şi câteva plante noi pentru Academiei Republicii Populare flora Olteniei, Moldovei şi Române, Bucureşti, 702. (in Transilvaniei, Buletin Ştiinţific, Romanian) Secţia Ştiințe Biologice, Agronomie, Guşuleac M., 1956 – Fam. Rosaceae genul Geologie şi Geografie, V, 2, 209- Potentilla, 597-660, in Săvulescu T. 246. (in Romanian) (red.), Flora Republicii Populare Oprea A., 2005 – Lista critică a plantelor Române, Edit. Academiei R.P.R., vasculare din România, Edit. Bucureşti. (in Romanian) Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Hayek A. V., 1916 – Die Pflanzendecke Iaşi, 668. (in Romanian) Österreich-Ungarns, Auf Grund Pawlowski B., 1970 – Remarques sur fremder und eigener Forschungen l’endemisme dans la flore des Alpes geschildert, 1, Franz Deutioke et des Carpates, Vegetation, 11, 4-6, Leipzig und Wien, 602. (in German) 181-243. (in French) Heuffel J., 1958 – Diagnosen neuer oder Pax F., 1908 – Grundzüge der verwechselter Pflanzen-Arten aus Pflanzenverbreitung in den dem Banat, Österreichische Karpathen, II, Verlag von Wilhelm Botanische Zeitschrift, 7, 118, 222- Engelmann Leipzig, 302. (in 224, 286-287, Wien. (in German) German) Horvat I., Glavac V. and Ellenberg H., 1974 Ploaie G., 1999 ‒ Natura sălbatică din ‒ Vegetation Südosteuropas, Gustav Vâlcea, Edit. Prisma Râmnicu Fischer Verlag Jena, 768. (in Vâlcea, 129. (in Romanian) German) Ploaie G. and Ionescu A., 2011 ‒ Horvat I., Pawlowski B. and Walas J., 1937 Biodiversitate şi protecţia naturii ‒ Phytosoziologische Studien über în zona judeţului Vâlcea, Edit. die Hochgebirgsvegetation der Rila Proşcoala Râmnicu Vâlcea, 312. (in Planina in Bulgarien, Bulletin de Romanian) l’Académie Polonaise des Sciences, Series B des Sciences Naturelles, 8, 159-189. (in German)

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Ploaie G., Nicolescu E. and Ploaie G. Jr., Schneider-Binder E. and Voik W., 1977 ‒ 2004 ‒ Date preliminare privind Privire generală asupra vegetaţiei înfiinţarea unei rezervaţii naturale crăpăturilor de stânci (Asplenietea Dengheru-Cioara din Munţii Parâng, rupestris Br.-Bl. 1934) din Carpaţii Analele Universității Craiova, României, Comunicări de botanică, Facultatea De Horticultură, volum Bucureşti, 205-216. (in Romanian) omagial, VII (XLIII), 111-120. (in Schur F., 1852 – Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Romanian) Flora von Siebenbürgen, II, Pócs T., 1961 ‒ Flore du massif du Parâng Uebersicht der auf den Arpascher (Carpathes méridionaux en Alpen Ende July 1849 und 50 Roumanie), Fragmenta Botanica gesammelten und beobachteten Musei Historiae Naturalis Pflanzen, Verhandlungen und Hungaricae, 1, 49-128. (in French) Mitteilungen des Siebenbürgischen Pócs T., 1962 ‒ Flore du massif du Parâng Vereins für Naturwissenschaften zu (Carpathes méridionaux en Hermannstadt, III, 6, 84-93. (in Roumanie), Fragmenta Botanica German) Musei Historiae Naturalis Schur F., 1857 – Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Hungaricae, 2, 73-130. (in French) siebenbürgischen Eichen, Pócs T., 1967 ‒ Flore du massif du Parâng Oesterreichische Botanische (Carpathes méridionaux en Zeitschrift, Wien, VII, 1-4, 9-10, 17- Roumanie), Fragmenta Botanica 22. (in German) Musei Historiae Naturalis Simon T., 1958 ‒ Über die alpinen Hungaricae, 5, 69-98. (in French) Pflanzengesellschaften des Pirin- Prodan I., 1939 – Flora pentru determinarea Gebirges, Acta Botanica Academiae şi descrierea plantelor ce cresc în Scientiarum Hungaricae, 4, 159-189. România, Second edition, I, 1, Cluj, (in German) 624. (in Romanian) Simon T. and Pócs T., 2012 – New aspects Puşcaru-Soroceanu E., Csürös S., Puşcaru of the alpine vegetation of Parâng D., Popova-Cucu A., 1981 ‒ Die Mountains (South Carpathians), Vegetation der Wiesen und Weiden Journal of Plant Development, 19, des Făgăraş-Gebirges in den 99-129. Südkarpaten, Phytocoenologia, 9, 3, Stancu D. I., 2002 ‒ Flora şi vegetaţia 257-309. (in German) munţilor Râiosu şi Buda, Masivul Sanda V., Öllerer K. and Burescu P., 2008 – Făgăraş, Teză de doctorat, Academia Fitocenozele din România. Română Bucureşti. (in Romanian) Sintaxonomie, structură, dinamică şi Stancu D. I., 2005 – Flora şi vegetaţia evoluţie, Ars docendi, Universitatea Munţilor Râiosu şi Buda, Masivul Bucureşti, 570. (in Romanian) Făgăraş, Edit. Universităţii din Sanda V., Popescu A., Doltu M. I. and Piteşti, 226, ISBN 973-690-442-3. Doniţă N., 1983 – Caracterizarea (in Romanian) ecologică şi fitocenologică a Stoianov N., Stefanov B. and Kitanov B., speciilor spontane din flora 1966 – Flora na Bulgaria, 4, României, Studii şi Comunicări, improuved and enlarged edition, part Muzeul Brukenthal, Ştiinţe Naturale, I, Nauka i iskustvo, 563. (in 25, volum supliment, Sibiu, 126. (in Bulgarian) Romanian) Stoianov N., Stefanov B. and Kitanov B., Schneider-Binder E. and Voik W., 1976 – 1967 – Flora na Bulgaria, 4, Chorologische und zönologische improuved and enlarged edition, part Untersuchungen über Silene dinarica II, Nauka i iskustvo, 1325. (in Spreng, Linzer biologische Beiträge, Bulgarian). 8, 1, 23-39. (in German)

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AUTHORS:

1 Constantin DRAGULESCU [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Dr. Ioan Raţiu Street 5-7, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

2 Erika SCHNEIDER-BINDER [email protected], [email protected]

KIT – University of Land Baden-Württemberg, National Research Centre of the Helmholtz Society, Institute for Geography and Geoecology, Division WWF-Institute for Floodplains Ecology, Josefstrasse 1, Rastatt, Germany, D-76437.

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ACHIEVEMENT OF REPRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL AND SOME METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF REPRODUCTIVE CAPACITY IN CILIATES

Elena SILITRARI 1, Andrei SILITRARI 2 and Elena ROŞCOV 3

KEYWORDS: ciliates, Infusoria, Paramaecium caudatum, Hyflick’s, binary division, reproductive potential.

ABSTRACT This study has been initiated to show impossible to estimate in natural conditions the reproductive potential and some methods which are complex and vary permanently. of assessment of reproductive capacity in The research tried to determine the longevity Ciliates. The reproductive capacity of of Infusoria, the number of bunary division, unicellular organisms by binary division was and the number of generations after the determined depending on the age of the sexuated multiplication process. It was population. The reproduction of organisms based on the ciliate protozoa model.The was made “in vitro” because the observation basic culture used in investigation is of some particularities of the Ciliates is Paramecium caudatum.

REZUMAT: Realizarea potenṭialului reproductiv şi unele metode de cuantificare a capacităṭii de reproducere la ciliate. Acest studiu a fost elaborat pentru a condiṭii naturale, condiṭii care sunt arăta potenṭialul reproductiv şi unele metode complexe şi dinamice în permanenṭă. de cuantificare a capacităṭii de reproducere Cercetările încearcă să determine la ciliate. Astfel, a fost determinată longevitatea pentru Infusoria, numărul de capacitatea de reproducere a unor organisme diviziuni binare şi numărul de generaṭii după unicelulare, prin diviziune binară, în funcție procesul de multiplicare sexuată. Studiul de vârsta populației. Reproducerea este bazat pe modelul protozoarelor ciliate şi organismelor a fost făcută „in vitro” cultura de bază utilizată în investigaṭii este deoarece observarea anumitor particularităṭi constituită din specia Paramaecium ale ciliatelor este imposibil a fi estimată în caudatum.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Die Erzielung des Reproduktionspotentials und einige Methoden zur Quantifizierung der Reproduktionsfähigkeit bei Wimpertieren. Die vorliegende Untersuchung dynamischen Bedingungen nicht geschätzt wurde durchgeführt, um das werden kann. Anhand der durchgeführten Reproduktionspotential festzustellen und Forschungen wird versucht, die einige Quantifizierungsmethoden der Langlebigkeit für Infusorien, die Anzahl der Reproduktionskapazität bei Wimpertieren binären Teilungen sowie die Zahl der aufzuzeigen. Daher wurde die Generationen nach dem Prozess der Reproduktionsfähigkeit einiger Einzeller geschlechtlichen Vermehrung zu durch binäre Teilung in Abhängigkeit vom bestimmen. Die Untersuchungen beruhen Alter der Population bestimmt. Die auf dem Modell der einzelligen Vermehrung der Organismen wurde “in Wimpertierchen Protozoa Ciliata, wobei die vitro” durchgeführt, da die Beobachtung bei den Versuchen verwendete Basiskultur einiger Eigenheiten der Wimpertierchen aus Individuen von Paramaecium caudatum unter natürlichen, komplexen und ständig bestand.

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INTRODUCTION In the study of onthogenesis, some merge and the sexuate process is performed of the aproaches are based on the on the account of “conjugation” – the hypothesis according to which the occurence exchange of haploid nuclei. and the increasing complexity of the The biological importance of this individual development during the evolution proces in the life of Infusoria consists in depended on the number of cells of the uniting two beginnings in a single organism organism. (maternal and paternal), such as in the case This aproach admits considering all of any other sexual process, in the increase eukariot cells as a unique organisation level. of the hereditary variability and diversity. All eukariot cells posess an homologous The increase of the hereditary variability, structure, meaning that all organite classes increases the organism’s adaptive present in their body are identical and possibilities in the actual environmental transform in one another through conditions. The second factor of biological intermediary alterations – all eukariot cells importance in the process of conjugation is possess a unique spectre of possibilities and represented by the development of the are differentiated only by the band width. macronucleus out of the divisional products They can be attributed a biological version of the synkaryon, as the old one is of the law of constant composition. Even in destroyed. The experimental data showed the organisation of bacterial cells at the that the macronucleus plays an exceptionally molecular level, many unique principles important role in the life of Infusoria. It were conceived and solutions were found, directs all basic vital processes and which can be used in further development. determines the most important process – the Thus, almost all structural genes were protein synthesis that puts together the main created in the prokaryotic cells. Further on part of the living cell protoplasm. The the eukariot cell was formed, inside of prolongued asexuated reproduction implies a which the other functions were conceived; specific process of macronucleus “aging” as organization of the genetic material in a well as of the entire cell. The metabolic nucleus as chromosomes, mitosis and activity is decreased and the reproductive meiosis, all the organites, and determining rate is lowered. After conjugation, in the versions of their usage in the further process of which the old macronucleus is evolution as specialised tissues of destroyed, the level of the exchange of multicelular plants and animals. The substances is reestablished, as is the diversity of the cells themselves is relatively reproductive rate. During conjugation, the small. In humans, 250 different kinds of process of fertilisation takes place. This cells are grouped in four kinds of tissues. process is linked to the reproduction and the The reproduction of Infusoria may engendering of a new generation in the case occur in a number of ways; simple or of most of the other organisms. In Infusoria, multiple fission, or sporulation. The faith of the individual is formed as a result of the the reproductive products differs. In some conjugation which can also be considered as cases they transform directly (or through a new sexual generation apperaing, in this several development stages) into a case, on the account of the “rejuvenation” of vegetative form similar to the mother cell or the old one (Jizni, 1987). Until the into sexual individuals and only afterwards occurence of a new conjugation, it is into vegetative individuals. necessary to have a certain number of The basic particularity of Infusoria is cellular divisions. The cells must reach a considered to be the extremely speciphic certain level of maturity. The experiments sexuated process. In so-called “normal” showed that the length of the asexuate organisms the sexuated process is linked to reproduction phase in Infusoria varies the merging of two sexual celles with according to the environmental conditions. It haploid nuclei. In Cilliates, the cells do not was found that starvation or the action of

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some salts accelerate the beginning of the Many aspects of the population conjugation while the abundance of increase in nature can only be understood nutrients hold it back. Nevertheless, for according to the way it behaves in vitro. The most of the Infusoria species, the maintainance of the Cilliates in surveyed reorganisation of the nuclear apparatus is conditions allow for the observation of such absolutely necessary. In the lack of it, particularities of the population increase Infusoria depress and die. Probably, the which are impossible to estimate in natural renewal of the complicated macronucleus is conditions which are complex and vary necessary for the existence of the permanently. A special role is awarded to Cilliates. scientists studying the increase potential of the Cilliates populations.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Experimental investigations have The investigation was carried in five focused on the ciliated protozoa model glasses bottles with a volum of 100 ml, with which represent a particular evolutionary fresh sustenance in which 100 individuals eukaryotic organisms, because they were placed (Vi = 100 ml, Ni = 1 ind./1 ml). combined particularities of nature blends After five days sample individuals were cellular and functional integrity bodies. placed in 500 vials, in fresh sustenance. The Basic culture used in investigation, following metod was used when the culture Paramecium caudatum, was kept in rigurous had 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 days. Maintenance conditions (of temperature, light, temperature of samples was 21°C. Data nutritionaly support, etc.) because the processing was done a day after placing reproduction and ciliates growth depends on them in vials. the nutritional condition, temperature and light.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesizing all the experimental maximum lifetime of any member of the data provided, investigation in several population or the species). Over time the priority areas which addresses to the issues average lifetime has increased continuously, of dependence, rate of reproduction action, but nevertheless full potential survival and intensity number of unicellular animal remains unchanged. Maximum survival species were conducted. Cell growth is a potential seems to be specific for each characteristic process of living cells that species, which implies an important combines, usually, the maturation and genetic component in controlling the rate of cellular differentiation. aging. Senescence or aging is considered In this context, the reproductive the last stage of this complex development capacity of unicellular organisms by binary process of all organisms. divisio was determined, depending on the Senescence is an inexorably process age of the population. The aging cell is that relates to a number of changes represented by cell reduction and decreasing postaging resulting in decrease of of the organism volume. After decreasing homeostasis and increasing the organism the organism volume, the intensity and vulnerability. aging speed of the cells is determined by Senescence is characterized by two their ability to reproduce. important parameters ‒ the average lifetime Data included in table 1 illustrates (which refers to the age by which 50% of the numerical variation and reproductive the population survives) and their maximum parameters of Paramecium caudatum clone potential for survival (which refers to the during 30 days.

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Table 1: Reproductive parameters variation of Paramecium caudatum at t = 21°C. τ Nt. with offs Nt. without offs Ln Nt. med. Cw Nt. med. (days) n M ± mx n M ± mx n M ± mx n M ± mx 5 500 21.44 ± 0.55 466 23.09 ± 0.52 466 3.01 ± 0.02 466 1.51 ± 0.01 10 500 23.93 ± 0.47 479 24.98 ± 0.43 479 3.14 ± 0.02 479 1.57 ± 0.01 15 500 23.71 ± 0.51 468 25.32 ± 0.44 468 3.16 ± 0.02 468 1.58 ± 0.01 20 500 13.05 ± 0.31 467 13.71 ± 0.31 476 2.49 ± 0.02 476 1.25 ± 0.01 25 500 29.32 ± 0.61 475 30.86 ± 0.54 475 3.35 ± 0.02 475 1.67 ± 0.01 30 500 12.19 ± 0.37 482 12.60 ± 0.37 482 2.33 ± 0.03 482 1.16 ± 0.01

All these prove that the population produces huge populations called clones, has a high reproductive potential. The more originating from a single cell. By preserving complex data regarding the age of the its multilateralism, the Protozoan cell also culture, prove the relatively constant value preserved its capacity to reach immortality, of the specific reproductive ratio (Cw) a feature lost by Metazoan cells due to their during the 5-15 days period. unilateral specialization. The Protozoans do Nevertheless, it was noticed that the not end their life in death, but achieve binary division in ciliates generates continuity through repeated division uniformity for all the culture ages, and that it generating new individuals (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: The corelation between reproduction rate (Cw) and culture age (τ) at Paramaecium caudatum (n = 2500, rxy = ‒ 0.45).

Still, during its complete lifetime, increase of the chances of survival of the as the cell grows, develops and matures, organisms. the succession of the binary divisions After a succession of binary slows down, the size of the individuals divisions, in the ciliates developing cycle, diminishes more and more, even if their the process of sexuated multiplication aging is hereditary programmed. The occurs – the conjugation. After conjugation, occurence of sexuality contributed to the the physiological and reproductive processes

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are reestablished within the involved the ex-conjugators as well as the number of organisms. Thus, the newly formed generations increased at least four times. In individual can be considered as a new optimum conditions, the paramecium sexuated generation that appears on the multiplies very quickly asexuately, dividing “expence of the rejuvenation” of the old two-three times a day. Apparently, high generation. temperature (up to certain limits) speeds up The cells of the single-cell organisms the division, just as certain inorganic and as well as the cells of the multicellular organic substances or radiation can stimulate organisms, have a limited division potential, or slowdown the division. After even in favourable living conditions. For approximately 201 generations, anomalies instance, the human cells grown “in vitro”, were registered, the division slowing down having an advanced divisional age, die after or even coming to a stop (Tab. 2). a pre-established and fixed number of As a result of these experiments, we divisions called the “Hyflick’s limit”. The were able to establish a computer model for Hyflick theory is concernd with the limit of the prognosis of the modifications of age the cells’ division. When reaching this limit, structure, such as starting point of division, the cells die and the organism is getting old. mortality parameters, juvenile periods and He noticed that the human somatic conjugation probability. The average and cells grown “in vitro” in favorable maximum age of the grown individuals was conditions are capable to divide only a of 43 ± 2 and 140 binary divisions, limited number of times. The division limit respectively. The achieved results elucidate depends on the age of the organism from the cause of the presence in samples which the cells were harvested (new-born collected in natural habitats of juvenile as person’s cells divided 80-90 times, while a well as of adult individuals. The quantitative 70 years old person’s cells divided only 20- analysis performed in normal conditions 30 times). The maximum number of a cell’s revealed values between 6.5 and 7.9 divisions was named “Hyflick’s limit”. generations, while for some ex-conjugators, Thus, in a controlled environment, the resulted index showed values of 201 and the model-culture has been obtained, for 235 generations. which, by inducing certain abiotic factors Due to the fact that the reproductive variations (temperature, light, starvation), parameters of ex-conjugators were the begining of the conjugation was differently diminished, we assumed the accelerated. The present study has been existence of two systems in a population, initiated in order to determine the longevity each of them reacting in a complex way of Infusoria, the number of binary divisions, even when a single factor is changing. For and the number of generations after the Paramecium caudatum populations 235 sexuated multiplication process. The generations are characteristic. For the forms Hyflick’s limit has been studied, most cultivated in the lab the number of particularly in the case of Paramecium generations cannot be higher then this value. caudatum culture, since the Protozoan cell These results demonstrate the model must face multiple problems presented by its stability which allow us to understand environment (the action of ecological some life particularities of Paramecium factors, either man made or natural), while caudatum. the cell belonging to a multicellular The sexuate reproduction constitute organism only has to accomplish a limited obviously a priority of the living organisms. number of special functions, the rest of them It is evident that in such situations, a being assumed by otherwise specialized new system will appear as a result of cells. the circulation and joining information Eventually, our analysis showed that, from two different systems and, if they compared to human cells (80-90 binary will be more different, the new system will divisions), the number of binary divisions of be richer (Fig. 2).

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Table 2.1a: Realizing in time of ex-conjugations generations Paramaecium caudatum, n = 21, τ (days) = 94, t = 21-22°C. The number of ex-conjugations days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 0.793 0.500 0.500 0.793 1.000 0.500 0.500 0.500 2 2.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.082 1.585 1.800 1.000 3 2.788 3.287 2.738 3.514 2.208 1.771 1.560 1.854 4 1.000 1.200 1.293 1.603 0.091 1.000 1.143 1.000 5 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.231 1.488 1.000 6 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.000 7 0.000 0.000 0 0 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 8 0.000 1.000 1.250 1.250 1.000 1.125 9 0.000 3.001 2.619 2.792 2.957 3.429 10 2.422 2.539 2.438 2.746 2.484 11 2.221 2.501 2.531 1.974 2.412 12 2.666 2.709 2.247 2.662 2.621 13 2.397 2.578 2.359 1.974 2.655 14 1.438 1.693 1.123 2.662 1.674 15 1.000 1.111 1.084 2.667 1.000 16 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.382 0.000 17 1.783 1.674 1.746 1.000 1.772 18 3.206 3.318 3.056 1.000 3.212 19 3.113 2.985 3.116 1.764 3.579 20 2.508 2.104 2.258 3.436 1.976 21 3.135 3.008 3.046 3.034 3.241 22 3.365 3.311 2.823 2.743 3.189 23 2.107 1.932 2.337 3.060 2.308 24 1.512 1.379 1.342 3.320 1.621 25 2.813 2.999 2.617 2.696 2.593 26 3.096 3.121 3.004 1.251 3.533 27 2.940 2.891 2.711 2.866 2.705 28 3.038 3.342 3.172 3.365 3.392 29 2.441 2.949 2.352 3.324 3.249 30 2.769 3.289 2.914 3.263 3.038 31 2.680 2.769 2.835 2.724 3.249 32 2.684 2.894 2.752 3.159 2.950 33 2.925 3.289 3.182 3.188 3.257 34 1.704 2.663 2.226 3.026 2.437 35 2.426 2.749 2.724 3.307 3.328 36 2.533 2.435 2.608 2.307 2.930 37 2.495 2.613 2.216 2.663 2.566 38 1.831 2.293 1.517 3.131 1.655 39 1.897 1.724 2.143 2.459 2.367 40 1.952 3.001 2.343 1.572 2.716 41 2.751 3.001 2.523 2.631 2.869 42 2.043 2.334 2.939 2.936 2.827 43 2.085 2.390 2.000 2.583 2.569 44 2.270 2.586 2.529 2.997 2.691

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Table 2.1a (continued): Realizing in time of ex-conjugations generations Paramaecium caudatum, n = 21, τ (days) = 94, t = 21-22°C. The number of ex-conjugations days 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.000 0.500 0.500 0.500 2 1.000 2.000 1.000 1.749 1.000 2.000 1.585 2.000 1.455 3 2.000 1.845 1.816 2.071 2.474 1.967 2.000 1.856 2.539 4 1.250 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.990 1.080 1.000 1.080 5 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 6 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.366 0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 7 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 8 1.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.143 1.334 9 2.439 3.224 2.293 3.179 1.379 2.407 3.001 3.303 2.662 10 2.373 2.612 2.612 2.632 2.798 2.506 2.144 2.310 2.545 11 2.857 2.524 2.510 2.544 2.738 2.199 2.795 2.616 2.643 12 2.345 2.564 2.578 2.885 2.915 3.239 2.903 2.433 2.612 13 2.754 2.323 2.533 1.799 3.011 2.767 2.598 2.429 2.552 14 1.963 1.626 1.063 1.000 1.231 1.155 1.200 1.728 1.199 15 1.312 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 16 1.000 1.000 1.335 2.213 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 1.000 17 1.759 1.769 1.866 3.719 1.364 1.462 1.264 1.167 1.417 18 3.58 3.486 2.933 3.138 3.288 3.27 3.272 3.560 3.436 19 3.328 3.309 3.367 2.480 3.096 3.181 3.387 3.343 3.386 20 2.14 2.271 2.527 3.074 2.250 1.779 2.049 1.590 2.073 21 2.947 2.83 3.015 3.180 3.066 2.939 3.007 3.125 2.841 22 3.441 3.358 3.559 2.435 3.365 3.357 2.049 3.202 3.142 23 2.053 2.283 2.034 1.073 2.263 2.076 3.001 2.758 2.237 24 1.234 2.518 1.000 2.708 1.559 1.272 3.390 1.342 1.382 25 2.752 2.721 2.553 3.432 2.476 2.802 2.122 2.947 2.648 26 3.571 3.241 3.334 2.920 3.121 3.013 1.111 3.382 3.300 27 2.519 2.881 2.870 2.831 3.170 3.189 2.776 3.288 3.199 28 3.057 3.343 2.677 3.076 2.88 2.638 3.417 2.748 3.074 29 3.128 2.888 2.931 3.111 2.961 2.802 2.873 3.393 3.506 30 3.085 3.014 2.814 3.075 2.915 2.982 3.025 2.980 3.187 31 3.027 3.285 3.010 2.720 3.077 2.740 3.287 3.214 3.280 32 3.109 2.823 3.107 3.593 3.035 2.663 2.811 3.294 2.968 33 3.644 3.179 3.423 2.777 3.274 3.168 3.061 3.450 3.710 34 2.844 2.743 2.642 2.147 2.847 2.942 3.204 2.769 2.613 35 2.927 2.873 2.642 2.000 2.764 2.639 3.347 3.377 2.994 36 2.662 2.329 3.103 2.586 2.485 2.587 2.744 3.034 3.009 37 2.359 2.629 3.022 3.293 2.541 1.394 2.999 2.848 3.135 38 1.635 1.882 1.695 2.662 2.116 2.199 2.741 2.345 1.735 39 2.084 2.180 2.270 2.793 2.343 2.402 2.943 2.248 3.356 40 2.776 2.896 2.778 2.662 2.796 2.524 1.970 2.345 2.973 41 3.084 2.943 2.899 2.565 2.669 2.297 2.068 2.248 3.286 42 2.642 2.796 3.148 2.989 3.241 2.025 2.514 2.745 2.657 43 2.730 2.609 2.499 2.501 2.317 2.499 2.773 2.717 2.340 44 2.987 2.913 2.808 2.586 2.783 2.450 3.506 3.007 2.883

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Table 2.2a (continued): Realizing in time of ex-conjugations generations Paramaecium caudatum, n = 21, τ (days) = 94, t = 21-22°C. The number of ex-conjugations days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 45 2.439 1.585 2.390 2.596 2.793 46 1.897 2.793 2.334 2.897 2.557 47 2.667 3.697 2.970 2.995 2.835 48 2.631 2.501 2.057 2.373 2.963 49 2.397 2.293 2.195 2.897 2.200 50 2.147 2.454 2.862 2.558 2.626 51 1.793 2.000 2.000 1.897 2.479 52 2.860 2.586 2.529 2.727 2.743 53 1.897 2.586 2.000 2.293 2.782 54 2.897 2.586 2.905 2.745 2.808 55 2.501 2.586 1.195 2.000 3.230 56 2.179 0 1.500 2.970 2.962 57 2.581 2.197 2.724 2.293 58 2.195 2.293 3.131 2.501 59 2.270 1.661 2.501 2.482 60 2.303 3.323 2.293 2.293 61 1.936 1.585 3.001 2.654 62 2.919 2.000 2.586 2.654 63 2.662 2.000 2.586 2.891 64 2.197 2.586 2.808 2.397 65 2.501 2.000 1.585 2.939 66 1.793 2.322 2.000 3.033 67 2.197 2.586 2.322 2.227 68 2.085 3.001 2.586 2.331 69 1.904 3.171 2.322 2.138 70 4.293 0.000 2.586 3.97 71 1.000 2.000 2.586 1.293 72 2.322 2.000 3.001 2.000 73 1.000 0 1.000 1.661 74 1.000 3.171 1.793 75 1.000 3.586 1.585 76 0 3.001 0.000 77 2.808 78 3.586 79 3.001 80 2.586 81 2.586 82 0.000 83 0.000 84 2.000 85 1.585 86 0 87 88

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Table 2.2a (continued): Realizing in time of ex-conjugations generations Paramaecium caudatum, n = 21, τ (days) = 94, t = 21-22°C. The number of ex-conjugations days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 No. of genera- 7,581 162,697 6,531 7,91 128,091 157,604 202,796 178,686 tions

Table 2.2b: Realizing in time of ex-conjugations generations Paramaecium caudatum, n = 21, τ (days) = 94, t = 21-22°C. The number of ex-conjugations days 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 45 2.956 2.724 2.552 2.000 3.189 2.579 2.731 2.577 2.874 46 2.855 2.762 2.977 2.586 3.131 2.593 2.814 2.995 2.798 47 3.007 2.543 2.970 2.808 2.724 2.234 2.865 2.793 3.242 48 2.960 2.745 2.863 2.322 3.067 2.108 3.016 2.000 2.615 49 1.916 1.939 2.043 2.586 2.667 2.594 3.136 2.793 2.234 50 2.786 2.057 2.798 3.001 2.993 2.234 2.896 3.001 2.697 51 2.416 2.252 2.334 2.808 2.724 2.713 2.265 2.501 2.439 52 2.696 2.724 3.498 3.586 2.724 2.679 2.543 2.793 2.397 53 2.729 2.793 3.001 1.585 2.465 2.680 2.043 2.793 2.624 54 2.858 2.793 2.936 2.808 2.775 2.557 2.745 2.586 2.995 55 2.710 2.293 3.057 3.001 2.831 2.846 2.641 2.586 2.891 56 3.434 3.162 2.905 2.808 3.015 1.865 3.043 3.162 3.162 57 2.293 1.793 2.195 3.001 2.586 2.357 3.099 2.697 2.123 58 2.586 1.500 2.862 3.001 2.454 2.465 3.349 3.565 1.897 59 2.586 2.586 2.667 0 2.501 2.752 2.043 1.793 2.897 60 2.586 2.293 2.303 2.404 2.647 2.147 1.500 2.131 61 3.001 3.001 2.539 4.323 2.745 3.196 2.322 2.529 62 0 2.586 2.919 3.586 3.239 2.667 2.808 2.586 63 2.000 2.057 2.586 2.586 2.936 2.454 2.195 64 2.322 2.000 3.001 2.724 2.936 3.501 1.862 65 2.000 2.586 2.808 2.334 2.057 2.586 2.39 66 2.000 2.057 3.586 3.197 2.501 2.586 2.195 67 2.000 2.441 3.001 2.793 2.808 2.565 2.862 68 2.000 2.501 0 2.000 2.197 2.586 2.734 69 3.001 2.586 3.454 2.793 2.662 2.293 70 1.000 2.586 1.000 2.586 2.808 3.46 71 0 1.585 0 2.000 2.586 0 72 2.000 3.808 3.808 73 2.000 1.000 2.000

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Table 2.2b (continued): Realizing in time of ex-conjugations generations Paramaecium caudatum, n = 21, τ (days) = 94, t = 21-22°C. The number of ex-conjugations days 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 74 1.000 3.001 2.000 75 1.000 3.171 2.000 76 1.585 3.171 2.586 77 1.000 3.46. 3.001 78 1.000 4.586 2.586 79 0 3.001 2.586 80 3.808 2.586 81 2.808 2.000 82 2.000 1.000 83 2.586 0 84 2.000 85 1.000 86 2.000 87 0.000 88 1.585 89 1.000 90 3.323 91 2.586 92 2.322 Genera- 148, 164, 177, 142, 165, 161, 234, 200, 172, tions no. 272 079 169 965 249 496 544 536 01

Figure 2: Number of generations and of conjugators.

Additionally, according to general containts, but also their interaction, wich systems theory, fusion information from two result a new quality, transformed into a or more systems in a single system, not only special informational content. means a sum of the bouth informational

- 58 - E. Silitrari, A. Silitrari and E. Roşcov Acta Oecologica Carpatica VII

CONCLUSIONS The number of consecutive binary individuals in culture after a thousand divizions at Paramecium caudatum repeats, represent 43 ± 2 and 140 binary significantly exceed (maximum of four divisions. Quantitative analysis, in normal times) “Hyflick’s Limit” fixed in average for conditions, showed values between seven somatic cells. In exchange of genes and and eight generations, while at some cases renovation of populational gen pool a the index given, varied between 201 and limited number of individuals strain are 235. framed. Average and maximum age of

SELECTIVE REFERENCES Burkovskyi I. V., 1974 − Raspredelienie Khausman K., 1988 − Protozoologia, Mir, infuzorii Parafarella denticulata 334. v Bielom more/Zoologicheskii Lima-de-Fane A., 1986 − Molecular zhurnal, 53, 6, s. 821-826. (in evolution and organization of Russian) chromosome, New York: Elsevier, Burkovskyi I. V., 1976 − Novyie dannyie 1176. po tintinidam Arktiki i revizia fauny, Terry W., Snell and Noah J., 2008 − Zoologicheskii zhurnal, 55, 3, s. 325- Desrosiers. Effect of progesterone on 336. (in Russian) sexual reproduction of Brachionus Doghel V. A., 1989 − Zoologia manjavacas (Rotifera), School of nevertebratelor, Chişinău, Lumina, Biology, Georgia Institute of 599. (in Romanian) Technology, Atlanta, Georgia Freeman M. and Gurdon J. B., 2002 − 30332-0230, USA, Marine and Regulatory principles of Atmospheric Science Program, developmental signaling, Annual University of Miami, Coral Gables, Review of Cell and Development FL 33124, USA, 235. Biology, 18, 515-539. Toderaş I., 1991 − Influenţa regimului Galkovskaia G. A., 1985 − Produktsia termic asupra polimorfismului populatsiji i soobschestv vodnykh morfologic şi funcţional al organizmov і metody jiejio protozoarelor ciliate, Analele izuchenija, Sverdlovsk, s. 11-17. (in Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii Russian) „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, Golichenkov V. F., Nikeriasova E. N. and XXXVII, II-a, Biologic, 285-289. (in Popov D. V., 1991 − Znachenie Romanian) massy klietok dlja stanovlenija i Toderaş I., 2002 − New Achievements in evolutsiji ontogeneza, V kn.: the Estimation of Functional Ecology Sovremennaja evolutsionnaja and Biodiversity in Poikilothermic morfologia, Kiev, Naukova Dumka, Organisms, Limnological Reports, 309. (in Russian) V. 34, Proceedings of the 34th Hayflick L. and Moorhead P., 1961 − The Conference (Tulcea, Romania), Edit. serial cultivation of human diploid Academiei Române, 601-619. cell strains, Experimental Cell Research, V, 25, 585-621.

Reproductive potential and capacity in ciliates; 49/60 pp. - 59 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

AUTHORS:

1 Elena SILITRARI [email protected]

Moldova State University, Faculty of Biology and Pedology, Mihail Kogălniceanu Street 65A, Chişinău, Moldavia, MD-2009.

2 Andrei SILITRARI [email protected]

Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Academiei Street 1, Chişinău, Moldavia, D-2028.

3 Elena ROŞCOV [email protected]

Moldova State University, Faculty of Biology and Pedology, Mihail Kogălniceanu Street 65A, Chişinău, Moldavia, MD-2009.

- 60 - E. Silitrari, A. Silitrari and E. Roşcov Acta Oecologica Carpatica VII

DIVERSITY OF STONEFLY (INSECTA, PLECOPTERA) COMMUNITIES IN THE GRĂDIŞTE WATERSHED (GRĂDIŞTEA MUNCELULUI-CIOCLOVINA NATURE PARK)

Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC 1

KEYWORDS: Romania, Transylvania, Mureș Watershed, Plecoptera, coenology.

ABSTRACT This paper presents an analysis of the River. Low diversity was recorded in the structure and diversity of Plecoptera larvae lower part of Grădiște River, downstream of communities in the Grădiște Watershed. the Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature The results of this study are based on Park limit, sectors in which the banks line quantitative samples of benthic was modified by cutting the bends, by macroinvertebrates, taken in July-August removing arboreal riparian vegetation, by 2011 from 51 sampling stations of the minor riverbed damming or by its location references area. near residential areas. In the lower course 17 stonefly species were identified, of the river, upstream of the Orăștie locality belonging to 11 genera and six families. The and up to the confluence with the Mureș stoneflies have high diversity in the Anineș River, the plecopterans are no more Brook and in the upper course of Grădiște present.

RESUMEN: Diversidad comunitaria de las moscas de roca (Insecta, Plecoptera) en la cuenca Grădişte (Parque Natural Grădiştea Muncelului-Cioclovina). En este trabajo se presenta del Río Grădiște. Se registró poca diversidad un análisis de la estructura y diversidad en la parte baja del río, en la vecindad de los de las comunidades larvales de plecópteros límites del Parque Natural Grădiștea en la cuenca Grădiște. Los resultados se Muncelului-Cioclovina; estos sectores, que basan en muestras cuantitativas de se encuentran cercanos a áreas residenciales, macroinvertebrados bénticos, tomadas presentan una línea costera modificada, durante 2011 (Julio-agosto) en 51 estaciones carecen de vegetación ribereña o bien se han de muestreo. En lo referente a la zona 17, se construido presas en sus tributarios. En la identificaron 11 géneros y 6 familias de las cuenca baja, desde la localidad de Orăștie moscas de roca. Este grupo presentó alta hasta la confluencia con el río Mureș, los diversidad en Anineș Brook y en la cabecera plecópteros ya no están presentes.

REZUMAT: Diversitatea comunităților de plecoptere (Insecta, Plecoptera) din bazinul hidrografic Grădiște (Parcul Natural Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina). Lucrarea prezintă o analiză a diversitate sunt prezente în pârâul Anineș structurii și diversității comunităților și în cursul superior al râului Grădiște. În larvelor de plecoptere din bazinul cursul inferior al râului Grădiște, hidrografic Gădiște. comunitățile de plecoptere prezintă Rezultatele studiului se bazează pe diversitate mică, în aceste sectoare aflate în probe cantitative de bentos prelevate în apropierea localităților, albia râului a fost perioada iulie-august 2011 din 51 stații modificată prin tăierea meandrelor și situate în zona de referință. îndiguiri. În cursul inferior al râului, amonte Au fost identificate 17 specii de de localitatea Orăștie până la confluența plecoptere aparținând la 11 genuri și 6 cu Mureșul, plecopterele nu mai sunt familii. Comunitățile cu cea mai mare prezente.

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INTRODUCTION Due to the habitat needs (lithological Few faunistic and chorological data substrata, high water velocity, good concerning stoneflies in the studied area oxygenation, low organic load) and appear in the synthesis work of Kis (1974). low resistance to pollution (Cao et al., Until present, coenological studies regarding 1997; Krno, 2007; Sánchez-Montoya stonefly larvae of the Grădiște River basin et al., 2010; Curtean-Bănăduc and were not carried out. Olosutean, 2013), stonefly are indicators Grădiște River is a first order of the favourable ecological state of tributary of Mureș River, located in the water courses, especially in the mountain Central-South-Western part of Romania and submountain area (Hilsenhoff, 1981; (Fig. 1). This river has its headwater at Lücke and Johnson, 2009; Péru and 1,659 m altitude, in the Orăștiei Mountains – Dolédec, 2010; Törnblom et al., 2011; a subdivision of Șureanu Mountains, Central Couceiro et al., 2012; Monaghan and Meridional Carpathians, and has a 51 km Soares, 2012). length, 399 km2 basin surface and a This paper presents a specific multiannual average flow at the confluence analysis of the structure and diversity of with Mureș River of 2.00 m3/s (195 m Plecoptera larvae communities in the altitude) (Agenția Națională Apele Române Grădiște Watershed, as a basis for – Cadastrul Apelor). establishment of zonation, management The majority of the Grădiște measures and future monitoring. Watershed area was included in the Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature Park.

Figure 1: Grădiște River basin localisation on the Romanian map.

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MATERIAL AND METHODS The results of this study are based on stations were situated at a distance of quantitative samples of benthic approximately two km intervals at Grădiște macroinvertebrates (165 samples), taken in River and one km intervals for the following 2011 (July – August) from 51 stations river tributaries: Anineș and Rea Valley. In situated in the Grădiște Watershed: 11 the case of the Grădiște River, samples were sampling stations on the Anineș Brook, also collected outside the Grădiștea seven sampling stations on the Vale Rea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature Park, along Brook and 33 sampling stations on the the whole length of this river to its Grădiște River (Fig. 2). The sampling confluence with Mureș River.

Figure 2: Grădiște River watershed sampling stations.

Stonefly communities diversity in the Grădiște Watershed; 61/72 pp. - 63 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

In each station, quantitative samples For quantitative structure description were taken from five different points. The of the stonefly communities we have used sampling was carried out with an 887 cm2 relative abundance (A%) and medium surface Surber Sampler, with a 250 µm density (Ds) of the species. The diversity of mesh net. The sampled material was fixed in the community is expressed through 4% formaldehyde solution (NaHCO3 was Margalef (Krebs, 1989) and Gini-Simpson added) and was analysed in the laboratory indices (Jost, 2007). The assessed biotope with an Olympus (150X) stereomicroscope. variables were: altitude, slope, riverbed The analysed Plecoptera larvae were width, depth, substratum types (visual comprised of 1,856 individuals, in life cycle evaluation), presence of pools, riffles, runs stages which allowed identification to and bends, bank vegetation, channel species level. modification and riverine land use.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the reference zone, 17 stonefly Rhabdiopteryx alpina Kuhtreiber 1934 – species were identified, belonging to 11 A1, A2 genera and six families. The stonefly species Taeniopteryx nebulosa (Linnaeus 1758) – identified in Grădişte Watershed, with A1, A2 the specific sampling sites, are presented Fam. Perlidae below: Perla marginata (Panzer 1799) – R4, R5, Fam. Capniidae R6, R7, G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8, Capnia bifrons (Newman 1839) – R1, R2 G9, G10, G11, G12, G13, G14, G15, G16,

Fam. Leuctridae G17, G18, G19, G20, G21, G23, G24, G25, Leuctra fusca (Linnaeus 1758) – A10, A11, G26, G29 R1, R6, R7, G1, G2, G3, G4, G6, G7, G8, Perla pallida Guerin 1838 – G6 G10, G11, G12, G13, G14, G15, G16, G17, Fam. Perlodidae G18, G19, G20, G21, G22, G23, G24, G25, Isoperla grammatica (Poda 1761) – R3, R4, G26, G27, G29, G30 R5, R6, G14, G15 Leuctra nigra (Olivier 1811) – A3, A4, A5, Perlodes microcephalus (Pictet 1833) – R2, A11, R1, R6, R7, G6, G10, G11, G12, G20, R3, R4 G25, G26 Leuctra inermis Kempny 1899 – A2, A3, The stonefly species with the A4, A5, A7, A8, A9, A10, R1, R5, R7, G19, widest distribution in the Grădiște G25 Watershed are Leuctra fusca (present in

Fam. Nemouridae 32 of the 48 studied lotic sectors) and Amphinemura sulcicollis (Stephens 1836) – Perla marginata (present in 30 of the A4, A6, A8, A9, G6 48 studied lotic sectors). The species Amphinemura standfussi (Ris 1902) – A5, with the most restricted distributions A6, A7 are Perla pallida, sampled only in one of Protonemura intricata (Ris 1902) – A1, A2, the 48 studied lotic sectors, and A3, A4, A5, A6, A8, A9, G1, G2, G3, G4, Rhabdiopteryx alpina, Taeniopteryx G5, G6, G9, G13, G17, G20 nebulosa, Nemoura cambrica, Capnia Nemoura cinerea (Retzius 1783) – A1, A2, bifrons, sampled in two of the 48 studied A3, A4, A5, A10, A11, G1, G13, G20 lotic sectors. Nemoura cambrica Stepens 1836 – A1, A2 The species which develop populations with highest number of Fam. Taeniopterygidae individuals (over 150 individuals/m2) are L. Brachyptera risi (Morton 1896) – A3, A4, fusca in Grădiște River – G6, G13-G21, A5, A6 G23-G25 and P. marginata in Grădiște Brachyptera seticornis (Klapalek 1902) – River – G6, G7, G9 (Tab. 1). A7, A8, A9

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In the reference area, the stoneflies over 45%, are present in Valea Rea Brook ‒ group has the highest number of species (six R2, R3 and R4; sps.) and the highest species diversity 2. Communities in which the species according with Margalef Index in the Anineș L. fusca, L. nigra and P. marginata appear Brook – A2, A4, A5 and in the Grădiște with relative abundances over 15%, present River – G6 (Tab. 1). The lowest species in Valea Rea Brook ‒ R6 and R7; diversity (one sp.) was recorded in the lower 3. Communities in which the species part of Grădiște River, downstream of the P. marginata is numerical dominant, present Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature in Grădiște River, the sector between G5 and Park limit – G22, G27, G30 (Tab. 1) sectors G12; in which the shore line was modified by 4. Communities in which the species cutting the bends, removing arboreal L. fusca, P. intricata and P. marginata are riparian vegetation or minor riverbed numerical codominants, present in Grădiște damming, or was located near residential River G1-G4; areas. We have to mention that in the G28 5. Communities in which numerical and downstream of G30 to the confluence codominants are P. intricata and B. risi, with Mureș River no stonefly species was present in A6; found, this sector is in the urban area of 6. Communities with high Orăștie (17,255 inhabitants). heterogeneity, in which numerical The stonefly larvae communities with codominants are R. alpina, P. intricata and the highest heterogeneity (according to the N. cinerea, present in A1; Gini-Simpson Index) are present on the 7. Communities enriched by L. upper part of the Anineș Brook (A1-A5) inermis, A. sulcicollis, P. intricata and B. (Tab. 1). seticornis, present in A8 and A9; In the reference area, the high 8. Communities enriched by L. diversity of stoneflies is associated with the inermis, A. standfussi and B. seticornis, river sectors with substrata formed by rocks present in A7; and boulders with big and medium 9. Communities with relatively high dimensions, with high speed of water, heterogeneity, in which the species L. natural riverbed morphodynamic and inermis appears with abundances over 25%, riparian tree vegetation. present in Anineș Brook A2-A5, A10 and in Similarity analysis of the Valea Rea Brook R1, R5; communities of the 48 river sectors 10. Communities in which the considered, based on the relative abundance species N. cinrea is numerically dominant, of the species present, reveals the fact that present in A11; these can be grouped in 11 classes (Fig. 3): 11. Communities with relatively low 1. Communities with low specific heterogeneity, in which numerically diversity, in which the species P. dominant is the species L. fusca, present in microcephalus have relative abundances the middle and lower Grădiște River G13- G27 and G29-G30.

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R2 R4 R3 R7 R6 G10 G6 G12 G11 G8 G7 G5 G9 G3 G2 G1 G4 A6 A1 A8 A9 A7 R5 R1 A3 A4 A5 A2 A10 A11 G20 G13 G15 G17 G14 G18 G21 G23 G29 G26 G25 G19 G16 G24 G30 G22 G27 0 10 20 30 Distances

Figure 3: Cluster analysis based on relative abundance of Plecoptera species from each of 48 sampling stations in the Grădiște Watershed (A1-A11, R1-R7, G1-G30 sampling stations,

Euclidian distance and average linkage method).

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Table 1: Grădiște Watershed Plecoptera communities structure and the Biodiversity Indices values (D – average density, A – relative abundance). Sampling Plecoptera communities structure Biodiversity Indices stations/ Species D A (%) Margalef (M)/ GIS position (ind./m2) Gini-Simpson (1-l) Protonemura intricata 33.82 23.08 Nemoura cinerea 33.82 23.08 M = 3.591/ A1 Nemoura cambrica 22.55 15.38 1-l = 0.833 Rhabdiopteryx alpina 45.10 30.77 Taeniopteryx nebulosa 11.27 7.69 Leuctra inermis 67.64 35.29 Protonemura intricata 22.55 11.76 Nemoura cinerea 33.82 17.65 M = 4.064/ A2 Nemoura cambrica 22.55 11.76 1-l = 0.838 Rhabdiopteryx alpina 22.55 11.76 Taeniopteryx nebulosa 22.55 11.76 Leuctra nigra 11.27 8.33 Leuctra inermis 45.10 33.33 M = 3.707/ A3 Protonemura intricata 45.10 33.33 1-l = 0.803 Nemoura cinerea 11.27 8.33 Brachyptera risi 22.55 16.67 Leuctra nigra 22.55 8.70 Leuctra inermis 67.64 26.09 Amphinemura sulcicollis 45.10 17.39 M = 3.762/ A4 Protonemura intricata 56.37 21.74 1-l = 0.850 Nemoura cinerea 33.82 13.04 Brachyptera risi 33.82 13.04 Leuctra nigra 33.82 15.00 Leuctra inermis 78.92 35.00 Amphinemura standfussi 22.55 10.00 M = 3.843/ A5 Protonemura intricata 11.27 5.00 1-l = 0.821 Nemoura cinerea 33.82 15.00 Brachyptera risi 45.10 20.00 Amphinemura sulcicollis 33.82 16.67 Amphinemura standfussi 33.82 16.67 M = 2.390/ A6 Protonemura intricata 78.92 38.89 1-l = 0.758 Brachyptera risi 56.37 27.78 Leuctra inermis 67.64 46.15 M = 1.795/ A7 Amphinemura standfussi 56.37 38.46 Brachyptera seticornis 22.55 15.38 1-l = 0.667 Leuctra inermis 11.27 7.14 Amphinemura sulcicollis 56.37 35.71 M = 2.618/ A8 Protonemura intricata 45.10 28.57 1-l = 0.758 Brachyptera seticornis 45.10 28.57 Leuctra inermis 45.10 36.36 Amphinemura sulcicollis 22.55 18.18 M = 2.881/ A9 Protonemura intricata 22.55 18.18 1-l = 0.800 Brachyptera seticornis 33.82 27.27 Leuctra fusca 22.55 15.38 M = 1.795/ A10 Leuctra inermis 67.64 46.15 Nemoura cinerea 56.37 38.46 1-l = 0.667

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Table 1 (continued): Grădiște Watershed Plecoptera communities structure and the Biodiversity Indices values (D – average density, A – relative abundance). Sampling Plecoptera communities structure Biodiversity Indices stations/ Species D A (%) Margalef (M)/ GIS position (ind./m2) Gini-Simpson (1-l) Leuctra fusca 45.10 36.36 M = 1.921/ A11 Leuctra nigra 11.27 9.09 1-l = 0.618 Nemoura cinerea 67.64 54.55 Capnia bifrons 33.82 15.79 Leuctra fusca 33.82 15.79 M = 2.346/ R1 Leuctra nigra 56.37 26.32 1-l = 0.743 Leuctra inermis 90.19 42.11 Capnia bifrons 45.10 28.57 M = 0.873/ R2 Perlodes microcephalus 112.74 71.43 1-l = 0.44 Isoperla grammatica 67.64 54.55 M = 0.960/ R3 Perlodes microcephalus 56.37 45.45 1-l = 0.545 Perla marginata 22.55 15.38 M = 1.795/ R4 Isoperla grammatica 45.10 30.77 1-l = 0.641 Perlodes microcephalus 78.92 53.85 Leuctra inermis 112.74 58.82 M = 1.625/ R5 Perla marginata 56.37 29.41 1-l = 0.588 Isoperla grammatica 22.55 11.76 Leuctra fusca 67.64 33.33 Leuctra nigra 45.10 22.22 M = 2.390/ R6 Perla marginata 56.37 27.78 1-l = 0.778 Isoperla grammatica 33.82 16.67 Leuctra fusca 33.82 15.79 Leuctra nigra 78.92 36.84 M = 2.346/ R7 Leuctra inermis 45.10 21.05 1-l = 0.766 Perla marginata 56.37 26.32 Leuctra fusca 32.87 16.66 Protonemura intricata 98.65 50.01 M = 2.438/ G1 Nemoura cinerea 32.87 16.66 1-l = 0.706 Perla marginata 32.87 16.66 Leuctra fusca 61.80 41.38 M = 1.795/ G2 Protonemura intricata 72.11 48.28 1-l = 0.615 Perla marginata 15.45 10.34 Leuctra fusca 45.46 32.00 M = 1.795/ G3 Protonemura intricata 45.46 32.00 1-l = 0.718 Perla marginata 51.14 36.00 Leuctra fusca 23.23 15.38 M = 1.795/ G4 Protonemura intricata 92.95 61.54 1-l = 0.590 Perla marginata 34.85 23.07 Protonemura intricata 12.40 16.66 M = 1.183/ G5 Perla marginata 62.00 83.34 1-l = 0.286 Leuctra fusca 170.84 29.04 Leuctra nigra 18.95 3.22 Amphinemura sulcicollis 18.95 3.22 M = 2.914/ G6 Protonemura intricata 37.96 6.45 1-l = 0.625 Perla marginata 322.67 54.85 Perla pallida 18.95 3.22

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Table 1 (continued): Grădiște Watershed Plecoptera communities structure and the Biodiversity Indices values (D – average density, A – relative abundance). Sampling Plecoptera communities structure Biodiversity Indices stations/ Species D A (%) Margalef (M)/ GIS position (ind./m2) Gini-Simpson (1-l) Leuctra fusca 26.75 13.33 M = 0.797/ G7 Perla marginata 173.91 86.67 1-l = 0.209 Leuctra fusca 28.4 21.73 M = 0.927/ G8 Perla marginata 102.35 78.27 1-l = 0.409 Protonemura intricata 52.99 25.00 M = 0.782/ G9 Perla marginata 158.96 75.00 1-l = 0.409 Leuctra fusca 64.49 44.00 M = 1.795/ G10 Leuctra nigra 5.86 4.00 1-l = 0.538 Perla marginata 76.21 52.00 Leuctra fusca 43.83 24.00 M = 1.661/ G11 Leuctra nigra 21.92 12.00 1-l = 0.567 Perla marginata 116.89 64.00 Leuctra fusca 37.58 33.33 M = 2.000/ G12 Leuctra nigra 6.26 5.55 1-l = 0.600 Perla marginata 68.90 61.12 Leuctra fusca 491.78 84.22 Protonemura intricata 15.36 2.63 M = 1.748/ G13 Nemoura cinerea 7.65 1.31 1-l = 0.275 Perla marginata 69.14 11.84 Leuctra fusca 525.68 91.08 M = 1.171/ G14 Perla marginata 46.35 8.03 Isoperla grammatica 5.14 0.89 1-l = 0.18 Leuctra fusca 485.09 86.41 M = 1.177/ G15 Perla marginata 70.85 12.62 1-l = 0.251 Isoperla grammatica 5.45 0.97 Leuctra fusca 267.42 95.65 M = 0.715/ G16 Perla marginata 12.18 4.35 1-l = 0.080 Leuctra fusca 498.31 88.14 M = 1.177/ G17 Protonemura intricata 13.42 2.37 Perla marginata 53.66 9.49 1-l = 0.220 Leuctra fusca 345.70 92.93 M = 0.659/ G18 Perla marginata 26.30 7.07 1-l = 0.117 Leuctra fusca 464.95 94.60 M = 1.217/ G19 Leuctra inermis 4.42 0.90 1-l = 0.132 Perla marginata 22.12 4.50 Leuctra fusca 171.35 64.42 Leuctra nigra 45.07 16.95 M = 2.898/ G20 Protonemura intricata 4.50 1.69 1-l = 0.587 Nemoura cinerea 13.52 5.08 Perla marginata 31.56 11.86 Leuctra fusca 258.06 93.06 M = 0.715/ G21 Perla marginata 19.25 6.94 1-l = 0.153 G22 Leuctra fusca 67.64 100 M = 0/1-l = 0 Leuctra fusca 190.93 93.06 M = 0.797/ G23 Perla marginata 14.24 6.94 1-l = 0.111

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Table 1 (continued): Grădiște Watershed Plecoptera communities structure and the Biodiversity Indices values (D – average density, A – relative abundance). Sampling Plecoptera communities structure Biodiversity Indices stations/ Species D A (%) Margalef (M)/ GIS position (ind./m2) Gini-Simpson (1-l) Leuctra fusca 150.12 96.50 M = 0.873/ G24 Perla marginata 5.45 3.50 1-l = 0.143 Leuctra fusca 350.57 94.24 Leuctra nigra 2.38 0.64 M = 1.976/ G25 Leuctra inermis 7.14 1.92 1-l = 0.171 Perla marginata 11.91 3.20 Leuctra fusca 118.53 93.88 M = 1.921/ G26 Leuctra nigra 2.58 2.04 1-l = 0.295 Perla marginata 5.15 4.08 G27 Leuctra fusca 72.15 100 M = 0/1-l = 0 Leuctra fusca 53.05 94.12 M = 1.431/ G29 Perla marginata 3.31 5.88 1-l = 0.333 G30 Leuctra fusca 4.51 100 M = 0/1-l = 0

CONCLUSIONS The structure and diversity of hidrotechnical works, shore line changes by stonefly communities reveal the fact that the cutting of bends, embankments, and analysed lotic sectors situated in the household and farm wastewater pollution Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature generated by the riverine localities. Park: Anineș Brook, Valea Rea Brook, Downstream from G30 to the upper course of Grădiște River (G1-G21), confluence with the Mureș River, and also the sector G23-G26 of the middle plecopterans are not present, a situation course (situated downstream the protected which indicates the fact that this river sector area limit) are in a good ecological status, is degraded; here anthropogenic impact is with adequate lotic habitats for plecopterans, significant mainly due to humans cutting the in an almost natural state. bends, damming, and wastewater organic In the sectors G22, G27, G29, G30 pollution. the plecopteran communities present a low So, in the lower course of Grădiște diversity and density, a fact which indicates River, habitats rehabilitation measures and the degradation of characteristic lotic pollution prevention are necessary. habitats. In these sectors are present

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REFERENCES Cao Y., Bark A. W. and Williams W. P., Krno I., 2007 – Impact of human activities 1997 – Analysing benthic on stonefly (Insecta, Plecoptera) macroinvertebrate community change ecological metrics in the Hron River along a pollution gradient: A (Slovakia), Biologia, Section framework for the development of Zoology, 62, 4, 446-457. biotic indices, Water Research, 31, 4, Lücke J. D. and Johnson R. K., 2009 – 884-892. Detection of ecological change in Couceiro S. R. M., Hamada N., Forsberg B. stream macroinvertebrate R., Pimentel T. P. and Luz S. L. B., assemblages using single metric, 2012 – A macroinvertabrate multimetric or multivariate multimetric index to evaluate approaches, Ecological Indicators, 9, the biological condition of streams 4, 659-669. in the Central Amazon region of Monaghan K. A. and Soares A. M. V. M., Brazil, Ecological Indicators, 18, 2012 – Bringing new knowledge to 118-125. an old problem: Building a biotic Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Olosutean H., 2013 index from lotic macroinvertebrate – The influence of some traits, Ecological Indicators, 20, 213- environmental variables on diversity 220. of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Péru N. and Dolédec S., 2010 – From Trichoptera assemblages, Vişeu compositional to functional Basin case study, Transylvanian biodiversity metrics in bioassessment: Review of Systematical and A case study using stream Ecological Research ‒ The Wetlands macroinvertebrate communities, Diversity, 15.1, 81-90. Ecological Indicators, 10, 5, 1025- Hilsenhoff W. L., 1981 – Use of arthropods 1036. to evaluate water quality of streams, Sánchez-Montoya M. M.,. Vidal-Abarca M. Technical Bulletin, 100, Department R. and Suárez M. L., 2010 – of Natural Resources, Madison, Comparing the sensitivity of diverse WI. macroinvertebrate metrics to a Jost L., 2007 – Partitioning biodiversity into multiple stressor gradient in independent alpha and beta Mediterranean streams and its components, Ecology, 88, 10, 2427- influence on the assessment of 2439. ecological status, Ecological Kis B., 1974 – Plecoptera. Fauna Republicii Indicators, 10, 4, 896-904. Socialiste România, București, Törnblom J., Degerman E. and Angelstam Insecta, 8, 271. (in Romanian) P., 2011 – Forest proportion as Krebs C. J., 1989 – Ecological Methodology, indicator of ecological integrity in New York (Harper Collins streams using Plecoptera as a proxy, Publishing), 624. Ecological Indicators, 11.5, 1366- 1374. *** Agenția Națională Apele Române – Cadastrul Apelor. (in Romanian)

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AUTHOR: 1 Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC [email protected], [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Applied Ecology Research Centre, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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DATA ON AQUATIC AND SEMI-AQUATIC HETEROPTERA (NEPOMORPHA, GERROMORPHA) IN THE MERIDIONAL CARPATHIANS (ROMANIA)

Daniela ILIE 1

KEYWORDS: Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha, community, diversity, Southern Romanian Carpathians, apterous morph of Gerris thoracicus.

ABSTRACT Our findings complement the present. These are Gerris costae and Gerris distribution map of the aquatic and semi- lateralis. The numerical dominance of aquatic Heteroptera species within the apterous morph was highly evident in presented areas (the high mountain groups: species like Gerris thoracicus, within one of Parâng, Făgăraş, Bucegi and the Curvature the habitats investigated in the Curvature Carpathians), bringing new data in this Carpathians. We have also analyzed aquatic regard. Compared to previous studies of the and semi-aquatic Heteroptera communities researched area, we have identified a total of of sampling stations, thus establishing a 24 species, out of which 13 are reported for certain similarity between them, based on the first time. Some are more interesting quantitative data (the specie’s relative from the faunistic perspective, for Romanian abundance). territory, being less recorded until the

REZUMAT: Date privind heteropterele acvatice şi semi-acvatice (Heteroptera, Nephomorpha, Gerromorpha) din Carpații Meridionali (România). Cercetările noastre vin să completeze lateralis, specii cu puține semnalări în fauna harta distribuției speciilor de heteroptere României. A fost evidențiată dominanța acvatice şi semiacvatice din zonele numerică a morfei aptere la specia Gerris prezentate (grupele montane mari: Parâng, thoracicus într-unul din habitatele Făgăraş, Bucegi şi Carpații de Curbură), investigate în Carpații de Curbură. Au fost aducând noi date în acest sens. Raportat la analizate comunitățile de heteroptere studiile realizate anterior, în zona cercetată acvatice şi semiacvatice din stațiile de am identificat un număr de 24 specii, dintre colectare, stabilindu-se similaritatea dintre care 13 sunt semnalate în premieră. De ele, pe baza datelor cantitative (abundența remarcat sunt Gerris costae şi Gerris relativă a speciilor).

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Daten über aquatische und semiaquatische Heteropteren (Heteroptera, Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha) in den Südkarpaten Rumäniens. Mit den Ergebnissen der und Gerris lateralis, für die es in der Fauna vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Rumäniens wenige Angaben gibt. In einem Verbreitungskarte der aquatischen und der im Karpatenbogen untersuchten Habitate semiaquatischen Heteropterenfauna in den wurde eine numerische Dominanz der Südkarpaten Rumäniens mit neuen Angaben flügellosen Morphe der Art Gerris ergänzt. Dabei wurden die folgenden thoracicus festgestellt. An den jeweiligen Gebirgsmassive untersucht: Parâng, Făgăraş, Sammelstellen wurden die aquatischen Bucegi und der Karpatenbogen. Im und semiaquatischen Heteropteren- Vergleich zu früheren Studien wurden im Gemeinschaften untersucht, wobei aufgrund untersuchten Gebiet 24 Arten festgestellt der quantitativen Daten die Ähnlichkeiten von denen 13 für die Gebiete neu sind. zwischen ihnen (relative Häufigkeit der Erwähnenswert sind die Arten Gerris costae Arten) festgestellt wurde.

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INTRODUCTION The Study on aquatic and semi- data only covers the north and west of the aquatic Heteroptera communities in Romanian Carpathian mountains. The mountain areas of Romania has been a deep present study provides an accurate concern of research during the recent years overview, aimed at spotlighting the (Ilie and Olosutean, 2009; Olosutean and Heteroptera communities in the Southern

Ilie 2008, 2010). However, the published Carpathians.

Figure 1: Mountainous areas in which collections were carried out: P1-P4: Parâng; F1-F2: Făgăraş; B1-B2: Bucegi; C1-C7: the Curvature Carpathians.

Aquatic and semi-aquatic (67 Heteroptera species listed in Ilie, Heteroptera are included in two infra-orders 2009; three new species published by – Nepomorpha and Gerromorpha – from the Berchi in 2011, 2012, 2013). These insects Heteroptera (Stys and Kerzhner, 1975). are important components of aquatic Out of these two Romanian territory ecosystemsand fulfill multiple roles in infra-orders, 70 species were identified trophic chains.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The Heteroptera species list was Curvature Carpathians groups (Fig. 1). developed based on bibliographic research Our own collections were made in different (Paina, 1975) and based on our own field campaigns, during September and collection. The study was conducted in October 2001, September 2002, August the Southern part of the Romanian and October 2004 and August, September Carpathians, namely in these high mountain 2011. groups: Parâng, Făgăraş, Bucegi and the

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The biological material was collected In Parâng Mountains group, we have from 15 stations in different habitats, namely collected from four sampling stations, as rivers, streams, lakes and ponds (with a follows: permanent or temporary water supply), located from 400 m altitude to 2,000 m.

Figure 2: P1 sampling station.

Figure 3: P3 sampling station.

P1 (Fig. 2) ‒ the pools are located in the terminal flysch, as well as from the near Oaşa dam (towards dam tail); which rain accumulations. It has variable levels and were formed in an anthropic manner, has become a pool degraded by running and following the work undertaken within the grazing cattle, making the vegetation Transalpina road building; the deep pools are difficult to grow. about 0.5-1 m; the substrate is oozy and P4 – the pools are in the Lotrului herbaceous vegetation is present on the Gorge, near the confluence with the Olt marshes banks; the human impact is also River. They are located on the right side of reduced. the Lotru River, approx. 30 m away from P2 ‒ collection stations are situated it; they developed from excavations in the riverbed of Sadu River, upstream from performed around the year of 1990; these the village with the same name; the substrate pools are supplied from a leaking is rocky, vegetation is poorly developed due underground and flysch slope; the maximum to soil skeleton and floods. Sadu River’s depth is 70 cm; the substrate is composed of hydrological regime is strongly influenced gravel, over which there is a very thin layer by hydro technical environment. of mud; the vegetation is represented by P3 (Fig. 3) – the pool is situated on Typha latifolia, Juncus conglomeratus, the border of a Sadu Village, formed by the Cyperus fuscus; the human impact is also contributions made by spring sources located reduced.

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Figure 4: F1 sampling station.

Figure 5: B1 sampling station.

In the Făgăraş Mountains group, we unfortunately, within the lake, no ecological collected from two stations, namely: tourism is practiced. F1 (Fig. 4) – the sampling station is Within Bucegi Mountain group, we situated on the Bozghi brook, a tributary of performed collections from two stations: the Sâmbata River (located on the North side B1 (Fig. 5) ‒ the sampling station is of Făgăraş Mountains); the mountain brook located on a creek crossed by the road has a rich and uniform flow of Carpathian between the villages of Râşnov and Tohanu type; there is a bare riparian vegetation, Nou (three km to Râşnov and five km to while the banks are covered by specific Tohanu Nou); the average depth is less than plants of the forest which is crossing it; there 0.5 m, the substrate is muddy, while the is no human activity in either the specified herbaceous vegetation is present along the area, or upstream. banks; the human impact on the stream is F2 ‒ Bâlea Lake is a typical glacial quite strong. lake, stuck in the Bâlii pot, near the B2 ‒ the station is situated on the threshold which separates the former cirque Prahova River, near the Azuga locality; the and the glacier valley. It has a mixed river’s depth in the collection section is collecting process, represented by the Bâlea under 0.5 m; the substrate consists of gravel, river origin; the lake has an area of 4.6 ha riparian vegetation is present; near the and a maximum depth of 11.35 m; watercourse the gravel is being extracted.

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Figure 6: C1 sampling station.

Figure 7: C6 sampling station.

In Curvature Carpathians Group C2 ‒ the sampling station is situated Mountains, we collected from seven stations, on the Doftana Ardeleană River (tributary of namely: Târlung River), crossed by the no. 1 National C1 (Fig. 6) ‒ the “Tău fără fund” Road; the water depth is less than 0.5 m, the (bottomless) lake of Mateiaş Village substrate is rocky and rough, and the water is perimeter. The lake is located on the left side flowing fast; the collection process was of the Olt River, stuck in the terrace deposits, conducted in a low speed water area, within thus, allowing the groundwater to feed the a very restricted surface. lake; it covers an area of 870 hectares, and is C3 ‒ wetland located near Berii surrounded by Salix sp., Phragmites Valley, from Ciucaş Mountain, with direct communis and Typha latifolia; the access to the no. 1A National Road Cheia – submerged and natant vegetation occupies Braşov (located approximately 29.2 km from over half of the lake, while the human Săcel), in a protected area environment, impact is quite reduced. which has been stated in the “Natura 2000 Site”.

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C4 – a stagnant sector of a stream, C6 (Fig. 7) ‒ the ponds in the which was created by the river crossing major riverbed of Teleajen River, upstream under the road (the National Road no. 1A) from the Cheia town, the swamps have small probably due to the difference of level; the dimensions, of max. 10 m2; the substrate collection sector is located in the forest and is muddy; in the banks there are is heavily shaded; furthermore, the aquatic hydrophilic plants and sometimes boulders; vegetation is well developed, and there is in the ponds are numerous pieces of trees’ also bright water (unfilled aquatic plants fallen branches, which are present in the areas); the human impact is reduced. area, while the human impact is quite C5 ‒ the sampling station is located reduced. on a river crossed by National Road no. 1A, C7 ‒ the sampling station is and can be defined by its small stream and represented by a ditch on the road (National rocky substrate; water is shaded by the trees Road no. 1) where there is underground and within the forest and has a whitish color, rain pipe connection; the ditch is about two possibly due to the activities of the meters in length and 30-40 cm width. sheepfolds upstream.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sporadic investigations carried out and which have not been reported in the on aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera, in Făgăraş area). Parâng Mountains groups, Făgăraş, Bucegi In the Parâng Mountains group, there and Curvature Carpathians, mentioned in were seven Heteroptera species reported, the reference section, have led to the three species in Făgăraş Mountain group, identification of fifteen species, out of which 16 species in Bucegi group and 26 species nine are aquatic species and six are semi- of aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera, aquatic. in the Curvature Carpathians. We do In this scientific study, we have consider the number of species identified identified a total of 24 Heteroptera up to date as being proportionately equal species, out of which 13 are reported for with the favorable habitats number found the first time: Aquarius paludum, Gerris in these large mountain groups (I costae, Gerris lateralis, Microvelia personally had seven stations out of which I reticulata, Velia caprai, Mesovelia have collected Heteroptera in Curvature furcata, Mesovelia vittigera, Micronecta Carpathians, while in Făgăraş I had only (Dichaetonecta) sp., Hesperocorixa linnaei, two stations), as well as with the Sigara limitata, Sigara striata, Sigara accessibility in those areas (in Bucegi iactans and Notonecta viridis. Some are group, a greater number of researchers more interesting from the faunistic collected, and this is why the access ways perspective, for the Romanian territory, are better represented). being less recorded until the present. The number of Heteroptera species These are Gerris costae and Gerris per station varies from one species to 17 lateralis (Tab. 1). Most widespread species, the best conditions for aquatic Heteroptera species are Notonecta and semi-aquatic Heteroptera are to be glauca (present in ten stations of the found in a lake situated in the Perşani four major mountain groups), Notonecta Mountains (Curvature Carpathians group) viridis and Gerris lacustris (present in at an altitude of about 520 m (station C1) every one of the eight sampling stations, (Tab. 2a, b).

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Table 1: Status of species reported to date in the southern part of Romanian Carpathians, where P, F, B, C ‒ own collections developed in Parâng Mountain area, Făgăraş, Bucegi, namely Curvature Carpathians Mountain Area; P bibl., F bibl., B bibl., C bibl. ‒ bibliographic references from Parâng, Făgăraş, Bucegi namely Curvature Carpathians Mountain Area; (1) – Montandon A. L., 1907; (2) – Soós A., 1959; (3) – Sienkiewicz I., 1960; (4) – Sienkiewicz I., 1964; (5) – Fesci S., 1969. All authors are taken from Paina, 1975. P P F F B B C C Taxons bibl bibl bibl bibl Infraorder Gerromorpha Fam. Gerridae Aquarius paludum (Fabricius 1794) + Gerris lateralis Schummel 1832 + Gerris (Gerris) thoracicus Schummel 1832 +3 + Gerris (Gerris) costae (Herrich-Schaeffer 1850) + Gerris (Gerris) argentatus Schummel 1832 +3 + Gerris (Gerris) odontogaster (Zetterstedt 1828) +3 + Gerris (Gerris) lacustris (Linnaeus 1758) + + + +5 Fam. Veliidae Microvelia reticulata (Burmeister 1835) + + Velia (Plesiovelia) caprai Tamanini 1947 + Fam Hebridae Hebrus (Hebrusella) ruficeps Thomson 1871 +3.4 Fam. Hydrometridae Hydrometra stagnorum (Linnaeus, 1758) + +5 Fam Mesoveliidae Mesovelia furcata Mulsant and Rey 1852 + Mesovelia vitigera Horváth 1895 + Infraorder Nepomorpha Fam. Corixidae Micronecta (Dichaetonecta) sp. Hitchinson 1940 + Corixa punctata (Illiger 1807) +3 + Hesperocorixa linnaei (Fieber 1848) + Hesperocorixa sahlbergi (Fieber 1848) +1.3 Hesperocorixa parallela (Fieber 1860) +2 +1.3 Sigara nigrolineata (Fieber 1848) + +2.3 + Sigara (Retrocorixa) limitata (Fieber 1848) + Sigara (Sigara) striata (Linnaeus 1758) + Sigara (Subsigara) iactans Jansson 1983 + Fam. Naucoridae Ilyocoris cimicoides (Linnaeus 1758) + +5 Fam. Nepidae Nepa cinerea Linnaeus 1758 + + + +5 Ranatra (Ranatra) linearis (Linnaeus 1758) +5 Fam. Notonectidae Notonecta (Notonecta) viridis Delcourt 1909 + + + Notonecta (Notonecta) glauca Linnaeus 1758 + + + +3 + +5 Fam. Pleidae Plea minutissima Leach 1817 +3 +

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Table 2a: Structure of aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera communities of sampling stations (relative abundance values). Species P1 P2 P3 P4 F1 F2 B1 B2 Aquarius 0.125 paludum Gerris 0.048 lateralis Gerris costae 0.444 Gerris 0.250 0.375 0.048 lacustris Microvelia 0.333 reticulata Velia caprai 1.000 Sigara 0.654 0.250 nigrolineata Nepa cinerea 0.500 0.125 Notonecta 0.222 0.077 0.500 0.238 viridis Notonecta 0.333 0.500 0.269 0.667 0.375 0.667 glauca

Table 2b: Structure of aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera communities of sampling stations (relative abundance values). Species C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 Gerris 0.963 thoracicus Gerris 0.174 argentatus Gerris 0.006 odontogaster Gerris 0.003 0.600 0.037 0.141 0.083 lacustris Microvelia 0.208 reticulata Hydrometra 0.003 stagnorum Mesovelia 0.035 furcata Mesovelia 0.016 vitigera Micronecta 1.000 sp. Corixa 0.013 0.014 punctata Hesperocorixa 0.006 linnaei Sigara 0.141 0.292 nigrolineata Sigara 0.003 limitata

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Table 2b (continued): Structure of aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera communities of sampling stations (relative abundance values). Species C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 Sigara 0.129 striata Sigara 0.060 iactans Ilyocoris 0.271 cimicoides Nepa 0.006 0.400 0.087 0.069 cinerea Notonecta 0.006 0.500 0.370 0.083 viridis Notonecta 0.035 0.500 0.261 0.458 glauca Plea 0.025 minutissima

Our previous research has showed Nevertheless, the values for P1 and P4 that populations of Gerris thoracicus are (which were identified by three species) ‒ usually monomorphic (macropterous) (Ilie, 1.06 namely 1.04 – are higher than in station 2009). At station C4 we found the numerical B2 (although there have been identified four dominance of apterous morph (12 apter species) ‒ 0.90 ‒ illustrating aquatic and females and 11 apter males, namely two semi-aquatic heteroptera communities more macropter females and one macropterous stable for stations with higher values of male). Vepsäläinen (Vepsäläinen, 1974) Shannon Wiener index. suggests that, under certain conditions (for The degree of similarity between the example early summer and warm habitats) communities of the 15 stations is generally Gerris thoracicus is able to develop a high, except for C1, C4, C2 and F1 (Fig. 9). seasonally restricted dimorphism connected The group formed by C5 and B2 is featured with the production of a second generation. by flowing water habitats, with vegetation The specimens were collected on present only on the banks with rocky 08/16/2011, during a very hot summer. It is substrate, strong anthropogenic impact, low possible that they helped produce the second depth, at an altitude of over 1,000 m, where generation, macropterous. there have been identified both species of The diversity of aquatic and semi- the Notonecta genus, while their relative aquatic Heteroptera communities of the abundance are larger. F2 joins the group, investigated habitats, estimated by Shannon due to their relative abundance identical Wiener index is maximum in C1 (recorded value recorded by Notonecta glauca species value 2.05) and minimum in F1 and C2 to that of B2. (recorded value of 0.00 due to collection of a The group formed by C6 and P4 is single species in each one) (Fig. 8). It is featured by stagnant water habitats and by a important to note that the Shannon Wiener’s low anthropogenic impact, with similar index value for station C6 (where we have species funds (three species in common, identified five species) – namely 1.48 ‒ is including Notonecta viridis), similarly greater than for C7 station (where we have represented in the community (proportional identified six species) – namely 1.38. values of relative abundance).

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2,5 Shannon-Wiener

2,0

1,5

1,0

0,5

0,0 P1 P2 P3 P4 F1 F2 B1 B2 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7

Figure 8: α ‒ Diversity (Shannon-Wiener index) of aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera, of sampling stations.

Figure 9: The similarity between aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera communities defined by Renkonen percentage similarity index, clustering method “nearest neighbor”.

Group C7 ‒ P3 is featured by C2 and F1 communities due to the stagnant and shallow water, rich vegetation, collecting of a single species, are isolated anthropogenic impact but not very intense, from the others. with direct lighting and similar relative abundance of the notonectide species.

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CONCLUSIONS Compared with the fauna of the The differences between large Northern or Western Romanian Carpathians, mountain groups in the South of the aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera fauna Carpathians, in terms of Heteroptera fauna, which has been identified in the Southern have arised from the different number of Carpathians investigated areas, is favorable habitats identified in these groups. characterized mainly by a high specific The aquatic and semi-aquatic diversity. Heteroptera communities diversity and the We do underline the presence of similarity degree between the investigated Gerris lateralis and Notonecta viridis habitats communities are determined by species, stipulated in the mountain groups habitat features (water velocity, water depth, in Parâng, Bucegi and Curvature hygrophyte and hydrophilic vegetation, Carpathians. The other seven species altitude, human impact, etc.). which have not been identified in the The Gerris thoracicus species’ Northern and Western Romanian population of station C4 is dominated by the Carpathians, but are reported during this apterous morph, unlike populations from study, appear in private and very favorable other investigated habitats in the conditions met by one habitat from the Carpathians or in other areas of the country, Curvature Carpathians (C1). where the macropterous morph represents the dominant element.

REFERENCES Berchi G. M., 2011 − First record of Anisops Olosutean H. and Ilie D. M., 2008 − Aspects sardeus (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) in regarding the diversity of aquatic and Romania, North-Western Journal of semiaquatic Heteroptera from Zoology, 7, 2, 339-341. Maramureş Mountains Nature Park Berchi G. M., Kment P. and Petrovici M., (Romania), Transylvanian Review of 2012 − First record of the Systematical and Ecological backswimmer Notonecta Research ‒ Maramureşului meridionalis (Heteroptera) in Mountains Nature Park, 5, 63-72. Romania, Travaux du Museum Olosutean H. and Ilie D. M., 2010 − National d′Histoire Naturelle Relationships between habitat „Grigore Antipa”, 55, 2, 217-220. characteristics and aquatic and semi Berchi G. M., 2013 − Checklist and aquatic Heteroptera community distribution of the family structure in Romanian mountainous Notonectidae in Romania, with the regions: a preliminary report, first record of Notonecta maculata Romanian Journal of Biology ‒ Fabricius 1794 (Hemiptera: Zoology, 55, 2, 139-148. Heteroptera: Nepomorpha), Zootaxa, Paina M. I., 1975 − Lista heteropterelor 3682, 1, 121-132. acvatice şi semiacvatice (O. Ilie D. M., 2009 − Heteropterele acvatice şi Heteroptera) din R. S. R., Nymphaea, semiacvatice din bazinul mijlociu al Folia Naturae Bihariae, 3, 99-115. Oltului, Biblioteca Bruckenthal, (in Romanian) XXXVII, 279. (in Romanian) Štys P. and Kerzhner I., 1975 − The rank and Ilie D. M. and Olosutean H., 2009 − Aquatic nomenclature of higher taxa in recent and semiaquatic Heteroptera from Heteroptera, Acta entomologica Arieş River Basin (Transylvania, Bohemoslovaca, 72, 65-79. Romania) – methods in estimating Vepsäläinen K., 1974 − The life cycle and biodiversity, Transylvanian Review of wings lengths of finnish Gerris Fabr. Systematical and Ecological species (Heteroptera, Gerridae), Acta Research ‒ The Arieş Basin, 7, 77-86. Zoologica Fennica, 141, 4-73.

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AUTHOR:

1 Daniela Minodora ILIE [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Dr. Ioan. Raţiu Street 5-7, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550160.

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DOES THE USE OF DIFFERENT BAITS COMPENSATE FOR SHORT TERM SAMPLINGS OF FOREST BEETLES (COLEOPTERA, CARABIDAE, SCARABEIDAE) AND ANTS (HYMENOPTERA, FORMICIDAE)?

Horea OLOSUTEAN 1, Ioan TĂUŞAN 2 and Florin POPESCU 3

KEYWORDS: Forest beetles, forest ants, pitfall traps, multiple baits, Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature Park.

ABSTRACT The forest beetle and forest ant differences in community composition communities from two forest associations in between the two forest associations, forest the Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature beetle and forest ant species have specific Park were investigated in the summer of bait preferences, and clear differences are 2012. Pitfall traps with different baits were found between the three types of bait used used in order to find out whether the method (ethyl alcohol, beer and fruits). The results can offer a better picture on the community prove that short-term sampling periods if only a short sampling period is available. can be compensated by the use of different The study showed that, besides the obvious baits.

REZUMAT: Poate utilizarea momelilor diferite să compenseze colectările pe perioade scurte de timp în cazul coleopterelor forestiere (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Scarabeidae) și a furnicilor (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)? Coleopterele și furnicile forestiere comunitățile celor două asociații vegetale din două asociații vegetale, din Parcul studiate, diferitele specii de coleoptere și Natural Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina au furnici forestiere capturate au preferințe fost investigate în vara anului 2012. specifice pentru o anume momeală și Capcane Barber cu momeli diferite au fost diferențe clare au fost observate între cele amplasate cu scopul de a afla dacă metoda trei tipuri de momeală folosite (alcool poate oferi o imagine mai bună asupra etilic, bere și fructe). Rezultatele comunităților studiate în condițiile unor demonstrează că o colectare de scurtă durată colectări de scurtă durată. Studiul a arătat că, poate fi compensată de folosirea mai multor pe lângă diferențele evidente dintre momeli.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Kann die Verwendung verschiedener Köder kurze Sammelperioden bei der Erfassung von waldbewohnenden Käfern (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Scarabaeidae) und Ameisen (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) kompensieren? Während des Sommers 2012 wurden außer den offensichtlichen Unterschieden in waldbewohnende Käfer und Ameisen aus der Zusammensetzung der Käfer- und zwei unterschiedlichen Waldgesellschaften Ameisen-Gemeinschaften der beiden im Naturpark Grădiştea Muncelului- Pflanzengesellschaften spezifische Cioclovina untersucht. Dabei wurden Köderpräferenzen bestehen, wobei deutliche Barberfallen mit verschiedenen Ködern Unterschiede zwischen der Annahme der ausgesetzt, um herauszufinden, ob die drei verwendeten Köderarten (Ethanol, Bier Anwendung dieser Fangmethode bei und Früchte) sichtbar werden. Die kürzeren Sammelzeiten ein besseres Bild Ergebnisse belegen, dass Sammelperioden über die Artenzusammensetzung der über eine kurze Zeitspanne durch die untersuchten Gemeinschaften liefern kann. Verwendung unterschiedlicher Köder Die Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, dass ausgeglichen werden können.

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INTRODUCTION Pitfall trapping is a widespread 2001; Perner and Schueler, 2004; Larsen method used for monitoring ground- and Forsyth, 2005; Sabu and Shiju, 2010) dwelling arthropods assemblages and type of bait (Greenslade and (Greenslade and Greenslade, 1971; Greenslade, 1971; Marsh et al., 2013). In the Southwood and Henderson, 2000). latter case, baits are easier to operate and Despite criticism (Topping and Sunderland, yield faster results, but are prone to 1992; Topping, 1993; Majer, 1997; Missa disadvantages such as feeding preferences or et al., 2009), pitfall traps yield a wide invertebrate activity (Wang et al., 2001), and range of invertebrates; particularly spiders, are selective and may attract specific species ground beetles and ants (Weeks and (Greenslade and Greenslade, 1971). McIntyre, 1997; Ward et al., 2001; Corti et Typical baits consist mainly of al., 2013). sugar (sucrose), syrups (sucrose in water), Every technique has both advantages beer, rotting fruits, meat, dung, carrion and disadvantages. However, pitfall traping and alcohol (Greenslade and Greenslade, is a better choice than other methods (e.g. 1971; Romero and Jaffe, 1989; Marsh et al., the quadrat method) due to a more efficient 2013). capture rate, a higher number of collected The time used for a single taxa and reduced sampling effort (Tisa and experiment is also very flexible, ranging Fiedler, 2011; Corti et al., 2013). Moreover, from two days (Greenslade, 1973) to as besides being a low cost method, it provides much as three years (Clarke and Bloom, a better overview of the site because it can 1992). detect species from surrounding patches Since the use of different baits could (several dozen meters in diameter) (Véle et enhance catches of ground-dwelling al., 2009). arthropods with behavioral flexibility Several factors influence pitfall (Greenslade and Greenslade, 1971), our catches: preservative (Koivula et al., 2003; main goal was to establish if a short Schmidt et al., 2006; Jud and Schmidt- sampling using different baits has the Entling, 2008; Chen et al., 2011; Tăușan et potential of offering sufficient information al., 2012), color (Buchholz et al., 2010), about the ground-dwelling arthropod cover of traps (Buchholz and Hannig, 2009), community and can be used as an alternative spacing and transect design (Ward et al., to longer sampling periods.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Sampling area habitats investigated, at 50 meters from each The area investigated is located in other. Each set consisted of three pitfall traps the central part of the Grădiștea River with three different baits: 96% ethylic basin, upstream from its exit from the alcohol, beer and fruits (we used peaches cut Grădiștea Muncelului-Cioclovina Nature in small chunks). Individuals sampled were Park (Fig. 1). Samples were taken from preserved in 96% alcohol prior to their the two versants of the valley. The identification. western versant, covered by a beech Species identification was conducted forest (Carpino-Fagetum), has sampling using keys provided by Gîdei and Popescu points encoded B1 to B4. The eastern (2012) for forest beetles, and by Czechowski versant, covered by a locust tree et al. (2012) for forest ants. Biological plantation, has sampling points encoded L1 material was identified using a 65X Kruss to L4. Stereomicroscope. Biological material Species nomenclature is presented Samples were taken using pitfall according to Fauna Europaea (Lopez-Colon, traps made of 280 ml glass jars. Four sets of 2013; Radchenko, 2013; Vigna Taglianti, traps were installed in each of the two 2013).

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Statistical analysis Rabinowitz, 1975) was performed in order Cluster analysis (Lance and to group individual samples, pointing out Williams, 1966) was performed in order to their contribution to the community sampled group the sampling stations using the from each station. Data processing was number of sampled individuals. Non conducted in SYSTAT 13 (Systat Software Metrical Dimensional Scaling (NMDS – Inc., 2012) and R (R Dev. Core Team).

Figure 1: Location of the sampling stations in the Grădiștea River basin (B – beech forest; L – locust tree plantation).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fourteen species of interest for the aurata (Linnaeus 1761) and Bolboceras 1,194 individuals were sampled from the two armiger (Scopoli 1772). Alongside this investigated habitats (Tab. 1). Six species of species, members of the Coleopteran forest ants: Lasius (Lasius) platythorax families Anobiidae and Staphylinidae were Seifert 1991, Formica (Serviformica) fusca sampled, but they were not identified at Linnaeus 1758, Tetramorium cf. caespitum, species level. Myrmica ruginodis Nylander 1846, The two versants and, consequently, Myrmica scabrinodis Nylander 1846 and the two forest associations sampled seem to Temnothorax crassispinus (Karavaiev have distinct communities of both forest 1926), and eight species of forest beetles, of beetles (Fig. 2) and forest ants (Fig. 3). The which five belong to the Carabidae family: locust tree plantation hosts higher ant Carabus (Chrysocarabus) auronitens diversity, confirming the findings of B. escheri Palliardi 1825, Oodes gracilis Villa Seifert (in verbum) and B. Marko (in and Villa 1833, Oodes helopioides verbum) about the regularly low ant (Fabricius 1792), Deltomerus (Deltomerus) diversity in pure beech forests. Forest carpathicus (Miller 1868) and Sphodrus beetles, on the other hand, have a rather leucophthalmus (Linnaeus 1758), and three similar diversity in the two habitats, with a to the Scarabeidae family: Ceruchus larger number of individuals sampled in the chrysomelinus (Hochenwart 1785), Cetonia beech forest.

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Table 1: List and presence of forest beetles and ants from the investigated area of this study. Station S1 S2 S3 S4 F1 F2 F3 F4 Taxa Order Coleoptera Family Carabide Carabus auronitens escheri    Palliardi, 1825 Oodes gracilis   Villa and Villa, 1833 Oodes helopioides  Fabricius, 1792 Deltomerus carpathicus  Miller, 1868 Sphodrus leucophthalmus    Linnaeus, 1758 Family Scarabaeidae Ceruchus chrysomelinus  (Hochenwart, 1785) Cetonia aurata  (Linnaeus, 1758) Bolboceras armiger   (Scopoli, 1772) Family Staphylinidae     Family Anobiidae  Order Hymenoptera Family Formicidae Lasius platythorax    Seifert, 1991 Formica fusca  Linnaeus, 1758 Tetramorium cf. caespitum  (Linnaeus, 1758) Myrmica scabrinodis    Nylander, 1846 Myrmica ruginodis       Nylander, 1846 Temnothorax crassispinus   (Karawajew, 1926)

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S. leucophthalmus

B. armiger

D. carpathicus

O. helopioides Locust tree

O. gracilis Beech

C. aurata

C. chrysomelinus

C. auronitens escheri

0 5 10

Figure 2: Distribution of forest beetles in the two investigated habitats.

T. crassispinus

M. ruginodis

M. scabrinodis Locust tree Beech T. caespitum

F. fusca

L. platythorax

1 10 100 1000

Figure 3: Distribution of forest ants in two investigated habitats (abscissa logarithmically scaled).

The differences of the two The preferences of the individual communities are also pointed out by the species for the baits used in this specific clustering analysis (Figs. 4 and 5). The experiment are also very clear. The ant sampling points are grouped into separate species collected, L. platythorax and T. clades for both ants and forest beetles. The crassispinus, seem to prefer pitfall traps difference is that ant communities are with chunks of fruit. M. scabrinodis and T. closely distanced in the beech forest, due to cf. caespitum preferred the ones with just their lower diversity, as discussed before. ethylic alcohol. M. ruginodis and F. fusca The forest beetle communities are closer for are more abundant in traps filled with beer the locust tree plantation, due to the lower (Fig. 6). number of individuals sampled.

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As for the forest beetles, they were while O. gracilis is the single species trapped only in the pitfall traps with ethylic mostly present in pitfall traps with alcohol and beer, and their preferences are ethylic alcohol. The remaining three not as clear as those of the ants (Fig. 7). species, C. auronitens escheri, C. Four species; D. carpathicus, S. chrysomelinus and C. aurata equally prefer leucophthalmus, B. armiger and O. the two baits in which forest beetles were helopioides seem to prefer beer as bait, trapped.

L3 B1 B3 B2 B4 L2 L1 L4

0 50 100 150 200 250 Euclidean distances

Figure 4: Cluster of sampling points’ similarity; forest ants (Euclidean distances, average linkage).

B3 B4 L2 L3 L4 L1 B1 B2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Euclidean distances

Figure 5: Cluster of sampling points’ similarity; forest beetles (Euclidean distances, average linkage).

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Figure 6: NMDS ordination of forest ant communities from the investigated habitats based on the presence of the most abundant species (Bray-Curtis index of similarity, Stress = 0; Tcras – T. crassispinus, Lpla – L. platythorax, Msca – M. scabrinodis, Mrug – M. ruginodis, Ffus – F. fusca, Tcae – T. caespitum).

Figure 7: NMDS ordination of forest beetle communities from the investigated habitats based on the presence of the most abundant species (Bray-Curtis index of similarity, Stress = 0; Caur – C. auronitens escheri, Ogra – O. gracilis, Ohel – O. helopioides, Dcar – D. carpathicus, Sleu – S. leucophthalmus, Cchr – C. chrysomelinus, Caur – C. aurata, Barm – B. armiger).

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CONCLUSIONS The investigated area presents a Both ant and beetle species seem to relatively low diversity of forest beetles and have distinct preferences for one of the three ants, probably due to the short period of baits we used for pitfall traps with a clearer sampling. preference in the ant species. There are clear differences between The multiple traps with different the ant and beetle communities of the beech baits method is, therefore, suitable for forest, with a low diversity of ants and a practical use if small periods of sampling higher number of forest beetle individuals, time are available because it has the and of the locust tree plantation, where ants potential to provide a better image of the are finding better habitat conditions. ground-dwelling insects community.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the administration of the Grădiștea Muncelului- Cioclovina Nature Park for their support during the field campaigns, and Mr. Drăgulescu C., who provided information about the forest associations investigated.

REFERENCES Buchholz S. and Hannig K., 2009 – Do Poloniae 4, Natura Optima Dux covers influence the capture Foundation, Warsaw, 496. efficiency of pitfall traps, European Gîdei P. and Popescu I. E., 2012 – Ghidul Journal of Entomology, 106, 667- coleopterelor din România, Edit. 671. PIM, Iaşi, 1, 533. (in Romanian) Buchholz S., Jess A. M., Hertenstein F. and Greenslade P. and Greenslade P. M. J., 1971 Schirmel J., 2010 – Effect of the – The use of baits and preservatives colour of pitfall traps on their capture in pitfall traps, Journal of the efficiency of carabid beetles Australian Entomological Society, (Coleoptera: Carabidae), spiders 10, 253-260. (Araneae) and other arthropods, Greenslade P. J. M., 1973 – Sampling ants European Journal of Entomology, with pitfall traps: digging in effects, 107, 277-280. Insectes Sociaux, 20, 343-353. Chen Y. Q., Li Q., Wang S. and Zhou X. Y., Jud P. and Schmidt-Entling M. H., 2008 – 2011 – A comparison of pitfall traps Fluid type, dilution, and bitter agent with different liquids for studying influence spider preservation in ground-dwelling ants (Formicidae), pitfall traps, Entomologia Myrmecological News, 14, 13-19. Experimentalis et Applicata, 129, Clarke W. H. and Bloom P. E., 1992 – An 356-359. efficient and inexpensive pitfall trap Koivula M., Kotze D. J., Hiisivuori L. and system, Entomological News, 103, Rita H., 2003 – Pitfall trap efficiency: 55-59. do trap size, collecting fluid and Corti R., Larned S. T. and Datry T., 2013 – vegetation structure matter? A comparison of pitfall-trap and Entomologica Fennica, 14, 1-14. quadrat methods for sampling Lance G. N. and Williams W. T., 1966 – A ground-dwelling invertebrates in dry general theory of classificatory riverbeds, Hydrobiologia, 717, 1, 13- sorting strategies, I, Hierarchical 26. systems, Computer Journal, 9, 373- Czechowski W., Radchenko A., Czechowska 380. W. and Vepsäläinen K., 2012 – The Larsen T. H. and Forsyth A., 2005 – Trap ants of Poland with reference to the spacing and transect design for dung myrmecofauna of Europe. Fauna beetle biodiversity studies, Biotropica, 37, 322-325.

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Lopez-Colon J. I., 2013 – Fauna Europaea: Sabu T. K. and Shiju R. T., 2010 – Efficacy Scarabeidae, in, Alonso-Zarazaga, M. of pitfall trapping, Winkler and A. (2013) Fauna Europaea: Berlese extraction methods for Coleoptera, Scarabeoidea, Fauna measuring ground – dwelling Europaea, http://www.faunaeur.org. arthropods in moist – deciduous Majer J. M., 1997 – The use of pitfall traps forests in the Western Ghats, Journal for sampling ants – A critique, of Insect Science, 10, 98. Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria, Schmidt M. H., Clough Y., Schulz W., 56, 2, 323-329. Westphalen A. and Scharntke T., Marsh C. J., Louzada J., Beiroz W. and 2006 – Capture efficiency and Ewers R. M., 2013 – Optimising bait preservation attributes of different for pitfall trapping of amazonian fluids in pitfall traps, Journal of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Arachnology, 34, 159-162. Scarabaeinae), PLoS ONE, 8, 8, Southwood T. R. E. and Henderson P. A., e73147. 2000 – Ecological Methods, 3rd Missa O., Basset Y., Alonso A., Miller S. E., edition, Blackwell Science Ltd., UK, Curletti G., Eardley C., Mansell M. 592. W. and Wagner T., 2009 – Systat Software Inc., 2012 – Systat 13 for Monitoring arthropods in a tropical Windows, http://www.systat.com. landscape: relative effects of Tăuşan I., Tatu A. I. and Cravă A. V., 2012 – sampling methods and habitat types Comparative analysis of pitfall on trap catches, Journal of Insect traps with different liquids for Conservation, 13, 1, 103-118. studying ground-dwelling insects Perner J. and Schueler S., 2004 – Estimating with special reference to ant the density of ground-dwelling communities (Hymenoptera: arthropods with pitfall traps using a Formicidae), Acta Oecologica nested-cross array, Journal of Animal Carpatica, V, 145-152. Ecology, 73, 469-477. Tista M. and Fiedler K., 2011 – How to R Development Core Team, 2012 – R: A evaluate and reduce sampling effort language and environment for for ants, Journal of Insect statistical computing, R Foundation Conservation, 15, 4, 547-559. for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Topping C. J., 1993 – Behavioural responses http://www.r-project.org. of three linyphiid spiders to pitfall Rabinowitz G. B., 1975 – An introduction traps, Entomologia Experimentalis et to non-metrical multidimensional Applicata, 68, 287-293. scaling, American Journal of Topping C. J. and Sunderaland K. D., 1992 – Political Science, 19, 2, 343-390. Limitations to the use of pitfall traps Radchenko A., 2013 – Fauna Europaea: in ecological studies exemplified by a Formicidae, in Mitroiu M. D., Fauna study of spiders in a field of winter Europaea: Hymenoptera, Fauna wheat, Journal of Applied Ecology, Europaea version 2.6, 29, 485-491. http://www.faunaeur.org. Véle A., Holuša J and Frouz J., 2009 – Romero H. and Jaffe K., 1989 – A Sampling for ants in different-aged comparison of methods for spruce forests: a comparison of sampling ants (Formicidae) in methods, European Journal of Soil savannas, Biotropica, 21, 4, 348-352. Biology, 45, 4, 301-305.

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Vigna Taglianti A., 2013 – Fauna Europaea: Ward D. F., New T. R. and Yen A. L., 2001 Carabidae, in Audisio P., Fauna – Effects of pitfall trap spacing on the Europaea: Coleoptera, Caraboidea, abundance, richness and composition Fauna Europaea version 2.6, of invertebrate catches, Journal of http://www.faunaeur.org. Insect Conservation, 5, 1, 47-53. Wang C., Strazanac J. and Butler L., 2001 – Weeks R. D. and McIntyre N. E., 1997 – A A comparison of pitfall traps with comparison of live versus kill pitfall bait traps for studying leaf litter ant trapping techniques using various communities, Journal of Economic killing agents, Entomologia Entomology, 94, 3, 761-765. Experimentalis et Applicata, 82, 267-273.

AUTHORS:

1 Horea OLOSUTEAN [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Applied Ecology Research Center, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

2 Ioan TĂUȘAN [email protected] Brukenthal National Museum, Natural History Museum, Cetății Street 1, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550160.

3 Florin POPESCU [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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ROMANOGOBIO KESSLERII (DYBOWSKI, 1862) FISH POPULATIONS MANAGEMENT DECISIONS SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR ROSCI0132 (TRANSYLVANIA, ROMANIA)

Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC 1, Ioana-Cristina CISMAŞ 2 and Doru BĂNĂDUC 3

KEYWORDS: Natura 2000, Kessler᾽s gudgeon, habitats, threats, pressures, management.

ABSTRACT The ADONIS:CE was used to create which influence negatively this fish species a model of Romanogobio kesslerii species characteristic substrate for reproduction and that presents all the requirements for habitat, it’s benthic macroinvertebrate trophic the indicators that assure a favorable resources, diminishing water flow quantities, conservation status – the adequate measures, appearance and spreading of some the species pressures, and threats. competitor fish species, wrong The main threats to Romanogobio hidrotechnical works in riverbeds, riparian kesslerii (Dybowski, 1862) populations in vegetation harm, permanent difuse pollution ROSCI0132 are: the over sedimentation sources with sinergical effects, poachery, with mud of the microhabitats due to a waste dumps near the rivers, and river wrong soil management in the watersheds, regulations.

REZUMAT: Sistem suport pentru deciziile de management a populațiilor de pești Romanogobio kesslerii (Dybowsky, 1862) pentru ROSCI0132 (Transilvania, Romania). ADONIS:CE a fost utilizat pentru a solului în bazinele hidrografice, ceea ce crearea unui model pentru specia influențează negativ substratul caracteristic Romanogobio kesslerii care prezintă toate pentru reproducere al acestei specii și cerințele de habitat, indicatorii care asigură resursele trofice de macronevertebrate starea de conservare favorabilă – măsurile bentonice, reducerea debitelor lichide a adecvate de management, presiunile și râurilor; apariția și răspândirea unor specii de amenințările asupra speciei. pești competitoare, construcții hidrotehnice Amenințările principale asupra greșite în albiile râurilor, distrugerea populațiilor de Romanogobio kesslerii vegetației ripariene, sursele de poluare (Dybowski, 1862) în ROSCI0132 sunt: difuze permanente cu efecte sinergice cum sedimentarea excesivă cu nămol a sunt depozitele de deșeuri în proximitatea habitatelor, datorită unui management greșit râurilor, braconajul, regularizarea râurilor.

RESUMEN: Sistema de apoyo para decisiones de manejo de poblaciones del pez Romanogobio kesslerii (Dybowski, 1862) en ROSCI0132 (Transilvania, Rumania). El ADONIS:CE se utilizó para crear afecta negativamente el sustrato un modelo para la especie Romanogobio característico que esta especie necesita para kesslerii, la cual presenta tanto los reproducirse; disminución de sus recursos requerimientos concernientes al hábitat, tróficos bentónicos (macroinvertebrados), como los indicadores que aseguran un reducción del flujo de agua, aparición estado favorable de su conservación – y dispersión de especies de peces medidas adecuadas acerca de las presiones y competidores, trabajos hidro-técnicos amenazas que enfrenta esta especie. deficientes en los cauces de los ríos, daño a Las principales amenazas a las la vegetación riparia, difusión permanente poblaciones de Romanogobio kesslerii de contaminantes con efectos sinérgicos, (Dybowski, 1862) en ROSCI0132 son: pesca furtiva, descarga de aguas negras en sobre-sedimentación de fango en los zonas cercanas a los ríos y mala regulación micorhábitats debido a una mal manejo de de los mismos. suelos en las cuencas hidrológicas, lo cual

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INTRODUCTION The EU member countries, are in some nature protected areas (Battes et al., obligated to protect all the Habitats 2005, 2009; Bănăduc, 2005, 2007a, b, 2008; Directive (Annex 2) species and they should Bănăduc and Curtean-Bănăduc, 2013; not permit the decline of ecological status Bănăduc et al., 2013; Bănărescu, 1964; generated by the people activities (*, 1992). Bănărescu and Bănăduc, 2007; Oţel, 2007; The Romanian Natura 2000 sites, including Radu et al., 2008; Simalcsik et al., 2004; those selected for the conservation of the Telcean and Bănărescu, 2002; Telcean and fish species, were designated for their Cupșa, 2009a, b; Meșter et al., 2003; ecological status preservation. The Ureche, 2008). acceptance of site proposals relied upon The actual structure of the fish specific criteria, such as: well preserved, communities, which includes Romanogobio stable and healthy fish populations, typical kesslerii species, in ROSCI0132 (Natura natural habitats, favorable geographical 2000 site Oltul Mijlociu – Cibin – position, and relatively low human activities Hârtibaciu) reveal less individual numbers impact. There are a couple of ways, based as a consequence of long term human on which the Natura 2000 European network activities impact. The distribution ranges of can ameliorate the European Union member the fish associations and their relative countries’ nature conservation: the building abundance variation in this Natura 2000 site of institutional capacity; the broadening of reflects the relative effect of lotic habitat the natural areas aboveground; raising quality in the Olt River watershed (Bănăduc awareness, and last but not least the 1999, 2000, 2005; Curtean-Bănăduc et al., applying of proper management plans for 2007; Curtean-Bănăduc and Bănăduc, 2001, the natural protected areas (Bănăduc, 2007a, 2004a, b; Curtean et al., 1999). 2010, 2011; Bănăduc et al., 2012; Curtean- In the global trend in which the lotic Bănăduc and Bănăduc, 2008). systems become a more and more valuable Among the fish species of resource, the human activities impact on community interest is Romanogobio them will change its magnitude (Curtean- kesslerii (Dybowski, 1862). These fish are Bănăduc and Bănăduc, 2012). living in the middle course of the relatively If this trend continues in the future, big rivers. They prefer a speed of the water no general “cook book type” management of 45-70/90 cm/s, sandy substratum and elements are enough to be used in all relatively shallow water sectors. Often many nature protected areas, because different individuals can be found together in groups. habitat characteristics should be evaluated. The reproduction seems to be in the month Only after this moment specific of June. They spawn in shallow river sectors management elements should be adjust and over sand or gravel. The dead vegetation proposed for the local habitats’ specific debries appeared to be a positive factor for conditions. the reproduction areas selection. The eggs Lately, the modeling techniques of are layed down on the substrate and are process are more and more utilized to obtain attached to the substrate. The food consists a so called “big picture” of distinct systems mainly of diatoms and small psamofilic and/or actions of whatever domain. The organisms. Both alevines and adults are modeling techniques of process are utilized active in the day time period. (Bănărescu, to ease the interpretion process stages for 1964; Bănărescu and Bănăduc, 2007) proper management. The tools of modeling In Romania, the distribution area of are basically software products, products the Romanogobio kesslerii is more used to make and/or analyze models of fragmented than it was half a century ago business organizations, and to reveal (Bănărescu, 1964), human impact being the information about models. Three primary main reason, impact which is dissimilar functions are targeted: documenting a from one watershed sector to another, even present situation, analyzing the effects of

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possible changes and documenting plans to Natura 2000 site, to highlight the present switch the present situation in a different human impact threats and pressures, to direction. As a final result they offer the propose management measures for the possibility to make different diagrams which preservation and increase of this species include the needed management elements conservation status based on a management (Hall and Harmon, 2005). model created on specific requirements of The purposes of this study are to this fish species and its specific habitat reveal the present state of the Romanogobio indicators, as a support system for kesslerii population in the ROSCI0132 management decisions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The ROSCI0132 area (45.682778 Sabanejewia aurata code 1146, Rhodeus lat., 24.324444 long., 2826.10 ha, between sericeus amarus Natura 2000 code 1134, 314 and 568 m altitude) is situated in Zingel streber code 1160, Zingel zingel code Braşov, Sibiu and Vâlcea Romania 1159, Aspius aspius code 1130 and Gobio administrative units (county/județ), both in uranoscpus code 1122). (*) the Alpine and Continental biogeographic The lotic sectors of the studied area regions. This protected area was designated where Romanogobio kesslerii were found for a number of ten fish species, belonging are revealed in figure 1. to the Annex 2 of the Habitats Directive The fish individuals were sampled in (92/43/EEC), (Gobio kessleri code 2511 2011-2014, with active and/or passive (Romanogobio kesslerii), Pelecus cultratus fishing nets and by electrofishing, followed code 2511, Barbus meridionalis Natura by on field identification, and release in their 2000 code 1138, Cobitis taenia code 1149, habitats.

Figure 1: Romanogobio kesslerii individuals sampling stations: Hârtibaciu River 330 and 331, Cibin River 334 and 336 and Olt River 322, 324, 326, 328 (Geographic Information System support Mr. Pătrulescu A.).

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Romanogobio kesslerii populations fish species has a favorable conservation were in the study period being monitored status and exemplified process, we used a and their ecological status was evaluated in management model. In this respect we were relation to the human activities, threats, and ADONIS:CE, developed by Business Object pressures identified in this species’ habitats. Consulting. ADONIS: Community Edition, The fish population’s status was is a free tool offered by the BOC Group evaluated based on balanced distribution of which is useful as a very good entry point to individuals on age classes, size of Business Process Management and is the population, distribution range size, and a right way to become informed about high number of individuals of this fish ADONIS. ADONIS:CE is a useful and species in the local fish communities. feature rich stand-alone version of ADONIS The Romanogobio kesslerii species’ with few limitations if you have to compare specific requirements, threats, and pressures it with the commercial edition. BPMN were determined established on their (Business Process Model and Notation) is a presence or absence of dependence between multinational standardized modeling them and the fish population’s ecological language which can be used for processes’ status in the studied area. illustration. The processes can be quickly, To determine the management simply, and intuitively modeled based on elements needing to be taken to assure this uniform notation (**).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Romanogobio kesslerii species fish fauna structure. The characteristic populations state assessment habitat is in an average/good state. Romanogobio kesslerii population Human pressures and threats ecological state in the Hârtibaciu River in During the field research period, in the sectors 331 and 330 (Fig. 1) was the Hârtibaciu, Olt and Cibin rivers, the next considered to be low in conformity with: pressures on the fish species of interest population size, balanced distribution of the populations were found to be: modification/ individuals on age classes, and a low destruction of characteristic habitats of this percentage of this fish species’ individuals species, water pollution, poachery, habitat in the local fish fauna. The habitats, where fragmentation along the lotic systems due to the sampled individuals of this species were hidrotechnical works, and pollution. The found, are in a medium/low state. identified threats are: the over sedimentation The ecological state of Romanogobio with mud of the microhabitats due to the kesslerii populations in the Olt River wrong soil management in the watersheds, sampling sectors 328, 326, 324 and 322 which negatively influenced this fish (Fig. 1) is low in conformity with: species’ characteristic substrate for unbalanced distribution of individuals on reproduction and its benthic age classes, population size and a low macroinvertebrate trophic resources, percentage of individuals of the species of diminishing water flow quantities, interest in the structure of the local fish appearance and spreading of some communities. In the Olt River, the habitats competing fish species, more tolerant ones of the studied species in the sampling like Gobio gobio (Linnaeus, 1758) or sectors, are in a medium/low ecological invasive ones like Pseudorasbora parva condition. (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846), wrong Romanogobio kesslerii individuals hidrotechnical works in riverbeds, riparian sampled in Cibin River in 334 and 336 vegetation harm, permanent difusing of sectors (Fig. 1) is very good based on: pollution sources with sinergical effects, balanced distribution of the fish individuals poaching, pollution, waste dumps near the in age classes, population size, and high rivers’ control and management, as well as percentage of the species’ individuals in the river regulations.

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Specific requirements Site adjusted management model Romanogobio kesslerii individuals The basic process for the on site are living in the middle sector of the management model is based on activities relatively big rivers. The adults need (squares) and decisions (triangles) (Figs. 3- general river sectors with shallow water, 5a-d). with a majority of substrata needing to be The main objects used to model sandy and a water flow at a speed of around Romanogobio kesslerii management in 45-70/90 cm/s. Often many individuals can ROSCI0132 with ADONIS:CE tool are be found together in schools. The presented and explained below (from Hall reproduction takes place in the period of and Harmon, 2005 – Version 1.1, June, when the adults prefer more speedy November, 2005, http://mhc- water sectors, with pebbles, sand and vegetal net.com/whitepapers_presentations/2005 debries on the bottom of the water. The Process Trends (040306).pdf): juveniles need relatively slow flowing A process is seen here as a sectors, low depth and with a sandy sequence of steps where information is substratum. The food consists mainly of processed/transformed for various models. diatoms and small psamofilic organisms. A process can be modeled through activities, (Bănărescu and Bănăduc, 2007) decisions, subprocesses, and documents Specific habitat indicators attached to different activities and notes. Relating on Romanogobio kesslerii An activity is the smallest part species presence and relative abundance in of a process and represents the tasks that are the studied lotic sectors, the next specific executed during the process. In the modeling habitat indicators are proposed as follows: process, there are activities that depend on areas in the minor riverbed with a depth of decisions. The decision is an important the water under 0.5 m (66%); weight sandy part of the process because for each substrate (66%); weight pebbles substrate decision, it can be assigned a certain (33%); plant fragments percentage in the probability for achieving the following substrate/channel (15%); percentage of fast activities (used in simulation and analysis). flow-water surface (66%); percentage of Every decision can be assigned a probability slow flow-water surface (33%). condition. For this, there are defined Management measures variables (paths can be passed according Any hidrotechnical work should to the assignment of variables – defined in avoid the realization of new lentic artificial the transition conditions) and generators areas or the decreasing of the water flow (gives values to variables to which they under the value of 40-65 cm/s., rarely 4-90 are connected). The generator is directly cm/s., an appropriate fish leader system linked by connectors with decisions and should be realised on all the existing dams, variables. the riverbeds’ mineral exploitation should Model structuring in subprocesses be done in sections no closer than three km is useful for better process organization and to each other and without reaching the fixed understanding. The subprocess works as a geological base. In June (the reproduction process. It is recommended to use, period) riverbed exploitations and fishing especially when the model is very elaborate should be banned, and there should be and with their help you “walk” through the intensive poaching control, riverine natural process from the highest to the lowest level. vegetation protection (minimum 100 m on In the next figure, you can see all the river sides) with no regulation activities, processes that are modeled as a table of waste dump control near the rivers, as well contents (Fig. 2). You can browse through as implementation of a seasonal integrated them by a simple click. monitoring system.

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Figure 2: Hierarchy of process modeled.

In the next figure, you can see all the Figure 4 shows the subprocess processes that are modeled as a table of Indicators Romanogobio kessleri species and contents (Fig. 2). With a simple click, you here are modeled all the indicators that we can browse through subprocesses modeled should consider for the species conservation. (e.g. Indicators Romanogobio kessleri, Depending on the probability that they are Management Measures for the third found, we can take certain management indicator). measures. As can be seen in the figure The basic process is called Model above, the indicators sandy substrate and of Romanogobio kessleri species (Fig. 3) gravel substrate have to follow the same and represents all the characteristics of management measures. The same happens the species: an activity named Specific with indicators fast flowling surface water requirements of habitat – that can be and slowly flowing surface water where attached by a document which explains management measures were combined into a these requirements, a subprocess called single subprocess (e.g. Management Indicators Romanogobio kessleri – measures for 5th and 6th indicator). After containing all the indicators, depending completing each indicator and reaching on their percentage, they may or may favorable branches, the last activity is named not ensure the best state of conservation, Implementation of a integrated monitoring a decision on whether the preservation system. If the condition indicator will not state is favorable. If the preservation state fulfill the standard, then you should follow is in parameters, then the process ends. If each subprocess in part. Finally, after going the condition is not favorable, then follows through management measures for each the activity named Pressures on the species indicator, we still arrived at the last activity and the process ends. For this decision (Implementation of an integrated monitoring we connect a variable (Preservation_state) system) and then, the process ends. and a generator. The generator assigns Every subprocess that furnishes a discrete variable that represents the management measures (Figs. 5a-d) is probability of the decision (e.g. if modeled appling activities to help user- Preservation_state = 0.7 we follow the friendly understanding and visualize the branch “No” of the decision; if phases that must be taken in consideration to Preservation_state = 0.3, we follow the guarantee the conservation of the fish branch “Yes” of the decision). species of interest.

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Figure 3: Model of Romanogobio kesslerii species management – Main process.

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Figure 4: Model of Romanogobio kesslerii indicators – actual state versus favourable state.

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Figure 5a: Model of Management measures for 1st indicator.

Figure 5b: Model of Management measures for 2nd and 3rd indicator.

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Figure 5c: Model of Management measures for 4th indicator.

Figure 5d: Model of Management measures for 5th and 6th indicator.

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Figure 6: Romanogobio kesslerii models framework.

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CONCLUSIONS The present principal threats of the The poachering is intensive and Romanogobio kesslerii species populations extensive too; a situation which should be in the Natura 2000 site ROSCI0132 are the stopped as soon as is possible. following: the over sedimentation with mud The rivers Cibin, Hârtibaciu and Olt of the microhabitats due to incorrect soil should be managed with the purpose of management in the watersheds negatively keeping a good chemical quality of the influence this fish species’ characteristic water. substrate for reproduction and its benthic The extraction of sediments in these macroinvertebrate trophic resources, rivers should be made in correspondance diminishing water flow quantities, with their natural rate of refilling and at sites appearance and spreading of some at a distance of a minimum of three km from competitors’ fish species, wrong each other. hidrotechnical works in riverbeds, riparian The riverine vegetation (herbaceous, vegetation harm, permanent difusion of shrubs and ligneous) should be protected at pollution sources with synergical significant a minimum of 100 m on both sides of the effects, poachering, pollution, waste dumps river in as long of sectors as is possible. near the rivers’ control and management, Seasonal integrated monitoring is and river regulations. needed, including water organic load The identified pressures on the fish monitoring. species populations were: In this research, the authors modification/destruction of characteristic “realized” a framework (Fig. 6) of habitats of this species, water pollution, Romanogobio kesslerii species. The poachering, habitats fragmentation along the ADONIS:CE tool is used for modeling lotic systems due to hidrotechnical works, business processes, but here it was used in and pollution. another domain, especially biology/ecology, A highly significant aspect for this trying to create a model of Romanogobio species is the actual absence of appropriate kesslerii species that presents all the fish leaders on all dams and lakes which requirements for habitat, the indicators that fragmented the lotic habitats continuity. assure a favorable conservation status – the The sand overexploitation till the adequate measures, the species pressures, hard massive rocks substrate shouldn’t be and threats. allowed, thinking about the sandy substrata For future approaches, it should be needs of this species. realized that such management based In June, the reproduction period of systems for other fish species of protection this fish species, the fishing should be interest the Natura 2000 site ROSCI0132. restricted.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS Partialy, the results of these data were revealed in the European Union Structural Operational Programme Environment “Pentru Natură şi Comunităţile locale – Bazele unui management integrat Natura 2000 în zona Hârtibaciu-Târnava Mare-Olt” SMIS CSNR 17049 code.

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REFERENCES Battes K. W., Pricope F., Ureche D. and Bănăduc D., 2008 – Natura 2000 sites Stoica I., 2005 – Ichthyofauna status proposals regarding the fish species in the Siret catchement area, with of Community interest in the emphasis on the effect of the January Romanian Alpine Biogeographical 2001 pollution, Analele Ştiinţifice Regon, Transylvanian Review of „Alexandru I. Cuza”, Iaşi, secţiunea I Systematical and Ecological Biologie animală, LI, 2005, Edit. Research, 6, Edit. Universităţii Univ. „A. I. Cuza” Iaşi, 123-143. „Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu, ISSN Battes K. W., Pricope F., Ureche D. and 1841-7051, 185-196. Stoica I., 2009 – Ichthyofauna status Bănăduc D., 2010 – New SCIS proposal from the Suceava catchment area regarding the ichtiofauna after from 2001 to 2005, Studii şi cercetări the Pannonian Biogeographic Ştiinţifice, Biologie, Seria biologie Seminar for Romania, Sibiu animală, 17, 59-67. (Transylvania, Romania) 9-12 June Bănăduc D., 1999 – Data concerning the 2008, Acta Oecologica Carpatica, human impact on the ichthyofauna of III, 117-122. the upper and middle sectors of the Bănăduc D., 2011 – New SCIS proposal Olt River, Transylvanian Review of regarding the ichtiofauna after the Systematical and Ecological Alpine Biogeographic Seminar for Research, 1, Edit. Universităţii Romania, Sibiu (Transylvania, „Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu, ISBN 973- Romania) 9-12 June 2008, Acta 9410-69-3, 157-164. Oecologica Carpatica, 199-208, IV, Bănăduc D., 2000 – Ichthyofaunistic criteria 2011. for Cibin River human impact Bănăduc D. and Curtean-Bănăduc A., 2013 – assesment, Travaux du Museum New SCIs proposal regarding the National d Histoire naturelle Grigore ichthiofauna for the Stepic Antipa, București, 365-372, XLII. Biogeographic area in Romania, Acta Bănăduc D., 2005 ‒ Fish associations – Oecologica Carpatica, VI, 137-148. habitats quality relation in the Bănăduc D., Nagy A. and Curtean-Bănăduc Târnave rivers (Transylvania, A., 2012 – New SCIS proposal Romania) ecological assessment, regarding the ichtiofauna after the Transylvanian Review of Continental Biogeographic Seminar Systematycal and Ecological for Romania, Sibiu (Transylvania, Research, 2, “The Târnava River Romania) 9-12 June 2008, Acta Basin”, 123-136. Oecologica Carpatica, 145-158, V. Bănăduc D., 2007a – Fish of Natura 2000 Bănăduc D., Stroilă V. and Curtean-Bănăduc network interest in Romania, în A., 2013 ‒ The fish fauna of the Romanian NATURA 2000 NGO Timiș River (Banat, Romania), Coalition contribution for the SCIs Transylvanian Review of designation (eds) Curtean-Bănăduc Systematical and Ecological Angela, Florescu Florentina, Edit. Research, 15, 145-172. Alma Mater Sibiu, ISBN 978-973- Bănărescu P. M., 1964 – Pisces- 632-402-4. Osteichthyes, Fauna R. P. R., XIII, Bănăduc D., 2007b ‒ Middle Olt River Edit. Academiei R. P. R., Bucureşti, (Transylvania, Romania) – Special 962. area for conservation (Natura 2000 Bănărescu P. M. and Bănăduc D., 2007 – Site) proposal for Barbus Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) fish meridionalis Risso, 1827 and species (Osteichthyes) on the associated fish species, Acta Romanian Territory, Acta Ichtiologica Romanica, II, 37-42. Ichtiologica Romanica, II, 43-78.

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Curtean A., Sîrbu I., Drăgulescu C. and Panonian Biogeographical Region, Bănăduc D., 1999 – Impactul Acta oecologica cibiniensis, I, Edit. antropic asupra biodiversităţii zonelor Universităţii „Lucian Blaga” din umede din bazinul superior şi Sibiu, ISSN 1221-5015, 75-95. mijlociu al Oltului, Edit. Universităţii Florea L. and Contoman M., 2014b ‒ „Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu, ISBN 973- Inventarierea Peștilor din Parcul 651-003-4, 102. (in Romanian) Natural Balta Mică a Brăilei, Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2012 – Volumul Simpozionului Internaţional Aspecte privind impactul deversării “Sustainable use and protection of apelor uzate asupra sistemelor animal world diversity”, Chișinău, ecologice lotice receptoare, în Apa 30-31 oct. 2014, ISBN 978-9975-62- resursă fundamentală a dezvoltării 379-7, 2009-2011. (in Romanian) durabile, Metode şi tehnici Hall C. and Harmon P., 2005 – The neconvenţionale de epurare şi tratare Enterprise Architecture, Process a apei, II, coordonator Oprean L., Modeling and Simulation Tools Edit. Academiei Române, 393-416. Report, Version 1.1 (2005) (in Romanian) November, 2005, http://mhc- Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2004b net.com/whitepapers_presentations/2 – Aspecte privind dinamica faunei 005 Process Trends (040306.pdf) râului Cibin în ultimii 150 de ani, Holcik J., 1999 – Rhodeus sericeus (Pallas, Studii şi Comunicări, Muzeul 1776), in Bănărescu P. M. (ed.), The Brukenthal Sibiu, Ştiinţele Naturii, Freshwater Fishes of Europe, 5/1, 29, ISSN 1454-4784, 205-214. (in Cyprinidae 2/1. AULA-Verlag, Romanian) Wiebelsheim, 1-32. Curtean-Bănăduc A., Bănăduc D. and Bucşa Meșter L., Crăciun N., Aioanei F. and C., 2007 – Watershed Management Ureche D., 2003 – Research on the (Transylvania, Romania) – fish fauna in the Argeş, Neajlov, implications, risks, solutions, Sabar, Ialomiţa, Dâmboviţa and Strategies to Enhance Environmental Colentina river basins, Universitatea Security in Transition Countries, din Bacău, Studii şi Cercetări NATO Security trough Science Ştiinţifice, Biologie, Serie nouă, 8, Series – C: Environmental Security, 140-153. Springer, 225-238, ISBN 978-1- Oţel V., 2007 – The present status of the fish 4020-5995-7. species considered of community and Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2001 – national interest, in the Danube delta Cibin River (Transylvania, Romania) Biosphere Reserve, Romanian sector, management, scientific foundation Acta Ichtiologica Romanica, II, 177- proposal, Acta oecologica, VIII, 188. 1-2, Edit. Universităţii „Lucian Radu G. A., Meliceanu I. and Patriche N., Blaga” din Sibiu, ISSN 1221-5015, 2008 – Ichthyofauna, an important 85-100. heritage of the lower Prut floodplain Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2004a (Moldova, Romania), Acta – Cibin River fish communities Ichtiologica Romanica, III, 137-146. structural and functional aspects, Simalcsik F., Misăilă E. R., Misăilă C. and Studii şi Cercetări Ştiinţifice – Seria Pricope F., 2004 – The effect of Biologie, Universitatea din Bacău, 9, Rivers’ pollution with cellulosic and ISSN 122-919-X, 93-102. municipal used waters in Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2008 – ichtyofauna’s integrity, Studia Natura 2000 sites proposals Universitatis Vasile Goldiș, Seria regardingthe fish species of Științele Vieții, 14, 135-140. Community interest in the Romanian

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Telcean I. and Bănărescu P., 2002 – the Floodplain Natural Park area Modifications of the fish fauna in the (Western-Romania), Analele upper Tisa River and its southern and Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula eastern tributaries, in Tiscia de Biologie, XVI, 2009, 132-136. Monograph Series, 6, Ecological Ureche D., 2008 – Studii ecologice privind aspects of the Tisa River Basin, ihtiofauna din bazinul mijlociu şi Sarkany A. and Hamar J. (eds), 179- inferior al râului Siret, Edit. PIM, 186. Iaşi, 223. (in Romanian) Telcean I. and Cupşa D., 2009a – The *, 1992 – Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 backwaters and drainage canals as May 1992 on the conservation of natural refuges for the lowland rivers’ natural habitats and of wild fauna and fishfauna (Someş, Crişuri, Mureş ‒ flora, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal- North-Western Romania), Biharean content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992 Biologist, 3, 1, 37-44. L0043. Telcean I. and Cupşa D., 2009b – Fishfauna **, – http://www.boc-group.com/products/ from the lowland Mureş River and adonis/bpmn-method/

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AUTHORS:

1 Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

2 Ioana-Cristina CISMAŞ [email protected] “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

3 Doru BĂNĂDUC [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Applied Ecology Research Center, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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HISTORICAL HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ALPINE CAPRA STREAM MACROINVERTEBRATES AND FISH COMMUNITIES (SOUTHERN ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS)

Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC 1, Doru BĂNĂDUC 2, Lucia URSU 3 and Răzvan RĂCHITĂ 4

KEYWORDS: Carpaṭii Meridionali/Meridional Carpathians/Transylvanian Alps, Făgăraş Mountains, alpine stream, human impact, macroinvertebrates and fish communities, assessment.

ABSTRACT After the analysis of ecological state they and their trophic base depend on the of the Capra Stream, based on biotic substrate) and by the characteristic changes integrity indexes HBI (Hilsenhoff Biotic in the flow regime. Index), EPT/C and IBI Carpathian Fish Along the Capra Stream we managed Index, we noticed the present impacts of to distinquish three ecological zones: the dams, micro hydro-power plants and first ecological zone is characterised by a pollution on the stream. good ecological state, the second zone is The benthic macroinvertebrate and characterised by an unsatisfactory ecological fish communities are directly, and state, and the third zone is better than the continuously, affected by the lithological second, but not as good as the first, from the substrate change (in conditions of which ecological point of view.

REZUMAT: Impactul antropic istoric asupra comunităților de macronevertebrate și pești din râul alpin Capra (Carpații Sudici Românești). Analiza stării ecologice a râului care aceste comunități sau baza lor trofică Capra, pe baza indicilor biotici de sunt dependente de substrat) și de integritate: HBI, EPT/C și IBI Carpathian modificarea regimului de curgere Fish Index, a relevat impactul generat în caracteristic. prezent de către baraje, microhidrocentrale De-a lungul râului Capra, de la și poluare. izvoare spre vărsare, au fost identificate trei Comunitățile de pești și de zone ecologice: prima cu stare ecologică macronevertebrate au fost direct și continuu bună, a doua cu stare ecologică afectate de schimbarea structurii substratului nesatisfăcătore, a treia cu stare ecologică litologic al albiei minore (în condițiile, în moderată.

RÉSUMÉN: Impactos humanos históricos sobre las comunidades de peces y macroinvertebrados en el Arroyo Capra Alpina (Cárpatos sureños de Rumanía). Tras realizar un análisis del estado sustrato que determinan su dinámica trófica) ecológico del Arroyo Capra, basado en como en las características del régimen de índices de integridad biótica: IBH (índice flujo. biótico de Hilsenhoff), EPT/C e IIC (índice Se discernieron tres zonas ecológicas de los peces de los Cárpatos) se determinó el a lo largo del Arroyo Capra: la primera se impacto actual de las presas, del caracterizó por estar en buen estado microhidroeléctricas y de la contaminación. ecológico, la segunda zona se caracterizó Las comunidades bentónicas de por mostrar un estado ecológico peces y macroinvertebrados están directa y insatisfactorio, y la tercera representa, en continuamente afectadas por cambios tanto términos ecológicos, un estado intermedio en el sustrato litológico (condiciones del entre las dos zonas mencionadas.

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INTRODUCTION The Carpathian Mountains are part to preserve the biodiversity, was mainly of the Alps-Himalaya mountain system. A established based on the Habitats Directive system which is extended from the west of (92/43/EEC) and Birds Directive Europe to the south of Asia. This system (79/409/EEC). Romania is the country includes mountain ranges such as: Alps, with the highest biogeographic diversity, Alborz, Apennine, Atlas, Balkan, Baetic with a total of five biogeographic regions: Cordillera, Carpathian, Cantabrian, alpine, continental, pannonic, pontic and Caucasus, Dinaric Alps, Hellenides, stepic. (Curtean-Bănăduc and Florescu, Himalayas, Hindu Kush, Karakoram, 2007) Pamir, Pyrenees, Taurus and Zagros There are few important ways mountains (Moores and Fairbridge, 1998; through which the Natura 2000 net initiative Schmid et al., 2004). The Romanian can improve the protection of nature Carpathians appeared due to the Alpine in Romania: extension of the natural orogeny in the active edge of the Euroasian surface, the creation and implementation geological plate (Mutihac, 1990). of correct management plans for The Transylvanian Alps (de protected areas, institutional capacity Martonne, 1907) are mountain ranges that building, and raising awareness of the divide the central and southern national problem. This study was created to offer territory of Romania. They cover a data regarding one very characteristic alpine significant part of the Romanian Carpathian stream in one of the most representative Mountains, part which is located between Natura 2000 sites, in the Romanian alpine the Prahova River in the east and the Timiş biogeographic region, the Făgăraş and Cerna rivers in the west (Posea et al., Mountains Natura 2000 site (administrated 1974). together with the Făgăraş Piedmont Natura One of the most emblematic alpine 2000 site). These two Natura 2000 areas relief for the Carpathian Mountains can be overlap over 27 localities areas, including a found in the Făgăraş Mountains, which total surface area of 243,627.7 ha. This stretches between the Olt River to the west surface area contains a total of 20 natural and the Rucăr-Bran Passage and Dâmboviţa protected areas (24,205.5 ha), 66 endemic River to the east. They are characterised by plant species, 326 plant and animal high altitudes of over 2,000 m a.s.l. (e.g. important species of protective interest, etc. Moldoveanu Peak, 2,544 m, Negoiu Peak, (*, 2011). 2,535 m, Viştea Mare Peak, 2,527 m, Historically, the economic activities Lespezi Peak, 2,522 m, Vânătoarea lui have had a major destructive impact on Buteanu Peak, 2,506 m), accentuated slopes, aquatic species communities from small massiveness geomorphosites which were streams to large rivers (Antipa, 1909; formed by the action of the glaciers. (Badea, Bănărescu 1964, 1969). In present the 1983; Roşu, 1980; Posea, 1982; Florea impact is not any different than the past. The 1998; Voiculescu, 2002; Niculescu et al., main direct or/and indirect effects on fresh 1960) water ecosystems are mainly due to the The most important targets of physical and chemical alterations of the the European Union, in the environmental habitats (Bănăduc, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2006, field, are the protection, conservation and 2008; Petts, 2001; Dudgeon, 1992, 1995; the improvement of the environment quality. Iannuzzi and Ludwig, 2004; Das and In context, the intelligent use of the Chakrebarty, 2007; Marković et al., 2007; ecosystem’s resources and services. In the Liogchii, 2008; Kutzenberger, 2008; last few decades, the biodiversity Yacoub, 2011; Tockner et al., 2009; Yildiz conservation was one of the main objectives et al., 2010). of the EU. The action frame at the EU level,

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The macroinvertebrates and fish Hydropower generates around 16% communities assessments are commonly of the global electricity consumption and the used tools for the aquatic habitats ecological electricity generated from renewable energy assessment (Fausch et al., 1990; Edds, 1993; sources, is 86%. After Romania joined the Harrison and Whitfield, 1995; Schiemer, European Union in January 1st 2007, it was 2000; Aparicio et al., 2000; Magalhaes et clearly stated, at the European Conference al., 2002; Pont et al., 2007; Kadye et al., for Renewable Energy, that till 2020 it 2008; Cao et al., 1997; Clements et al., should produce 20% renewable energy. 1989; Couceiro et al., 2012; Curtean- While micro hydro-power plants are a Bănăduc, 2005, 2008; Hilsenhoff, 1981, natural option for a Carpathian country like 1987; Infante et al., 2009; Jiang et al., 2013; Romania. On the other hand, the degradation Lücke and Johnson, 2009; Monaghan and of streams due to microhydropower plants Soares, 2012; Park et al., 2007; Péru and unapropriate construction is one of the nine Dolédec, 2010; Rosenberg and Resh, 1993; significant problematical cases of thus Sánchez-Montoya et al., 2010). construction in the world (WWF, 2013). Assessing macroinvertebrates, and In Romania aproximatively 411 fish communities, diversity requires an hidropower plants are in various stages of adaptative scale approach (Levin, 1992; planning, permitting, construction, or in Ciesielka and Bailey, 2007; Heino and exploitation. More than a quarter are Mykrä, 2006; Jiang et al., 2011; Keith et al., proposed to be situated inside, or at the 2009; Roth et al., 1996). The river/basin limit, of natural protected areas. In this approach is the appropriate assessment. context numerous streams and rivers are The need for this type of study is already, or can be, negatively affected in the coming from concerns regarding the trend of future by micro-hydropower plants in the continuous, and pronounced deterioration of Făgăraş Mountains Natura 2000 and Făgăraş the aquatic ecosystems. A complex and very Piedmont Natura 2000 sites consisting of valuable resource worldwide (Kalinin and Capra, Avrig, Bâlea, Cârţișoara, Râu Mare, Bykov, 1970; Sokolov, 1977; Angradi, Viștea, Sâmbăta, Ucea, Dejani, Lupșa, 2006; Aldwell, 1977; Arnell, 2004; Viștișoara, Sebeș, Valea Satului, Boia Lundqvist, 2009). Despite the relatively low Curpăn, Buda-Otic, Modrogaz, Valea Rea, to medium human access to these Zârna, Vâlsan, Valea Doamnei, Topolog, mountainous zones, these areas have lately Cumpăna, Cuca, Bârsa, Olt, Pojorta, become an increasingly attractive target for Brescioara, Valea Satului, etc. All of these new socio-economic objectives and the are or can be funded from EU funds and Carpathians Mountains is no exception green certificates. These funds are acquired (Dankó, 1993; Costea, 2008; Curtean- and allocated under the national scheme, Bănăduc et al., 2008; Sandu et al., 2008; which is not based on ecologycal criterion Hajdu and Füleky, 2008; Reif et al., 2009; (WWF, 2013). Bănăduc, 2010). Capra Stream is one of the most The Făgăraş Mountains alpine lotic representative case of negative human ecosystems, especially the relative high impact on a Carpathian lotic system, situated altitude sectors due to their relative isolation in a Natura 2000 site (Fig. 1). This is due to and difficult access for field work, were a series of micro hydro-power plants rarely studied in comparison with the lower conducted without adequate impact studies sectors of these rivers with less access. In and needed mitigation measures proposals. the present energy crisis, the alternative Furthermore, in this study it can be sources should be quickly adopted and explained how the actual state of Capra exploited. This includes micro hydro-power Stream is a consequence of these micro plants which are fitting well in alpine areas, hydro-power plants and how the human but without any negative affects to the impact on this stream should be taken into environmental elements. consideration.

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Despite a few existing species red target for human impact extension and listed, including the Carpathians basin fish intensification. species (IUCN Red List of Threatened The Capra gill flows from Capra Species; Kukuła and Sandor, 2003; glacial lake (located at the altitude of 2,230 Voloscuk, 1996; Bănărescu, 2005), and m with an area of 18,340 m2 and a depth of projects which sugests management 8 m) to Căpriţa Lake (with an area of 2,190 elements for macroinvertebates and fish m2 and a depth of 1.5 m). These two alpine species, and habitats management in the lakes are positioned beneath the edge of the Carpathians area (Curtean-Bănăduc, 2008; fifth highest peak of the Făgăraş Mountains Curtean-Bănăduc et al., 2007, 2008, 2011; (Vânătoarea lui Buteanu, 2,506 m) (Ujvari, Curtean-Bănăduc and Bănăduc, 2005; 1972; Badea, 1983; Roşu, 1980). Bănăduc et al., 2012; Galvánek et al., 2014) The Capra and Buda gills form not much is being done to protect the together to create the “Argeş hydrographical streams. system” which has an area of 12.521 km2 One of the most characteristic lotic and a length of 339,6 km (**, 1971). ecosystem for this exquisite alpine area is This system includes the highest the Capra Stream (Fig. 1). This specific (166,6 m) concrete dam (Vidraru Dam) in study intends to generate data regarding the Romania. The dam was built in 1965 for the local macroinvertebrate and fish fauna. Data energy production and supply. The Vidraru that is needed for the creation and Lake has a built water volume of 465 implementation of a correct management millions m3, a potential surface of 893 ha, plan for the Făgăraş Mountains Natura 2000 a length of 12,3 km, and a circumference site, and for raising awareness in an alpine of 28 km (Constantinescu and Pâslaru, environment which has recently become a 1990).

Figure 1: Capra River basin localisation.

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The mountain group (Fig. 1), which beds, disintegrations, dissolutions and includes the Capra Stream drainage area, landslides (Posea et al., 1982). neighbours with Făgăraş depression to the The climatic characteristics of the north, Olt Valley to the west, Dâmboviţa basin are due to its position in the relief unit; Valley to the east, Câmpulung depression, such that it is temperate-continental alpine Brădetu, Arefu and Jiblea to the south climate. With short and cool summers and (Badea, 1983). long, cold, snowy winters (Posea et al., The main edge where Capra gill 1982). springs from is oriented west-east and The Capra River has a length of 20 km Capra River basin is oriented north- and a drainage area of 97 km2 (Ujvari, east (Ujvari, 1972; Badea, 1983; Roşu, 1972). Throughout its length, it receives 1980). several tributaries delivering water from the, The local relief has altitudes of over both left and right sides. 2,000 m in the upper part of the basin, which Landforms, that resulted from many are characteristic of the Făgăraş Mountains. years of evolution in the studied Carpathian The lowest altitude where the Capra river basin, have offered various drainage area is located at is about 800 m opportunities for several human economic downstream of Vidraru Lake (Velcea and activities such as raising livestock Savu, 1982). (especially sheep), logging (was practiced For the first time in Romania, in the logs rafting on the Capra River) tourism, etc. Făgăraș Mountains, was mentioned the Penetration of human presence, in this glacial relief (Lehmann, 1881). Capra relatively isolated area with difficult access, drainage area is characterised by glacial was facilitated after construction of such relief, due to its orogeny and geological features as the Transfăgărășan high altitude evolution as was highlighted above. road. This area is registered as a cuaternary Both benthic macroinvertebrates and glaciation mark, reflected by the presence fish are considered to be two of the most of the glacial cirques and valleys with important groups of organisms selected in there steep flanks that are covered by debris the frame of Water Framework Directive and moraines. (60/2000/EC) to assess and monitor the The upper Capra drainage area is integrity of aquatic biological communities, mainly characterized by river and rainfall in the process of assessing the ecological processes, caused by high leakage and high status of a river (Rosenberg and Resh, slopes (Posea et al., 1982). 1993). The high duration of low Fish are considered an important temperatures common in elevations upwards group of organisms, selected in the frame of 1,850 m in altitude determined as of Water Framework Directive dominants in the crionival and torrential (60/2000/EC), in order to assess and monitor processes. While at lower altitudes, in the the integrity of aquatic biological deciduos and coniferous forests, communities in the process of assessing biochemical, river and rain erosion the ecological status of a river. Much processes have the main role (Posea et al., more, they are used to assess the ecological 1982). status of rivers; as they are composed of Processes that affect Capra Basin species that constitute a large range of versants are solifuction, gullying, torrential trophic levels and pollution tolerances erosion, erosion and transport in river (Rosenberg and Resh, 1993).

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MATERIAL AND METHODS The field campaign of this study was Lake (Fig. 4). The samples were preserved realised in 2012. This studied in a 4% formaldehyde solution (NaHCO3 macroinvertebrates and fish sampling was added). After that, the samples were stations were chosen according to: the valley washed in a 0.2 mm mesh net and analised morphology, the type of river substratum, with a Olympus (150X) stereomicroscope. the confluences with the main tributaries and Identifying individuals was made at orders the human impact presence bias (hydro level, with the exception of Oligochaeta, technical works and polution). Araneida and Chironomidae. After the For the macroinvertebrates sampling, sampled individuals were identified and the Surber Sampler (887 cm2 surface and counted, they were preserved in 70% alcohol 250 µm mesh net) was used (Fig. 2). Ten and included in the collections of the quantitative samples were taken in each of Hydrobiology Laboratory, Faculty of the 17 sampled river sectors, from near Sciences, “Lucian Blaga” University of springs area to the stream flow in Vidraru Sibiu.

Figure 2: Surber Sampler benthic macroinvertebrates sampling on Capra Stream.

The indexes used to describe benthic The Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, macroinvertebrate communities and analyze Trichoptera and Chironomidae abundace stream ecological status are: relative show the balance among benthic invertebrate abundance, frequency, ecologycal communities (EPT/C Index). Ephemeroptera, significance index, Simpson Reversed Plecoptera and Trichoptera are more Index, Margalef Index, Hilsenhoff Index and sensitive to pollution than Chironomidae. EPT/C Index. The relative abundance and The balanced distribution of those groups frequency are used to describe, reveal stream sectors with good ecologycal quantitatively, the structure of comunities. status. This index reveals the ratio between The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index is used to the sum of sampled individuals, who quantify the ecological status of the river. belong to Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, The Simpson Reversed Index and Margalef Trichoptera orders groups, and the sum of Index are used to measure biodiversity – as a individuals who belong to Chironomidae measure of the river homeostasis. family group.

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Two electrofishing gears were used, index for the Carpathians area basins/rivers the AquaTech IGT600 and the AquaTech was proposed by Bănăduc and Curtean- IG1300 devices, for fish sampling (Fig. 3) Bănăduc (2002), its main elements are on 100 m river sectors units. shortly presented below and were used in One of the largely accepted this study. integrated approach, in the fish assessment The combination of metrics for and monitoring respect, is that one based on this index was created to expose insights the biotic integrity using fish communities of assemblage, community, population (Karr, 1981; Leonard and Orth, 1986; and ecosystem perspectives, and to suit Fausch and Schrader, 1987; Lyons et al., local and/or regional patterns in fish 1996; Hughes and Oberdorf, 1998; ecology. Every such selected metric Goldstein and Simon, 1998; Smathers et al., value should be compared with the 1998; Miller et al., 1988; Bramblett and estimated categories from Fausch, 1991; Oberdorff et al., 2002; Sostoa similar/comparable sites/sectors with et al., 2003; Bozzetti and Schulz, 2004; Pont smaller, minimal or no human impact. In et al., 2007; Petesse et al., 2007; Casatti et general it can be considered that as the al., 2009). It is provable that particular adapted/flexible biotic integrity index values adaptations are necessary for each studied decrease, the habitat and lotic ecosystems river (of the same category in the same (as sources of services and resources) biogeographic region). In this manner, a quality decrease too. (Bănăduc and Curtean- specific adaptation of an integrity biotic Bănăduc, 2002)

Figure 3: Electrofishing sampling on Capra Stream.

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Figure 4: Sampling stations on Capra River.

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RESULTS Sampling station S1 (Fig. 5) is The maximum river width is 3 m, situated on the closest point near the river medium width 1.5 m and the minimum 1 m. streams. It is situated at 1,785 m in altitude The substrate is made of rocks, boulders and with coordinates are north latitude gravel. 45º35.682’ North and longitude 24º38.666’ East.

Figure 5: Sampling station 1 on Capra Stream.

The benthic macroinvertebrate groups: Chironomidae, Plecoptera and community present in this river sector is Ephemeroptera; dominant groups: formed by: Oligochaeta, Araneida, Oligochaeta; subdominant groups: Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Araneida and other Diptera; Trichoptera, Diptera, Turbellaria and eudominant groups: Collembola and Chironomidae (Tab. 1). Turbellaria. From the numerical point of view, The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Chironomidae are the dominant group Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a (40.75%). From all sistematical groups, the minimum possible score of this index, groups with the biggest frequencies are: reflects no fish individuals present. The Oligochaeta, Araneida, Ephemeroptera, low water temperature and high content Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Chironomidae. of oxygen reveal an excelent potential According to calculated ecological habitat for reproduction for Salmo trutta semnification index we have: eudominant fario.

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Sampling station S2 (Fig. 6) is The maximum width of the stream is situated at the altitude of 1,721 m, and 1 km 7.5 m and the minimum is 1.5 m. The downstream of the first upstream sampling medium width is 2.5 m. station. The coordinates are 45º35.419᾽ north latitude and 24º38.672᾽ east longitude.

Figure 6: Sampling station 2 on Capra Stream.

The benthic macroinvertebrates Diptera and Trichoptera; recedent groups: community from this river sector is formed Oligochaeta and Turbellaria; subrecedent by Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, group: Collembola. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Diptera and The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Turbellaria (Tab. 1). From the numerical Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a point of view Chironomidae is the minimum possible score of this index in the dominant group (69.22%). The systematic present circumstances, reflects no fish groups with the highest frequency are: individuals present in the sector of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and interest. The low water temperature and high Diptera. According to calculated ecological content of oxigen reveal an excelent semnification index we have: eudominant potential habitat for reproduction for Salmo groups: Chironomidae, Plecoptera and trutta fario. Ephemeroptera; subdominant groups: other

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Sampling station S3 (Fig. 7) is The maximum width of the river is 4 situated at 1,663 m, at 1 km downstream of m, minimum 1 m and medium width of 2.5 the sampling station 2. The coordinates are m. The maximum depth is 70 cm and the 45º35.130᾽ north latitude and 24º38.534᾽ minimum is 8 cm. east longitude.

Figure 7: Sampling station 3 on Capra Stream.

The benthic macroinvertebrates eudominant groups: Chironomidae, community from this river sector is formed Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera; recedent groups: by Olihochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, Oligochaeta, Other Diptera, Araneida, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Diptera. Collembola, Trichoptera and Turbellaria. (Tab. 1). From the numerical point of view The Carpathian Fish – Integrity the dominant group is Chironomidae Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a (67.27%). The systematic groups with the minimum possible score of this index, highest frequency are Oigochaeta, Araneida, reflects no fish individuals present. The low Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and water temperature and high content of Chironomidae. According to calculated oxigen reveal an excelent potential habitat ecological semnification index we have for reproduction for Salmo trutta fario.

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Station S4 (Fig. 8) is situated at maximum depth of the river is about 60 cm, 1,541 m altitude and 1 km downstream from and the minimum is 5 cm. sampling station 3 at north latitude At a distance of arround of 200 m 45º35.013᾽ and east longitude 24º37.925᾽. down the stream from this sampling The maximum width of the river at station is situated the first upper micro- this point is 8 m, minimum width is two hydropower plant (Fig. 9), a first potential meters and medium width of 3.5 m. The bottleneck for fish.

Figure 8: Sampling station 4 on Capra Stream.

Figure 9: Capra Stream – micro hydropower plant Capra I.

The benthic macroinvertebrates group: Other Diptera; recedent groups: community from this river sector is formed Trichoptera, Oligochaeta, Araneida; by Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, subrecedent groups: Collembola and Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Turbellaria. Diptera and Turbellaria (Tab. 1). From the The Carpathian Fish – Integrity numerical point of view, the dominant Biotic Index score is 1 – very poor. The groups is Chironomidae (72.66%). The missing of trout sprcies in the first four groups with the highest frequencies are upper sampling stations have natural Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Diptera. explanations. This is, related mostly with a According to calculated ecological big waterfall between the sampling stations semnification index we have: eudominant 4 and 5, which blockes the potential fish groups Chironomidae and Ephemeroptera; a fauna continuum. dominant group: Plecoptera; subdominant

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The sampling station S5 (Fig. 10) is The maximum width of the river is situated at 1,492 m altitude, 0.9 km 8.5 m, the minimum 3 m and the medium 4 downstream of station S4. The coordinates m. The maximum depth of the river is 50 cm are: 45º34.809᾽ north latitude and while the minimum is 5 cm. 24º37.447᾽ east longitude.

Figure 10: Sampling station 5 on Capra Stream.

The benthic macroinvertebrates Trichoptera and Oligochaeta; subdominant community from this river sector is groups: Plecoptera other Diptera and formed by Oligochaeta, Araneida, Araneida; subrecedent groups: Turbellaria Ostracoda, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Ostracoda. Trichoptera, Diptera and Turbellaria (Tab. The Carpathian Fish – Integrity 1). From the numerical point of view, the Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a dominate group is Chironomidae (55.9%). minimum possible score of this index and The groups with the highest frequencies are: reflects no fish individuals in the area. Oligochaeta, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and In this geographic area, in relatively Chironomidae. According to calculated similar lotic sectors of neighbouring streams ecological semnification index we have and similar habitats (e.g. Buda Stream) are eudominant groups: Chironomidae and good populations of Salmo trutta fario and Ephemeroptera; dominant groups: Cottus gobio (Bănăduc unpublished data).

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The sampling station S6 (Fig. 11) is The maximum width of the Capra situated at 1,492 m altitude and 1 km River in this sector is 8.5 m, the minimum is donwstream of sampling station S5. The 3 m and medium is 4 m. The maximum coordonates are: 45º34.809᾽ north latitude depth of the river is 50 cm and minimum is and 24º37.447᾽ east longitude. 5 cm.

Figure 11: Sampling station 6 on Capra Stream.

The benthic macroinvertebrates groups: Araneida, other Diptera and community from this river sector is formed Trichoptera and subrecedent group: by Oligochaeta, Araneida, Colembola, Collembola. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Diptera. The Carpathian Fish – Integrity (Tab. 1). From the numerical point of view Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a the dominating groups are Chironomidae minimum possible score of this index, (91.87%). The groups with the highest reflects no fish individuals. frequency are Oligochaeta, Ephemeroptera In this geographic area, in similar and Chironomidae. According to calculated lotic sectors of neighbouring streams and ecological semnification index we have (e.g. Buda Stream) in similar habitats are eudominant group: Chironomidae; good populations of Salmo trutta fario and subdominant groups: Ephemeroptera, Cottus gobio. (Bănăduc unpublished data) Oligochaeta and Plectoptera; recedent

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Sampling station S7 (Fig. 12) is medium width is 8 m. The maximum depth situated at 1,249 m altitude and at 3 km of the river here is 65 cm and the minimum downstream of the sampling station S6. The is 7 cm. coordinates are: 45º33.726᾽ north latitude, In the downstream part of the and 24º36.468᾽ east longitude. sampling station, the lotic habitat is very The maximum width of the river is affected by the micro hydropower plant 12 m, the minimum is six meters and hidrotechnical works (Fig. 13).

Figure 12: Sampling station 7 on Capra Stream, natural lotic habitat.

Figure 13: Sampling station 7 on Capra Stream, lotic habitat negatively affected by works for micro hydro-power plant Capra II.

The benthic macroinvertebrates semnification index we have eudominant community from this river sector is formed groups: Oligochaeta and Chironomidae; by: Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, dominant group: Araneida; subdominant Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Diptera. group: Collembola; recedent groups: From the numerical point of view the Ephemeroptera and other Diptera; dominant group is Oligochaeta (63.05%). subrecedent group: Plecoptera. The benthic macroinvertebrates groups with The Carpathian Fish – Integrity the highest frequencies are: Oligochaeta, Biotic Index score (1 – very poor). Araneida, Collembola and Chironomidae. The hidrotechnical works human According to calculated ecological impact is evident on the stream habitat.

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Prelevation Station S8 (Fig. 14) is The maximum width is 9 m long, situated at 1 km downstream from the minimum 1.5 m. Here is located a touristic sampling station S7 and at an altitude of complex (Fig. 14 and 15), and we can notice 1,242 m. The coordinates are north latitude direct waste water evacuation and the lack 45º33.697᾽ and east longitude 24º36.426᾽. of a treatment plant.

Figure 14: Sampling station 8 on Capra Stream, natural habitat, with polluted tributary.

Figure 15: Touristic complex at sampling station 8 on Capra Stream.

The benthic macroinvertebrates Trichoptera; recedent group: other Diptera community from this river sector is formed and subrecedent group: Ostracoda. by Oligochaeta, Araneida, Ostracoda, The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Biotic Index score (1 – very poor). Diptera (Tab. 1). From the numerical point In this area in similar lotic sectors of of view the dominant group is Chironomidae neighbouring streams (e.g. Buda Stream) are (76.46%). The groups with the highest proper habitats for good populations of frequencies are Plecoptera and Salmo trutta fario and Cottus gobio Chironomidae. According to calculated (Bănăduc unpublished data). ecological semnification index we have The water pollution in the eudominant groups: Chironomidae and fragmented stream is due to the upstream Plecoptera; subdominant groups: and downstream micro hydro-power plants Oligochaeta, Ephemeroptera, Araneida and represent the local human impacts.

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Sampling station S9 (Figs. 16 and The geographical coordinates are: 17) is situated at two kilometers downstream 45º32.925᾽ north latitude and 24º35.920᾽ from the sampling station S8. This station is east longitude. The maximum width of the positioned at 1.158 m altitude. river course is 14 m and the minimum 10 m.

Figura 16: Sampling station 9 on Capra Stream; hidrotechnical work on th stream bank.

Figure 17: Sampling station 9 on Capra Stream, pipe ready to be buried in the stream bank.

The benthic macroinvertebrates Plecoptera; subdominant groups: community from this river sector is Ephemeroptera, Oligochaeta, Araneida and formed by Oligochaeta, Araneida, Trichoptera; recedent groups: other Diptera, Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Amphipoda and Turbellaria; subrecedent Trichoptera, Diptera, Amfipoda and group: Collembola. Turbellaria (Tab. 1). From the numerical The Carpathian Fish – Integrity point of view the dominant group is Biotic Index score (24 – fair), describes Chironomidae (78.89%). The groups with some expected species absent (Cottus gobio) the highest frequencies are: Oligochaeta, or rare (Salmo trutta fario) only two Araneida, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, individuals were sampled in the fishing time Trichoptera and Chironomidae. According unit. to calculated ecological semnification The hidrotechnical works (banks index we have eudominant group: reshaping and riverbed surface diminishing) Chironomidae; eudominant group: impact is high.

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Sampling station S10 (Fig. 18) is maximum width of the river course is 14 m situated at 2.4 km downstream from the and the minimum 10 m. prelevation station S9. The station is The maximum width of the river positioned at an altitude of 1,131 meters. course is 13 m and a minimum width of 7 m. The coordinates are: 45º31.899᾽ north The maximum depth is 70 cm and the latitude and 24º35.284᾽ east longitude. The minimum is 15 cm.

Figura 18: Station 10, burried pipe in the stream bank at micro hydro-power plant Capra III.

Figure 19: Sampling station 10 on Capra Stream, near the micro hydro-power plant Capra III.

The macroinvertebrates community other Diptera; recedent group: Araneida; from this river sector is formed by subrecedent group: Collembola. Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera Biotic Index score (1 – very poor). In this and Diptera (Tab. 1). From the numerical area in similar lotic sectors of neighbouring point of view the dominant group is streams (e.g. Buda Stream) are proper Chironomidae (64.03%). The groups with habitats for good populations of Salmo trutta the highest frequencies are: Oligochaeta, fario and Cottus gobio (Bănăduc Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera unpublished data). and Diptera. According to calculated The studied river course is ocupied ecological semnification index we have the by human removed river rocks. Downstream following groups: eudominant groups it is situated the micro hydro-power Chironomidae and Plecoptera; dominant plant Capra III (Fig. 19) due to which group: Ephemeroptera; subdominant the lotic and riverine habitats are drastically groups: Trichoptera, Oligochaeta and disturbed.

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Sampling station S11 (Fig. 20) is coordinates are 45°30.793’ north latitude situated at 2.4 km downstream from and 24°35.028’ east longitude. The sampling station S10. The station is maximum width of the river course is 9 m positioned at 1,046 m altitude. The and the minimum 5 m.

Figure 20: Station 11, burried pipes on bank and riverbed surface diminished with 50%.

Figure 21: Near the station 11, remaines of old rocks and loggs dam used for lodgs rafting.

The macroinvertebrates community The Carpathian Fish – Integrity from this river sector is formed by Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, minimum possible score of this index, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and reflects no fish individuals present. In this Diptera (Tab. 1). From the numerical point area in similar lotic sectors of neighbouring of view the dominant group is Chironomidae streams (e.g. Buda Stream) are proper (85.09%). The groups with the highest habitats for good populations of Salmo trutta frequency are: Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, fario and Cottus gobio (Bănăduc and Chironomidae. According to calculated unpublished data). ecological semnification index we have The actual human impact on the eudominant groups: Chironomidae; stream is due to agressive hydrotechnical subdominant group: Ephemeroptera, works (Fig. 20). Older lodges rafting impact Plecoptera, Oligochaeta and Araneida; has happened here (before the second world recedent groups: other Diptera, Collembola war) the lodges rafting barrages remains are and Trichoptera. still present in this area (Fig. 21).

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Sampling station S12 (Fig. 22) is maximum width of the river course is 8 m situated 1.7 km downstream from the and the minimum 1.3 m. sampling station S11. The station is The maximum width of the river positioned at 966 m altitude and its course is 13 m and the minimum is 7 m. The coordinates are: 45º30.124᾽ north latitude maximum depth is 70 cm and the minimum and 24º35.011᾽ east longitude. The is 15 cm.

Figure 22: Sampling station 12 on Capra Stream.

The macroinvertebrates community The Carpathian Fish – Integrity from this river sector is formed by Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, minimum possible score of this index, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and reflects no fish individuals present. In this Diptera (Tab. 1). From the numerical point area in similar lotic sectors of neighbouring of view the dominant group is Chironomidae streams (e.g. Buda Stream) we can find (88.98%). The groups with the highest proper habitats for good populations of frequencies are Plecoptera and Salmo trutta fario and Cottus gobio Chironomidae. According to calculated (Bănăduc unpublished data). ecological semnification index we have The rock filling width which cover eudominant group: Chironomidae; the pipes buried in the river banks, represent subdominant groups: Ephemeroptera and 50% of the initial river bed width. This Plecoptera; recedent groups: Araneida, station is situated downstream of the michro Oligochaeta, Trichoptera and other Diptera; hydro-power plant Capra IV. subrecedent group: Collembola.

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Sampling station S13 (Fig. 23) is The registeerd coordinates are: situated at 1.5 km downstream from 45º29.289᾽ north latitude and 24º34.998᾽ prelevation station S12. This site is also east longitude. located on the future placement of the Capra The maximum width of the river V micro hydro-power plant. The station is course is seven meters and the minimum positioned at 915 meters in altitude. four meters. The maximum depth is 130 cm.

Figure 23: Sampling station 13 on Capra Stream, lotic habitat negatively affected by works for microhidropowerplant Capra V underground pipes instalments.

Figure 24: Pipe used for the local hidrotechnical works.

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Figure 25: Heavy construction equipment work near the sampling station 13; lotic habitat negatively affected by works for Capra V micro hydro-power plant.

A common situation for the Capra are blocked by some antierosional dams Stream tributaries is that their connections (Fig. 26).

Figure 26: Dam on a tributary in the proximity of sampling station 13.

The macroinvertebrates community Oligochaeta and other Diptera; recedent from this river sector is formed by group: Trichoptera; subrecedent group: Oligochaeta, Araneida, Ostracoda, Ostracoda. Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Trichoptera and Diptera (Tab. 1). From the Biotic Index score (1 – very poor). numerical point of view the dominant To be able to bury the pipes here groups are Chironomidae (71.91%). The (Fig. 24) a rad has been developed through groups with the highest frequencies are the river bed, of one hundred of m length Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and (Fig. 23). The building ground necessary Chironomidae. According to calculated to bury the pipes is wider than the ecological semnification index we have remaining river bed width. The riverbed eudominant groups: Chironomidae and work is done with heavy construction Ephemeroptera; subdominant groups: equipment with no measures to minimize Collembola, Plecoptera, Araneida, the envirnmental impact (Fig. 25).

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Sampling station S14 (Fig. 27) is The coordinates are: 45º28.649᾽ situated at 1.7 km downstream from the north latitude and 24º35.826᾽ east longitude. sampling station S13 on the planed future The maximum width of the river course is placement of the Capra VI 11 m and the minimum 9 m. The maximum microhidropwerplant. The station is depth of the water is about 1 m and the positioned at 890 meters in altitude. minimum 30 cm.

Figura 27: Sampling station 14 on Capra Stream, lotic habitat negatively affected by works for Capra VI micro hydro-power plant.

In this sampling station the lateral have eudominant group: Chironomidae; connection of Capra River with its subdominant groups: Plecoptera, tributaries is also blocked by anti-sediments Trichoptera, Oligochaeta and other Diptera; dams. recedent groups: Ephemeroptera, Araneida The macroinvertebrates community and Collembola. from this river sector is formed by The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and minimum possible score of this index, Diptera. From the numerical point of view reflects no fish individuals present. the dominant group is Chironomidae In this area, in such lotic sectors of (88.89%). The groups with the highest neighbouring streams, (e.g. Buda Stream) frequencies are Oligochaeta, Plecoptera, are proper habitats and good populations of Trichoptera and Diptera. According to Salmo trutta fario and Cottus gobio calculated ecological semnification index we (Bănăduc unpublished data).

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Sampling station S15 (Fig. 28) is The maximum width of the river situated at 1.5 km downstream from course is 11 m and the minimum nine sampling station S14 at 845 meters in meters. The maximum depth is 90 cm, while altitude. The coordinates are: 45º28.644᾽ the minimum is 20 cm. north latitude and 24º36.058᾽ east longitude.

Figure 28: Sampling station 15 on Capra Stream.

The macroinvertebrates community Plecoptera and Ephemeroptera; recedent from this river sector is formed by groups: Collembola and Araneida; and Oligochaeta, Araneida, Ostracoda, subrecedent group: Ostracoda. Collembola, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Trichoptera and Diptera (Tab. 1). From the Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a numerical point of view the dominant group minimum possible score of this index, is: Chironomidae (82.73%). The groups with reflects no fish individuals present. In this the highest frequencies are Ephemeroptera, area, in similar lotic sectors of neighbouring Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. streams, (e.g. Buda Stream) are proper According to calculated ecological habitats for good populations of Salmo trutta semnification index we have eudominant fario and Cottus gobio (Bănăduc groups: Chironomidae; subdominant groups: unpublished data). Trichoptera, Oligochaeta, other Diptera,

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Sampling station 16 (Fig. 29) is The maximum width of the river situated at 500 m downstream the station course is 18 m, the minimum 13 m and the S15. The coordinates are: 45º27.751᾽ north medium 15 m. The maximum depth is 95 latitude and 24º36.172᾽ east longitude. cm while the minimum is 20 cm.

Figure 29: Sampling station 16 on Capra Stream.

The macroinvertebrates community, Trichoptera, other Diptera and Oligochaeta; from this river sector is formed by recedent groups: Ephemeroptera and Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, Araneida; subrecedent group: Collembola. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Diptera (Tab. 1). From the numerical point Biotic Index score (1 – very poor), a of view the dominant group is Chironomidae minimum possible score of this index, (89.77%). The groups with the highest reflects no fish individuals present. In this frequencies are Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, area in similar lotic sectors of neighbouring Trichoptera and Diptera. According to streams (e.g. Buda Stream) are proper calculated ecological semnification index we habitats for good populations of Salmo trutta have: eudominant group: Chironomidae; fario and Cottus gobio (Bănăduc subdominant groups: Plecoptera, unpublished data).

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The last Capra Stream sampling The maximum width of the river station, S17 is situated upstream the Vidraru course is 29 m and the minimum nine Lake (at the edge of the lake), upstream the meters. Here we can see small sediment anti-bottom sediments dam (Figs. 30 and particles accumulation (sand and mud), 31). The coordinates are: 45°27.543᾽ north gravel, and vegetation (Fig. 30) that generate latitude and 24°36.202᾽ east longitude. S17 the semnificative change of the habitats and is situated at 843 m altitude. microhabitats against their natural state. The maximum depth of the river course is 1 m and the minimum 10 cm.

Figure 30: Sampling station 17 on Capra Stream.

Figure 31: Logs and sediments blocks the dam near the Vidraru Lake during high flows period in S17.

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Figure 32: Sampling station 17 on Capra Stream, view from downstream of the concrete anti- bottom sediments dam on the Capra River course at the edge of Vidraru Lake.

The macroinvertebrates community and other Diptera; recedent groups: from this river sector is formed by Araneida and Collembola. Oligochaeta, Araneida, Collembola, The Carpathian Fish – Integrity Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Biotic Index score (1 – very poor). Diptera (Tab. 1). From the numerical point The lotic habitats are transformed of view the dominant group is Chironomidae here in lentic habitats, upstream and (86.01%). The groups with the highest downstream, this is primarily due to the frequencies are: Plecoptera and concrete anti-bottom sediments dam on the Chironomidae. According to calculated Capra River course, at the edge of Vidraru ecological semnification index we have: Lake. No downstream-upstream fish fauna eudominant group: Chironomidae; connection is possible due to the lack of fish subdominant groups: Plecoptera, passage. Ephemeroptera, Oligochaeta, Trichoptera

DISCUSSION Analising the similarities between microhidropowerplant (which was under the benthic macroinvertebrates communities construction) (S11), downstream of the from the Capra Stream, based on the relative Capra IV micro hydro-power plant (in abundance of the present taxonomic groups construction during the prelevation period) we found out that they can be grouped in (S12), in the future emplacement of Capra eight (I-VIII) classes (Fig. 33, Tab. 1). VI micro hydro-power plant – where during I. The communities dominating from prelevation period the investor was the numerical point of view are preparing for the construction of Capra VI Chironomidae. These communities are micro hydro-power plant (S14), downstream present at 1.6 km downstream from the first of the future emplacement of the Capra VI micro hydro-power plant (sampling station micro hydro-power plant (S16) and 6), at 2.4 km downstream of the Capra III upstream of the Vidraru Lake (S17).

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II. Communities that are still began the Capra III microhidropowerplant dominant (numerically) also consist of construction during the sampling period Chironomidae, but with a lower relative (S10) and at 3 km downstream of Capra IV abundance than the above case. These microhidropowerplant which is also in communities are situated at 1,500 m construction (S13). downstream of the future emplacement of V. Communities with the highest the Capra VI micro hydro-power plant and relative abundance Chironomidae (40.75%), at 1,500 m downstream of the anti-bottom Plecoptera (26.67%), Ephemeroptera sendiments dam which blocks the (17.61%) and Oligochaeta (7.2%). These connection of Capra Stream with its communities are situated in the first tributary. prelevation station, at the closest point to the III. Communities with numerical headspring (S1). dominant groups are Chironomidae and VI. Communities with numerical Plecoptera. These are present near the dominant groups Chironomidae (55.9%), touristic area Piscul Negru (S8) and a two Trichoptera (15.31%) and Ephemeroptera kilimeters downstream from this touristic (12.36%). These communities are present at complex (S9). approximative four kilometers downstream IV. Communities with the highest from the first prelevation station (S5). relative abundance (between 64.03% and VII. Communities with numerical 72.66%) are Ephemeroptera (6.76-15.33%) dominant groups Oligochaeta (63.05%) and and Plecoptera (8.4-15.79%). These Chironomidae (24.05%). These are present communities are present in the first 3 km of downstream from the Capra II micro hydro- the river, downstream the first sampling power plant in construction during the station (S2, S3 and S4) in the place where sampling period (S7).

S6 S16 S14 S12 S17 S11 S15 S9 S8 S13 S4 S2 S3 S10 S5 S1 S7 0 5 10 15 20

Figura 33: Similarity analysis of benthonic macroinvertebrates from Capra Stream based on relative abundance values of these groups (grouped at euclidean distance S1-S17 prelevation stations).

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Table 1: Benthic macroinvertebrates communities structure from the Capra Stream (A – relative abundance, F – frequency and W – ecological significance index). Station Sistematic groups A (%) F (%) W 1. Oligochaeta 6.29 100 6.29 Turbellaria 1.26 50 0.63 Araneida 1.64 100 1.64 Collembola 1.26 75 0.94 Ephemeroptera 17.61 100 17.61 Plecoptera 26.67 100 26.67 Trichoptera 2.52 100 2.52 Chironomidae 40.75 100 40.75 Other Diptera 2.01 75 1.51 2. Oligochaeta 1.04 75 0.78 Turbellaria 0.4 75 75 Araneida 0.54 75 0.41 Collembola 0.1 50 0.05 Ephemeroptera 12.52 100 12.52 Plecoptera 12.86 100 12.86 Trichoptera 1.29 100 1.29 Hydropsychidae 0.2 75 0.15 Chironomidae 69.22 100 100 Other Diptera 1.83 100 100 3. Oligochaeta 1.03 100 1.03 Turbellaria 0.6 75 0.45 Araneida 0.67 100 0.67 Collembola 0.42 75 0.32 Ephemeroptera 12.58 100 12.58 Plecoptera 15.79 100 15.79 Trichoptera 0.48 75 0.36 Hydropsychidae 0.12 50 0.06 Chironomidae 67.27 100 67.27 Other Diptera 1.03 75 0.77 4. Oligochaeta 0.71 75 0.53 Turbellaria 0.06 25 0.01 Araneida 0.77 50 0.38 Collembola 0.06 25 0.01 Ephemeroptera 15.33 100 15.33 Plecoptera 8.4 100 8.4 Trichoptera 0.77 75 0.58 Chironomidae 72.66 100 72.66 Other Diptera 1.12 100 1.12 5. Oligochaeta 7.2 100 7.2 Turbellaria 0.37 25 0.09 Araneida 1.48 75 1.11 Ostracoda 0.18 25 0.05 Ephemeroptera 12.36 100 12.36 Plecoptera 4.98 100 4.98 Trichoptera 15.31 50 7.66 Chironomidae 55.9 100 55.9 Other Diptera 2.21 75 1.66

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Table 1 (continued): Benthic macroinvertebrates communities structure from the Capra Stream (A – relative abundance, F – frequency and W – ecological significance index). Station Sistematic group A (%) F (%) W 6. Oligochaeta 2 100 2 Araneida 0.71 75 0.53 Collembola 0.14 25 0.04 Ephemeroptera 2.14 100 2.14 Plecoptera 2 75 1.5 Trichoptera 0.29 50 0.14 Chironomidae 91.87 100 91.87 Other Diptera 0.86 50 0.43 7. Oligochaeta 63.05 100 63.05 Araneida 6.74 100 6.74 Collembola 3.52 100 3.52 Ephemeroptera 1.17 50 0.59 Plecoptera 0.29 25 0.07 Chironomidae 24.05 100 24.05 Other Diptera 1.17 50 0.59 8. Oligochaeta 5.5 50 2.75 Araneida 1.55 75 1.16 Ostracoda 0.17 25 0.04 Ephemeroptera 3.44 75 2.58 Plecoptera 10.82 100 10.82 Trichoptera 1.55 75 1.16 Hydropsychidae 0.17 25 0.04 Chironomidae 76.46 100 76.46 Other Diptera 0.34 50 0.17 9. Oligochaeta 4.22 100 4.22 Araneida 2.88 100 2.88 Collembola 0.19 25 0.05 Ephemeroptera 4.8 100 4.8 Plecoptera 5.37 100 5.37 Trichoptera 1.73 100 1.73 Hydropsychidae 0.77 50 0.38 Chironomidae 78.89 100 78.89 Other Diptera 0.38 50 0.19 Turbellaria 0.38 25 0.1 Amphipoda 0.38 25 0.1 10. Oligochaeta 2.18 100 2.18 Araneida 0.8 50 0.4 Collembola 0.11 25 0.03 Ephemeroptera 6.76 100 6.76 Plecoptera 21.19 100 21.19 Trichoptera 2.63 100 2.63 Hydropsychidae 0.11 25 0.03 Chironomidae 64.03 100 64.03 Other Diptera 2.18 75 1.63

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Table 1 (continued): Benthic macroinvertebrates communities structure from the Capra Stream (A – relative abundance, F – frequency and W – ecological significance index). 11. Sistematic group A (%) F (%) W Oligochaeta 2.64 75 1.98 Araneida 2.08 75 1.56 Collembola 0.75 50 0.38 Ephemeroptera 4.91 100 4.91 Plecoptera 3.4 100 3.4 Trichoptera 0.38 50 0.19 Chironomidae 85.09 100 85.09 Other Diptera 0.75 75 0.57 12. Oligochaeta 1.38 50 0.69 Araneida 1.38 75 1.03 Collembola 0.2 25 0.05 Ephemeroptera 4.33 75 3.25 Plecoptera 1.97 100 1.97 Trichoptera 0.79 75 0.59 Hydropsychidae 0.39 25 0.1 Chironomidae 88.98 100 88.98 Other Diptera 0.59 75 0.44 13. Oligochaeta 2.81 75 2.11 Araneida 3.37 75 2.53 Ostracoda 0.28 25 0.07 Collembola 4.49 75 3.37 Ephemeroptera 10.96 100 10.96 Plecoptera 3.37 100 3.37 Trichoptera 0.84 755 0.63 Hydropsychidae 0.28 25 0.07 Chironomidae 71.91 100 71.91 Other Diptera 1.69 75 1.26 14. Oligochaeta 1.77 100 1.77 Araneida 1.06 75 0.8 Collembola 0.47 50 0.24 Ephemeroptera 1.77 50 0.89 Plecoptera 2.48 100 2.48 Trichoptera 1.89 100 1.89 Hydropsychidae 0.47 25 0.12 Chironomidae 88.89 100 88.89 Other Diptera 1.18 100 1.18 15. Oligochaeta 4.18 75 3.14 Araneida 0.55 50 0.27 Ostracoda 0.18 25 0.05 Collembola 0.73 50 0.36 Ephemeroptera 1.45 100 1.45 Plecoptera 2 100 2 Trichoptera 4.91 100 4.91 Hydropsychidae 0.36 50 0.18 Chironomidae 82.73 100 82.73 Other Diptera 2.91 100 2.91

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Table 1 (continued): Benthic macroinvertebrates communities structure from the Capra Stream (A – relative abundance, F – frequency and W – ecological significance index). 16. Oligochaeta 1.52 75 1.14 Araneida 0.58 75 0.44 Collembola 0.07 25 0.02 Ephemeroptera 0.51 100 0.51 Plecoptera 3.12 100 3.12 Trichoptera 2.25 100 2.25 Hydropsychidae 0.87 100 0.87 Chironomidae 89.77 100 89.77 Other Diptera 1.31 100 1.31 17. Oligochaeta 2.51 75 1.88 Araneida 0.42 25 0.1 Collembola 0.42 50 0.21 Ephemeroptera 3.76 75 2.82 Plecoptera 3.34 100 3.34 Trichoptera 1.67 75 1.25 Hydropsychidae 0.42 25 0.1 Chironomidae 86.01 100 86.01 Other Diptera 1.46 75 1.1

0.8

0.6

0.4 f(x)

0.2

0

0.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 x Figure 34: The Reversed Simpson Index values variation for Insecta Class along the Capra Stream (interpolation cubic spline function, ox axis – stream length in km).

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1.8

1.6

f(x) 1.4

1.2

1 0 5 10 15 20 25 x Figure 35: The Margalef Index values variation for Insecta Class along the Capra Stream (interpolation cubic spline function, ox axis – stream length in km).

According to reversed Simpson high (Fig. 34) the taxonomic groups and Margalef Index values for Insecta Class distribution in the lotic system is we recorded that although the diversity is homogenous (Fig. 33).

Capra Stream ecological state based on benthic macroinvertebrates and fish communities The biotic Hilsenhoff index shows of micro hydro-power plants preparatory organic charge of the water and, according works on the other sampling stations is to registered values, the water quality is important for the benthic macroinvertebrates good in the sampling stations of the Capra of this river. Stream (Tab. 2). This shows that the The benthic macroinvertebrates untreated water resulting from touristic areas structure and the biotic integrity values of along the river, is not strong enough and the Hilsenhoff and EPT/C indexes (Tab. 2, doesn’t have a significant negative impact Fig. 35), shows the existance of three on the benthonic macroinvertebrates ecological zones on the river: I. The superior communities. sector of the stream is characterised by a The EPT/C index reveals that the very good state. Here the anthropic impact is taxonomic groups structure is sensitive to insignificant, the aquatic habitats being close different types of impact. Systematic groups from the natural state of the river. II. The Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera, middle sector of the river reveals an beside the fact that they are sensitive to unsatisfactory state because of the Capra II oxigen concentration, are directly dependent microhidropowerplant construction work on the lithologic substrate structure and type and because of the untreated waste water of flow. The registered value of EPT/C is resulting from the Conacul Ursului higher than 1, only in the first sampling chalet. Because of the Capra II micro hydro- station (Tab. 2) which shows that the impact power plant development work, there have

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been observed significant hydrological and of four micro hydro-power plants, buried morphological changes in the river bed. The pipes in the river banks, riverbed surface river banks have been also modified because diminishing untill 50%, hasty set up roads of the pipe burial disturbance. III. The lower for buring the pipes in the river bed, the sector of the river (downstream from S8) building site with heavy equipment in the shows a better ecological state than the river bed which do not have any measures to previous sector. The good water quality is reduce the impact, the side connection block due to tributaries water which flow directly of the river and the untreated waste water in the Capra Stream. This river sector is also ejection from the touristic zone situated near exposed to anthropic pressures such as river by. continuum fragmentation, the development

Table 2: The Hilsenhoff index values (with the adequate quality classes), Margalef and reversed Simpson (based on the resulted values for Insecta Class). HBI EPT/C Margalef Index Reversed Simpson Index S1 3.54 Excellent 1.14 1.37 2.89 S2 4.16 Very good 0.38 1.19 1.79 S3 4.09 Very good 0.43 1.23 1.94 S4 4.32 Good 0.33 1.22 1.74 S5 4.15 Very good 0.58 1.09 2.33 S6 4.85 Good 0.04 1.39 1.12 S7 6.29 Unsatisfactory 0.06 1.45 1.54 S8 4.52 Good 0.2 1.08 1.44 S9 4.6 Good 0.16 1.46 1.35 S10 3.87 Very good 0.47 1.34 2.05 S11 4.67 Good 0.1 1.45 1.25 S12 4.75 Good 0.08 1.46 1.19 S13 4.26 Good 0.21 1.55 1.65 S14 4.72 Good 0.07 1.35 1.19 S15 4.64 Good 0.1 1.44 1.31 S16 4.73 Good 0.07 1.26 1.19 S17 4.71 Good 0.1 1.47 1.27

Figure 36: Capra River sectors enframe in quality categories, depend on Hilsenhoff biotic index values (HBI).

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CONCLUSIONS After the analysis of the Capra significant because of the development of Stream ecological state based on biotic micro hydro-power plants, the tributaries integrity indexes (HBI and EPT/C) and IBI connection blocking and the untreated Carpathian Fish Index we noticed the wastewater discharge. The building works impacts of dams, micro hydro-power plants simultaneous with the semnificative river development and pollution. bed damage determinated the Cottus gobio The macroinvertebrate and fish fauna local extinction and the drastic reduction of are directly affected by the lithological Salmo truta fario individuals (the presence substrate change (in conditions of which of Salmo truta fario in just one river sector they and their trophic base depend on the of 17 sampling stations). substrate) and by the flow regime changes. After finishing the chain of micro Along the Capra Stream we managed hydro-power plants construction on this to distinquish three main ecological zones. stream it’s compulsory to repopulate with The first ecological zone is trout and bullhead species, which before the characterised by a good ecological state the anthropic impact had stable populations data anthropic impact being insignificant. (Bănăduc, unpublished data). These Because the lotic habitats are in an repopulations are recommended to be done appropiate state of the natural one, we with biologic material prelevated from Buda recommend the conservation of this status. stream which have similar ecological The second ecological zone is characteristics with Capra, and also have characterised by an unsatisfactory ecological been in connection with Capra Stream in the state mainly because of the Capra III micro past. The extinction of every fish species in hydro-power plant development and because all prelevation stations except station 9 area of the untreated wastewaters discharges in with low abundance though is due to major the stream. In this river sector have been interventions (as temporal as well as spatial hidrological and morphological changes aspect) of the micro hydro-power plants which generate stress for the aquatic construction team upstream. communities fact which determines changes This situation resulted because of in their structure. The river banks factors that have accumulated throughout configuration change also may determine time such as lodges rafting in the first part of the river bed deepen because of the the XIX century, fractioning the ichtiofauna rotational flow with negative effect on the connectivity because of the anti-bottom aquatic communities. We propose the next sediments dams without the construction of management measures for this river sector a fish ladder built on the tributaries are to reduce/ban the causes which generates (especially the one built on Capra close to hidrological changes, so the analysed lotic the Vidraru Lake edge); aggressive damage communities can benefit by the ecological of the river bed for pipe burial constructed flow regime (mentioned in water’s law no. for the micro hydro-power plants chain in 107/1996 necessary for the aquatic different states of development; the communities structure maintainance and secondary impact of the untreated ecological system well function in natural wastewater discharges of Piscul Negru conditions or appropiate conditions to chalet (in the last two decades). natural). Then we propose re-establishing The management measures for this measures for the modified river banks and river sector are prevention measures from reduction of the river bed erosion. developing new roads through the river bed The third ecological zone is better and re-establishing measures where they are than the previous one from the ecological needed, re-establishing the tributaries point of view because of the left and right connections and re-establising of past water tributaries contribution of the Capra Stream. courses, the adequate treatment of In this sector the anthropic impact is still wasterwaters.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the Association Ecotur Sibiu for the support during the field campaign.

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Pont D., Hugueny B. and Rogers C., 2007 − Schiemer F., 2000 − Fish as indicators for Development of a fish-based index the assessment of the ecological for the assessment of river health in integrity of large rivers, Europe: the European Fish Index, Hidrobiologia, 422/423, 271-278. Fisheries Management and Ecology, Schmid A. M., Fügenschuh B., Kissling E. 14, 427-439. and Schuster R., 2004 − Tectonic Posea G. (coord.), 1982 ‒ Enciclopedia map and overall architecture of the Geografică a României, Edit. Alpine orogen, Ecologae geologicae Didactică și Pedagogică, București. Helvetica, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, (in Romanian) 97, 93-117. Posea G., Popescu N. and Ielenicz M., 1974 Smathers K. L., Mills M. R., Houp R. E. and ‒ Relieful României, Edit. Științifică, Brumley I. F., 1998 − IBI București, 483. (in Romanian) development for the interior plateau Reif A., Ruşdea E., Brinkmann K., Harth B., and western allegheny ecoregions of Păcurar F. and Rotar I, 2009 − Kentucky, Kentucky Water Vegetation patterns and land use Resources Annual Proceedings. systems in a traditional cultural Sokolov A. A., 1977 − World water landscape – a case study from the resources: Perspectives and village of Gheţari (Transylvania, problems, World Development, 5, 5- Romania), Acta Oecologica 7, 519-523. Carpatica, II, 79-140. Sostoa A., Casals F., Caiola N. M., Vinyoles Rosenberg D. M. and Resh V. H. (eds), D., Sánchez S. and Franch C., 2003 1993 − Freshwater Biomonitoring − Development of a Biotic Integrity and Benthic Macroinvertebrates, Index (IBICAT) Based on the Use of Chapman and Hall, New York. Fish as Indicators of the Roth N. E., Allen J. D. and Errickson D. E., Environmental Quality of the Rivers 1996 – Landscape influences on of Catalonia, http//aca- stream biotic integrity assessed at web.gencat.cat/aca/. multiple spatial scales, Landscape Tockner K., Robinson T. R. and Uehlinger Ecology, 11, 141-156. U., 2009 − Rivers of Europe, 700. Roșu A., 1980 − Geografia Fizică a Ujvari I., 1972 – Geografia apelor României, Edit. Didactică și României, Edit. Științifică, 592. (in Pedagogică, București. (in Romanian) Romanian) Velcea V. and Savu A., 1982 – Geografia Sandu C., Bloesch J. and Coman A., 2008 − Carpaților și Subcarpaților Water pollution in the Mureş Românești, Edit. Didactică și Catchment and its impact on the Pedagogică, 300. (in Romanian) aquatic communities (Romania), Voiculescu M., 2002 ‒ Studiul potențialului Transylvanian Review of geoecologic al Masivului Făgăraș și Systematical and Ecological protecția mediului înconjurător, Edit. Research, 6, 97-108. Mirton, 375. (in Romanian) Sánchez-Montoya M. M., Vidal-Abarca M. Voloscuk I. (ed.), 1996 ‒ Red data book, R and Suárez M. L., 2010 − Lists of threatened plants and Comparing the sensitivity of diverse animals of the Carpathian National macroinvertebrate metrics to a Parks and reserves, ACNAP, multiple stressor gradient in Tatranska Lomnica, Slovakia. Mediterranean streams and its Yacoub H., 2011 ‒ Human impacts on influence on the assessment of nutritive value of Najas ssp. in Wadi ecological status, Ecological Allaqi (Nasser Lake, Egypt), Indicators, 10, 4, 896-904. Romanian Journal of Aquatic Ecology, 1, 63-82.

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Yildiz F. E., Ünsal N. and Gürer I., 2010 − *, 2011 – Natura 2000 standard data form, Water pollution at Sultansazligi http://biodiversitate.mmediu.ro/rio/n Wetland and Develi closed basin atura2000/static/pdf/rosci0122.pdf (Turkey), Transylvanian Review of **, 1971 – Institute of Meteorology and Systematical and Ecological Hydrology. Research, 10, 169-184. AUTHORS:

1 Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Applied Ecology Research Center, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

2 Doru BĂNĂDUC [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

3 Lucia URSU [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

3 Răzvan RĂCHITĂ [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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RESTORING LONGITUDINAL CONNECTIVITY OF THE SOMEŞUL MIC RIVER NEAR THE DAM IN MĂNĂSTIREA VILLAGE (TRANSYLVANIA, ROMANIA)

Răzvan VOICU 1 and Doru BĂNĂDUC 2

KEYWORDS: dam, river connectivity, lotic ecosystem, Someşul Mic River.

ABSTRACT Water Framework Directive connectivity of the river in order to reduce (60/2000/CE), the National Management the effect of the hydromorphological Plan approved by Government Decision no. pressures (cross barring) on watercourses, 80/2011, european institutions with were introduced. competences in environmental protection, The solution presented in this paper faculties of environmental protection, is relatively complex, but robust, utilizing environmental movements and foundations, non-corrosive components that provide a European Union legislation, etc. bring a safe transport for fish upstream of the basin. substantial contribution to the protection of This system, after some resizing, can be lotic ecosystems in Europe. successfully used on other dams or Proposals and implementations, of discharge sills located along the Someşul solutions to restore the longitudinal Mic River.

REZUMAT: Restabilirea conectivității longitudinale a râului Someșul Mic în apropierea barajului din satul Mănăstirea (Transilvania, România). Directiva Cadru Apă (60/2000/CE), longitudinale au ca scop reducerea efectului Planul Național de Gestiune aprobat prin presiunilor hidromorfologice asupra Hotărârea Guvernului Român nr. 80/2011, cursurilor de apă. instituțiile europene cu competențe în Soluția prezentată în acest articol, protecția mediului, universitățile de profil, este relativ complexă, dar robustă și nu ONG-urile de mediu, legislația europeană conține componente corozive. Pe lângă un etc., își aduc o contribuție substanțială la sistem de transport în siguranță al peștilor în protecția ecosistemelor lotice din Europa și amonte, acest sistem, după unele reajustări, nu numai. poate fi utilizat cu succes și în cazul altor Propunerea și implementarea de baraje și stăvilare situate pe râul Someșul soluții pentru restaurarea conectivității Mic.

RÉSUMÉ: Rétablissement de la connectivité longitudinale de la rivière Someşul Mic à proximité du barrage du village de Mănăstirea (Transylvanie, Roumanie). La Directive Cadre de l’Eau connectivité longitudinale ont pour objectif (60/2000/CE), Le Plan National de Gestion de réduire l’effet des pressions hydro- approuvé par la Décision Gouvernementale morphologiques sur les cours d’eau. no. 80/2011, les institutions européennes La solution présentée dans le présent ayant des compétences dans la protection de article est relativement complexe mais fiable l’environnement, l’Université Ecologique, et ne comprend pas de composants corrosifs. les ONGs de profil, la législation En plus de permettre un transport sécurise européenne etc. contribuent d’une manière des poissons en amont du bassin, ce significative à la protection des écosystèmes système, après certains réajustements, peut lotiques d’Europe et pas seulement. être utilisé avec succès dans le cas d’autres La proposition et la mise en place de barrages et déversoirs de la rivière Someșul solutions pour le rétablissement de la Mic.

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INTRODUCTION The Romanian rivers follow a global Someşul Mic rivers. (Pădurean, 2007; Posea trend in which more and more of them are et al., 1982) being negatively impacted by human Due to the obvious fragmentation activities that causing damaging concerns problems (Vannote et al., 1980) in the like various hidrotechnical works, different Someș River basin lotic continuum, types of pollution, eutrophisation, water different technical sollutions have already flow diminishing, mineral substrata been proposed for different sectors of overexploitation, watershed clear cutting the studied river (Voicu, 2014; Voicu and of forests, poachery, introduction of Bretcan, 2014). This approach should invasive species, lodges transport on river continue due to the degree and complexity bed, etc. (Curtean-Bănăduc and Fărcaș, of the problems. 2013; Curtean-Bănăduc and Olosutean, In 1920 a five meter high dam was 2013; Curtean-Bănăduc, 2008, 2005, 2012; built (*) in Mănăstirea Village (Fig. 1). This Fărcaș et al., 2013; Curtean-Bănăduc et al., dam Hydrotechnical Works (Figs. 2-10) 2007). constructed for hydroelectricity purposes, The Someș River (435 km length, represent a significant obstacle for the fish 15,015 km2 basin), is formed by the merging fauna movements. This is a major of the Someșul Mare River (with springs in fragmentation of the local lotic system Rodnei-Suhard Mountains) and the Someșul sector, with negative effects for the lower Mic River (with springs in Apuseni Someşul Mic River. All these negative Mountains). Mănăstirea Village is located in impacs on fish (large scale mortality the Transylvanian Plateau (Romania) on the and also injury) are here due to the right side of the Someşul Mic River (Fig. 1) mechanical barriers, big drops over the weir, approximately three km upstream of the lotic sectors replacement with lenitic sectors, confluence between the Someşul Mare and etc.

Figure 1: Someșul Mic at Mănăstirea Village.

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Figure 2: Dam location in Mănăstirea Village (Source: Google Earth).

Proper perceiving of fish biology and clay or sandy hard substrata with a need for ecology is an important ground on which relatively short migrations for reproduction. optimum decisions to eliminate rivers Chondrostoma nasus, also a Bern fragmentations are made. Convention protected fish species (Annex The river sector upstream and 3), it is a rheophilic species tha prefers downstream the Mănăstirea Village, belong faster water flow sectors with rocky from the ichthyological point of view to the substratum. The mature individuals form big Common Nase zone, includes the following groups which migrate upstream (Oțel, two fish species which migrate or have some 2007). special relatively small moovements for Vimba vimba and Chondrostoma reproduction and need an unfragmented lotic nasus fish species can be considered system: Vimba vimba (Linnaeus, 1758) and needed key indicators for local lotic sector Chondrostoma nasus (Linnaeus, 1758) restoration and conservation as well as for (Bănărescu, 1964). Vimba vimba, a Bern the realization for future Convention protected fish species (Annex monitoring/presence upstream and 3), it is a rheophilic species that prefer deep downstream for this sector.

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Figure 3: Dam – upstream view (photo: Sofronie C.).

Figure 4: Dam – downstream view and toe basin (photo: Sofronie C.).

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Figure 5: Old outlet small hydropower – upstream (photo: Sofronie C.).

Figure 6: Washing opening (dam).

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Figure 7: Downstream discharge sill.

Figure 8: Downstream Mănăstirea Dam.

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Figure 9: Downstream discharge sill.

Figure 10: Downstream Mănăstirea Dam.

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Figure 11: Downstream Mănăstirea Dam.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The materials used in the system Fish entering the concrete basin described below, which will give bypassing are free of pressure issues due to the upstream and downstream of the dam from redirection of electric fields generated by the village Mănăstirea, are stainless and low amperage. Doors opening and closing consist of only a few components that are horizontally, and vertically, through the easily assembled and disassembled. Raising design are positioned in migrating steps so fish vertically gives this solution a wide as not hurt the fish. Specific cylinder well range of aplicability in terms of positioning finishing and durable plastic materials for (including near dams). migrating fish while the pillars of the The effective cost savings of this cylinder do not affect the size and system ranges to the use of all dams under positioning of vegetation on the banks. 15 meters that contain flows rates of Instinctively, and easily, the fish bypass the water downstream of the dam somewhat semicircular metal sheet pile due to low similar to that of the Mănăstirea Dam. For water velocity. Even if the water speed is example, the construction of a Mănăstirea high, the fish will not be harmed thanks to Dam classic fish lift costs at least $ 500,000 the design of the metal sheet pile. Minor bed which is costs much more than the new is great, and from this point of view, the system proposed in this article at $ 150,000 placing of the concrete basin will not affect minimum. Consumed energy and elevator local fish biodiversity. Movement of the permanent maintenance for larger fish lifts water inside the cylinder is caused by the are more than the electricity consumption force of gravity and is constrained to a slow and maintenance of the system of winches velocity as to cause no hurt the fish and and vertical cell pool proposed in the other aquatic organims that moving within article. the cylinder.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fish fauna migration upstream of that redirects the water body is fastened to Mănăstirea Dam can be achieved by the side (surface) perpendicular to the river applying solution I. Downstream of the dam, (Fig. 4). In the water storage area, the on the water course and on the left bank of concrete basin will have a height of 2.10 the following water flow direction, a meters, a length of 4 meters and a width of concrete basin will be built in the Someşul 2.20 m. Mic River bed. A circular metal sheet pile

metal sheet pile Someşul Mic River

concrete basin

metal sheet pile

Figure 12: Positioning the metal sheet pile-indicative scheme.

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Someşul Mic River metal sheet pile

Someşul Mic River

Figure 13: Side cross section of the concrete basin-indicative scheme.

Due to both the lateral surfaces of the a metal pipe with a diameter of about 20 cm concrete basin and metal sheet pile, the river will be fixed inside the river bed and capture water can only reach the lower side of the water by the upstream end which, is basin, but cannot penetrate into the basin. If equipped with a metal lattice and will the water penetrates into the concrete basin, discharge water inside the basin through a there may still the problem of stationary metal lattice (Fig. 14). water. Thus, upstream of this concrete basin

metal sheet pile metal lattice concrete basin Someşul Mic River

metal lattice

Someşul Mic River

metal pipe Figure 14: Positioning the metal pipe ‒ indicative scheme.

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Because of the metal pipe, water basin, we must use metal fences and low flows inside the concrete basin and amperage electric field generators (Figs. maintains a constant water level in the basin; 15a, b, c). The electric generators operate it also represents an attraction to fish. To within the metal fence range, facilitating fish redirect a system of fish away or towards the migration into the concrete basin.

Someşul Mic River electromagnetic field generators

metal pillar metal fence left bank right bank Figure 15a: Positioning the metal fence and electromagnetic field generators – indicative scheme.

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Figure 15b: Electric fields generator for blocking or redirecting the fish positioned before a discharge sill (http://www.smith-root.com/).

Figure 15c: Electric fields generator for blocking or redirecting the fish positioned before a discharge sill (http://www.smith-root.com/).

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semicircular folding door

metal mobile basin door with vertical folding system Figure 16: Positioning the two mobile surfaces ‒ indicative scheme.

Fish in the concrete basin must be plane (Fig. 16). The mobile basin completely moved upstream of the dam. Inside the enters the concrete basin, where fish are concrete basin, two very durable stainless steel attracted inside due to the water flow coming pillars are fixed-both to the horizontal surface out of the pipe. The mobile basin is 210 meters and to the surface where the metal sheet pile is height, 3.60 meters length and 2.05 m width. attached. A mobile metal basin, that perfectly The mobile metal basin is fixed to the folds to the shape of the concrete basin, is fixed two pillars by the means of four metal collars. to the two metal pillars. This basin consists of a Each metal collar contains four bearings which metal lattice and has two mobile surfaces function to allow the basin to move on the where, at the base of the basin, is an inclined metal poles (Fig. 17).

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metal collar

bearing

metal pillar

Figure 17: Fixing the collar on the metal pillar ‒ indicative scheme.

mobile basin metal pillar metal bar

metal collar Figure 18: Fixing the mobile basin to the metal pillars ‒ indicative scheme.

The mobile metal basin is fixed to fixed in the river bed at maximum height of the four collars by the means of four metal about 8 meters above the multiannual bars (Fig. 18). average flow of the river. Electricity is Two concrete pillars are fixed captured from the national network that upstream of the metal sheet pile in the river feeds Mănăstirea Village or directly from bed. On these pillars are two winches (Fig. the dam hydropower plant. This system can 19a) capable of lifting the mobile basin over also use solar energy if there is no other 8 m high. Each of the concrete pillars is source of electricity available.

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http://www.edk-pickup.ro Figure 19a: Electric winch.

electric winch

8,5m

concrete pillar

the multiannual average flow of the river Figure 19b: Positioning the electric winch on the concrete pillar.

The winches are fixed high enough meters above the multiannual average flow on concrete pillars so that water does not of the river. Each electric winch cable is reach them, even during large floods. The passed over two pillars and fixed on each circular metal sheet pile is more than 2.5 metal pillar (Fig. 20).

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windlass

mobile basin

electric winch

metal collar

metal pillar door with vertical folding system

concrete basin Someşul Mic riverbed concrete pillar Figure 20: Mobile basin lifting system.

Inside the concrete basin there is a opening of the vertical flip door, starts up sensor that, when a certain number of when reaching the maximum position of the passing fish is reached, conveys the mobile basin. On the outside of all surfaces automatic shutdown signal to the horizontal of the metal basin, including the two flip flip door. This is done so that the fish fauna doors, plastic sheet piles are fixed in order to are caught inside the mobile basin. When keep water and the fish fauna in the basin. the mobile basin reaches maximum height The funnel is mounted on a stainless steel there is a metal funnel which, after opening pole. the vertical flip door, undertakes all the A rectangular pipe is properly fixed fish fauna. The base of the mobile basin to the funnel (rectangular parallelepiped) is an inclined plane and thus allows both and undertakes the fish fauna that slip on the the ichthyofauna and the water to reach inclined plane of the mobile basin. The fish the metal or durable type plastic funnel (Fig. fauna are carried upstream of the dam with 21). the water in the basin. The pipe that The vertical flip door works by the undertakes the ichthyofauna is fixed on the principle of using an electric motor equipped poles both inside the river and on the right with a cogwheel. An electric generator fixed bank of the river. If necessary, metal poles on the poles provides the energy needed for can be fixed to the dam (Fig. 22). The length two telescopic hydraulic pistons that open of pipe that undertakes water and fish fauna and close the door with a semicircular flap. is about 60 meters, width of 1 m and height The electric motor, which facilitates the of 1.20 m.

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door with vertical folding system

electric motor metal mobile basin

ß

inclined plane funnel for fish fauna capturing

Figure 21: Positioning the funnel for fish fauna capturing.

After the first lift of the mobile basin, two basins can be safe. All the components the fauna mobile sensor automatically of this system are not corrodable. Taking disconnects for a few minutes allowing for into account the current technology, the fish the mobile basin to discharge twice the fauna migration system is not sophisticated. amount of water inside the rectangular pipe Between two consequtive reproduction so all the fish fauna can reach upstream of periods, April-May and June-July for Vimba the dam. Each winch is scheduled, as vimba, and April-May for Chondrostoma previously mentioned, for three ascents and nasus (Bănărescu, 1964) the mobile basin descents of the mobile basin. After all of the can be uninstalled and kept in a warehouse water has discharges, the fish fauna will without being damaged, and each winch can finally reach the lake. The rectangular pipe be protected by the metallic casing. The slope is significantly greater because costs of this system is average and ichthyofauna must arrive safely in the lake. ichthyofauna safety rate is maximized; Between the concrete basin and the additionally the dam structure is not affected minimum level of the mobile basin, there is in any way due to the operation of this a space so that the fish caught between the system.

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the rectangular pipe – the ichthyofauna

the lake water level dam

metal pillars

Someşul Mic River Figure 22: Fixing the rectangular pipe for undertaking fish fauna.

CONCLUSIONS The presented system, related to the Someşul Mic River. The effective ichthyofauna passage upstream of the dam redirectioning and directioning system of in Mănăstirea Village, has relatively fish fauna towards the mobile basin offers moderate costs of completion, uses significant chances for the migratory fishes unsophisticated technology, guarantees a (Chondrostoma nasus and Vimba vimba) in long operational time, and requires minimal this river sector to be transported over the human presence (though very rare). There is dam. These two species have a good chance no danger of watercourse blocking on the to recover and not face local extinction.

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REFERENCES Bănărescu P., 1964 – Fauna of R. P. R. Curtean-Bănăduc A., Bănăduc D. and Bucşa Academy Edition, Bucharest. (in C., 2007 ‒ Watershed Management Romanian) (Transylvania, Romania) – Diaconu S., 1999 – Cursuri de apă. implications, risks, solutions, Amenajare, Impact, Reabilitare, Edit. Strategies to Enhance Environmental *H*G*A, București. (in Romanian) Security in Transition Countries, Curtean-Bănăduc A., 2005 – Târnava Mare NATO Security trough Science River (Transylvania, Romania) Series – C: Environmental Security, ecological assessment, based on the Springer, 225-238, ISBN 978-1- benthic macroinvertebrate 4020-5995-7. communities, Transylvanian Review Fărcaş A. N., Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Kifor of Systematical and Ecological C., 2013 – Ecological assessment as Research, 2, 109-122. a first step in the evaluation of Curtean-Bănăduc A., 2008 – Vişeu River ecosystem services provided by lotic and some tributaries ecological ecosystems, Management of assessment based on Sustainable Development, 5, 2, 9-12. macroinvertebrate communities Pădurean A., 2007 – Mănăstirea, comuna (Maramureş, Romania), Milca, județul Cluj, studiu Transylvanian Review of monografic, Edit. Risoprint, Cluj- Systematical and Ecological Napoca, ISBN-978-973-751-549-0. Research, 5, 165-182. (in Romanian) Curtean-Bănăduc A., 2012 ‒ Orăştie River Posea G., Popescu N., Ielenicz M., Pătroescu M., Velcea I., Popvici I., Velcea V., (Mureş Watershed) ecological Stoicescu N., Mociorniță C., Bichir assessment based on the benthic G., Vendel G., Pișota I., Ceoponea macroinvertebrate communities M., Ştefănescu I., Păunescu D., structure, Acta Oecologica Nicolae I., Grigore M., Florea N., Carpatica, 5, 107-114. Ciulache S., Geanana M., Caloianu Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Olosutean H., 2013 N., Posea A., Dgragu G., Iordan I., – The influence of some Panait I., Ghinoiu I., Ioniță G., Adoc environmental variables on diversity I., Stoian S., Iana S., Vlăsceanu G. of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and and Iosipescu S., 1982 – Trichoptera assemblages ‒ Vişeu Enciclopedia Geografică a României, Basin case study, Transylvanian Edit. Ştiințifică și Enciclopedică, Review of Systematical and București, ISBN-978-973-751-549-0, Ecological Research, Curtean- 1-847. (in Romanian) Bănăduc et al. (eds), 15.1, 81-90. Oțel V., 2007 – Atlasul Peștilor din Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Fărcaş A. N., 2013 Rezervația Biosferei Delta Dunării, – The longitudinal dinamic of Edit. Centrul de Informare macroinvertebrate communities Tehnologică Delta Dunării, Tulcea, structure on Timiş River (Banat, 1-480, ISBN 978-973-88117-0-6. (in Romania), Transylvanian Review of Romanian) Systematical and Ecological Voicu R., 2014 – Solution to creating a fish Research, 15, 123-132. migration system over the bottom/discharge sill on the Someșul Mic River near the town of Gherla, Lakes, reservoirs and ponds, 8, 2, 111-121.

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Voicu R. and Bretcan P., 2014 – Solution for Planul național de amenajare a bazinelor fish migration on the Someșul Mic hidrografice din România, Sinteza River upstream – downstream of versiune revizuită, Administrația Mănăștur Dam in Cluj Napoca, Națională „Apele Române”, Annals of Valahia of Târgoviște, Februarie, 2013. (in Romanian) Geographical Series, 14, 2, in press. Vannote T. L., Minshall G. W., Cummins K. Date de calitatea apei râului Someșul Mic W., Sedell J. R. and Cushing C. E., pentru perioada 2010-2013, Fondul 1980 – The river continuum concept, de date al Administrației Naționale Canadian Journal of Fishery and „Apele Române”, București, 2013. Aquaqulture Science, 37, 130-137.

(in Romanian) *** – http://www.rowater.ro/

Date hidrologice din baza de date a INHGA, București, 2013. (in Romanian)

AUTHORS:

1 Răzvan VOICU [email protected]

“National Institute of Hydrology and Water Management”, Laboratory of Water management and Eco-Hydrology, București-Ploiești Street 97, București, Romania, RO-013686.

2 Doru BĂNĂDUC [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Environmental Sciences, Dr. I. Rațiu Street 5-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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PHARMACEUTICALS, A CURRENT POLLUTANT OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Maria CISMARU 1 and Letiṭia OPREAN 2

KEYWORDS: micropollutants, pharmaceuticals, wastewater, surface water, groundwater.

ABSTRACT Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the pharmaceutical products at very low aquatic environment, at low levels of µg/l or concentrations are not clear at present, ng/l, has become a “hot spot” for researchers pharmaceuticals may have a significant in recent years. As a group of disturbing impact on the metabolism of micropollutants, pharmaceuticals used by organisms and the ecosystem as a whole. humans and for animals can contaminate Therefore, based on precautionary surface water, groundwater and drinking principles, pharmaceuticals in the water by excretion and disposal of solid environment are a problem for human health waste. Although the adverse health effects and can have negative effects on the caused by indirect consumption of ecosystem.

REZUMAT: Farmaceuticele în mediu, un poluant de actualitate. Apariţia substanţelor farmaceutice în consumul indirect de produse farmaceutice, mediul acvatic, în concentraţii de ordinul la concentraţii foarte mici, nu sunt clare în µg/l sau ng/l, a devenit un „hot spot” pentru prezent, farmaceuticele pot avea un impact cercetători în ultimii ani. Ca un grup de semnificativ perturbator asupra micropoluanţi, produsele farmaceutice metabolismului organismelor şi a folosite de oameni şi pentru animale, pot ecosistemului ca întreg. Prin urmare, pe baza contamina apa de suprafaţă, apele subterane, principiilor de precauţie, produsele precum şi apa potabilă prin excreţie şi prin farmaceutice din mediul acvatic reprezintă o eliminarea deşeurilor solide. Deşi, efectele problemă pentru sănătatea oamenilor şi pot adverse asupra sănătăţii cauzate de avea efecte negative asupra ecosistemului.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Pharmazeutika, ein laufender Umweltschadstoff. Das Vorkommen von Arzneimitteln Auswirkungen durch indirekten Verbrauch in der aquatischen Umwelt in niedrigen von pharmazeutischen Produkten in sehr Konzentrationen von µg/l oder ng/l, hat sich geringen Konzentrationen derzeit nicht klar in den letzten Jahren zu einem “hot spot” für sind, können Arzneimittel signifikant Forscher entwickelt. Als eine Gruppe von störende Auswirkungen auf den Spurenschadstoffen können die von Stoffwechsel von Organismen und das Menschen und auch für Tiere verwendeten Ökosystem insgesamt haben. Daher sind Arzneimittel Oberflächenwasser, pharmazeutische Mittel, gestützt auf das Grundwasser und Trinkwasser durch Vorsorgeprinzip, in der aquatischen Umwelt Ausscheidung und Ablagerung von ein Problem für die menschliche Gesundheit Feststoffabfall verunreinigen. Obwohl die und können negative Auswirkungen auf das nachteiligen gesundheitlichen Ökosystem haben.

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INTRODUCTION Drinking water is a basic necessity to drinking water due to ineffective treatment maintain a healthy life, but it is also a processes. vehicle for the transmission of diseases by Another source of pollution is the the introduction of pathogenic biological direct application of pharmaceutical agents or various chemicals into the human products in aquaculture or indirectly from body. (Curtean-Bănăduc, 2005; Curtean- manure applied to the soil. Bănăduc and Bucșa, 1998; Curtean-Bănăduc Based on these considerations lies and Bănăduc, 2012a, b) the need to implement effective treatments Special care is attributed to of wastewater and water treatment compounds of pharmaceutical origin or especially for human consumption and those from personal care products, found in implementing effective waste management the water, which in recent years have strategies (Fent et al., 2006; Nikolaou et al., become a group of rapidly developing 2007). micropollutants. The responsible authorities By their nature, all these specific worldwide decide the maximum allowable compounds may produce metabolic and limits of certain contaminants in water hormonal disorders and can, for example, intended for human consumption and cause acquired immunity to various recreational purposes. antibiotics. The Environmental Protection The source of these specific Agency of the United States (USEPA), compounds is the high consumption and Environmental Protection Agency EU direct release into the water through (EEA), the World Health Organization drainage, or indirect release through (WOH), to name a few, and government different types of wastes. agencies establish standards that differ from Once in the water, these specific each other and reflect expectations and micropollutants can have a different achievement of economic, social and behaviour when it comes to stability, technical standards of which they are permanence and also environmental addressed. effects. The selection process of water Wastewater treatment processes may treatment is taking into account at least be ineffective, leading to release of various several factors: raw water quality, legal amounts of micropollutants such as regulations and not least the economic factor pharmaceuticals in surface water through of budgetary availability. effluent treatment plant or soil through This specific paper intend to the application of sludge on agricultural provide an overview of scientific research land. on the sources and occurrence of Surface water and groundwater pharmaceuticals in the environment (Tabs. infiltration compounds can reach even into 1a, b).

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Table 1a: Occurrence of pharmaceuticals found in the environment worldwide: a review of 35 studies published 2005-2014. Europe Effluent Freshwater - Drinking Ground Sea Sediment Sources WWTP/STP rivers, canals, water water water soil etc. UK, Ireland, UK, Romania Germany, Belgium, Greece Finland, Sweden, Germany, Ireland, Location/ Norway, Italy, Germany, Italy, UK, North Italy, Serbia Compounds Spain, Luxemburg Spain, Sea, Spain Portugal, Finland, Italy, Serbia Norway Serbia, Spain, Serbia, Switzerland Portugal Antibiotics Trimethoprim • • • Ciprofloxacin • • Sulfamethoxazole • • Erytromicyn • • Ofloxacin • • Lincomycin • • Amoxycillin • Tetracycllin • Anti-inflammatory drugs/Analgesics Naproxen • • • • • Ibuprofen • • • • • • Acetaminophen • Ketoprofen • • • Diclofenac • • • • Mefenamic acid • • • Salicylic acid • • • • • Codein • • Indometacin • • Phenazone • • • • Aspirin • Paracetamol • • Dextropropoxyphene • • Anti-epileptic Carbamazepine • • • • • Stimulants Caffeine • • • Lipid regulators Benzafibrate • • • Clofibric acid • • • • Gemfibrozil • • • • Steroids and related hormones 17-β-estradiol, • • estrone 17α-ethinyl estradiol • Beta-blockers Metoprorol • • • Propranolol • • • • Atenolol • • Sotalol •

Pharmaceuticals a current pollutant of the environment; 173/190 pp. - 175 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Table 1a (continued): Occurrence of pharmaceuticals found in the environment worldwide: a review of 35 studies published 2005-2014. Europe Effluent Freshwater ‒ Drinking Ground Sea Sediment Sources WWTP/STP rivers, canals, water water water soil etc. UK, Ireland, UK, Romania Germany, Belgium, Greece Finland, Sweden, Germany, Ireland, Location/ Norway, Italy, Germany, Italy, UK, North Italy, Serbia Compounds Spain, Luxemburg Spain, Sea, Spain Portugal, Finland, Italy, Serbia Norway Serbia, Spain, Serbia, Switzerland Portugal Cancer therapeutics Cyclophosphamide • Diuretics Furosemide • • Tranquillisers Diazepam • • • Anti-mycotics Clotrimazol • Anti-histamines • • Illicit drugs • • and

etal.2011 , neff neff et al., 2005; Kosonen and and Kosonen 2005; al., et

trovic2014 etal., , 2013; McEneff et al., 2011; Kosonen J Kosonen 2011; al., et McEneff 2013; , 2006;Stasinakis 2012 , ,2014; Pe

. Hordern, 2013;McE Reference - Hordern

2006;Pedrouzo et al., 2011;Carmora et al, 2014; Paíga al., et andKasprzyk - , , 2006,Baker andKasprzyk

, 2013;, Nikolaoual.2007; et Pailler etal., 2009; Benz , 2009;, Zuccatoetal., andThomas Nikolaouetal., 2007; Baker McEneff et al. 2011; Nikolaou et al., 2007; al., et Nikolaou 2011; al. et McEneff Petrovic2014 etal., 2014 al., 2006;et Aznar al., Zuccatoet 2013;Petrovic etal., 2014; Duan et al.2013 Roberts al et 2006; Carmora al., Zuccato et Zweiner,2007; Kronberg 2014; al., et M.R. Boleda 2014; al, et E. Carmora 2006; al., et E. Zuccato 2009; Kronberg, , Moldovan 2014; al., et Petrovic 2013; al., et Paíga Claessens

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Table 1b: Occurrence of pharmaceuticals found in the environment worldwide ‒ a review of 35 studies published 2005-2014. America Asia Africa Fresh Fresh Effluent Fresh water Effluent Sources Drinking Sediment water ‒ water ‒ ‒ rivers, WWTP/ water soil WWTP/ rivers rivers canals STP STP canals canals

USA, USA, China, China Canada, Indiana, USA, Japan, South Location/ New New Canada, USA South Korea Kenya Compounds Mexico, Mexico, Brazil Korea, India, Argentina Canada Taiwan Japan

Antibiotics • Trimethoprim • • • • Ciprofloxacin • Sulfamethoxazole • • • • • Erytromicyn • • Ofloxacin • Claritromicycin • Oxytetracyclin • Lincomycin • • • Penicillin • Tetracycllin • Doxycycline • Clorotetracycline • Clindamycin • Anti-inflammatory drugs/Analgesics Naproxen • • • • Ibuprofen • • • • • • Acetaminophen • • Ketoprofen • • Diclofenac • • • • • Salicylic acid • Indometacin • • Phenazone • Paracetamol • Anti-epileptic Carbamazepine • • • • • • • Stimulants Caffeine • • • Nicotine • Lipid regulators Benzafibrate • • • Clofibric acid • • • • Gemfibrozil • • • Steroids and • related hormones 17-β-estradiol, • • estrone 17-α-ethinyl • estradiol Beta-blockers Atenolol •

Pharmaceuticals a current pollutant of the environment; 173/190 pp. - 177 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Table 1b (continued): Occurrence of pharmaceuticals found in the environment worldwide ‒ a review of 35 studies published 2005-2014. America Asia Africa Fresh Fresh Effluent Fresh water Effluent, Sources Drinking Sediment water ‒ water ‒ ‒ rivers, WWTP/ water soil WWTP/ rivers rivers canals STP STP canals canals

USA, USA, China, China Canada, Indiana, USA, Japan, South Location/ New New Canada, USA South Korea Kenya Compounds Mexico, Mexico, Brazil Korea, India, Argentina Canada Taiwan Japan

Diuretics Furosemide • Antiretroviral • drugs

etal., 2006;Brown et al., 2006; Sodré et al., 2010

Reference ch and Bernot , 2011; Lissemore 2011; , Bernot and ch al.,2007; Brown al.,et 2006; Elorriaga et al., 2013

etal., 2007, Bun

je et al., 2012 al., et je etal., 2013; Duan ,et al.2013; Nikolaou etal., 2007; Fang et al., 2012

ore ’ Fent, 2006; Nikolaou et Nikolaou 2006; Fent, Nikolaou 2007 Zweiner, Nikolaouet al., 2007 Du Wuet al., 2014;Nikolaou et al., 2007, Shanmugam al.,et2014, Komori etal. 2013 K

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RESULTS AND DISCUSION Source of pharmaceuticals and In the European Union, consumption occurrence in the environment of pharmaceuticals is substantial. About There are no data available about the 3,000 different substances are used in human total worldwide use of pharmaceuticals. The medicine, such as analgesics and anti- consumption and application of inflammatory drugs, contraceptives, pharmaceuticals may vary considerably antibiotics, beta-blockers, lipid regulators, from country to country, it may happen that neuroactive compounds, and many others. some compounds are not used any more or Also, a large number of pharmaceuticals are others gain more importance. According to used in veterinary medicine, such as United Nations’ figures, 2.3% of Japanese antibiotics and anti-inflammatories. Sales women of reproductive age take a figures are relatively high, as reported for contraceptive pill containing ethinylestradiol several countries. In England, Germany and as the main active compound, compared to Austria the amounts for the most frequently 16% in North America and up to 59% in used drugs are in hundreds of tonnes per year Europe (United Nations, 2004). Some (Fent et al., 2006). Non-steroidal anti- pharmaceuticals are sold over the counter inflammatory drugs, including aspirin (836 without prescription in some countries, tonnes in Germany in 2001), paracetamol while in others they are only available by (622 tonnes in Germany in 2001), ibuprofen prescription. Some antibiotics such as (345 tonnes in Germany in 2001), naproxen streptomycins are used in the growing of (35 tonnes in England in 2000) and fruits while others are used in bee-keeping. diclofenac (86 tons in Germany in 2001), the The heavy use of streptomycins in the oral antidiabetic metformin (517 tonnes in growing of fruits in the US is being Germany in 2001) and the antiepileptic discussed as a possible reason for the high carbamazepine (88 tonnes in Germany in resistance of pathogenic bacteria against 2001) are some examples of the most these compounds. In Germany, the use of commonly used pharmaceuticals (Fent et al., these antibiotics for this purpose has been 2006). banned. Antimicrobials are among the most Drugs are eliminated by persons widely used pharmaceutical compounds in undergoing treatment, and the compounds animals. removed are either the original substance or In 2001 about 50,000 different its metabolites. Although urine seems to be drugs were registered in Germany, 2,700 of the most important path in the disposal of which accounted for 90% of the total the medicines, their excretion in faeces must consumption and which, in turn, contained not be neglected. These compounds are about 900 different active substances, designed to take a specific action in the corresponding to 38,000 tonnes of active body and many are persistent, being detected compounds. A total of 6,000-7,000 tonnes at low levels in many countries for many per year of active substances are of potential environmental samples, e.g. in the effluent environmental concern in Germany, which of sewage treatment plants, surface water, is aproximately 0.45 kg per capita and year sea water and groundwater. Although the (Kümmerer, 2009). possible development of drug-resistant bacteria China is among the countries that as a result of exposure to untreated hospital produce and consume large quantities of and domestic sewage effluents, genotoxic pharmaceuticals. It has been estimated that effects of some of the drugs, endocrine the annual usage of raw antibiotic materials disruption caused by the administration is about 180,000 tons – China’s per capita of synthetic and natural hormones therapeutics consumption of antibiotics is ten times as were discussed, possible subtle effects on much as the United States (Dazhong, 2012 long-term non-target organisms are still cited by Du et al., 2013). unknown.

Pharmaceuticals a current pollutant of the environment; 173/190 pp. - 179 - Acta Oecol. Carpat. VII .

Of environmental concern is not Examples of compounds detected in necessarily a high production volume of a drinking water in different countries, such certain pharmaceutical per se, but the as Germany, Italy, UK, USA and Canada, environmental persistence and critical are clofibric acid (270 ng/l), bezafibrate (27 biological activity (e.g. high toxicity, high ng/l) and gemfibrozil (70 ng/l), potency for effects on biological key carbamazepine (258 ng/l), diclofenac (6 functions such as reproduction). As ng/l), phenazone (400 ng/l), propilfenazonă exemplified by the synthetic steroid (120 ng/l) and ibuprofen (3 ng/l) (Zweiner, hormones in contraceptive pills, such as 2007). 17α-ethinylestradiol, the annual production The occurrence of pharmaceuticals lies in a couple of hundred kilograms per was first reported in 1976 by Garrison et year in the European Union, yet it is al., who detected clofibric acid in treated extremely potent, quite persistent in the wastewater in the USA at concentrations environment and shows oestrogenic activity from 0.8 to 2 μg/l (Fent et al., 2006). In the in fish at concentration of 1-4 ng/l, or USA, 95 micropollutants, including lower. steroids, caffeine, triclosan, and antibiotics, Hence, pharmaceuticals having were detected in samples from 139 streams environmental relevance share the downstream of urban areas and livestock following properties: often, high production production (Kolpin et al., 2002 in Nikolaou volume combined with environmental et al., 2007). Carbamazepine has been persistence and biological activity, mainly detected in 44 rivers across the USA after long-term exposure (Fent et al., 2006). (average 60 ng/l in water and 4.2 ng/mg in Pharmaceuticals and their sediment) (Thaker, 2005; Nikolaou et al., metabolites in the environment may enter 2007). mainly by excretion and waste water In the Indiana region, during a disposal. Due to incomplete treatment of specific scientific study, abundance and wastewater, waste of many toxic organic distribution of pharmaceuticals were compounds, including pharmaceuticals, are measured in headwater streams across also found in surface waters. Municipal and the whole Upper White River watershed. hospital wastewaters are the most important Four non-prescription pharmaceuticals sources of human pharmaceuticals, with were found at one or more sites with contributions also from drug manufacturers mean concentrations of 0.038, 0.109, 0.057 by removing unused medicines in the and 0.041 µg/l, respectively. Caffeine environment, wastewater and leachate from was measured at trace concentrations at waste. In addition, veterinary all sites sampled (Aubrey and Bernot, pharmaceuticals may enter aquatic systems 2011). via manure application to fields and In 1985 and 1986 ibuprofen and subsequent runoff, but also via direct naproxen were detected in wastewaters in application in aquaculture (Fent et al., Canada (Richardson and Bowron, 1985; 2006). Rogers et al., 1986 in Nikolaou et al., Dedicated special scientific 2007). In southern Ontario, Canada, during attention to the environment of a study of the geographical and temporal pharmaceutical products has led to distribution of pharmaceutical products, increasing number of reports on detection they were detected in seven tributaries of pharmaceutical products in a variety of receiving, primarily, agricultural input in environmental samples such as river water, a typical watershed. Of the total of 28 sea water, underground water, rivers waste, pharmaceuticals surveyed, 14 were soil, sediment and sewage sludge. detected in the 125 streams (Lissemore et Pharmaceutical products have also been al., 2006). detected in drinking water (Tabs. 1a and 1b).

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During a study in New Mexico, 23 μg/l), and bisphenol A (0.16 ± 0.03 μg/l). In samples of wastewater and three samples of Campinas, where surface drinking water Rio Grande water were analyzed for the supplies receive large amounts of raw presence of 11 antibiotics. 58% of samples sewage inputs, the emerging contaminants had at least one antibiotic present while levels in drinking waters were higher than 25% had three or more. Hospital effluent median values compiled for drinking and had detections of sulfamethoxazole, finished water samples around the world trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, (Sodré et al., 2010). lincomycin, and penicillin G, with four of For the first time in Argentina the five hospital samples having at least one presence of pharmaceutical compounds in antibiotic detected and three having four or sewers discharges from different urban more. At the residential sampling sites, areas was showed in a survey of ofloxacin was found in effluent from pharmaceuticals in municipal wastewaters assisted living and retirement facilities, discharging into fresh and estuarine waters while the student dormitory had no detects. from areas with varying degrees of Only lincomycin was detected in dairy urbanization. Caffeine, ibuprofen, effluent (in two of eight samples, at 700 and carbamazepine, diclofenac and atenolol 6,600 ng/l). Municipal wastewater had were detected in concentrations within the detections of sulfamethoxazole, order of µg/l, indicating inputs of these trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin, compounds into surface waters of the with four of six samples having at least one region (Elorriaga et al., 2013). antibiotic present and having three or more. In a monitoring study in the UK, At the Albuquerque wastewater treatment propranolol (median level 76 ng/l) was plant, both raw wastewater and treated found in all sewage effluents whereas effluent had detections of diclofenac (median 424 ng/l) was found sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and in 86%, ibuprofen (median 3,086 ng/l) ofloxacin, at concentrations ranging from in 84%, mefenamic acid (median 133 ng/l) 110 to 470 ng/l. However, concentrations in in 81%, dextropropoxyphene (median treated effluent were reduced by 20% to 195 ng/l) in 74%, and trimethoprim 77%. No antibiotics were detected in the (median 70 ng/l) in 65% of samples Rio Grande upstream of the Albuquerque (Ashton et al., 2004, in Nikolaou et al., wastewater treatment plant discharge, and 2007). In the Tyne estuary, UK, the only one antibiotic, sulfamethoxazole, was concentrations of some of the detected in the Rio Grande (300 ng/l) below pharmaceuticals (acetyl-sulfamethoxazole, the wastewater treatment plant (Brown et. clofibric acid, clotrimazole, al., 2006). dextropropoxyphene, diclofenac, Sodré et al. investigated the erythromycin, ibuprofen, mefenamic acid, occurrence of emerging contaminants in paracetamol, propranolol, drinking water of the city of Campinas in sulfamethoxazole, tamoxifen, and Brazil. Tap water samples were analyzed trimethoprim compounds) ranged from four using SPE-GC-MS for 11 contaminants of to 2,370 ng/l (Roberts and Thomas, 2006). recent environmental concern. Six Spatial and temporal occurrence of a emerging contaminants (stigmasterol, comprehensive set of > 60 pharmaceuticals, cholesterol, bisphenol A, caffeine, estrone, illicit drugs and their metabolites in and 17-β-estradiol) were found in the wastewater (seven wastewater treatment samples. The latter two were detected only plants utilising different treatment during the dry season, with concentrations technologies) and a major river in the below quantification limits. Stigmasterol UK, over a 12-month period, was the showed the highest average concentration subject to another study that showed (0.34 ± 0.13 μg/l), followed by cholesterol that the concentration of each analyte (0.27 ± 0.07 μg/l), caffeine (0.22 ± 0.06 was largely dependent on rainfall and

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the dilution factor of wastewater treatment measuring at 928 ng/1 and 569 ng/l, plant discharge. The results indicate respectively, and clotrimazole was the most that although the drugs of abuse are not frequently detected pharmaceutical with a present at very high concentrations in river median concentration of 7 ng/l. A number water (typically low ng/l levels), their of other studies have analysed marine water occurrence and possible synergic action is samples collected from the North Sea, its of concern (Baker and Kasprzyk-Hordern, estuaries and harbours (Buser et al., 1998; 2013). Langford and Thomas, 2011; Weigel et al., A year-long study measured the 2002; Weigel et al., 2004 in McEneff et al., occurrence and relative distribution of five 2011). Eight pharmaceuticals were pharmaceuticals (antiepileptic ‒ previously determined in Belgian coastal carbamazepine; anti-inflammatories – waters, with salicylic acid and diclofenac and mefenamic acid; lipid carbamazepine measured most frequently at regulator – gemfibrozil and antibiotic – concentrations up to 860 ng/l (Wille et al., trimethoprim) in samples of wastewater 2010 cited by McEneff et al., 2011). Wille effluent, marine surface water and marine et al. (2010, 2011) studied the occurrence of mussels collected from three sites around 13 pharmaceutical compounds in the the Irish coastline. All five of the selected Belgian coastal zone and reported pharmaceuticals were detected in 85% of concentrations of salicylic acid up to 0.855 effluent samples collected from each µg/l within a Belgian coastal harbour, and exposure site. The pseudo-persistence of up to 0.660 µg/1 at open sea stations close pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment to the shore. This compound was still was observed with the continuous detection detected at sampling stations located of pharmaceutical residues in marine roughly 20 km off shore, at concentrations surface waters, at slightly lower up to 0.237 µg/l and was also found in the concentrations than those detected in bivalve Mytilus edulis at levels up to 490 effluent. Three of the five detected ng/g dry weight. The neuroactive pharmaceuticals in marine surface waters compound carbamazepine occurred at were also found to occur in exposed concentrations up to 12 ng/l at roughly 10 mussels (Mytilus ssp.) with residues of km off shore and was detected regularly in trimethoprim measuring at concentrations Mytilus edulis. The remaining up to 9.22 ng/g dry weight. This study has pharmaceuticals were only detected in the confirmed the uptake of pharmaceuticals in coastal harbours with a single occurrence of marine bivalves at measurable quantities the b-blocker propranolol (at 1 ng/l) and the and also highlights the inability of mussels lipid regulator bezafibrate (at 8 ng/l) close to act as reliable bioindicators of to the shoreline. Propranolol was pharmaceutical pollution due to temporal sporadically detected in Mytilus edulis at variations observed in the data (McEneff et levels up to 52 ng/g dry weight (Claessens, al., 2011). 2013). A selection of monitoring studies Thirty-two pharmaceuticals from has been performed previously in European different medicinal classes have been estuarine and marine surface waters. In a detected in German municipal sewage study carried out by Thomas and Hilton treatment plant effluents and river waters (2004), 14 pharmaceuticals were monitored (Ternes et al., 1998 in Nikolaou et al., in British estuaries of the Thames, the 2007). Anti-inflammatory drugs (salicylic Tyne, the Mersey, the Tees and Belfast acid, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indometacine, Lough. From the targeted list, nine naproxen, and phenazone), lipid regulators pharmaceuticals were detected in the (bezafibrate, gemfibrozil, clofibric acid, estuarine water samples collected. fenofibric acid), beta-blockers (metoprolol, Ibuprofen and trimethoprim were propranolol), and carbamazepine were determined at the highest concentrations, found to be ubiquitously present in streams

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and river water in the low ng/l range extraction of the water samples followed (Miao et al., 2002, in Anastasi Nikolaou by a liquid chromatography separation et al., 2007). Ibuprofen, diclofenac, and detection by a triple-quadrupole carbamazepine, a variety of antibiotics, and mass spectrometer in the multiple reaction lipid regulators have been detected in the mode. Cetirizine, acrivastine and river Elbe (range 20-140 ng/l) in a study by fexofenadine were detected in both influent S. Wiegel et al., 2004, in Nikolaou et al., and effluent wastewater samples at 2007. concentration levels ranging from about 80 In a survey on xenobiotic to 220 ng/l, while loratadine, desloratadine concentrations and the fluxes of dissolved and ebastine could not be detected in any xenobiotics during runoff events in the samples. During sewage treatment, the small rural Mess catchment (35 km2) in the concentration of the antihistamines dropped South-western part of Luxembourg, by an average of 16-36%. Furthermore, sulfonamides, tetracyclines, analgesics and elevated concentrations of antihistamines hormones, dissolved nutrients, sulphate and were observed in samples collected during chloride were measured to gather the season of most intensive plant pollen information about runoff generation. production, in May. In the river water Typically, the highest values can be found samples, the relative pattern of occurrence during the first flush mainly in the rising of cetirizine, acrivastine and fexofenadine limb of the flood hydrographs. The highest was similar to that in the wastewater concentrations in eleven flood events are samples; although the concentration of the measured for ibuprofen (2,383 ng/l), compounds was substantially lower (4-11 estrone (27 ng/l and diclofenac (20 ng/l). ng/l). The highest concentrations of the From the tetracycline group tetracycline (9 studied drugs were observed near the ng/1) itself is of relevance, while the discharging point of the sewage treatment sulfonamides are mainly represented by plant (Kosonen and Kronberg, 2009). sulfamethoxazole (5 ng/l). The variable In the North Sea, the maximum patterns of chemographs are attributed to concentrations of clofibric acid and caffeine the heterogeneous runoff generation were 1.3 and 16 ng/1, respectively, whereas characterised by different reactions of storm diclofenac and ibuprofen were found only overflows from the combined sewer in the estuary of the river Elbe (6.2 and 0.6 systems. During single flood events, the ng/1, respectively) (Khan and Ongerth, fluxes of ibuprofen (24,000 mg), 17α- 2002 in Nikolaou et al., 2007). In Norway, ethinylestradiol (122 mg), 17-β-estradiol analysis of sewage effluents and seawater (32 mg) or estrone (274 mg) are rather low revealed the presence of the (Pailler et al., 2009). pharmaceuticals caffeine (20-293 μg/l and Ibuprofen and its metabolites 7-87 ng/l, respectively), triclosan (0.2-2.4 hydroxy-ibuprofen and carboxy-ibuprofen, μg/l), ibuprofen and its major metabolites ketoprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, atenolol, hydroxy- and carboxy-ibuprofen (0.1-20 metoprolol, propranolol, trimethoprim, μg/l and < 7.7 ng/l). Hydroxy-ibuprofen sulfametoxazole, carbamazepine and was the major metabolite in sewage gemfibrozil were found in the Hoje River, whereas carboxy-ibuprofen was dominant Sweden, and peak concentrations ranged in seawater samples (Wiegel et al., 2004 in from 0.12 to 2.2 µg/l (Benz et al., 2005). Nikolaou et al., 2007). The occurrence of the anti- In Italy, Zuccato et al. (2000), histamines cetirizine, acrivastine, quoted by Zuccato et al. (2007) showed that fexofenadine, loratadine, desloratadine and there are many “priority” pharmaceutical ebastine in sewage treatment plants products in the water and sediments of wastewaters was studied in Turku (Finland) rivers Po and Lambro Adda. Samples of and in recipient river waters. The analytical drinking water from the main water supply procedure consisted of a solid-phase systems in the cities of Lodi and Varese,

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had traces of diazepam, clofibric acid and antibiotics (sulfonamides andmacrolides), tylosin. Traces of some pharmaceutical two beta-blockers, two metabolites, and products were also present in the sediment 11 hormones (free and conjugates). Most of the same river. The widespread of the pharmaceuticals were found in occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the both influent and effluent samples from Italian environment was subsequently the two sewage treatment plants. The confirmed by the same authors (Calamari et most frequently detected were caffeine, al., 2003) and by others. Calamari et al. acetaminophen, carbamazepine, diclofenac, (2003), reports results of an extensive ibuprofen, naproxen, sulfamethoxazole, investigation with eight sampling stations sulfapyridine, sulfathiazole, ranitidine, along the rivers Po and Lambro. In the omeprazole, estrone 3-sulfate, and estradiol first study, 13 pharmaceuticals for human 17-glucuronide. Specifically, the highest or veterinary use were detected in the 0.1- concentrations found in influents were 250 ng/l range, but in this second campaign 19,850 ng/l (acetaminophen), 9,945 ng/l the method was revised, adding new (caffeine), 4,215 ng/l (ibuprofen), 5,695 compounds, selected as previously ng/l (sulfamethoxazole), and 5,140 ng/l described, so they could detect 18 (sulfathiazole). Most of the pharmaceuticals pharmaceuticals in significant amounts. present in influent waters were found in Further studies subsequently measured effluents at lower concentrations. The pharmaceuticals for human use in the highest concentrations in effluents were 970 influents and effluents of urban sewage ng/l (caffeine), 670 ng/l (sulfamethoxazole), treatment plant. Effluents of nine sewage 510 ng/l (bezafibrate), and 1,032 ng/l treatment plants spread over Italy, namely (diclofenac). The occurrence of these Cagliari, Latina, Cuneo, Varese, Cosenza, contaminants was studied using a total of Palermo, Naples and Monza, were seven sample sets in 2007-2008 in both analysed, and several pharmaceuticals were sewage treatment plants (Pedrouzo et al., found in the microgram range. By 2011). comparing sewage treatment plant levels The occurrence of 21 acidic with those previously measured in the Po pharmaceuticals, including illicit drugs, and and Lambro rivers, it was possible to personal care products in waste, surface and identify a group of environmentally drinking water and in sediments of the important pollutants in Northern Italy, Turia River basin (Valencia, Spain) was namely ofloxacin, furosemide, atenolol, studied. Up to 20 compounds were detected hydrochlorothiazide, carbamazepine, in both influent and effluent wastewaters ibuprofen, spiramycin, bezafibrate, indicating that conventional treatment erythromycin, lincomycin and processes do not completely remove these clarithromycin (Zuccato et al., 2005a cited polluants. Among them, ibuprofen, Zuccato et al., 2006). These naproxen and THCOOH were predominant pharmaceuticals were detected in high in influents, whereas THCOOH, concentrations in sewage treatment plant triclocarban, gemfibrozil and diclofenac effluents and were persistent enough to were the major compounds detected in remain in substantial quantities in rivers effluents. Important quantities of diclofenac (Zuccato et al., 2006). (3,462 ng/l), gemfibrozil (3,735 ng/l), The presence of 33 pharmaceuticals ibuprofen (6,593 ng/1), naproxen (7,189 and hormones in waters from two sewage ng/1) and propylparaben (5,020 ng/1) were treatment plants situated in Catalonia, in detected, which indicates the contamination north-eastern Spain was also studied. The of this river. Mineral and tap waters also target compounds were one psychoactive presented significant amounts (approx. 100 stimulant, one anti-epileptic, four analgesics ng/1) of ibuprofen, naproxen, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, one propylparaben and butylparaben (Carmora lipid regulators, two anti-ulcer agents, nine et al., 2014).

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The ten most frequently identified analyzed in different types of waters compounds in Spanish rivers are ibuprofen, collected from 25 locations in the northern diclofenac, naproxen, clofibric acid, part of Serbia. The pharmaceuticals were carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, selected based on their very frequent usage trimethoprim, bezafibrate, atenolol, and and therefore ubiquitous presence in gemfibrozil with concentration levels different types of waters. A UPLC-QqLIT- ranging from few ng/l to high μg/l. Their MS/MS method was applied to determine maximum levels represent the highest simultaneously 81 pharmaceuticals from concentrations in river waters reported in different therapeutic classes in extracts of the literature except for ibuprofen, naproxen surface, underground, drinking and waste and trimethoprim (Hughes et al., 2013, in waters (industrial and municipal). Forty Boleda et al., 2014). The most refractory seven of 81 pharmaceuticals were found in compounds frequently reported in Spanish investigated samples of water collected finished water are ibuprofen, venlafaxine, from Serbia. The highest concentrations of atenolol and acetaminophen pharmaceuticals were found in sample of hydrochlorothiazide and carbamazepine, municipal waste water, while the lowest some of them not included in the 75 most occurrence of pharmaceuticals were in studied worldwide (Boleda et al., 2014). waters intended for drinking water supply A study on Spanish soils with (untreated and treated), in which the highest different farmland uses, describes the concentration was found for carbamazepine analysis of 15 pharmaceutical compounds, metabolite (10.11-epoxycarbamazepine), belonging to different therapeutic classes the predominant compound within the (anti-inflammatory/analgesics, lipid group of psychiatric drugs in all types of regulators, antiepileptics, β-blockers and water. A widespread occurrence of antidepressants) and with diverse physical– pharmaceuticals in the analyzed waters was chemical properties. The limits of detection proven, with general levels, when detected, ranged from 0.14 ng/g (naproxen) to 0.65 from ng/1 to more than 1 μg/1 as found for ng/g (amitriptyline). At least two some of the drugs such as ibuprofen, compounds where detected in all samples, diclofenac, codeine, valsartan, being ibuprofen, salicylic acid, and acetaminophen, 2-hydroxyl-carbamazepine paracetamol, the most frequently detected and 10.11-epoxy-carbamazepine in a compounds. The highest levels found in soil sample of municipal waste water. This was were 47 ng/g for allopurinol and 37 ng/g the first attempt to assess the occurrence of forsalicylic acid (Aznar et al., 2014). these 81 pharmaceutical residues in water A total of 42 water samples, samples in Serbia (Petrovic et al., 2014). including surface waters, landfill leachates, In Romania, in the Someş River, 15 wastewater treatment plant and hospital compounds including stimulants, effluents, were analyzed in order to antirheumatic, antiepileptic, analgesic, evaluate the occurrence of ibuprofen in the antimicrobial, and cytostatic agents were north of Portugal. In general, the highest detected with concentrations ranging from concentrations were found in the river 30 ng/l to 10 μg/l. Caffeine and mouths and in the estuarine zone. The acetylaminophenazone were detected at maximum concentrations found were concentrations between 300 and 10,000 ng/l 48,720 ng/1 in the landfill leachate, 3,868 and pentaoxifilline, ibuprofen, ng/1 in hospital effluent, 616 ng/1 in formylaminophenazone, p-chlorophenyl wastewater treatment plant effluent, and sulfone, N,N-bis(3,3-dimethyl-2-oxetanyl)- 723 ng/1 in surface waters (Lima River) 3,3-dimethyl-2-oxetanamine between 100 (Paíga et al., 2013). and 300 ng/l; levels of aspirin, triclosan, Pharmaceuticals belonging to carbamazepine, codeine, diazepam, and different therapeutic groups and having cyclophosphamide were below 100 ng/l different physico-chemical properties were (Moldovan, 2006).

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Presence of four phenolic endocrine- personal care products in the central and disrupting compounds (nonylphenol, lower Yangtze River, along with four large nonylphenol monoethoxylate, bisphenol A, freshwater lakes within the river basin triclosan) and four nonsteroidal anti- (Dongting, Poyang, Tai, and Chao), was inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, ketoprofen, reported in a study by Wu et al. (2014). naproxen, diclofenac) in a Greek river Fifteen out of twenty selected receiving treated municipal wastewater was pharmaceuticals and personal care products investigated in a study that showed that were detected in the collected surface water these compounds were frequently detected samples. Caffeine, paraxanthine, in river water (Stasinakis, 2012). sulfamethazine and clindamycin were The occurrence and removal detected with 100% frequency in the efficiency of seven pharmaceuticals Yangtze River. In the river, the highest (norfloxacin, trimethoprim, roxithromycin, average concentration was observed for sulfamethoxazole, ibuprofen, diclofenac and erythromycin (296 ng/1), followed by carbamazepine) were determined in three caffeine (142 ng/l) and paraxanthine (41 sewage treatment plants within Xuzhou ng/1). In the four lakes, total City, Eastern China. The results showed pharmaceuticals and personal care products that seven pharmaceuticals were detected in concentrations were higher in the Chao the influent samples with concentrations (1,547 ng/1) and Tai (1,087 ng/1) compared ranging from 93 to 2,540 ng/l. The studied to the Poyang (108 ng/1) and Dongting pharmaceuticals were found in all influent (137 ng/1). Lincomycin and clindamycin samples collected over the monitoring were most abundant in the lakes, especially period, indicating their high usage in this in the Tai Lake (Wu et al., 2014). area. Ibuprofen had the highest In South Korea, iopromide, concentrations among the pharmaceuticals naproxen, carbamazepine and caffeine were analyzed (ranging from 1970-2,540 ng/1), observed quite frequently in surface waters followed by diclofenac (860-1,693 ng/1) and effluents. Iopromide, sulfamethoxazole, and carbamazepine (729-1,340 ng/1). carbamazepine were the analytes present at Lower levels were detected for norfloxacin the highest concentrations. The primary (165-273 ng/1), sulfamethoxazole (368-815 oestrogen hormones 17-α-ethynylestradiol ng/1), and trimethoprim (370-612 ng/1). and 17-β-estradiol were rarely detected, but Roxithromycin occurred at the lowest oestrone was detected both in surface water concentrations, ranging from to 93-158 and in effluent from wastewater treatment. ng/1 (Du et al., 2013). Elimination of these chemicals during Five acidic pharmaceuticals were drinking water and wastewater treatment investigated in a municipal wastewater processes at full- and pilot-scale was also treatment plant in Shanghai, China. investigated. Conventional drinking water Pharmaceuticals were found to vary in mass treatment methods were relatively loadings in the influent, with ibuprofen inefficient at removing contaminants; being the most abundant. During efficient removal (99%) was achieved by wastewater treatment, all compounds were use of granular activated carbon (Kim et al., found to show concentration decline from 2006 in Nikolaou et al., 2007). influent to effluent. These pharmaceuticals The concentrations of five common were also found both upstream and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs downstream of the effluent outfall. The (diclofenac, ketoprofen, naproxen, results revealed that wastewater from ibuprofen, and acetylsalicylic acid) were Shanghai is a significant contributor of determined in surface waters from 27 pharmaceuticals to the Yangtze River and locations of the Kaveri, Vellar, and thus the Yangtze River Estuary and the Tamiraparani Rivers in southern India. The coastal East China Sea (Duan et al., 2013). measured concentrations of four of the five The occurrence of pharmaceuticals and drugs in this reconnaissance were relatively

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similar to those reported elsewhere (200 could be reliably measured, and were ng/l); however, acetylsalicylic acid, the generally higher than those found in coastal most readily degradable of the investigated seawater. The concentrations found were drugs, was found at all sites and at comparable with those reported in other considerably higher concentrations (up to parts of world, suggesting that the aquatic 660 ng/l) than reported in European surface environment of Taiwan was inevitably waters (Shanmugam et al., 2014). contaminated by pharmaceutical In Japan there was conducted a compounds. The concentrations of the nationwide survey to clarify the occurrence studied pharmaceutical compounds of 24 selected pharmaceuticals in major analyzed in coastal waters in Northern rivers and evaluate their environmental risk Taiwan ranged from not detected to 60 ng/l to aquatic organisms. There were found a (Fang et al., 2012). total of 22 substances in river waters at The occurrence of at least 10 concentrations from several nanograms per pharmaceutical residues in a limited number litre to several micrograms per litre. The of water samples taken in the Nairobi highest was 2.4 μg/l of caffeine, followed River basin, Kenya, East Africa. For the by 1.5 μg/l of crotamiton and 1.4 μg/l of first time, the anti-retroviral drug lamivudine sulpiride. The measured environmental has been detected in surface water, and concentration values of four substances, also other scarcely detected pharmaceuticals caffeine, carbamazepine, clarithromycin, such as sulfadoxine (antimalarial drug) and ketoprofen, exceeded 0.1, with the and two other antiretroviral drugs maximum value of 9.0 for clarithromycin (nevirapine and zidovudine) were measured (Komori et al., 2013). in the Nairobi River water, at concentrations The occurrence and distribution of clearly higher than what has been pharmaceutical compounds in the effluents reported in the previous analyzed of a major sewage treatment plant in literature. Trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, Northern Taiwan and the receiving coastal metronidazole, paracetamol, and ibuprofen waters were determined. The study reports, were reported, and carbamazepine, already for the first time, on clofibric acid, reported extensively in other countries, diclofenac, ibuprofen and ketoprofen was confirmed for the Nairobi River. concentrations in the Bali station treatment Indicative concentrations were in the range plant waste water and the adjacent coastal 0.1-30 μg/l, with the highest values waters of Northern Taiwan. The measured for ibuprofen, paracetamol, concentrations of these pharmaceutical sulfamethoxazole and zidovudine (K’oreje compounds in both the influent and effluent et al., 2012).

CONCLUSIONS In the last 15 years a multitude of • Concentrations are at a level studies and reviews have been published on considered unlikely to have adverse the subject of pharmaceuticals in the consequences for human beings and acute environment, the majority of which have impacts on other organisms, but there are reached similar conclusions: no sufficient data available to determine • Pharmaceuticals can now be whether long-term exposure to these detected at levels of ng/l in the majority of concentrations poses a significant risk to environmental samples; humans and wildlife populations. • The principal route to the Building a comprehensive environment is from their excretion by monitoring programme requires knowledge patients, although discharges from of contamination, mainly supplemented by manufacturing, hospitals and inappropriate detailed information on individual disposal of unused and life expired pollutants. Selecting pollutants to be products can also make an important considered in monitoring actions is based contribution; mostly on the available information about

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their environmental relevance (persistence, critical compounds, in order to reduce the bio-accumulation potential, toxicology and environmental impacts of pharmaceuticals. ecotoxicology) and their occurrence in the According to the principle of sustainability, environmentally affected system. On a large the entire life cycle of a compound has to scale, for monitoring, contaminants of be taken into account to identify interest are considered those of highest opportunities for risk management and risk continuously frequent occurrence, and reduction (Kümmerer, 2009). widely distributed in various riparian We believe much more attention systems. Clearly, many organic should be paid to these micropollutants, contaminants have been neglected so far in according to their growth in consumption. environmental studies. Scientific studies are still needed for A good stategy to reduce the thorough knowledge of the behaviour of presence of pharmaceuticals in the these compounds in the environment, in environment consists of advanced order to propose a good and effective wastewater treatment technology, education strategy for reduction the input of of medical professionals to reduce over- pharmaceuticals (and other chemicals) into prescription, pharmaceutical-return the environment. In Eastern Europe and programmes coupled with public education, specifically in Romania this area is still very taking in to account “green pharmacy” – little explored. benign compounds and substitution of

REFERENCES Aznar R., Sánchez-Brunete C., Albero B., Survey of the occurrence of Rodríguez J. A. and Tadeo J. L., pharmaceuticals in Spanish finished 2014 − Occurrence and analysis of drinking waters, Environmental selected pharmaceutical compounds Science and Pollution Research. in soil from Spanish agricultural Brown K. D., Kulis J., Thomson B., fields, Environmental Science and Chapman T. H. and Mawhinney D. Pollution Research, 21, 4772-4782. B., 2006 – Occurrence of antibiotics Baker D. R. and Kasprzyk-Hordern B., 2013 in hospital, residential, and dairy − Spatial and temporal occurrence of effluent, municipal wastewater, and pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in the Rio Grande in New Mexico, the aqueous environment and during Science of the Total Environment, wastewater treatment: New 366, 772-783. developments, Science of the Total Bunch A. R. and Bernot M. J., 2011 – Environment, 454-455, 442-456. Distribution of nonprescription Bendz D., Paxéus N. A., Ginn T. R. and pharmaceuticals in central Indiana Loge F. J., 2005 − Occurrence and streams and effects on sediment fate of pharmaceutically active microbial activity, Ecotoxicology, 20, compounds in the environment, a 97-109. case study: Höje River in Sweden, Carmora E., Andreub V. and Picó Y., 2014 Journal of Hazardous Materials, – Occurrence of acidic 122, 195-204. pharmaceuticals and personal care Bester K., Scholes L., Wahlberg C. and products in Turia River Basin: From McArdell C. S., 2008 – Sources and waste to drinking water, Science of Mass Flows of Xenobiotics in Urban the Total Environment, 484, 53-63. Water Cycles an Overview on Claessens M., Vanhaecke L., Wille K. and Current Knowledge and Data Gaps, Janssen C. R., 2013 – Emerging Water Air Soil Pollution: Focus, 8, contaminants in Belgian marine 407-423. waters: Single toxicant and mixture Boleda M. R., Alechaga E., Moyano M., risks of pharmaceuticals, Marine Galceran T. and Ventura F., 2014 – Pollution Bulletin, 71, 41-50.

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Curtean-Bănăduc A., 2005 ‒ Degradarea şi Fent K., Weston A. A. and Caminada D., protecţia mediului, Edit. Alma Mater 2006 − Ecotoxicology of human Sibiu, 205. (in Romanian) pharmaceuticals, Aquatic Toxicology, Curtean A. and Bucşa C., 1998 ‒ Impactul 76, 122-159. antropic asupra apelor curgătoare, Komori K., Suzuki Y., Minamiyama M. and Edit. Universităţii „Lucian Blaga” Harada A., 2013 − Occurrence of din Sibiu, 52. (in Romanian) selected pharmaceuticals in river in Curtean-Bănăduc A., Bănăduc D., 2012a ‒ Japan and assessment of their Eco-sanitaţia alternativă pentru environmental risk, Environment managementul durabil al nutrienţilor Monitoring, 185, 4529-4536. şi resurselor de apă, ȋn Apa resursă K’oreje K. O., Demeestere K., De fundamentală a dezvoltării durabile. Wispelaere P., Vergeynst L., Dewulf Metode şi tehnici neconvenţionale, I, J. and Van Langenhove H., 2012 − coordonator Oprean L., Edit. From multi-residue screening to Academiei Române, 433-437. (in target analysis of pharmaceuticals in Romanian) water: Development of a new Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2012b approach based on magnetic sector ‒ Aspecte privind impactul mass spectrometry, Science of the deversării apelor uzate asupra Total Environment, 437, 153-164. sistemelor ecologice lotice Kosonen J. and Kronberg L. 2009 − The receptoare, in Apa resursă occurrence of antihistamines in fundamentală a dezvoltării durabile. sewage waters and in recipient Metode şi tehnici neconvenţionale, rivers, Environmental Science and II, coordonator Oprean L., Edit. Pollution Research, 16, 555-564. Academiei Române, 393-416. (in Kümmerer K., 2009 − The presence of Romanian) pharmaceuticals in the environment Du J., Fan Y. and Qlan X., 2013 ‒ due to human use – present Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in knowledge and future challenges, sewage treatment plants in eastern Journal of Environmental China, Frontiers of Environmental Management, 90, 2354-2366. Science and Engineering, 1-6. Lishman L., Smyth S. A., Sarafin K., Duan Y.-P., Meng X.-Z., Wen Z.-H. and Chen Kleywegt S., Toito J., Peart T., Lee L., 2013 – Acidic pharmaceuticals in B., Servos M., Beland M. and Seto domestic wastewater from hyper- P., 2006 − Occurrence and urbanization city of China: reductions of pharmaceuticals and environmental release and ecological personal care products and estrogens risk, Environmental Science and by municipal wastewater treatment Pollution Research, 20, 108-116. plants in Ontario, Science of the Elorriaga Y., Marino D. J., Carriquiriborde Total Environment, 367, 544-558. P. and Ronco A. E., 2013 − Human McEneff G., Barronc L., Kelleher B., Paull Pharmaceuticals in Wastewaters B. and Quinn B., 2014 ‒ A year-long from Urbanized Areas of Argentina, study of the spatial occurrence and Environment Contamination and relative distribution of pharmaceutical Toxicology Bulletin, 90, 397-400. residues in sewage effluent, Fang T.-H., Nan F.-H., Chin T.-S. and Feng, receiving marine waters and marine H.-M., 2012 − The occurrence and bivalves, Science of the Total distribution of pharmaceutical Environment, 476-477, 317-326. compounds in the effluents of a Moldovan Z., 2006 − Pharmaceutical and major sewage treatment plant in personal care products as Northern Taiwan, Marine Pollution micropollutants in rivers in Romania, Bulletin, 64, 1435-1444. Chemosphere, 64, 1808-1817.

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Nikolaou A., Meric S. and Fatta D., 2007 ‒ Environmental Science and Pollution Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in Research, 17, 934-947. water and wastewater environments, Shanmugam G., Sampath S., Selvaraj K. K., Analytical and Bioanalytical Larsson D. G. J. and Ramaswamy B. Chemistry 387, 1225-1234. R., 2014 − Non-steroidal anti- Paíga P., Santos L. H. M. L. M., Amorim C. inflammatory drugs in Indian rivers, G., Araújo A. N., Montenegro M. C. Environmental Science and Pollution B. S. M. Pena A. and Delerue-Matos Research, 21, 921-931. C., 2013 ‒ Study of ibuprofen in Sodré F. F., Locatelli M. A. L. and Jardim surface waters, Environmental W. F. 2010 − Occurrence of Science, 20, 2410-2420. Emerging Contaminants in Brazilian Pailler J.-Y., Guignard C., Meyer B., Iffly Drinking Waters, Water Air Soil J.-F., Pfister L., Hoffmann L. and Pollution, 206, 57-67. Krein A. 2009 ‒ Behaviour and Stasinakis A. S., Mermigka S., Samaras V. Fluxes of Dissolved Antibiotics, G., Farmaki E. and Thomaidis N. S., Analgesics and Hormones During 2012 − Occurrence of endocrine Flood Events in a Small disrupters and pharmaceuticals in Heterogeneous Catchment in the Aisonas River and environmental Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, Water risk assessment using hazard Air Soil Pollution, 203, 79-98. indexes, Environmental Science and Pedrouzo M., Borrull F., Pocurull E. and Pollution Research, 19, 1574-1583. Marcé R. M., 2011 ‒ Presence of Taylor D. and Senac T., 2014 − Human Pharmaceuticals and Hormones in pharmaceutical products in the Waters of Treatment Plants, Water environment – The “problem” in Air Soil Pollution, 217, 267-281. perspective, Chemosphere. Petrović M., Škrbić B., Živančev J., Wu C., Huang X., Witter J. D., Spongberg Ferrando-Climent L. and Barcelo D., A. L., Wang K., Wang D. and Liu J., 2014 − Determination of 81 2014 − Occurrence of pharmaceutical drugs by high pharmaceuticals and personal care performance liquid chromatography products and environmental risks in coupled to mass spectrometry with the central and lower Yangtze River, hybrid triple quadrupole–linear ion China, Ecotoxicology and trap in different types of water in Environmental Safety, 106, 19-26. Serbia, Science of the Total Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Fanelli R., Environment, 468-469, 415-428. Reitano R., Bagnati R., Chiabrando Roberts P. H. and Thomas K. V., 2006 ‒ The C., Pomati F., Rossetti C. and occurrence of pharmaceuticals in Calamari D., 2006 − Pharmaceuticals wastewater effluent of the lower in the Environment in Italy: Causes, Tyne catchment, Science of the Total Occurrence, Effects and Control, Environment, 356, 143-153. Environmental Science and Pollution Schwarzbauer J. and Ricking M., 2010 ‒ Research, 13, 15-21. Non-target screening analysis of Zwiener C., 2007 − Occurrence and analysis river water as compound-related base of pharmaceuticals in drinking water for monitoring measures, treatment, Analytic and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 387, 1159-1162.

AUTHORS:

1 Maria CISMARU University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, RO-400372.

2 Letiṭia OPREAN “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Ioan Raţiu Street 7-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, RO-550012.

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MANAGEMENT OF WASTE DISPOSAL FROM CONSTRUCTIONS AND DEMOLITIONS IN MEDIAŞ CITY (TRANSILVANIA, ROMANIA)

Anamaria SZABO 1

KEYWORDS: Romania, Transylvania, Mediaş, waste disposals management.

ABSTRACT Socio-economic development has Thus, we realised that scientific produced large changes on the Romanian studies are important to prove the legislative environment as well as how it is managed. necessity in construction and demolation The EU determined that Romania was to waste domain, and also to adopt a local establish a good management of waste. This council decision in the Mediaș city domain. is why modern sanitation service security is All of these studies were conducted in 2012 a priority in the north of Sibiu County. At and have come to support a strategy based local and national levels, construction and on waste production prevention. demolation waste management is poor due to a lack of legislation.

REZUMAT: Managementul deşeurilor din construcţii şi demolări la nivelul Municipiului Mediaş (Transilvania, România). Dezvoltarea socio-economică a În acest sens, am realizat studii care produs modificări foarte mari ale mediului. să ajute la dovedirea necesității legislative în UE a impus României buna gestionare a domeniul deșeurilor din construcții și deșeurilor, tocmai de aceea în regiunea de demolări, dar și la adoptarea unei Hotărâri nord a județului Sibiu asigurarea serviciilor de Consiliu Local privind acest domeniu în moderne de salubritate este o prioritate. Atât municipiul Mediaș. Aceste studii s-au la nivel local cât și la nivel național, realizat în 2012 și susțin o strategie bazată managementul deșeurilor din construcții și pe prevenirea producerii deșeurilor. demolări este precar datorită lacunelor legislative în acest domeniu.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Management von Abfall aus dem Bauwesen auf dem Gebiet des Munizipiums Mediasch (Transilvanien, Rumänien). Die sozial-ökonomische Entwicklung Eine diesbezüglich durchgeführte hat große Veränderungen in der Umwelt mit Studie sollte dazu beitragen, die sich gebracht. In diesem Zusammenhang hat Notwendigkeit einer rechtlichen Regelung die EU Rumänien zu einem guten im Bereich der Abfallentsorgung aus Bau Abfallmanagement verpflichtet. Daher und Zertrümmerungen zu belegen und auch gehört die Sicherung einer modernen zur Annahme eines Beschlusses des Abfallentsorgung im nördlichen Teil des Lokalrates der Stadt für diesen Bereich Kreises Sibiu/Hermannstadt zu den führen. Die während der Jahre 2012 vorrangigen Aufgaben. Sowohl auf lokaler, durchgeführten Untersuchungen dienen der als auch auf nationaler Ebene ist das Unterstützung einer Strategie, die auf der Management von Abfall aus dem Bauwesen, Verbeugung von Abfallproduktion beruht. Bauschutt und Zertrümmerungen, bedingt durch das Fehlen einer entsprechenden gesetzlichen Regelung mangelhaft.

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INTRODUCTION Construction and demolition wastes processing capacities and arranging of the are identified by the European Union as an stores in accordance with this type of important priority waste flow because they waste. represent a source of recycling and reuse in This type of waste can be a resource the construction industry (Bănăduc and for recycling and reuse in construction Curtean-Bănăduc, 2005; Leopold et al., industries and is identified to be a priority of 2011). waste flow in the European Union. Due to This waste results from renovation, huge quantities of construction and rehabilitation, consolidation, the demolition demolition waste, they can use valuable of civil constructions, industrialization, spaces inside the landfills. Also, if not urban structures, transportation separated of source, they may contain traces infrastructure and also results from dredging of hazardous waste. However, they can and clogging activities (Leopold et al., represent a valuable resource and the 2011). technology for the separation and recovery It is necessary to design and manage of construction and demolition waste (which a database of construction and demolition is well established) makes the process waste, so that evidence of generated accessible and generally inexpensive. The quantities and how to manage them exists. most important factor is that there is a Generally, construction wastes are market to use the materials resulted from stored to household wastes, but this is no construction and demolition waste in the longer accepted due to legislative construction of roads, drainage systems and regulations on environmental protection other constructions. imposed at the Community level. That is In the past, people had problems why it is very important to develop and with this type of waste because ecological deepen route recycling of construction and materials were used: bricks, soil, wood, clay, demolition waste (Leopold et al., 2011). river stone. The sophisticated constructions The main measures that can be of XXI century and the need for facilities applied to manage these types of waste in (electricity, water supply, gas supply) accordance with active regulations, after determinated a diversification of specialized literature, are the following construction materials and waste resulted (Leopold et al., 2011): from construction activities. – separate collection from the place In most cases of waste composition of generation, by the type of material and there are hidden mixtures of diverse categories of dangerous and hazardous materials: construction debris, chemicals, waste; insulating materials, excavated soil, glass, – the promotion of recycling and wood, metal, plastic, cardboard, paper, etc. reutilization of construction and demolition The development of construction waste; sectors in Romania has made default – providing treatment of sorting construction waste a problem. In the absence them; of selection and recycling networks, the – ensuring controlled disposal of waste is currently stored at landfills. wastes which can not be capitalized. The materials that can be recovered, The local administration authorities (Leopold et al., 2011): must take appropriate measures to control – paper and cardboard from this waste flow in order to maintain packaging that can be recycled; evidence of generated, reused, recycled and – wood construction can be used for also removed quantities of waste by concrete formwork. If untreated, it can be conditioning the approval of construction used for heating. If painted or lacquered, it works (clauses relating to storage areas for must be incinerated in an incineration plant this types of waste) through ensuring for toxic products;

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– metals can be recycled thus recyclable materials instead of natural achieving large savings in raw materials and resources is a solution with many energy; advantages. – plastic materials are recyclable, In Romania, for now, there are not they must be carefully cleaned before; deposits for construction and demolition – excavated soil can be used for waste. The elimination of this waste is gardening, it must be kept clean and must carried out usually on site landfills for not be mixed with other construction municipal waste. materials (mortar, cement); However, there are economical – debris can also be reused and operators who conduct their work with transformed into new building materials. crushers and transform the concrete and However, materials exist which can bricks into materials that can be used later. not be recycled, some of them toxic: glue, S. C. ECO-SAL S. A. from Mediaș holds oils, paints, asbestos and other chemicals. such a crushing and sorting machine which This must be gathered and burned in special has a capacity to sort three sizes of waste: 0- spaces designed for hazardous waste. 8 mm, 8-16 mm and 16-64 mm. Reusing construction and demolition The material resulted from crushing waste presents both ecological and must live up to the quality and cost of raw economic advantages. The greatest benefits materials, but in Romania, there are no rules from the ecological points of view are space on the quality of the resulting material after reduction of allocated authorized landfills treatment, thus preventing its use in and saving natural resources. From the applications such as filling material in the economic point of view, the use of construction of transport routes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Construction and demolition waste Wastes containing polychlorinated are represented by waste resulted from biphenyl (PCB): glues, flooring, special construction activities, maintenance and adhesives, plasticizers, colorants. demolition of buildings and infrastructure. Contaminated soil and gravel: result In the construction waste category from construction and demolition, but also are a lot of materials (Leopold et al., 2011): from uncovering previously contaminated resulting from construction or demolition land. buildings: bricks, cement, ceramic, rocks, Usually, non-hazardous waste is tiles, plaster, metal, plastic, iron, wood, generated among with dangerous waste, glass, cables, paints, varnishes; resulting which requires pre-separation and can be from roads constructions: sand, gravel, realized on a platform arranged at the site bitumen, pitch, stone; resulting from (Leopold et al., 2011). excavation: soil, clay, gravel, sand, rocks, Construction and demolition waste is plant debris. classified in category 17 according to In addition to these materials that are European Waste Catalogue, and in Romania considered non-hazardous, dangerous it is regulated by Government Decision no. materials in construction and demolition 856/2002 on waste management record waste are found, such as: asbestos, tar and which approves the list of waste, including paint, heavy metals, varnish, adhesives, hazardous waste. From the 44 types of polyvinyl chloride, solvents, PCBs, resins construction and demolition waste, 16 are used for conservation, fireproofing, classified as hazardous waste (Leopold et waterproofing etc., and contaminated al., 2011). materials. For efficient management of Wastes containing asbestos: ropes, construction and demolition waste, strings, cardboards, paper, cement products, sustainable management is necessary. This bitumen products, flooring, paints. should highlight prevention or reduction of

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waste quantities, followed by the reuse of recyclable and hazardous need to be waste, material recovery through recycling, removed by storage in landfills or, where capitalized energetics, and elimination of applicable, by incineration. waste remained by storage. Waste recycling entails conservation Using sustainable management in the of energy and natural resources, and also construction and demolition waste prevents pollution. management field not only significantly On the environmental side, reuse and reduces the quantity of waste storaged, but recycling of construction and demolition will drastically reduce the impact generated waste reduces the quantities of storage waste by storage of waste on the environment. and space for deposits, thus achieving an It is obvious that management economy of raw materials. improvement of construction and demolition Reuse and recycling of construction waste is mandatory by the selective and demolition waste presents an economic collection increase of wastes by holder benefit, thus, the use of recycled materials construction activity, sanitation operators becomes a solution with more advantages and local public administration. considering the high prices of natural In this respect, in Mediaș, sanitation resources. society S. C. ECO-SAL S. A. provides Framework Directive 2008/98/EC on individuals and companies with containers waste contains previsions in the recycling for construction and demolition waste which domain. Thus, the member states shall helps the environment by differentiating require that by 2020 to prepare for reuse, rates for this type of selectively collected recycling (and others filling operations waste, as well as mixed waste. which use waste to substitute other It is recommended that the reuse of materials), at least 70% by weight of non- this waste, as well as construction materials hazardous waste will come from or energy recovery be utilized. But the non- construction activities (Leopold, 2011).

Figure 1: Waste management hierarchy (Leopold et al., 2011).

In the Mediaș municipality, large County or at the ecological landfill from quantities of waste are gathered annually as Sighișoara, Mureș County. shown in table 1. Recyclable waste such as: paper, Household wastes are sorted cardboard, plastic, and glass are selectively manually at the reception, processing at collected or manually sorted from household capitalization center and are then send to waste and are capitalized from various the ecological landfill in Cristian, Sibiu collaborators.

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Table 1: Quantities (in tones) of waste collected in 2012 in the northern part of Sibiu. Quantities of waste collected (to) 2012

Markets oluminous Energetic Vegetable Holdhouse Recyclable V Constructions Mediaș 11,135.15 662.844 2.84 452.68 101.05 877.01 1146.38 Copșa Mică 814.78 39.38 14.38 0 0 0 0 Dumbrăveni 1,166.78 26.8 0 0 0 0 0 Localități 5,123.422 53.406 0 0 0 0 0 Total 18,240.132 782.43 17.22 452.68 101.05 877.01 1146.38

Construction waste is the only side Any generator of this type of waste which seems to have problems with waste benefits by sanitation services local operator management at the local level and beyond; based on firm order can be completed at the this is due to the lack of national legislation company or sent by fax or e-mail. The in this direction. standard order form can be downloaded for S. C. ECO-SAL S. A. provides both free from the company’s website or can be individuals and companies with containers requested from the company’s headquarters. for selective collection of construction and After completing the standard order demolition waste at the request of the form, the company transports the container holder construction activity, according to to the requested address. After that the tariffs set. container is transported to the center for the Also, for a fee, it is assured the fact reception and processing of construction and that the handling and transportation of demolition waste; it is weighed and checked containers will arrive at the reception and by specialization inspectors to see the processing of construction and demolition composition of waste. After that they are waste center. passed throught the cutter and sorted by At the center for reception and dimensions of 16-64 mm, 8-16 mm and < 8 processing of construction and demolition mm. waste, the sorted waste is brought with This waste is the subject for personal transport and received for free by recycling and recovery processes, and are individuals or companies from the North of used for rearranging roads and other Sibiu County. activities.

CONCLUSIONS Following a study of the construction where wood and stone are predominating and demolition waste collected at the center building materials. for the reception and processing of the Pitch is in a high proportion because construction and demolition waste from the at the level of Mediaș it was realised that S. C. ECO-SAL S. A. company, it was many repairs/modifications to the road were proved that most of this waste is represented done in 2012. by concrete at 42%, followed by pitch at After monitoring the construction 28%. and demolition waste in 2012 at S. C. ECO- This result is due to the fact that SAL S. A. it was shown that about 45% in our country most buildings were made of waste has dimensions between 16-64 by concrete, especially in urban areas mm. unlike the rural areas near the mountains

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Processing of waste from However, it is disappointing that construction and demolition began in 2010, only 70% of cases realised selective at Mediaș, when the storage, sorting and collection of this types of waste and the crushing platform was arranged and the remaining 30% of waste is collected necessary equipment was purchased. chaotically and uncontrolled. The study showed that individuals Upon reviewing the results, it should have produced a smaller amount of waste be taken into account that not everyone uses than in 2012 and the companies’ situation is an ordering fee for the construction and contrary. This may be because 2012 was the demolition waste speciality container. year of modernization; business centers and As a result of the study, it was wage declines negatively influenced realised at the level of 68 people, to the need individuals. But another assumption is that of Local Council Decision in construction individuals have noticed the lack of and demolition waste domain, most of them legislation in this domain and thus the fear considered that is necessary to implement of legislative abuse decreases and they this legislation. resumed to store construction and Although sanitation operator S. C. demolition waste on the riverbanks or in ECO-SAL S. A. was informing citizens by other forbidden places. distributing 21,000 calendars on waste Confronting personal activity from collection in the municipality; calendars the field requires that the container showed how to collect construction and addressed to the sanitation society from demolition waste, equipment by the Mediaș is observed by many individuals company, companies’ tariffs, rates which who perform construction or renovation vary by type of collection (selective or activities on private domain, but did not non-selective). From the study, it was require special containers for construction resulted that it really is necessary to and demolition waste. Certainly due to the implement a regulation on the collection, lack of legislation, people could not be held transport and storage of wastes which responsible because no one has the authority results from construction and demolition to prove reusing or storage according to the activities. legislation of this waste; and this should be Considering that from early 2012 I changed. served as special inspector ecologist in S. C. In 2012, at level of S. C. ECO-SAL ECO-SAL S. A., I considered necessary the S. A., companies registered a total of 129 legislative regulation of construction and orders for special containers for collecting demolition waste. construction and demolition waste. Considering that the entire study is There is evidence that most people realised at the level of Mediaș municipality, which request containers are individuals at I considered that is necessary to draft a 80% and only 20% of the orders are made regulation on construction and demolition by companies. This shows that 2012 was not waste; regulation which includes a plan to the year for modernized business centers as eliminate construction and demolition waste the analysis took waste quantities into and at the same time include the sanctions account in 2011 and 2012. for those who do not respect the previsions The studies show that in proportion of regulation. of about 85-90%, companies do not realize For approval of the Local Council selective collection of this waste, while most Decision, it is necessary that an Opportunity individuals comply with that. This result Report be prepared by the operator which may be due to the fact that the rates contains the reasons for approving the practiced by different companies presents regulation on the collection, transportation differences for selective and non-selective and storage of waste resulting from the collection. construction and/or demolition activities.

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REFERENCES Bănăduc D. and Curtean-Bănăduc Angela, *** Hotărârea de Guvern nr. 349/2 005 2005 ‒ Sistem ecologic de gestionare privind depozitarea deşeurilor. (in a deşeurilor. Studiu de caz Tălmaciu, Romanian) jud. Sibiu, Studii şi Comunicări, *** Legea 211/2011 ‒ privind regimul Muzeul Brukenthal Sibiu, Ştiinţele deșeurilor. (in Romanian) Naturii, 30, ISSN 1454-4784, 235- *** Legea nr. 51/2006 a serviciilor 248. (in Romanian) comunitare de utilităţi publice. (in Leopold D., Goga M., Cupșa A., Meissner Romanian) R. and Larsen T., 2011 ‒ Ghid *** Legea nr. 50/1991 privind autorizarea privind deșeurile din construcții și executării lucrărilor de construcţii. demolări, Casa de Presă și Editură (in Romanian) Tribuna Sibiu, 141. (in Romanian) *** Ordinul Ministrului Mediului şi *** Directiva 99/31/CE – Directiva Gospodăririi Apelor nr. 95/2005 Consiliului din 26 aprilie 1999 privind stabilirea criteriilor de privind depozitele de deşeuri. (in acceptare şi a procedurilor Romanian) preliminare de acceptare a deşeurilor *** Directiva 89/106/CEE – Directiva la depozitare şi lista naţională de privind Produsele pentru Construcţii, deşeuri acceptate în fiecare clasă de CPD. (in Romanian) depozit de deşeuri. (in Romanian) *** Hotărârea de Guvern nr. 1470/2004 *** www.avero.ro privind aprobarea Strategiei *** www.eco-sal.ro naţionale de gestionare a deşeurilor *** www.apmsb.anpm.ro şi a Planului naţional de gestionare a *** www.sft.no (http://www.sft.no/ deşeurilor. (in Romanian) seksjonsart ikkel 43459.aspx) *** Hotărârea de Guvern nr. 856/2002 *** www.byggeavfall.no privind evidenţa gestiunii deşeurilor. *** www.asfaltteknisk.no (in Romanian) *** www.srontpunkt.no

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AUTHOR:

1 Anamaria Szabo [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Dr. Ioan Raţiu Street 7-9, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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FRESHWATER BIVALVE MOLLUSCS – A SOLUTION FOR ORGANIC WATER TREATMENT?

Cornelia LUNGU 1 and Letiția OPREAN 2

KEYWORDS: Unionidae, Dreissena polymorpha, filtration capacity, water treatment.

ABSTRACT The filter-feeding bivalves have a freshwater bivalves on water quality by significant role in the matter and energy incorporating them in an on-site filtration flow of freshwaters. The role of bivalves in facility-biofilters, such as artificial blocks or aquatic ecosystems is crucial due to the fact rigs. However, the benefits must be balanced that these species can filter out a significant with the ecological risks associated with the amount of matter. The current review paper transport of invasive bivalves, such as zebra underlines the role provided by freshwater mussels, to new sites. For this reason, even bivalves, due to their filtration capacity, in though invasive bivalves species proved to water treatment facilities. Moreover, the have higher filtration capacity, it is paper gives an overview of the current state recommended to develop biofilters within of knowledge about native and invasive aquatic ecosystems that have already been bivalves used in water treatment plans. populated by invasive bivalves species (e.g. Moreover, the paper highlights the effects of Dreissena polymorpha).

REZUMAT: Bivalvele de apă dulce ‒ o soluție în epurarea apelor încărcate organic? Bivalvele au un rol semnificativ în ecosistemelor acvatice ar putea fi sporit fluxul de energie și materie din apele dulci. prin realizarea unor sisteme artificiale de Rolul bivalvelor este esențial datorită filtrare in ‒ situ la care să fie folosite specii faptului că aceste specii pot filtra o cantitate de bivalve (de exemplu blocuri artificiale, semnificativă de materie. Lucrarea de față își dispozitive etc.). Însă, aceste beneficii propune să scoată în evidență rolul pe care trebuie să fie corelate cu riscurile ecologice bivalvele de apă dulce îl au, datorită care pot apărea la transportul unor specii de capacității lor de filtrare, în instalațiile de bivalve invazive în ecosisteme acvative. Din tratare ale apei. De asemenea, lucrarea oferă acest motiv, este recomandat să se dezvolte o privire de ansamblu asupra bivalvelor de astfel de filtre biologice doar în ecosistemele apă dulce, native şi invazive, utilizate în acvatice unde au fost deja introduse stațiile de tratare ale apei. Mai mult decât specii invazive (de exemplu Dreissena atât, efectul bivalvelor de apă dulce asupra polymorpha).

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Die Süßwassermuscheln ‒ eine Lösung für die Reinigung von Abwässern? Muscheln spielen eine wichtige Rolle Ökosysteme durch die Einrichtung einiger im Energie- und Stoffaustausch von künstlicher Filtersysteme in situ erhöht Süßwasserlebensräumen, da sie eine werden könnten, wobei dafür Muscheln beträchtliche Stoffmenge filtern können. Die sowie künstliche Blöcke, Vorrichtungen etc. vorliegende Arbeit hat zum Ziel, die Rolle zu verwenden wären. Diese Vorteile müssen der Süßwassermuscheln, die sie dank ihrer jedoch gegen die ökologischen Risiken Filterkapazität besitzen, in den abgewogen werden, die durch das Wasseraufbereitungsanlagen zu untersuchen. Einbringen einiger invasiver Muschelartenn Außerdem gibt die Arbeit einen allgemeinen in die aquatischen Ökosysteme entstehen Überblick über die einheimischen und könnten. Aus diesem Grund ist es zu eingeschleppten, imvasiven empfehlen, derartige biologische Filter Süßwassermuscheln, die in lediglich in solchen aquatischen Wasseraufbereitungsanlagen verwendet Ökosystemen anzuwenden, in die bereits werden. Aus den Untersuchungen wird invasive Arten eingeführt wurden, wie zum gefolgert, dass die Auswirkungen der Beispiel Dreissena polymorpha. Süßwassermollusken auf aquatische

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INTRODUCTION Water quality management is one of content of the water. Moreover, the high most complex environment issue today density of bivalves not only removes (Curtean-Bănăduc and Bănăduc, 2012a, b). particulate material from the water column, Freshwater bivalves individuals can but they also excrete a large amount of filter up to half a liter of water per hour, inorganic nutrients back into the water measurements shown (McIvor, 2004), thus column (Kohata et al., 2003). The main goal the freshwater mussels are known as of this paper is to give the reader an excellent water filters. The filter-feeding overview about water treatment facilities bivalves have a significant role in the matter using freshwater bivalves and enhacing their and energy flow in freshwaters (Bodis et al., on site filtration capacity by using different 2008). The current paper gives an overview methods. The research questions that arise of the state of knowledge concerning the from this paper can be summarised as filtration capacity of freshwater bivalves and follows: do freshwater bivales (native and its application in organic waste water invasive) have potential in water treatment treatment. However, the filtration rate plans? Or are freshwater bivalves mainly depends on the suspended matter “engineers” in polluted aquatic systems?

MATERIAL AND METHOD A systematic scientific literature to identify papers and articles and to use the review has been conducted in order to research with least bias. A number of 50 achieve the objectives of this paper. To articles have been searched and a number of minimize the risk of bias, the author attempt 26 have been included in the current paper.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In freshwater ecosystems, bivalves penetration of light into the water column, are dominant filters with many species that by reducing the concentration of plankton have high filtration rates. Invasive species and other particulate matter. Increased such as Corbicula fluminea and Dreissena water clarity was observed, especially after polymorpha (zebra mussel) have very high the introduction of different invasive filtration rates (Strayer et al., 1994), bivalves species such as Dreissena compared with Europe native species such polymorpha or Corbicula fluminea (Sousa et as Unio crassus or Unio pictorum. Bivalves al., 2009). can filter out a significant amount of organic Clearence rate determinations were matter through their filtering activity (Kohat conducted on a monthly basis from April to et al., 2003). Filtration behavior of October in 1992 and 1993 in lake Huron, freshwater bivalves can play a very Michigan (Fanslow et al, 1995). The mean important role in the riparian ecosystem by filtration rate of zebra mussel was 16.2 reducing phytoplankton, increasing water ml/mg/h (range 4.0 to 40.7 ml/mg/h). The clarity and generating benefits for plants, filtration rate was determined by the invertebrates, fish and bird populations equation from Coughlan (Coughlan, 1969): (McIvor, 2004). FR = Vol [(lnCₒ ‒ lnCₓ) – (lnC’ₒ ‒ lnC’ₓ)]/t; Freshwater bivalves filter/remove a FR = filtration rate of zebra mussel cluster wide variety of particles in the water (ml/h); vol = volume of lake water in column, resulting a decrease of aquaria (ml); t = time (h); Cₒ = initial phytoplankton and zooplankton and changes chlorophyll concentration in experimental in the plankton community. Bivalve aquaria (µg/l); Cₓ = final chlorophyll organisms filtration activity has significant concentration in experimental aquaria (µg/l); consequences on the physical environment C’ₒ = initial chlorophyll concentration in and act like “ecosystem engineers”. An control aquaria (µg/l); C’ₓ = final example in this respect is to increase the chlorophyll concentration in control aquaria clarity of the water, and thereby the (µg/l).

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Zebra mussel play a biodeposition can also filter bacteria (Silverman et al., and bioconcentration role of polychlorinated 1995) and other particles. The infestation of biphenyls (PCBs) as investigation were reservoirs and pipelines by zebra mussels is carried out in Hudson River (USA). The expected to have similar benefic effects on ingestion rate (IR) and assimilation the quality of the water, which would be of efficency (AE) of PCBs were calculated, great advantage to the water supply industry according to the following formulas: IR = if the water is eutrophic polluted (Elliott et (Cₒ ‒ Cₓ)F/M, where: Cₒ = concentration of al., 2008). Invasive species such as algae in control aquaria (mg algae/l); Cₓ = Dreissena p. should not be introduced in an concentration of algae in experimental aquatic ecosystem for water quality benefits. aquaria (mg algae/l); AE = Pₓ/Pₐ IR t; Pₓ = Invasive bivalves are being used at the amount of PCB incorporated in the the moment, in some countries, in the tissue; Pₐ = the amount of PCB associated process of filtering freshwater. For instance, with alge (µg PCB/mg algae); t = time. Dutch researchers have developed a method Zebra mussel ingested arround 46- for increasing water quality by using 90% of PCB – contaminated algal cells, Dreissena polymorpha as biological filter. depending on the supply rate. Of the total Currently this method is tested in the ingested food (therfore PCBs), cca 45-78% southern Netherlands. As stated before, was found in biodeposits and 15-35% was Dreissena polymorpha filter water to feed. recovered in tissues (Cho et al., 2004). The invasive bivalve remove algae and Filtering activity of bivalves as can particles from the medium and deposite interact with certain human activities. For them through excretion. In sufficient example, a species of invasive bivalve did quantities, these bivalves can prevent water have a positive impact on shrimp farms by flowering and reduce turbidity. This can also removing particulates. However, high density improve the growth conditions for aquatic started to prevent invasive shrimp species to plants and also contribute to water quality. feed efficiently, increased water clarity The process consists of growing intensified activity of predatory birds, and Dreissena polymorpha on artificial led to reduced pigmentation shrimp which substrates in blocks which can be used as a has reduced their market value (Aldrige et biological filter. In this way, low quality al., 2008). Moreover, individual shells of water can be improved by using these bivalves and high density can affect the flow biological filters. This method was patented of water and sediment infiltration affecting by Bureau Waardenburg, Netherlands particle transport (Gutierrez et al., 2003). (Waardenburg, 2013). Dreissena polymorpha has profound Even though, zebra mussels could ecological effects on aquatic environments. provide potential benefits to water treatment, This species can be a major phytoplankton they are often perceived as more of a pest consumer. Dreissena p. can reach great than an advantageous biofitering organism. densities, and can filter large volumes of This is happening due to the fact that they water and retain a wide size range of produce changes in particle size, the content particles (Sprung and Rose, 1988; Silverman of organic matter, aggregation, which can et al., 1996). Dreissena p. populations are affect the porosity characteristics of the capable of removing over 90% of organic interstitial water, the redox potential and matter from the water (MacIsaac, 1996). distribution, and the survival of other In this regard, Dreissena polymorpha organisms (Vaugh and Hakenkamp, 2001). has been proposed as an useful tool in the Through their filtration of some algae, zebra water quality management of lakes (Reeders mussels have been proposed to facilitate and Bij de Zaate, 1990). Experiments have cyanobacterial blooms (Vanderploeg et al., shown that zebra mussels can remove huge 1995). Dreissena polymorpha causes serious quantities of organic matter from the water. biofouling effects on many industrial In addition to organic matter, Dreissena p. systems (Elliot et al., 2005).

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Despite all these problems there are clorophilla a concentration of particles many ways in which zebra mussels could (Hawkins et al., 2001). be used as a biofilter without causing Freshwater unionids are known to ecological of biofouling problems. One retain particles greater than 4 µm in method is to put them on artificial substrate diameter with 100% efficiency (Jorgensen, on bloks as described above. Another 1989). Pollution is another factor that can method is to incorporate them into a reduce the filtration rates of bivalves and purpose-built filtration facility, much like a close their valves (Ostroumov, 2001). rig (Elliot et al., 2008). According to Elliot Used in an on-site rig at a water et al. (2008), Dreissena polymorpha could treatment facility, zebra mussels would remove around 50% of the suspended not pose as much of an industrial problem chlorophylla in water flowing past by. In as it might be expected. Firstly, they their experiment, the mussels had survived cannot transfer larvae upstream to cause for over three weeks without much infestation. Secondly, the ecological maintenance; this indicated that there is treatment method is not worse than potential for substantial algal control by pre-existing treatment methods such as zebra mussel. Thus, large beds of zebra ozonantion. Thirdly, if the biofilter is mussels could be used to provide an initial followed by another treatment strategy, stage in water treatment. This can minimize downstream infestation is likely to be the difficulties of on-site water treatment prevented (Elliot et al., 2005). (Elliot et al., 2008). Moreover, the use of To sum up, Dreissena polymorpha bivalves has been proved to be a simple and other freshwater bivalves probably and inexpensive way to reduce the provide, due to their filtration capacity, a nutrients in the water. Many ponds/water level of biofiltration for water treatment bodies are full of algae and a cheap facilities, but their effects could be enhanced method to clean/filter these waters is the by incorporating them in an on-site filtration one with bivalves species. Mussels are found facility (an artificial block, a rig etc.). to play an important role in water Nonetheless, the benefits must be balanced purification and river functions, thus with the ecological risks associated with the “mussel-friendly” approaches to river transport of live zebra mussels to new sites. management should be encouraged (McIvor, For this reason, it is recommended to 2004). In addition, the mussels have long develop such biofilters within aquatic term benefits for the ecosystems. Most ecosystems that have already been populated species of mussels live more than ten years by invasive species (e.g. Dreissena (Bauer, 2001) and if can reproduce within polymorpha). the waterbody, they may be able to maintain The filtration rates of filter feeding their populations over a much longer time- bivalves are measured by different methods scale. and are question to pitfalls. A precondition There are environmental factors such for studying possible implication of as temperature, particle concentration, filtration rates in bivalves is the ability to particle composition, and pollution that have make precise measurments. This was not shown to effect the bivalve filtration rates always the case due to examples pointed out (Riisgard et al., 2003). by Riisgard (2001). The different methods Filtration rates increase with the used in assasying bivales filtration have temperature, up to an optimum temperature, often caused troubles. The conflicted data on above which they decrease (Masilamoni et filtration rates seem partly to be caused due al., 2002). Filtration rates are highest at to the incorect use of methods or by medium particle concentrations, and may differences in experimental conditions respond to both the volume and the (Riisgard, 2001).

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CONCLUSIONS Freshwater bivalves, invasive and large beds of zebra mussel could be used to native, proved to have good capacity in provide an initial stage in water treatment. filtering and purifying waters, thus This can minimize the difficulties of on-site performing an “auto-adjustment” of aquatic water treatment. Moreover, the use of ecosystem. bivalves has been shown to be a simple and A number of applications for inexpensive way to reduce the nutrients in Dreissena polymorpha have been proposed. the water. The studies highlighted the Firstly, they can remove algae, PCBs and potential of using mussels filtration for the particles from the water by arranging them environment and commercial benefits of on artificial substrates in blocks and these humans. However, such treatment systems blocks can be used as a biological filter. must be used with precaution only in aquatic Secondly, the successful removal of algae ecosystems already populated with invasive through rig shows that Dreissena species and taking into consideration the polymorpha could be used as an on-site environmental factors such as temperature, industrial biofilter for water treatment. Thus particle concentration and pollution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many thanks are addressed to Mrs. Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Mr. Bănăduc D.

REFERENCES Aldrige D. C., Salazar M. and Serena A., Bodis E., Nosek J. and Oertel N., 2008 ‒ 2008 – Density effects of a new Mussel fauna (Corbiculidae, invasive false mussel Mytilopsis Dreissenidae, Sphaeriidae) in the trautwineana (Tryon 1866), on water system of the Hungarian shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei Danube, Javorka: Hungarian Danube (Bonne 1931), aquaculture in Research Station of the Hungarian Columbia, Aquaculture, 281, 34-42. Academy of Science. Bauer G., 2001 – Life history variation on Cho Y. C., Frohnhoefer C. R. and Rhee G. different taxonomic levels of Naiads, Y., 2004 ‒ Bioconcentration and Ecology and Evolution of the redeposition of polychlorinated Freshwater Mussels Unionida, 83-91. biphenyls by zebra mussels Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2012 (Dreissena polymorpha) in Hudson ‒ Eco-sanitaţia alternativă pentru River, Water Research, 769-777. managementul durabil al nutrienţilor Coughlan J., 1969 – The estimantion of şi resurselor de apă, în Apa resursă filtering rate from the clearance of fundamentală a dezvoltării durabile. suspension, Marine Biology, 356-358. Metode şi tehnici neconvenţionale de Elliott P., Aldridge D. C. and Moggridge G. epurare şi tratare a apei, I, Edit. D., 2005 – The increasing effects of Oprean L., Edit. Academiei Române, zebra mussels on water installations 433-437. (in Romanian) in England, Water Environmental Curtean-Bănăduc A. and Bănăduc D., 2012 Management, 367-375. ‒ Aspecte privind impactul Elliott P., Aldridge D. C. and Moggridge G. deversării apelor uzate asupra D., 2008 – Zebra mussel filtration sistemelor ecologice lotice and its potential use in industrial receptoare, în Apa resursă water treatment, Water Research, 42, fundamentală a dezvoltării durabile. 1664-1674. Metode şi tehnici neconvenţionale de Fanslow D. L., Nalepa T. F. and Lang A. G., epurare şi tratare a apei, II, 1995 ‒ Filtration rates of the Zebra coordonator Oprean L., Edit. Mussel on Natural Seston from Academiei Române, 393-416. (in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron, Great Romanian) Lakes Research, 489-500.

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Gutierrez J. L., Jones C. G. and Strayer D. Riisgard H. U., 2001 ‒ On measurement of L., 2003 – Mollusks as ecosystem filtration rates in bivalves ‒ the stony engineers, Oikos, 101, 79-90. road to reliable data, Marine Ecology Hawkins A. J. S., Fang J. G., Pascoe P. L., Progress Series, 275-291. Zhang J. H., Zhang X. L. and Zhu M. Riisgard H. U. and Seerup D. F., 2003 – Y., 2001 – Modelling adjustments in Filtration rates in the soft calm Mya particle clearance rates among arenaria: effects of the temperature bivalve suspensions-feeders, Journal and body size, Sarsia, 415-428. of Experimental Marine Biology and Silverman H., Achberger E. C., Lynn J. W. Ecology, 262, 61-73. and Dietz T. H., 1995 – Filtration Jorgensen C., 1989 – Water processing in and utilization of laboratory-cultured ciliary feeders, with reference to bacteria by Dreissena polymorpha, bivalve filter pump, Comparative Corbicula fluminea and Carunculina Biochemistry, 94, 383-394. texasensis, Biological Bulletin, 189, Kohata K., Hiwatari T. and Hagiwara T., 308-319. 2003 ‒ Natural water-purification Silverman H., Lynn J. W. and Dietz T. H., system observed in a shallow coastal 1996 – Particle capture by the gills of lagoon: Matsukawa-ura, Marine Dreissena polymorpha: structure and Pollution Bulletin, 47, 148-154. functions of latero-frontal cirri, MacIsaac H., 1996 – Potential abiotic and Biological Bulletin, 191, 42-54. biotic impacts of zebra mussels on Sousa R., Gutierrez J. L. and Aldridge D. C., the inland waters, American 2009 – Non-indigenous invasive Zoologist, 36, 287-299. bivalves as ecosystem engineers, Masilamoni J. G., Nandakumar K., Jesudoss Biological invasions, 11, 2367-2385. K. S., Azariah J., Satapathy K. K. Sprung M. and Rose U., 1988 – Influence of and Nair K. V. K., 2002 – Influence food size and quantity on the feeding of temperature on the response of of the mussel Dreissena polymorpha, the bivalve Brachidontes striatulus Oecologia, 77, 526-532. in fouling control, Marine Strayer D. L., Hunter D. C., Smith L. C., Environmental Research, 53, 51-63. Findlay S. and Pace M. L., 1994 – McIvor A., 2004 – Freshwater mussele as Distribution, abundance and roles of biofilters, Phd. Thesis, Cambridge: freshwater clams (Bivalvia, University of Cambridge, Unionidae) in the freshwater tidal Department of Zoology. Hudson River, Freshwater Biology, Ostroumov S., 2001 – An amphiphilic 31, 239-248. sbstance inhibits the mollusk Vaugh C. C. and Hakenkamp C. C., 2001 – capacity to filter out phytoplankton, The functional role of burrowing Biology Bulletin, 28, 95-102. bivalves in freshwater ecosystems, Reeders H. H. and Bij de Zaate A. B., 1990 Freshwater Biology, 46, 1431-1446. – Zebra mussels (Dreissena Waardenburg B., 2013 – polymorpha) water-quality http://www.buwa.nl/en/mussels-for- management, Hydrobiologia, 200, water-purification.html.

437-450. AUTHORS: 1 Cornelia LUNGU [email protected], [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University, Sibiu, Victoriei Boulevard 10, Sibiu, Romania, RO-550024.

² Letiția OPREAN [email protected] “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Victoriei Boulevard 10, Sibiu, Romania, RO-550024.

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HOLISTIC ECOSYSTEMIC APPROACH AND THE HUMAN HEALTH

Alexandra VASU 1

KEYWORDS: holistic ecosystemic approach, ionic equilibrium, biogeochemical cycle, disfuncionality diagnosis, Eh-pH test for cancer.

ABSTRACT Human impact, by acting on socio- multidisciplinary ecosystemic-integrated economic criteria, ignoring the unity of research methodology that enables ecosystems function, causes major interdisciplinary interpretation of results. disturbance in ecosystems. Diagnosis of We report research of ionic equilibrium and ecosystem functionality/dysfunctionality stability conditions in bio-geochemical is necessary to substantiate the resources cycles, as an expression of the unity in the management, identifying the disturbing terrestrial ecosystems. The methodology is phenomena, acting processes and even also conceptually applied to the human their mechanisms. As an image of a body, as a subsystem component of sequence in time of the dynamic balance of terrestrial ecosystems. ecosystems, this paper presents an original

REZUMAT: Abordarea ecosistemică holistă și sănătatea omului. Activitatea umană, prin acționarea al ecosistemelor, lucrarea prezintă o pe baza de criterii socioeconomice, ignorând metodologie originală de cercetare funcționarea unitară a ecosistemelor, multidisciplinară ecosistemic integrată, care determină principalele perturbări în permite interpretarea interdisciplinară a ecosisteme. Pentru fundamentarea rezultatelor. Se evidențiază cercetarea utilizării resurselor naturale este necesară echilibrelor ionice și a condițiilor de diagnoza funcționalității/disfunctionalității stabilitate în circuitele biogeochimice, ca ecosistemului, cu identificarea fenomenului expresie a unității în ecosistemele terestre. perturbator, a proceselor care acționează și Metodologia este aplicată conceptual și la chiar a mecanismelor acestora. Ca imagine a organismul uman, ca subsistem component unei secvențe în timp a echilibrului dinamic al ecosistemelor terestre.

RÉSUMÉ: Concept holistique écosystémique et la santé humaine. L’impact des activités humaines, l’article présente une méthodologie original agissant avec des critères socioéconomiques, de recherche pluridisciplinaire en ignorant l’unité fonctionnelle de écosystémique intégrée, qui permet l’écosystème, provoque d’importantes l’interprétation interdisciplinaire des perturbations dans les écosystèmes. Pour résultats. La recherche met en évidence les justifier l’aménagement des ressources équilibres ioniques et les conditions de naturelles, il est nécessaire de diagnostiquer stabilité des cycles biogéochimiques, en tant le fonctionnement/dysfonctionnement des qu'expression de l’unité dans les écosystèmes, l’identification des écosystèmes terrestres. La méthodologie est phénomènes perturbateurs, les processus appliquée de manière conceptuelle agissant et même leurs mécanismes. Comme également au corps humain, comme sous- l’image d’une séquence dans le temps de système, composante des écosystèmes l’équilibre dynamique des écosystèmes, terrestres.

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INTRODUCTION Human development, with a high Montagnier (2012), in his conferences and quality of life, is achieved only by the scientific public dialogues during his assurance of life persisting in harmonious scientific visits in Bucharest in September and fair coexistence between human beings 2012, pointed out some basic ideas in the and other species (Huntley et al., 1991), as evolution of medicine, according to well as with the environment in which it is environment changes. He appreciated that in structural and functional involved (Vasu, new times appear new situations imposing 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986a, 1988, 1989a, solutions that require another, different, 1994a). However, increasing socio- approach in medicine. Medical methods economic requirements for biomass need to move towards a holistic approach. production lead often to ecological The great challenge of modern medicine is unbalance between the vegetation needs and to prevent chronic diseases. So was born the the biotope supply, with consequences on medical concept of the 4P: P1 predictive ecosystem stability, associated mostly with (anticipatory), P2 preventive, P3 lowering of productivity and even with personalized, P4 participative. Man must be degradation of human health. Therefore, the careful regarding live style, eating, sustainable development of ecosystems is recreation, avoidance of excessive oxidative necessary to harmonize socio-economic stress (Montagnier, 1995, 2012; Passwater, needs with the optimization of biomass 1975, 1978, 1983; Goodman, 1997; production. It is possible to be achieved by Goodman et al., 1994a; Vasile, 2009a, b; ensuring, even by anthropogenic Vasu, 1994a, 2001, 2002, 2006; Vasu and intervention, of an advanced correspondence Moga, 2008). between the ecological needs of the The aim of this paper is to present an biocenosis and the support ability of the original holistic approach and a systemic whole biotope, especially of the soil. diagnosis methodology, applied in terrestrial Ecological balanced bio-productivity ecosystems for the estimation of their is conditioned by the limiting of land use to stability and their actual, effective the range of compatibility, with the qualitative and quantitative productivity, as persistence in a restricted variation interval well as for the estimation of human health (Trojan, 1984; Vasu, 1989) of the soil status. Its application aims at the fertility and its resistance to the disturbance identification of disfunctionalities in the factors induced by the intensive land use. equilibrium and evolution of ecosystems, The complex changes of the state of including the human being (at the the environment in the last 50-60 years, with equilibrium status in the research moment). multiple causes, impose a new concept in Its application includes diagnoses of the solving of the complex humanity disturbance processes and their mechanisms, problems, including health problems essential for equilibrium in ecosystems and (Leontopol and Andronescu, 1984; Mogoș, even in the human health. This paper tries to 1975, 1976, 1977, 2002; Mogoș and Brozici, bring also some contributions to the 1973; Mogoș et al., 1980; Mogoș et al., extension of the holistic approach to human 1971, 1973a; Montagnier 1995, 2012; medical research, as an answer to the Montagnier et al., 1998; Montagnier and necessity to consider in medicine the human Gougeon, 1993; Passwater, 1975, 1978, being as a unitary body with unitary 1983, 1998; Simoncini, 2007; Vasu, 1972, functions. We try also to propose a test for 1973, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986a, 1986b, precocious cancer identification. 1988, 1989, 1990, 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, Some case studies illustrate 1997a, 1997b, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2006; ecosystems disturbance due to ignorance of Vasu and Moga, 2008; Vasile, 2002, 2009a, the natural equilibrium in ecosystems and 2009b). some experiments are presented concerning human cancer.

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MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY A. Holistic ecosystemic approach The studies were carried out using a the blood; and in the human body also the general ecological systemic approach (von blood. Bertalanfy, 1960; Odum, 1971, 1983, 1993, Therefore, the concept of the 1974), and according to specific integrated Pourbaix Eh-pH Diagrams (Pourbaix, 1963), ecosystemic approach (Ellenberg, 1971, elaborated as a thermodynamic frame for the 1986; Chiriță, 1974; Chiriță et al., 1983; simultaneous chemical and electrochemical Vasu, 1972, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1988, 1989, reactions in the binary systems element – 1994a, 1997a, 1998, 2001, 2002; Vasu and water – was used as an idealistic model for Nedea, 1978; Ulrich, 1981, 1991; the study of the speciation level of the Duchaufour, 1995). element – water systems extended to the In terrestrial ecosystems, the soil – as terrestrial ecosystems chemistry analyses, edaphotope – is the subsystem which including the human being (Vasu, 1973, achieves the systemic unity of life with the 1983, 1988, 1989, 2001, 2006; Vasu and environment, through the multitude of Nedea, 1978, 1983; Vasu and Roşu, 1980; functional connections with the other Vasu and Moga, 2008). subsystems of the biotope and with the Constituting a condensate, logical biocenosis, including human beings. The and normalized form, the Eh-pH diagrams connections are achieved in developmental indicate the existence and stability domain and evolutionary processes and especially in of the chemical species liable to be formed nutritional processes (as structural and in one element-water system or the relative functional relationships). Thus, a structural relevance in systems which has more and functional scheme of terrestrial elements. ecosystems was proposed (Fig. 1) (Vasu, The existence of the stability 1972, 1983, 1985, 1986a, 1988, 1989, domain, or relative relevance of different 1994a, b, c, 1998, 2001, 2002; Vasu et al., chemical element forms, is conditioned by 1995-1996 modified). concentration (potential ionizable elements- The human being, meeting the water), Eh, pH, temperature. general and essential characteristics of a It is necessary to draw attention to system, namely: integrity, historical and the existence of a high microbiological informational nature, self organization, activity in the whole terrestrial ecosystems internal heterogeneity, function, hierarchy, and, as consequence, upon the existence of can be considered a system. In this holistic many redox systems, where the biochemical approach, it is a subsystem within terrestrial and chemical reactions occur with active ecosystems. Its systemic structure is participation of e- and H+ exchanges, connected functionally with other inducing Eh and pH variations. subsystems, especially in the field of The Eh, pH, temperature, moisture nutritional processes, ensuring the and potential ionizable elements content in psychosomatic equilibrium essential for the aqueous solutions are considered human health. It is necessary to emphasize condition parameters for thermodynamic that the actual OMS definition of human stability of the system element-water health is: “a psychic, somatic and social equilibrium and moving conditions individual good state”. Terrestrial parameters of the nutrients in rock-soil- ecosystems are open dynamic systems plant-animal systems (Vasu, 1988, 1989, where the aqueous solution (with its ionic 1994a, b, c, 1998, 2001, 2002; Vasu et al., activities) is the nutrient conveyer, in the 1989; Vasu et al., 1995-1996) and in the rocks – soil – plant – animal – human being human body as well (Vasu, 2006; Vasu and circuits; in rocks (or parent materials) Moga, 2008). pluviometric hydrolysis products; in soil the soil solution; in plants the sap; in animals

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Figure 1: Structure and dynamic equilibria in terrestrial ecosystems.

The experiment in an S-N transect content in blood) and the ionized one, as Europe (Vasu et al., 1995-1996) showed the well as compounds like those blocking influence of the energy (in field measured hemoglobin (blocked as methemoglobin in temperature and light flux) on the Eh-pH our experiment ‒ Vasu, 1989). It is and as consequence on the ionic equilibrium. important to determine N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, That is why the stability conditions Se, Ge, Zn, Cr, Al, Mn, Cu, Cd and perhaps accepted for all the subsystems of the other elements. The ionic activity of ecosystem are legitimately considered valid different elements in blood, especially for the human being too. multivalent ones, controlled by the Eh-pH, is The Eh-pH couple, measured at important not only as an individual value, constant temperature, may reflect the but also as ratio between different elements’ thermodynamic stability conditions of ionic activities. general balanced human health. In the last 50-60 years, acidic pH, Therefore, the Eh-pH couple, especially in food, is regarded as having a indicating the existence of some disturbance negative role in the equilibrium of human in the human health equilibrium, seems to be health (Drury-Climent, 2002; Young, a precocious, rapid cancer test. For the Redford-Young, 2005; Simoncini, 2007; identification of deeper health disturbance Mencinicopschi, 2010; Marinescu, 2012). processes and their mechanisms (the way it It is important to distinguish was proved in the behavior of many the effect of changing pH in Tumour disturbed terrestrial ecosystems) it is Therapy, as a revolutionary approach, necessary, to analyze the ionic equilibrium proposed by Prof. Dr. Tulio Simoncini, who in the blood, after finding the Eh-pH considered that cancer is a fungus and can disturbance. This means the potential be treated with sodium bicarbonate ionizable element quantities (total element (Simoncini, 2007).

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In our modern world it is difficult to Luc Montagnier – Nobel Prize know what kind of nutritional ingredients winner in Physiology and Medicine 2008, we are getting in our normal daily diets. The for discovering in 1983 of the Virus HIV1 mass production of foodstuffs around the the causative agent of AIDS – considers that world, (packaged with preservatives and (Montagnier, 1995, 2012). processed in for safety), has left many food In 2009, Teodor Vasile wrote “Cancer, products lacking in essential nutritional caused by sadness” (Vasile, 2009b). value. Each of us needs to understand more In oxidative conditions, or in clearly how to supplement our diets to live a conditions of sadness, Eh changes occur in long and healthy life. the human body, connected with pH changes For this reason more and more (thermodynamically proved Pourbaix authors point out the importance of a Diagrams) causing illness, especially cancer, balanced lifestyle, with a harmonious but also disease due to the balance balance of time and especially healthy disturbances in the unitary functions of the nourishment (Ohsawa, 2002; Valnet, 1981; human body system. Goodman, 1991, 1995, 1998, 2001; All these researches confirmed the Goodman et al., 1994; Montagnier, 1995, benefit of controlling the modification of 2012; Passwater, 1975, 1978, 1983, 1998; Eh-pH as stability parameters in an Montignac, 2008; Schreiber, 2008; Vasile, organism’s health. 2002; 2009a, b; Mencinicopschi, 2010), Montagnier appreciated that one including the use of vegetable and fruits should monitor the markers of oxidative with high reducing properties in daily diet. stress, such as lipid peroxides, which Richard Passwater has been increase when opportunistic infection researching antioxidant nutrients since 1959 occurs, as well as the carbonyl content of and discovered biological antioxidant lymphocyte proteins, cytokines and Tumor synergism in 1962. In 1970, at Toronto, he Necrosis Factor (TNF). Laboratory studies presented his evidence to the Gerontological show that the proteins of lymphocytes are Society’s Annual Scientific Congress that very rapidly degraded due to oxidative antioxidant nutrients offered a practical stress. These parameters will be evaluated means of increasing human lifespan. He was and then patient treatment may include the first to show that practical combinations several antioxidants such as NAC, beta of antioxidant nutrients increase the carotene, vitamins A, C and E, the enzymes lifespan (Chemical and Engineering News, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase, 1970). The reports of Dr. Passwater’s proteins such as metallothionine, plant research, in 1970, by Ladies Home Journal, extracts and other nutrients, as indicated. and in 1971, by Prevention magazine, Montagnier appreciated that “Plants have may have been the first times that the words invented many more compounds than we “free radical” “antioxidant nutrient” have and we will. Plants are a much appeared in lay articles. Dr. Passwater was richer sources of antioxidants and other also the first to publish that a synergistic useful nutrients or pharmacologically combination of antioxidant nutrients active compounds than man. Let nature help significantly reduces cancer incidence us”. (Cancer: New Directions. American All this encourages the concept that Laboratory, 1973). Eh-pH may be a controlling tool for Recently, some authors speak of the psychosomatic disturbances too (as it was connection between cancer and oxidants proved in the study of more than 550 (Leontopold and Antonescu, 1984; terrestrial ecosystems with different kind of Passwater, 1975, 1978, 1983, 1998; disturbances) (Vasu, 1985, 1986a, b, 1988, Montagnier, 1995, 2012; Montagnier and 1989, 1990, 1994a, b, c, 1997a, b, 1998; Gougeon, 1993; Montagnier et al., 1998). Vasu et al., 1989, 1990, 1995-1996).

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In terrestrial ecosystems, the soil as and induces indirect influences on the edaphotop is the subsystem which achieves ecosystem’s stability and productivity the systemic unity of life (living subsystems) (Vasu, 1988, 1989, 1994a, 1998, 2001). and other subsystems of the biotope. Potential productivity is appreciated In the soil, the focus of the main by the trophicity index (Chiriță, 1974, connections is the soil solution (Lindsay, modified 1987; Vasu, 1997a) and the 1979; Vasu, 1972, 1983, 1988, 1989, 1998, mezoclimate influences. 2001; Vasu et al., 1989; Vasu et al., 1990; For rendering ecosystem stability Vasu et al., 1995-1996; Paucă-Comănescu et evident, the actual ecosystems’ productivity al., 1989). is estimated as compared to the potential The specific ionic activities one. The ecosystem disturbances induce (Pourbaix, 1963) of the soil solution, actual, effective productivity decrease, as directly, easily available to plant roots compared to the potential productivity, with (effective soil fertility), in dynamic negative influences in the ecosystem equilibrium with the exchangeable adsorbed stability (Vasu, 1994a, 1997a, b, 1998, 2001, ions, potentially available to the plant 2002, 2006). (potential soil fertility), constitute the mobile For the health evaluation of human systemic structure of the soil. These act as beings, classical investigation results must ecological factors in the functioning of the be interpreted in interdisciplinary fashion ecosystem and determine directly the actual and in connection with environmental (effective) ecosystem stability and characteristics. productivity. The mobile systemic structure Inorganic compound dynamics of the soil is in dynamic equilibrium with research methodology is part of the original the constitutive elements of the mineral, interdisciplinary systemic methodology, in organic, organic-mineral and organic- the ecosystemic approach, which studies the metallic compounds – basic systemic integrated soil ecosystemic (partially structure of the soil – and with the other published Vasu, 1972, 1983, 1984, 1994a, biotope subsystems. These influences, 1998, 2001; Vasu et al., 1995-1996; Paucă- availability of nutrients, act as ecological Comănescu et al., 1989; Seceleanu et al., determinants in the ecosystem’s functions 1995).

B. METHODS. The interdisciplinary methodology impact. It was verified on a large connects multidisciplinary investigation geographical scale, about 26° latitude, 35° methods, which allow the interdisciplinary longitude and 1,500 m altitude difference, in interrelated interpretation of data. Each Romania, Germany, Spain, France, Sweden. discipline works with its own specific It was applied even in two additional EU methods, but adapted to the ecosystemic Projects, CT 920141 and CT 910043. purposes and, very importantly, at the same The dynamics of inorganic investigation depth level. The methodology compounds in soil is studied differently using prevalent relative investigation depending on the specific purpose, for soil methods is a differential diagnoses pedogenetic evolution level and evolution methodology, consisting in simultaneous direction identification (soil system as investigation in paired ecosystems, the natural or transformed body), for soil disturbed ecosystem as compared with a function as edapho-top, or for the soil used balanced one. For the humans it is necessary as means of production, with human to investigate the ill person in respect to the intervention in the natural equilibria values characterizing healthy persons. (Fairbridge and Finkl, 1979; Vasu, 1988). The methodology was verified in The selection of the representative situation more than 550 ecosystems, out of which for the studied phenomenon is very more than 140 have different kind of human important.

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In the laboratory were determined, Multivariables analysis was not valid selected for different situations, in different because of more than 70 variables and specific investigation ways: 5C forms and 3 especially because of the high individuality forms organic-metallic compounds, 3SiO2 of the living subsystems. In the forms, 3H forms, 6Al forms, 6Fe forms, 3N interpretation of the complex, high quantity forms, 3P forms. Ionic forms in soil solution of large interdisciplinary (10-13 discipline) were also determined (directly available to research information was taken into account the plants), and mobile (adsorbed ions, (minimum 77 parameters and many potential available to the plants) Ca, Mg, K, descriptive elements). By multifunctional Na, Fe, Al, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd. The same analysis unsuitable results were obtained as elements were determined in rocks (or compared with the logical analysis (Max parent materials), litter, sod, plants (roots, Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, stems and leaves) in animal blood and hair Gottingen, Germany analysis, 1992; CNRS, and in human beings in blood. Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionelle et Evolutive Thermodynamic stability conditions and Montpellier France analysis, 1997; Paucă et moving conditions were determined in the al., 1989; Vasu et al., 1995-1996). For this biogeochemical cycle’s Eh, pH and reason, in latest opinions it is necessary to exchange capacity, base saturation degree ‒ replace the actual models, considering the which allow the estimation of the potential terrestrial ecosystems and their subsystems trophicity and fertility of the soil and allow as linear dynamic open systems. It is also the estimation of their ecological suggested to introduce a new approach significance as ecological factors or based on the recognition and adaptation of determinants. In the laboratory the analysis non-linear dynamic systems theory for the were carried out at 20-22°C and on ecological systems as large and complex stabilized soil, plant, blood samples (Vasu, systems, with antientropic behavior 1972, 2001, 2002; Paucă et al., 1989; Vasu (Vădineanu, 1998). et al., 1990, 1995-1996). For the identification of the main Temperature and humidity were also disturbance processes, typical compounds measured in the field. were identified and an interpretation scale The analysis of ecosystem chemistry, was established. For example: for as an expression of ecosystem functionality, acidification, during acid rains, or focused on the soil solution chemistry and degradation processes due to no suitable on the ionic equilibrium in the vegetation changes the active H+ (Vasu and biogeochemical cycle, estimating especially Roşu, 1982); for alkaline hydrolysis, in the ionization level and the ion ratio in the irrigation with high water quantities, the soil solution, immediately available to the hydrolyzed SiO2 (Vasu et al., 1990); for plant roots. This is essential for achievement desertification risk (with active of stability in terrestrial ecosystems, as well disintegration process) organic-mineral SiO2 as in emphasizing the disturbance level and (Vasu, 1997a); for spodosolification ‒ due to its possible reversibility. Similarly to this is the strong acidification of the soil, the active functionality of the human body. amorphous Fe and Al (Vasu, 1969, 1984, Complex chemical investigation 1986b; Vasu and Nedea, 1983); for allows corroboration of its results with all andosolification, material amorphous SiO2 the results of the other kind of ecosystem and Al transmitted from parent (Vasu, 1984, investigation, for interrelated interpretation 1986b, 1990) i.e. by logical analytic-synthetic analysis.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Some cases of disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems: The complex chemical investigation mentioned disturbance phenomena, the methodology presented above, by a holistic specific acting processes and their approach, was applied to the function and mechanisms. disturbances diagnoses of the ecosystems, a. The effect of the stability for the substantiation of sustainable land use conditions on the ionisation level and on development, for environment protection the ecosystem stability and productivity: and, in the near future, for human health Researches were carried out in two rehabilitation. The unitary study of the Fagus silvatica forests in – O. S. Baia Mare whole ecosystem’s chemistry allows also the E3 Butin, high productivity (I-II cl.) and O. assessment and justification of the effective S. Bretcu E12 Lemnia, medium to low productivity in the research moment. productivity (III-IV cl.) ‒ (Vasu in Paucă et. The investigative methodology al., 1989). pointed out the advanced specificity of the E3 has acid brown cryptospodic litter or soil composition and their influence andic soil on andesite and E12 has typical on the biogeochemical cycle, especially in luvic brown soil on sandstone. connection with the vegetal species, but also In E3 as compared with E12, the with the other biotope components (Vasu couple Eh/pH is in lives 527/5.08 – and Roşu, 1980; Vasu, 1989). 531/5.05, in Au – Ao horizons, 524/4.22 – Thus, were studied: the phenomena 544/4.68, in Bv1(s) 533/4.40 – Bt1 resulting from deforestation, land use 534/5.93, in Bv2(s) 540/4.53 – Bt2 changes, extension of species out from 522/5.87; as a consequence, the ionization natural zones, plantation of unsuitable level of the nutrients and the ratio between species for the biotope conditions (having them is different, explaining the productivity effects such as forest productivity decrease difference, otherwise inexplicable by the or even premature forest drying), the usual, classical characterizing parameters. desertification risk, the effects of Thus, the potentially ionizable bases monoculture plantations, spruce wind fell, characterized by classic parameters SB/Te irrigation with high quantities of water, the me/100 g in P3-P12, in the same horizons’ use of heavy agricultural equipment, the use succession are in Au-Ao 3/7-4/5, in Bv1(s)- of high quantities of fertilizers (especially Bt1 1/4-4/5, in Bv2(s)-Bt2 3/9-4/5, N-NO3), pollution by acid rain, heavy respectively Ve/V8.3% are in Au-Ao 46/11- metals, concrete, urbanization, etc. 94/53, in Bv1(s)-Bt1 12/2-89/55, in Bv2(s)- The specific processes were Bt2 36/12-95/65; the soil humidity (%) in analyzed, mostly even the acting the same succession is 5.6-3.6, 3.7-1.4, 3.7- mechanism. Identification criteria were 1.1. Concerning the effect of the difference discovered. Disturbance processes were of stability conditions on the ionization level identified, such as acid and alkaline of nutrients, one can notice significant hydrolysis, disintegration weathering, differences, as illustrated ‒ aqua amorphyzation, ionization level disturbance soluble/potentially ionizable in ppm in the – consequently with unbalance of ionic same horizon, N-NO3 aqua soluble/total Au- ratios in the soil solution, or even of the Ao 1.8/73-2.8/190, Bv1(s)-Bt1 5/110- whole mobile systemic structure and 1.5/150, Bv2(s)-Bt2 7.8/110-2.4/136; aqua disturbance in the biogeochemical cycles, soluble/potentially ionizable: P Au-Ao nutritional processes. 0.7/2-0.5/5, Bv1(s)-Bt1 0.96/1-o.2/2, Bv The application of complex 2(s)-Bt2 2.2/3-0.3/2, K Au-Ao 20/250- ecosystem chemical analysis methodology 38/260, Bv1(s)-Bt1 6/110-12/50, Bv2(s)-Bt2 in the diagnosis of terrestrial ecosystem 6/80-12/50, Ca Au-Ao 75/320-159/1530, dysfunctions is exemplified by some studied Bv1(s)-Bt1 75/80-38/-750, Bv2(s)-Bt2 situations, illustrating some of the above 75/300-50/3240, Mg Au-Ao 3/50-2/4,

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Bv1(s)-Bt1 2/19-3/5, Bv2(s)-Bt2 2/10-2/6, slight slope in the direction of E2. Both Na Au-Ao 17/20-8/30, Bv1(s)-Bt1 13/20- ecosystems have luvic brown soils, on silty 7/10, Bv2(s)-Bt2 8/10-3/10, Al Au-Ao deposits. 26/310-15/630, Bv1(s)-Bt1 43/330-13/-400, The new meadow ecosystem induces Bv2(s)-Bt2 48/600-8/180, Fe Au-Ao 4/5- changes in the hydrological regime (active 2/4, Bv1(s)-Bt1 1/2-2/3, Bv2(s)-Bt2 1/3- humidity index in vernal > 145-65 in E2, 4/7, Mn Au-Ao 0.6/2o-0.3/8, Bv1(s)-Bt1 as compared with 80-30 in E1 and in 0.7/1.2-0.1/-0.4, Bv2(s)-Bt2 0.7/40-0.1/2, autumnal 50-25-70 in E2, respectively 25- Zn Au-Ao 0.9/1-1.5/3, Bv1(s)-Bt1 0.2/0.4- 10-30 in E1). These induce a moderate 0.1/0.3, Bv2(s)-Bt2 0.8/1.3-0.1/0.4. acid hydrolysis (eH/pH, in the soil The difference of the couple Eh-pH horizons sequence Oh-Ao-Bt is in E2: in the two ecosystems is obvious. The high 376/5.58-506/5.02-544/4.93, whereas in acidity in P3 at the rooting depth is E1 is: 446/5.61-486/6.58-526/5.38), with considered restrictive for high productivity increasing of SiO2 and toxic Al in the soil in literature, but in corroboration with the Eh solution of E2. Thus, hydrolyzed SiO2 is 40- level (as in the new methodology) the 730 ppm in soil and accumulated in leaves ionization level of nutrients is highly 280,000 ppm in E2 as compared with 15-50 modified in the two ecosystems. Thus, the ppm in soil, respectively 13,000 ppm in ionization level is higher for N, which is leaves in E1. The ionized Al in the soil maintained in the proper level for normal solution, in the same sequence, is: 20-130- nutrition. An extremely important factor, 1,000 ppm in E2 respectively 35-5-800 ppm and probably the one which ensures the high in E1. The mobile Ca in E2 has values till productivity, is the high ionization level of 7,000 ppm, is ionized in the soil solution 10- the small quantities of potentially ionizable 40 ppm and is accumulated 6,800 ppm in P, between 70-95%, even more and 95% in leaves (inducing premature ageing through the main rooting depth in E3. These, high calcification), as compared with about associate with the high ionization of Ca, 2,000 ppm mobile Ca, ionized 18-20 ppm enough of Mg, K, Na and tolerant for the and accumulated 800 ppm in leaves in E1. vegetation of Al, Fe, Mn and Zn, ensure a The disturbance of nutrients ratio has as favorable nutrients ratio in the soil solution consequence the premature drying out of the explaining the high productivity of E3. This forest, with decreasing productivity. was unaccountable by classical criteria, pH, c. The effect of spruce extension out and base saturation degree, respectively the of its natural belt ‒ South Carpathians, evaluation of the nutritional level by the selected data (Vasu and Roşu, 1982): individual evaluation of the content of Through investigation of the mobile form (potential ionizable) of the advanced specificity of the biogeochemical nutrients. cycle of spruce ecosystems, with a high b. The effect of deforestation ‒ amount of Ca and Mg blocking in the litter Copşa Mare, (Vasu and Filip, 1990, (Vasu and Roşu, 1980) and as consequence unpublished): high acidification process, with irreversible Through felling, an oak forest, with soil degradation by spodosolification high productivity, in natural zone Copşa (occurring with ireversible clay minerals Mare E1 was spontaneously substituted by weathering), allowed to identify the effect of meadow surface. In the vicinity, the spruce extension out from its natural belt (a remaining forest E2 is affected too in about frequent occurrence due to short-term 8-10 years, by premature drying out economic policies). phenomenon, with consequences in strong As an original contribution (Vasu lowering the productivity. The ecosystem and Roşu, 1982) during this research the E2, with premature drying phenomenon is potential active H+ was identified and its compared with E1, remaining from the diagnostic role defined, associated with former forest (actual meadow), with a very different forms of Al and especially with the

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active amorphous Al and Fe (specific into Brown Podsol. The potential active H+ components for defining the movement disturbs the parent material spodosolification level – Vasu, 1969, 1984, (continuous increasing), acts continuously to 1986b). increase the actual effective acidity and Thus, in the beech or oak ecosystems lowering the buffering capacity of the actual with luvisols, with relative good buffering soil. Thus, the acid rain effect is extremely capacity, the potential active H+ is < 0.2 aggressive on this strongly acidified soil, ppm and the active amorphous Al is about with low buffering capacity. 0.1% and Fe < 0.02%, both uniform The potential active H+ has values distributed in the soil profile. By the spruce 5.2 ppm in Ahe1 and 1.27 ppm in B and extension, in the broad leaved belt, the 0.55 ppm even in the deep (at 360 cm) potential active H+ values are graduated in parent material strata (normal till 0.2 ppm levels, each determining an acidification without acidification effect and with high level. According to the acidification level acidification effect from > 0.5 ppm). It the active amorphous material has values for induces high weathering process with high Al > 0.1% and for Fe > 0.2%, typical for toxic Al liberation. Al ionized in the soil spodosol and especially with the typical solution 20 ppm in Ahe and still 6-2 ppm in dynamic in the soil profile of those. For parent material and with high mobile Al instance in Eastern Carpathians, in the content determining effective total exchange Bretcu Depression, by spruce cultivation in capacity prevalent (> 95%) Al saturate. The the Fagus belt, on Luvisol, after 12 years in high acidification conditions (pH is lowered, the eluvial Ea horizon a 12 cm Podsol is from 5.5-6.3 in the former soil, till 2.7 in formed, with irreversible soil degradation, Ahe, 3.0-3.4 in B and 3.7-4.5 in parent by acid hydrolysis, acidification and material) induce acid hydrolysis in Ahe and + amorphization. In our country H reaches even in the parent material (hydrolyzed SiO2 maximum 4 ppm (strong acidification level). 285-220 ppm). It induces weathering In Germany and Sweden, where there exist process, with Fe and Al movement (active four to five successive generations of amorphous fulvic Fe 1,480 ppm in Ahe2 and cultivated spruce, respectively Scots pine, 3,110 ppm in Bhvs and active amorphous values up to 20 ppm were found (expressing fulvic Al 6,040 ppm in Ahe2 and 8,060 ppm extremely strong acidification and high in Bhvs), with developing the irreversible soil destruction, with low spodosolification till Brown Podsol level resistance to acid rain). (Vasu, 1969, 1984, 1986b, 1987). As a On this basis, according to the parent consequence the ecosystem productivity is material and the bioclimatic belt, three decreased to low productivity. stability levels against the acid degradation e. The effect of monoculture ‒ of the soil were established (Vasu, 1984). Vindeln, Sweden (Vasu et al., 1995-1996), d. The effect of acid rain on acidified EU Project Environment, CT 920141, soils ‒ Solling experimental site, Germany, (selected data published Vasu, 2001): (selected data published – Vasu, 1997a). The disturbed Pinus silvestris In the Quercus belt, the former Ecosystem Vindeln (E4), invaded by highly productive oak forest is substituted the acidophilic Vaccinium myrtilus (about by cultivated spruce (probably at the fourth 70%), with low stability and productivity generation), with high acidification effect in (IV cl.) is localized in Sweden, Norland the soil, through potential active H+ Tableland, 9 km N-NE from town increasing associated with Ca and Mg Vindeln, about 100 km S from the Arctic shutting, in the conifer needles and litter Circle, in temperate cold mesoclimate, (Vasu and Roşu, 1980). As a consequence transitional to continental subarctic the former luvic soil is transformed, by high climate, strongly influenced by the Gulf and continuous acidification, with Stream (otherwise it would be much weathering and spodosolification processes, colder).

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The ecosystem has a thin soil (Bs up f. Desertification risk identification ‒ to 21 cm), in FAO/UNESCO Classification Mas Bassets ‒ Les Gavares, Gerona, Spain a Haplic podsol (respectively podsol (Vasu in Seceleanu et al., 1995, EU Project aluminum illuvial), with five parental PECO 910043, selected data published materials strata (till 220 cm), on alluvial Vasu, 1997a): deposits originated from Quaternary The change of natural Quercus ilex moraines, which allow the rooting depth up forest by cultivated Quercus suber, with to 60 cm in horizon Cog. ecosystem stability disturbance, induces as a The soil is extremely strongly acidic consequence the lowering of forest (pH 3.13-3.60) and high to extremely high productivity and increasing risk of oxidizing (Eh 526-574 mV), due to the desertification. extreme strong acid and oxidizing litter (pH In the actual ecosystem, with high 3.2 and Eh 524 mV in Oh), which induce biodiversity, negative acting (about 12 extremely strong acid hydrolysis (potential concurrent species, Na, Fe and Al tolerant), active H+ 20 ppm) and as consequences an which induces acidification, in the high intense weathering process. contrasting ecoclimatic conditions (in The bioaccumulation of the litter is transition to subtropical mesoclimate with of raw organic matter, with moderate type Mediterranean influence). Thus, in the humification (C/N 58-38) and degree of Lithic Cambic Arenosol on leucogranites, mineralization (SiO2/Ct) 0.01-4.7, with occure intense weathering processes. This corresponding CO2 release in the is ranted out by the high content of atmosphere and N, K in the soil, but with active amorphous Al and Fe and especially blocking P in Ol layer and low recycling of high content of organic-mineral SiO2, Ca and Mg, blocked in the needles. The high (identified in the last personal research acidity and the active weathering mobilize, as quantitative criterion for the evaluation in the humid ecoclimate, a high level of Fe, of the desertification risk level – Vasu, Al, Mn and even relatively high levels of Pb, 1997a, b). The soil solution has an increased Zn and Cu. The degree of nitrification content of potential active H+ and of Fe (N.NO3/Nt) is very low in Oh (0.0004), but and Al ions, disturbing the nutrients ratio moderate in Au and Es (0.0020-0.0024). The in the soil solution and lowering the mineral bio accumulative influences, are productivity. Organic-mineral SiO2 is mostly in the weathered thin Au horizon, on 10,000 ppm in Au horizon and 73,800 ppm the ionic activity of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, in R(B) horizon (normal values < 1,000 ppm Mn, Zn and Cu in the extremely strong acid ‒ Vasu, 1997b). In the same horizons, the and extremely high oxidizing soil solution. potential active H+ is 0.9-0.5 ppm in In the humid ecoclimate, there occurs presence of 8-13 ppm Ca. Ionized Fe is (unusual for this soil type) a high illite 23-21 ppm and Al is 61-59 ppm. Thus, smectitization (on illitic substratum), the nutritive soil solution is highly respectively 67% smectite (less expanded dominated by Al, Fe, SiO2 and Na. For than normal 1.60-1.65 nm with EG) and 7% example in Au and Bv horizons (the illite in Es, with SiO2(om) and especially frequent rooting depth 0-25 cm in this high Al, Fe and K release in the soil solution. ecosystem) the nutritive aqueous soil The extremely high active and solution is characterized by the following potential active acidity determines the values: N-NO3 2.27-2.0 ppm, P 0.5-2.0 enriching in Al(aq), becoming dominant in ppm, K 15-13 ppm, Ca 8-13 ppm, Mg 7-3 the soil solution, with toxic effect for the ppm, Na 18-9 ppm, SiO2 76-127 ppm, Al vegetation. Thus, the disturbance of the 61-41 ppm, Fe 23-20 ppm, Mn 0.6-1.0 nutrients ratio in the soil solution becomes a ppm. The main producer of the ecosystem limitative factor for the ecosystem main (Quercus suber) is not able to tolerate producer (Pinus silvestris), explaining their this nutritive soil solution and its low stability and productivity. productivity is extremely low and

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continually lowered by the competition blood composition, with significant health with the luxuriant, well-developed disturbances. accompanying species, such as Erica The values are changed in E2 arborea, Cystus monspeliensis, Cistus as compared with the control E1, (E2-E1), salviifolius, Nardus stricta, etc. – Na-, Al-, in the sequence blood, hay, sod layer Fe-tolerant species. (At), main rooting depth. For all the g. The effect of high quantity N.NO3 elements, for blood and hay, the values in soil ‒ plant ‒ animal cycle ‒ Jucu represents the total content, for soil N experimental site, Cluj, (selected data Vasu total/N.NO3(aq)/N.NH4(aq), Ctotal/-C(aq) et al., 1989): and for all the others elements mobile/(aq). The effect of fertilization with high All the values are in ppm. Thus, as quantities of N.NO3 was studied in an compared E2-E1 the values are: for N 1260- experiment carried out in two pasture 980, 27800-20570, 7240/2/27, 6580/3/-24, ecosystems at 360 m altitude, with 600 mm 4190/1.3/22-1960/1/19; for C in blood mean rainfall and an average temperature 43725-41327, 8880/313-460/125, 3210/75- 7.5°C, with Eutric Regosols, on marls. 2094/63; for P the values are 16.1-10.7, Both were every two years, fertilized with P 19820-18050, 11/4-28/6, 4/3-12/5; for K 39- (50 kg/ha) and yearly with different N 27, 3200-4200, 280/5-400/9, 160/5-80/3; for quantities. The ecosystem E2, with Festuca Ca 15-9.5, 3000-2200, 8450/43-4480/75, pratensis, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites 7450/18-4082/65 (in the soil with marls (used for calf feeding), fertilized, yearly, substratum the roots are able to absorb even with 250 kg N/ha, was compared with a the adsorbed Ca from the soil); for Mg 20- control ecosystem, Ecosystem E1, with 18, 1800-1500, 528/6-504/3, 488/-1183/6; Festuca rupicola, Stipa stenophilla, for Fe 4.7-6.3, 174-678, 17/2.6-18/3.3 Dentaria prov., (used for calf feeding 21/8.5-15/2.3. control), fertilized, yearly, with 60 kg The ionic equilibrium disturbance N/ha. in the soil, modify significantly the hay For ensurance the comparison of and consequently the blood composition. the analytical results the research were Thus, the growth of Ca, Mg and surely carried out in the substratum ‒ soil ‒ plant N content in hay, with strong decreasing (sap) ‒ animal (calf hair and blood) cycle, of Fe and consequently the same elements by an unitary method, possible to be applied modification occurs in the calf blood for the five material categories (substratum ‒ composition, inducing serious health soil ‒ hay ‒ calf hair and calf blood). It has dysfunction. The high increase of Ca in view the compounds in equilibrium, determined frequent tearing of bones meaningful for the substance turnover in after feeding calves (1-2 years) with the the pastures ecosystems, through aqueous hay from E2. But, the most serious health solutions as nutrients conveyer (soil solution disturbances, up to premature death (after ‒ cellular sap ‒ blood), The Eh/pH values two-three years feeding calves with hay are changed, in E2 as compared with the from E2), were determined by the N control E1, as follows: 420-376 mV/5.50- increase and Fe decrease in hay. These 6.60 in E2 from 382-350 mV -6.10-7.80. determine an increase of methemoglobin As consequence the ionisation level was content in blood from 4.4%, normal (by the different for different nutrients. As a control calf), to 21-32% by those feeded result the ionic ratio in the soil solution (aq) with high N-fertilized E2 hay and a decrease is modified and obvious the hay of Fe content from 6.7 to 4.3 mg/100 ml composition. The harmful quality of the blood, inducing a grave O2 shortcoming and hay has direct consequences on the calf death through cancer.

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B. Experiments concerning cancer in humans. The experiments concerning the new mg/100 ml and, in 1974, spinal metastasis proposed rapid test Eh-pH occur with appeared, with five herniated discs by encouraging results. apophisis destruction (radiological Some indirect proofs will be evidentiated) as following: two located on presented, such as: a ‒ Health equilibration the cervical spine, two on the lumbar and in the overcoming of cancer using reducing one lumbar-sacral spine; all these causes substances (Leontopol and Andronescu, persistent paresthesia. Natural therapy was 1984), associated with lifestyle changes confronted with high aggressiveness. including psychotherapy, phytotherapy and Thus, in October 1976, she met apitherapy; b ‒ Overcoming cancer through Mihai Leontopol, who agreed to try to test bioenergetics techniques ‒ using cosmic his treatment (with her agreement), by oral energies, especially light (Vasile, 2009 a, b), administration of reducing substances. The associated with an equilibrate lifestyle using oncologist accepted to try the treatment (he phytotherapy; c ‒ The use of contact was the same oncologist who was not able to thermograph techniques in cancer diagnosis save her sister using classical treatments). At (Mogoș, 1975, 1976, 1977, 2002; Mogoș and that experimental time, the treatment was Brozoci, 1973b; Mogoș et al., 1971, 1973a). extremely difficult, but efficient. It consisted All this evidence is based on holistic of a mixture of reducing substances and for approaches of the human structure and few months, with cystein addition. The drug healthy functionality, integrated in the for the treatment of cancer or some other wholly terrestrial ecosystems, controlled by forms of tumours is composed of 10 ... 350 Eh-Ph, temperature (and other energies mg of hydroquinone, 30 ... 200 mg of metol, forms, like light), ionic activities (especially 10 ... 100 mg of amidol; these three active ionic activities ratios) and indirectly by ingredients may be or not associated with microbiological activities, thermo- 10 ... 100 mg of paraminosalicylic acid; the dynamically substantiated by the model of quantities are expressed per unidose and the Pourbaix Diagrams. association ratio (by weight) between a- Cancer overcome using reducing hydroquinone and metol is comprised substances (Leontopol, patent 1984): between 1:3 ... 7:4. The drug is toxicity free In 1971, two sisters were in the dosage limits stipulated in the thermografically diagnosed with breast invention. cancer. One of them, 44 years old, after After one year, the breast tumour having surgical intervention, chemotherapy disappeared (contact thermographic and and radiotherapy, but without persevering in mammographic control, Oncological changing her lifestyle, died in 1975. Institute Bucharest). After 30 months, the The other sister, 36 years old, blood total Ca increased to the persevering in changing her lifestyle, hypercalcemic level (13.3 mg/100 ml), the especially concerning the ratio between hard spine was totally remineralized, even work in a toxic environment and relaxation presenting small anarchic Ca deposits in the open air, and using healthy, (radiological and thermographically preferential, personalized diets, associated controlled at the Oncological Institute of with personalized phytotherapy and Bucharest). apitherapy, had two years with slow tumour During all this time, she observed the development (despite the stress caused by natural recommendations (Aldulescu ‒ intense suffering of losing her sister). After a communication). balneal-climatic cure (with low radio- In the summer of 1979, she was activity), necessary for articulacy problems, considered to be healthy, she was able to in a few months, the breast tumour grew walk in the mountains and she resumed her from two cm to six cm (in less than one normal laboratory and field activity and is year). The blood total Ca decreased to 6.2 still alive.

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The effects of reducing substances liver and one in the right lobe intracerebral are evident, as well as the Eh-pH control in (inoperable). The oncologists hesitated to the ionic equilibrium of humans. suggest a treatment protocol. She had the She was considered to have overcome chance to meet Teodor Vasile (Vasile, 2002, cancer, but with a restriction in hard working 2009a, b), with his integrative psycho- and especially in going to the seaside. somatic regenerative therapies (associating Nevertheless, she resumed the hard bioenergy stimulation by cosmic light, work for updating her research and psychotherapy, personalized phytotherapy continuing her PhD Dissertation elaboration. and diet as well as an adequate lifestyle). Moreover, after 1989, she had the Five years later, she was declared healthy, is chance to work abroad (two EU Projects). still alive and working. Guided by her professional passion she The cosmic energy, especially the risked using the opportunity to work in light and cosmic information (Fig. 1), Europe, Asia and Australia, working hard in associated with a harmonious functional field researches, even in the proximity of the integration of the human body within all Mediterranean Sea, the Northern Sea, the other subsystems of the terrestrial Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and in very toxic ecosystems, eliminates the oxidative stress, laboratories. The professional satisfaction normalizes the Eh-pH in the whole organism was great and the results successful, but they and stabilizes the ionic equilibrium in the entailled some health hazards. human body, ensuring the normalization of It is important to mention the effect cellular energymethabolic mechanisms and, of reducing substances such as Novocain as a consequence, the human health. and Procaine used by Ana Aslan, famous c ‒ Cancer diagnosis by contact gerontologist. Since 1946 (Parhon and thermography (Mogoș, 1975, 1976, 1977; Aslan, 1955, 1957) she introduced (patented Mogoș and Brozoci 1973b; Mogoș et al., in 1952), the internationally accepted 1971, 1973a, 1980). Gerovital H1 and even now successfully Since 1968, Mogoș has begun his used Gerovital H3 (Aslan, 1980). In 1961, experiments on process and device for together with E. Polovraceanu, she created determining biological changes in normal an improved the formula marketed as and pathological organisms, using tissue Aslavital, patented in 1980 (Aslan and thermogenic property (Mogoș et al., 1971, Polovrăceanu, 1980), used in gerontology, 1973 a; Mogoș and Brozoci 1973b; Mogoș associated with lifestyle changing. The 2002). For more than 35 years, his research reducing substance acted with huge tried to promote the tissue thermography as performance in chronic degenerative an early cancer detection method, by rheumatism, Parkinson’s disease, highlighting even three mm tumors, as well osteoporosis, arthritis, neuromuscular as tumor development during chemotherapy, dystrophies, has antidepressant effects, radiotherapy, or other therapies. improves memory and attention, visual Thermographic investigation results were perception, auditive and olfactive achieved and offer knowledge on cellular perception, stimulates psychic and energy-metabolic mechanisms in the process neurovegetative balance improvement, of chemical cancerization. growth and hair pigmentation, joint All these results are in accordance mobility, normalizes blood pressure. with the thermodynamic stability conditions b ‒ Cancer overcome by psycho- presented above (Eh-pH, temperature, somatic integrative therapy (Vasile, 2002, energy, straightly available nutrients) and 2009a, b): there are proofs in support of the Eh-pH as a In 1999, a woman was diagnosed, by precocious test for cancer, expressing the non-invasive imaging, with five malignant chemical ionic equilibrium disturbance in tumors: two on the vocal cord, one on the the nutrients availability, which allowed the thyroid lobe, one in her left breast, one in the anarchic evolution of the cells.

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CONCLUSIONS The human impact on terrestrial The human body, meeting the ecosystems, by acting on the production of general and essential characteristics of a biomass following only social ‒ economic system and having its functional connections criteria and using only empirical with the whole terrestrial ecosystem must be experiments, ignoring the unitary considered in the holistic ecosystemic ecosystems’ function and especially the approach as a structural and functional ionic equilibrium in the substance turnover, subsystem, included as a component in the determines the main disturbances in the terrestrial ecosystems. ecosystems’ structures and also functions, That is why the stability conditions resulting the productivity decrease. (Eh, pH, temperature, moisture and For the substantiation of the soil potentially ionizable elements content in the resources management, for sustainable aqueous solutions) and moving conditions ecosystem productivity, a correct diagnosis parameters of the nutrients, valid for other of the ecosystem functionality/ subsystems of the terrestrial ecosystems, are disfunctionality is required. also considered valid as thermodynamic The Eh, pH, temperature, moisture stability conditions parameters for human and potentially ionizable elements content health and moving conditions parameters of in the aqueous solution are considered the nutrients in the human body. thermo-dynamic stability conditions According to the results of studies of parameters of the element-water system over 500 ecosystems by the holistic equilibriums and moving conditions approach, the soil-plant-animal cycle studied parameters of the nutrients in the rock-soil- (where animals died by cancer), the indirect plant-animal systems and in the human body proof of overcoming cancer in humans, and too. preliminary results of the experimentation of The identification of the disturbance the newly proposed test for precocious phenomenon, of the acting processes and cancer screening (Eh-pH and ionic even of their mechanism is possible only by equilibriums), the Eh-pH is proposed as a a ecosystemic multi-disciplinary structural new test for precocious cancer detection. and functional research of every subsystem This allows the distinguishing of the and by a holistic interdisciplinary equilibrium disturbance in the human body, interpretation of the results. which induce the anarchic grow of cells and, as a consequence, tumour formation.

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SELECTIVE REFERENCES Aslan A., 1952 ‒ patent, Gerovital H1. Goodman S., 2001 − The Role of Nutrition Aslan A., 1980 ‒ Gerovital H3. Therapy in in Cancer Prevention and Treatment, the Prophylaxis of Ageing, Integrated Cancer Care, Arraclongh Romanian Journal of Gerontology, J., (ed.) Oxford Press. Geriatrics, Bucharest, 1.1. Goodman S. and Daniel R., 1994 − Cancer Aslan A. and Polovraceanu E., 1980 ‒ and nutrition: the positive scientific patent, Aslavital. evidence, Bristol Cancer Centre. Botnariuc N. and Vădineanu A., 1982 ‒ Goodman S., Howard J. and Barker W., Ecologie, Edit. Didactică și 1994 − Nutritional and lifestyle Pedagogică, 439. (in Romanian) Guidelines for people with cancer, Chiriţă C. D., 1974 ‒ Ecopedologie, cu baze Journal of Nutritional Medicine, 4, de pedologie generală, Edit. Ceres, 2, 199-214. București, 590. (in Romanian). Huntley B. J., Ezcura E., Fuentas E. R., Fuji Chiriţă C. D., Latis L. and Vasu A., 1983 ‒ K., Grub P. J., Haber W., Harger J. Studiul staţiunii ca biotop al R. E., Holland M. M., Levin S. A., ecosistemului forestier, Revista Lubcenko J., Mooney H. A., Pădurilor, 4, 195-205. (in Neronov V., Noble I., Pulliam H. R., Romanian) Ramakrishana P. S., Rieser P. G., Drury-Climent F., 2002 ‒ The acid alkaline Scala O., Sarukhan J. and Sambrock balanced diet, Edit. Contemporary W. G., 1991 − A sustainable Book Chicago New York, San Bioshere The global imperative, Francisco. Ecology International, 20, Special Duchaufour P., 1995 ‒ Abrege de Pedologie, Issue, 5. Edit. Masson et Cie, Paris. Leontopol I. M. and Andronescu N., 1984 − Ellenberg H., 1971 ‒ Integrated Brevet EPO112329, Anti-tumor Experimental Ecology, Springer, pharmaceutical preparation. Berlin, 214. Lindsay W. L., 1979 ‒ Chemical equilibria Ellenberg H., 1986 ‒ Vegetation in soils, Wiley-Interscience, New Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen in York, 449. okologischer Sicht, 4, verb. Auflage, Marinescu I., 2012 − pH: cheia sănătăţii, Eugen Ulmer Verlag, Hohenheim, Argeș Pres, Pitești, 135. Germany, 989. (in German) Mencinicopschi G., 2010 ‒ Noua ordine Fairbridge R. W. and Finkl C. W. jnr., 1979 alimentară, și noi ce mai mâncăm? ‒ Encyclopedia of earth sciences, Coreus Publishing, București, 272. The Encyclopedia of Soil Science, (in Romanian) 12, 1, Physiks, Chemistry, Biology, Mogoș I., 1975 − Procede et instalation pour Fertility, Technology, Dowden, la determination des modifications Hutchinson, Ross. Inc., dans les normaux et pathologiques Pennsylvania, 646. utilisant la propriete thermogene, Goodman S., 1991 − Vitamin C the master Brevet Franţa 2.268.502/1975. (in nutrient, Keats, Connecticut, USA. French) Goodman S., 1995, 1998 ‒ Nutrition and Mogoș I., 1976 − Method and apparatus for cancer: state of the art, Positive making medical thermographs, Health Publications Ltd., Bristol, UK. Brevet Statele Unite 3.970.074/1976. Goodman S., 1997 − Nutrition ‒ pivotal in Mogoș I., 1977 − The determination prevention and treatment of disease, of Biological modifications in in Mind-body medicine: a clinician's normal and pathological organisms, guide to psychoneuroimmunology. Brevet Marea Britanie Churchill Livingstone. 16.46.948/1977.

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Mogoș I., 2002 − Contribuţii recente la Montagnier L., Olivier R. and Pasquier C., dezvoltarea aparatului şi metodei de 1998 − Oxidative Stress in Cancer, termografie (CD), Comunicare la AIDS, and Neurodegenerative sesiunea Societăţii de Radiologie şi Diseases, Marcel Dekker Inc., New imagistică, Bucureşti. York, USA. Mogoș I. and Brozici M., 1973b − Instalaţie Montignac M., 2008 − La Methode pentru determinarea modificărilor Montignac illustrée pour les femmes, biologice în organismele normale şi Edit. Flammarion, Paris, 189. (in patologice, Brevet România French) 68.705/1973. (in Romanian) Odum E. P., 1971 − Fundamentals of Mogoș I., Cristea R. and Tuduce A. R., 1980 Ecology, 3, Saunder’s comp. − Aparat pentru determinarea Philadelphia, London, Toronto. modificărilor fiziologice şi Odum E. P., 1983 − Systems Ecology, patologice în organisme, Brevet Wiley-Interscience, New York. România 74.279/1980. Odum E. P., 1993 − Ecology and our Mogoș I., Ionescu-Muscel C., Angelescu D., endangered life-suport systems, Dumitrescu N., Andreescu M., Sinauer Assoc. Inc. Publishers, Neacşu C., Grozici M., Bârzănescu Sunderland. M., Puie A. and Gheorghe V., 1971 Ohsawa G., 2002 − Zenul macrobiotic sau − Procedeu şi instalaţie pentru arta întineririi și a longevității, Edit. determinarea modificărilor biologice de Vest, Timișoara (reeditare dupa în organismele normale şi patologice, ed. 1976). (in Romanian) folosind proprietatea termogenă a Parhon C. I. and Aslan A., 1955 − Factor ţesuturilor, Brevet România eutrofic și întineritor în tratamentul 59.887/1971. profilactic și curativ al bătrâneții, Mogoș I., Popovici O., Trestioreanu A., Edit. Acad. R.P.R. (in Romanian) Cupceancu B., Ciorăscu A. and Parhon C. I. and Aslan A., 1957 − L’action Ciochină C., 1973a − Early de la vitamine H1 et H2 sur la automatic thermo-graphic diagnosis proliferation de la cellule animale, in various neoplasic localizations, Buletinul Academiei Române, Second International Symposium on Bucureşti, 9, 1. (in French) Cancer Detection and Prevention, Passwater R., 1975 − Supernutrition: Mega Bologna, Italia, aprilie. vitamine Revolution, Dial Press. Montagnier L., interviewed by Richard A. Passwater R., 1978 ‒ Cancer and its Passwater, 1995 ‒ Antioxidant Nutritional Therapies, Keats Publ. Nutrients and AIDS: Exploring the Passwater R., 1983 − Cancer prevention and Possibilities, The Whole Foods its Nutritional Therapie, Keats publ. magazine (WFC Inc.). Passwater R., 1998 − All About Montagnier L., 2012 − Conference, in the Antioxidants, Avery Publ. Medical and Pharmaceutical Paucă-Comănescu M., Almasan H., Arion University, Bucharest, at the launch C., Bindiu C., Caracas V., Doniță N., of the Project Magellan moment of Falca M., Honciuc V., Oromolu- Medicine, Romanian contribution to Vasiliu L., Popescu A., Sanda V., the Global Ethics initiative of the Tacina A. and Vasu A., 1989, World Federation of UNESCO clubs, Făgetele din România ‒ Cercetări Bucharest, Romania. ecologice, Edit. Acad. R. S. R., Montagnier L. and Gougeon M.-L., 1993 − Bucureşti, 262. (in Romanian) New Concepts in AIDS Pourbaix M., 1963 − Atlas d’equilibres Pathogenesis, Marcel Dekker Inc., electro-chimique, Gauthie-Villars, New York, USA. Paris, 429. (in French)

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Seceleanu I., Vasu A., Filip F., Matei M., Vasu A., 1973 ‒ Diagrame tensiune ‒ pH, Matei S., Craciun C., Popescu I., Aplicare în pedologie, Referat Carcea I., Ştefănescu D. and doctorat, arhiva Facultății de Chimie, Chivulete S., 1995 − Dessertification Univ. Buc., 56. (in Romanian) risk assesemsnt and land use planing Vasu A., 1983 ‒ Cercetarea analitică a in Mediterranean coastal area, EU solului ca component al Additional Project 910043, 87. ecosistemului, vol. jubiliar 100 de Schreiber S. D., 2008 − “Anticancer” Învinge ani de învăţământ silvic, prin mijloace naturale, Edit. Elena Universitatea Brașov 1985, 75-80. Francisc. (in Romanian) (in Romanian) Simoncini T., 2007 − Cancer is a Fungus: Vasu A., 1984 ‒ Extracția selectivă a unor Revolution in Tumor Therapy, elemente din soluri cu agenți de Edizione Lampis. complexare, Teza de doctorat, arhiva Trojan P., 1984 − Ecosistem homeostasie, Facultății de Chimie, Universitatea PWR-PSP, Warszawa. Politehnică, București, 150 (in Ulrich B., 1981 − Berichte der Romanian) Forschungszentrums Waldoksysteme, Vasu A., 1985 ‒ Solul subsistem în Selbstverlag, Reihe B, Bd. 14. (in ecosisteme forestiere și de pajiști, German) vol. conf. XII SNRSS, Tim., 23, 35- Ulrich B., 1991 − Berichte der 42. (in Romanian) Forschungszentrums Waldoksysteme, Vasu A., 1986a ‒ Chemical and physico- Selbstverlag, Reihe B, Bd. 24. (in chemical equilibres in ecosystems of German) the forest and medow, Bulletin ASAF, von Bertalanffy L., 1960 ‒ General System 15, Buc., 47-56. Theory, General systems, vol. I, Vasu A., 1986b − Contribuții la clasificarea 1956. solurilor spodice și andice, Analele Valnet J., 1981 ‒ Tratamentul bolilor prin ICPA, XLVII, Bucureşti, 40-49. (in legume, fructe și cereale, Edit. Romanian) Garamond Junior, Buc., 302. (in Vasu A., 1988 ‒ Sistemul sol-edafotop- Romanian) mijloc de producţie, Analele ICPA, Vasile T., 2002 ‒ Terapia cancerului XLIX, Bucureşti, 127-144. (in abordată prin intermediul medicinei Romanian) alternative, PhD disertation, 10th Vasu A., 1989b − Echilibre-dezechilibre International Congress on Alternative ecologice, a IV-a Conferința Medicines, Calcutta, India. Naţională de Ecologie, Piatra Neamț, Vasile T., 2009a – Terapia Integrativă. De 131-135. (in Romanian) la degenerare la regenerare Vasu A., 1990 ‒ Soils with andic properties, psihosomatică, Edit. Pro, București, Proceeding 14th World Congress of 286. (in Romanian) Soil Science, Japan, V, 310-311. Vasile T., 2009b – Cancerul Boala Tristeţii, Vasu A., 1994a ‒ The humification quality Edit. Pro, București, 360. (in and the actual bioproductivity of the Romanian) terrestrial ecosystems, in Senssi N., Vasu A., 1969 – Contribuţii la metodologia Miano T. M. (ed.), Humic substances de cercetare a substanţelor amorfe din in the environment, Amsterdam, soluri, Ştiinṭa solului, 3, 40-49. (in 713-720. Romanian) Vasu A., 1994b ‒ The soil chemistry, Vasu A., 1972 ‒ Principalii constituenţi din ecosystemically integrated into the soluri acide forestiere, Metode de environmental research, Proceeding separare și dozare, Referat doctorat, 15th World Congress of Soil arhiva Facultății de Chimie, Univ. Science, Acapulco, Mexico, 56-57. Buc., 213. (in Romanian)

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Vasu A., 1994c – Fundamentarea Vasu A. and Moga M., 2008 − Terrestrial ecosistemică a reconstrucţiei ecosystems stability and human ecologice a ecosistemelor terestre, health, Abstracts, Conference Memoriile Academiei Române, IV, “Environmental pollution and its XVII, Edit. Academiei Române, impact on public health”. Bucureşti, România, 209-218. (in Vasu A., Neacșu M., Statov C., Pirlea T. and Romanian) Botha V., 1989 − Componenți în Vasu A., 1997a – Soil Chemistry echilibru dinamic în circuitul sol- and Ecosystem Productivity, plantă-animal, Edit. Acad. R. S. R., Mitteilungen der Deutschen Studiile Cercului de Biologie, Seria Bodenkundlichen Gesellschaft, Band biologie vegetală, 41, 1, București, 85, I, 381-384. 33-40. (in Romanian) Vasu A., 1997b – Diagnosis of terrestrial Vasu A. and Nedea C., 1978 − Aplicarea ecosystems disfunctions, Publicațiile diagramelor tensiune pH în analiza SNRSS, 1997, 29 D, 263-269. solului, Congresului I Nat. Ch. I, Vasu A., 1998 − Inorganic compounds 213-220. (in Romanian) dynamics in the soil ecosystemic Vasu A. and Nedea C., 1980 − Emploi de integrated, Proceedings 16th World diagrames potential-pH dans les Congress of Soil Science, August analyses de sol, Bulletin ASAF, 9, 5- 1998, CD rom, Symp. no. 6/24 11. (in French) Sc. Reg. 691, Montpellier, France, Vasu A. and Nedea C., 1983 − Use of the 6. tension pH diagrame for selecting the Vasu A., 2001 ‒ Diagnosis of ionic extractants used for characterizing equilibrium in the biogeochemical the spodic soils of Romania, cycles of terrstrial ecosystem, Revue Rozliczni Gleboznawcze, XXXIV, 1- Roumaine de Biologie, 46, 1, 2, 3-15. Bucharest, 55-68. Vasu A. and Roşu C., 1980 − Contribuții la Vasu A., 2002 ‒ Chimismul ecosistemelor cunoașterea influenței litierelor de forestiere în concepția integratoare fag, brad și molid asupra însușirilor ecosistemică a Acad. C. D. Chiriţă, solului, Analele ICPA, XLIV, 179- In Memoriam, Edit. Ceres, 185. (in Romanian) București, România, 250-265. (in Vasu A. and Roşu C., 1982 − Acidification Romanian) des sols sous culture d’Epicea en Vasu A., 2006 ‒ Analytical chemistry dehors de l’areal natural, Bulletin involved in terrestrial ecosystems ASAF, 11, Bucharest, 207-222. (in disturbance diagnosis, Simpozionul French) de Chimie Analitică şi Protecția Vasu A., Seceleanu I., Matei G. M., Matei Mediului, București. S., Craciun C., Taina I., Ştefănescu Vasu A., Alexeev A. O., Seceleanu D., Chivulete S. and Vasilescu P., I., Alexeeva T. V., Filip F., Craciun 1995, 1996 ‒ Variation du reservoir C., Petre N., Morgun E. G., Riscov matier organique du sol, EU I. G. and Oleinic S. A., 1990 Additional Project, CT 920141, 127. – Tendencies in the evolution Vădineanu A., 1998 − Dezvoltarea Durabilă, of chernozems and vertisols I, Edit. Univ. București, 247. (in under irrigation in Romania Romanian) and USSR, Proceeding 14th World Young R. and Redford-Young S., 2005 − Congress of Soil Science, Kyoto, Dieta Young miracolul pH pentru o Japan, VIII, 83-84. sănătate perfectă, Edit. Paralela 45, București, 300. (in Romanian)

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AUTHOR: 1 Alexandra VASU [email protected]

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IMPLEMENTATION OF CARPATHIAN CONVENTION STANDARDS ON THE NORTHERN BUKOVINA TERRITORY

Vladimir SOLODKY 1, Ruslan BESPALKO 2 and Ivan KAZIMIR 3

KEYWORDS: Northern Bukovina, sustainable development, Carpathian Convention, system approach, biodiversity preservation, Ukrainian-Romanian cooperation.

ABSTRACT The current paper contemplates the organization in all sectors of environmental sustainable development of the management with special care on the implementation standards that are reflected environmental standards for the applied in the territory of Northern Bukovina on the pressures on the natural ecosystems. It is basis of the Carpathian Convention shown, that the result would have positive principles. In this region the conducted work synergistic effect for a balanced concerned the implementation of ecological development of the Carpathian region if the practices for forest, agricultural and water protective measures of nature had been farms on the general watershed-ecosystem carried out synchronously with the help of basis, and also the achievement of a ecologists from Romania within the territory balanced territorial and functional of Southern Bukovina.

REZUMAT: Aplicarea prevederilor Convenṭiei Carpatice pe teritoriul Bucovinei de Nord. Lucrarea reflectă situaţia aplicării funcţionale echilibrate în toate sectoarele standardelor de dezvoltare durabilă pe exploatării naturii, în condiţiile respectării teritoriul Bucovinei de Nord, pe baza normelor ecologice de reglementare a principiilor Convenţiei Carpatice. În presiunii exercitate asupra ecosistemelor această regiune se defăşoară o serie de naturale. Se demonstrează faptul că activităţi care îşi propun aducerea la un rezultatele obţinute ar fi contribuit în mod numitor comun a regimurilor ecologice de sinergetic la dezvoltarea echilibrată a funcţionare a unităţilor forestiere, agricole şi Regiunii Carpatice, dacă măsurile de piscicole din cadrul sistemului ecologic al protecţie a naturii s-ar fi aplicat sincronic, bazinului hidrografic unic, precum şi împreună cu ecologii din România pe realizarea unei organizări teritoriale şi teritoriul Bucovinei de Sud.

RÉSUMÉ: La mise en application des Normes de la Convention des carpates sur le territoire de la Bucovine du Nord. On a éclairci l’état de la mise en tous les secteurs d’utilisation des ressources application des standards du développement naturelles en respectant les normes durable sur le territoire de la Bucovine du écologiques de l’ajustement des charges sur Nord qui s’appuie sur les principes de la les écosystèmes naturels. Nous prouvons convention des Carpates. On travaille dans que le résultat aurait un effet positif la région sur la coordination des régimes synergique dans le développement de la écologiques de l’exploitation forestière, région des Carpates, si les mesures de agricole et aquacole sur une base commune protection de la nature s’accomplissaient de comprenant l’écosystème et l’accumulation manière synchrone avec les écologues d’eau ainsi que les résultats de l’organisation roumains sur le territoire de la Bucovine du territoriale équilibrée et fonctionnelle dans Nord.

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INTRODUCTION Obstacles for norms input and introduces standards of the balanced sustainable development standards of development on the basis of the principles of Northern Bukovina are a complex of the Framework Convention regarding environmental resource problems caused by protection and a sustainable development of the complexity of natural productive the Carpathians (further ‒ the Carpathian resources management-both accompanying Convention) (Furdychko, 2011; Solodkу, threats and lack of appropriate resource 2009; Furdychko, 2009; Concept of providing the action programs. Natural Ecological Rationing, 1997; The National threats for the populations’ everyday activity Plan, 2011). The Carpathian convention and ecosystems become more active in the plays an outstanding role as the multilateral region: high flow regime of waters, soils agreement between Romania, Poland, the changes and windbreaks in a forest stand, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Hungary seismic influences (Solodky, 2003; Concept, and Ukraine, concerning concentration of 1997; The Basic Principles of Strategy, joint efforts for preservation, renewal and 2011). There are demanded effective actions rational use of natural resources of the for the stabilization of all environmental Carpathian region of Europe. conditions, and for the improvement of the Based on the Carpathian convention natural resources management. Due to principles, theoretical bases and the action overwhelming social, economic and plans to realize its tasks concerning the ecological inconsistencies, we proposed to introduction of norms and standards of a standardize principles of natural resources sustainable development of Northern management, Northern Bukovina thus Bukovina are stated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS For the achievement of the and river basins management; constant Carpathian Convention objectives the basic agriculture and forestry; continuous tourism; principles of internal national and cross- an information estimation system about a border cooperation are defined by experts: condition of natural environment, a) principles of prevention and caution; b) monitoring and early prevention; society the principle “the pollutant pays”; c) society participation (Lavrov, 2006; The National participation and the involvement of the Plan, 2011; Solodky, 2012). interested organizations; d) transboundary According to the specified principles cooperation; e) the integrated planning of and directions, program and system land and water resources management; f) approaches, a scientific problem is program approach; g) ecosystem approach investigated by the algorithm: “principles (Concept of Ecological Rationing, 1997). (tasks) of the Carpathian convention” → Strategy of the Carpathian convention in the “legislative-normatively regulatory base” → territory of Northern Bukovina realize by “directions of tasks realization of the following directions: integrated approach to Carpathian Convention” → “mechanisms of land resources management; preservation tasks realization” → “legislative, resource or and continuous use of biological and organizational obstacles of tasks landscape variety; spatial planning; the realization”. continuous and integrated water resources

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For a number of years (1969, 1998, which led to underfloodings and floodings 2008, 2010), as a result of an intensive of the Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Chernivtsi, precipitation in the Carpathian region, on the Zakarpattia, Ternopil, Hmelntsky, Vinnytsia river basins of Dniester, Prut and Siret, there regions, and also Romania and Moldova were recorded catastrophic water levels, (Figs. 1-3).

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Figire 1: Schematic map of territories where catastrophic floods are shown.

Figure 2: Shift of plastic type of 7.6 hectares (natural landmark Foshky Putyla region, Chernivtsi area, Ukraine, 2008).

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Figure 3: Result of destructive action of a flood on the river Cheremosh (Yablunytsia Village, Putyla Region, Chernivtsi area, 2010).

For the environmental resource over the directions to achieve the Carpathian problems a significant solution of the Convention principles: to improve an balance development norms according to ecological situation in the region by Carpathian Convention principles is the controlling the subjects activity of sustainable development of the mountain legislation requirements about environment and foothill region on the Chernivtsi protection; in order to provide the territory. balanced development of productive forces According to the complexity of of the region, by taking into account task solution of legislative and normatively ecological components, intersectoral base implementation of the Carpathian harmonization of the plans of actions, Convention, there is a primary plan of achievement of the integrated development actions: the Laws of Ukraine regarding of mountain and premountain areas; ratification of the Carpathian Convention to improve environmental protection and the Protocol of biovariety to it, by introduction of the ecological standards Resolutions of the Сabinet of Ministers of anthropogenous loads regulation of about approval of the Carpathian ecosystems, decrease of economic influence Convention Implementation Strategy, and on environmental risks development. also Protocols of the Parties of the Developings of bases of the balanced Carpathian Convention about continuous environmental management on the basis of forest management and continuous the Carpathian Convention principles tourism (Golubets, 2000; Framework realized behind the main directions: Convention Strategy, 2007; Lavrov, 2006). scientific and methodical principles, creation It offers the chance to work productively of transparent harmonization conditions of

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economic and ecological approaches, relations, including the region population, resource and nature protection strategy. and also reliable feedback. Feedback is Social and economic features and prospects necessary for expeditious tracking of an of the region development, and also actions objects’ condition of application of for the realization of certain tasks are administrative decisions, results of concrete created in the comprehensive program measures and expeditious entering of “Bukovina Carpathians”. Here, the specified necessary amendments into processes solutions of the problems which hinder management, especially in case of harmonizations of social, economic and emergency manifestations of cataclysms ecological aspects of a sustainable (Golubets, 2000; Framework Convention development are concerned with the Strategy, 2007). The mechanism of tasks preservation of biological and landscape a realization of the Carpathian Сonvention variety, optimization of the nature reserve takes root on the basis of the thematic fund, formation of an eco-network and plans of actions after the key, problem transition to the watershed and landscape directions, which are in coordination principles of environmental management, between leading institutions. According to etc. The implementation to the provisions of operating international, national and the comprehensive program “Bukovina regional strategies, the developed Carpathians” provides the chance to increase subprogrammes and offers concerns efficiency of environmental management, providing intersectoral coordinated, ecological safety and environmental standard, and their transparent realization protection at the expense of introductions on the principles of a sustainable towards new methods, technologies, norms development within certain landscape of the effective and balanced management, ecosystems of river basins. Regional modern forms of control, coordination and programs of continuous usage of land, regulation of actions, attraction of water, forest resources etc. and also investments, mechanisms of stimulation of volumes of resource and material transition to elements of a sustainable requirements and institutional support of development; to introduce nature protection the planned actions are created on the elements in system of silvicultural actions, basis of the coordinated plans of actions. protection and preservation of the forests, The priority determined ecologization of forest exploitation; to provide balanced environment usage management, use of water resources and progressive development of structural elements of methods of engineering and biotic econetworks and biodiversity preservation protection of waters, soils, coast of the regarding creation of national natural parks rivers; to create conditions for an and objects of natural reserve fund, intensification of the recreational industry introduction of nature protective development, the international, “green” and technologies, etc. (Golubets, 2000; extreme tourism. Framework Convention Strategy, 2007; Harmonization of departmental Furdychko, 2011; Solodkу, 2009; subprogrammes of some sectors of economy Furdychko, 2009; Framework Convention, and environmental protection is carried out 2009; Solodky, 2010). The most important according to the principles of continuous principles of the Ukrainian-Romanian environmental management by landscape cooperation in the sphere of implementation and watershed principle within certain of the Carpathian convention in Bukovina river basins. Important links of such Carpathians and Precarpathians are created systems of the coordinated cooperation is with usage of the balanced development ensuring transparent and parity dialogue experience especialy of Chernivtsi region between the parties of the society (Fig. 4).

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Ukrainian-Romanian Cooperation Principles in the Sphere of the Carpathian Convention implementation

Prevention and Program ecological The integrated land The Society caution principle and systematical and water resources transboundary participation approach management cooperation

Legislative and Normatively Base of Ukraine Concerning Carpathian Convention Introduction

Law of Ukraine Law of Ukraine Resolution of the Cabinet of Carpathian The national plan about Carpathian about biodiversity Ministers of Ukraine about Convention Parties of actions about Convention Protocol approval o f Carpathian Protocol about natural ratification ratification Convention Strategy permanent forest environment implementation management protection 2011-

Directions of Realization of the Carpathian Convention Principles

Scientific Ecologic-economic Econetwork Optimization of Formation of the approaches harmonization formation natural reserve comprehensive fund program "Bukovina Carpathians"

Mechanisms of Tasks Realization

Ecologization of Development of Creation of national Biodiversity Nature protective the environment econetwork natural parks preservation technologies usage implementation

Legislative, resource or organizational barriers of the Ukrainian-Romanian tasks realization level

No international scientific Absence of the international Absence of the joint substantiation of the Carp. program of ecological safety spatial researches Conv.

Shortcomings of the Law of Insufficient methodological Lack of the general Ukraine "About the Natural base for Carp. Conv. strategy social economic actions Reserve Fund" concerning NRF ti

Romanian-Ukrainian program "The Inconsistency of the Bukovina Inconsistency of abiotic Bukovina Carpathians" absence Carpathians development actions

Insufficient sanctions for nature Insufficient introduction of the Inconsistency of actions protection offenses nature protective technologies of branch managements

Figure 4: Realization Methodology of the Ukrainian-Romanian cooperation in the sphere of implementation of the Carpathian Convention: legislative regulatory base, resource and organizational support, the directions, mechanisms and barriers of the activity.

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For the overcoming of legislative, For the solution of contradictions in the resource and organizational barriers of the changing relations between subjects of Carpathian Convention tasks realization, it environmental management, development of is offered to adjust harmonization a national econetwork, development of mechanisms of existing and perspective territories and objects of nature and reserve target subprogrammes of different aspiration fund, implementation of the general projects and realization levels, having provided thus which are directed on creation of conditions a combination of all forms of the state and of appropriate support of nature protection society management and control. Offers on and other valuable economic objects and the approval of the International program of also the corresponding amendments to the Carpathians ecological safety are normatively legal documents at interstate developed, and directed to the level and the Carpathian Convention corresponding ideas of modifications made Secretariat are introduced. First of all it to Laws of Ukraine “About Nature and concerns the introduction towards the Reserve Fund”, “About eco-network ecosystem approach in the forestry which is Formation”. Within the general base of now one of the most important ways of system approach and the coordinated preservation of the natural mountain and institutional maintenance of implementation premountain ecosystems integrity, which are of the program an intersector coordination capable of carrying out a role of climate of departmental plan is carried out and the regulation and to resist catastrophic floods system of interactions at levels of and shifts ‒ which are a serious threat of preventive, planned, emergency and ecological safety of the Carpathian region as perspective actions are developed. forest ecosystems provide dynamic balance All actions related with the input of of environment. the balanced environmental management For the development of bases of the concerning realization of the Ukrainian- international scientific justification of the Romanian cooperation in the sphere of Carpathian Convention implementation Carpathian Convention implementation components on definite sites and territories should be carried out systematically, of the Bukovina Carpathians it is necessary transparent with involvement of the to define leading scientific institutions of interested subjects of the society relations. Ukraine and Romania.

CONCLUSIONS The introduction of the balanced As a result, in the region, work is development standards of Northern conducted for endorsement of intersector Bukovina on the basis of the Carpathian ecological modes coordination of Convention principles, creates the maintaining forest, agricultural and water possibility to applicate a systems approach farms at the general watershed and to the solution of the social, economic and ecosystem base, and also the achievement of ecological purposes in the region. At the the balanced territorial and functional same time tasks of reorientation of an organization in all sectors of environmental economic complex from the resource management with observance of dominant which have been created in the environmental standards of loads regulation conditions of anthropocentrism, are realized of natural ecosystems. The result would on the principles of the biospheric that have positive synergistic effects for a focused continuous on environmental sustainable development of the Carpathian management. region, if conditions have been created for the performance of natures’ actions of protection in harmony with ecologists of Romania, in the territory of the Southern Bukovina.

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SELECTIVE REFERENCES Concept of Biological Variety Preservation the Chernivtsi Region, Forestry and of Ukraine, 1997 − Resolution of the Agroforestry, 109, 69-80. Ministers of Ukraine, 439, 1-28. Solodky V. D., 2010 − Technogenic and Concept of Ecological Rationing, 1997 − Ecological Safety Management. Center of Waters Protection the Chernivtsi, Zelena Bukovina, 1-400. Ministry of Environmental Safety of Solodky V. D., 27 September – 02 Oktober Ukraine (sciences head O. G. 2003 ‒ Shelterwood Method of Vlasenko), Ministry of Ecological Pelling as an Indispensable Safety of Ukraine (Galyapa A. A. Condition of Preservation of Native and Turova T. A.), 1-21. Forest of Northern Bukovina, The Framework Convention of the Carpathians Question of Conversion of Protection and Sustainable Coniferous Forests, Abstracts, Development, 2009 − The Collection International Conference, Freiburg of Acts of Ukraine about im Breisgau, Germany, 1-71. Environment ‒ Chernivtsi: Zelena Solodky V. D., Bespalko R. I. and Kazimir Bukovina, 311-315. І. І., 2012 − Influence of Framework Convention Strategy Technogenic and Natural Factors on Implementation of the Carpathians the Balanced Environmental Protection and Sustainable Management in the Conditions of Development, 2007 − Cabinet of Mountain Ecosystems, Geodesy, Ministers of Ukraine Order no. 11. Cartography and Aerial Photograph, Furdychko O. I. and Solodky V. D., 2011 − Release, 76, 127-133. Carpathian Convention Strategy Solodkу V., Shutak H. and Tanas A., 2009 – Realization of the Bukovina 28-29 wrzesnia The Research of Carpathians of Ukraine: Scientific Bison Bonasus L. Population in Methodological and Ecological Chernivtsi State, 80 lat restytucji Biological Aspects. Monograph, zubra w Puszczy Bialowieskiej, VII Chernivtsi, Zelena Bukovina, 520. Miedzynarodowa Konferencja, Furdychko O. I. and Solodky V. D., 2009 − Bialoweiza, 52-53. Implementation of Carpathian The Basic Principles of the State Ecological Convention Provisions in Policy of Ukraine Till 2020, 2011 − Bukovinian Carpathians, S4C, Bulletin of the Supreme Council of Science for the Carpathians Ukraine, no. 26, 218-234. Newsflash, January, 3. The National Plan of Actions on Golubets M. A., 2000 – Ecosystematology, Environment Protection for 2011- Afisha, 1-316. 2015. Order of the Cabinet of Lavrov V. V. and Solodky V. D., 2006 − Ministers of Ukraine May 25, 2011, The Program Project of Sustainable no. 577, 1-12. Development Norms Introduction in AUTHORS: 1 Vladimir SOLODKY, [email protected]

2 Ruslan BESPALKO, [email protected]

3 Ivan KAZIMIR, [email protected] Chernivtsi National University, Institute of Biology, Chemistry and Biotechnology, Lesia Street 25, Ukraine, UA-58012.

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BOTANICA ROMÂNEASCĂ ÎN SUDUL TRANSILVANIEI/ THE ROMANIAN FOLCK BOTANY OF SOUTHERN TRANSYLVANIA

‒ REVIEW ‒

Angela CURTEAN-BĂNĂDUC 1

Botanica populară românească în (abbreviated according to established rules) sudul Transilvaniei/The Romanian Folk who named the respective plant; Romanian Botany of Southern Transylvania, Lucian folk names (alphabetized) along with the Blaga University Press 2013, 608 pages is a place where the respective plant name was new study by Romanian botanist Constantin first given; bibliographic reference. Many Drăgulescu. The book features: an entries include the uses of the species (in introduction to the territory under study; the medicine, or used as food, fodder, sources and research methods employed; a adornment, for rituals, in household etc.). time-line of Romanian plant-name Entries for certain species, especially edible recording; lists of plants known to and used ones, include breed names. Plant parts are by South-Transylvania Romanians; an index also mentioned if in some way interesting, of local Romanian folk plant names; or diversified (e.g. conul bradului/fir cone, references used in the study, including or amentul salciei/willow ament). The latter Bachelor’s and Master’s dissertations part of the book is where Romanian folk tackling similar topics. names are alphabetized along with their The country areas under research are scientific counterparts; plus indices to Ţara Bîrsei, Ţara Branului, Ţara cormophytes and, respectively, to Făgăraşului, Valea Hârtibaciului, Ţinutul thallophytes. Târnavelor, Mărginimea Sibiului, Ţinutul There are 1,642 species featured (of Şecaşelor, Mărginimea Sebeşului, Valea which 1,420 are cormophytes/superior Mureşului, Ţara Moţilor, Ţinutul Orăştiei, plants/flower plants, and 222 are Ţinutul Hunedoarei, Ţara Haţegului, Ţinutul thallophytes/inferior plants/flowerless Pădurenilor şi Valea Jiului. The subject plants); altogether they bear 5,680 folk matter of the book is Romanians’ names. That number exceeds 52% of the knowledge about plants – villagers’ for the number of plant names included in most part but also town-dwellers’, of Alexandru Borza's Dicţionar etnobotanic/ settlements lying in between the Dictionary of Folk Botany (1968), while Transylvanian Alps (East to West: Bucegi, half of the names on Drăgulescu’s lists are Piatra Craiului, Făgăraș, Cindrel, Sebeș, not encountered in the Borza’s Dictionary. Cugir, Retezat Mountains) and the Târnava Therefore, 2,854 plant names are added to Valley and the Arieș Valley, respectively. Romanian folk plant names, which is 26% The data were collected from 539 localities up from those in the Dictionary of Folk in the counties Brașov (114), Sibiu (183), Botany (with 10,906 phytonyms). In order Alba (144), and Hunedoara (98). for the author to conduct this research in The manner of introducing folk southern Transylvania, he made over 450 botany is the same one encountered in field trips in which he interviewed about previous works ‒ listing plants in the 2,700 people. alphabetical order of their scientific names The information in the book is for superior plants first (cormophytes), suitable for the use of botanists, chemists, followed by inferior plants (thallophytes). and phyto-therapists (human and For every plant, the following data are veterinary), as well as for philologists, given: denomination (with alternate names ethnographers, sociologists, nutritionists, encountered in other works); author agronomists, and zoo-technicians.

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REVIEWER:

1 Angela BĂNĂDUC [email protected]

“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Ecology and Environment Protection, Applied Ecology Research Center, Dr. Ioan Raţiu Street 5-7, Sibiu, Sibiu County, Romania, RO-550012.

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TRICHOPTERELE DIN ROMÂNIA (VOL. 1 ȘI 2), CLASA INSECTA, ORDINUL TRICHOPTERA, SUBORDINELE SPICIPALPIA ȘI ANNULIPALPIA (VOL. 1) ŞI INTEGRIPALPIA (VOL. 2) BIOINDICATORI AI APELOR DULCI/ TRICHOPTERANS OF ROMANIA (VOL. 1 AND 2), INSECT CLASS, TRICHOPTERA ORDER, SPICIPALPIA AND ANNULIPALPIA SUBORDERS (VOL. 1) AND INTEGRIPALPIA (VOL. 2) BIOINDICATORS OF FRESH WATERS (IN ROMANIAN)

‒ REVIEW ‒

Claudiu TUDORANCEA

Ciubuc C. (2010, 2012) Trichopterele Romanian Trichoptera, there is more than din România (vols. 1 and 2), Clasa Insecta, that. The first volume published in 2010 Ordinul Trichoptera, Subordinele begins with some introductory notes and a Spicipalpia and Annulipalpia (vol. 1) and brief presentation of the history of studies Integripalpia (vol. 2) Bioindicators of fresh conducted on caddisflies in Europe and in waters, Edit. MiniEd, ISBN (vol. 1) 978- Romania in particular. For users which are 973-9369-27-5 and (vol. 2) 978-973-9369- unfamiliar with the morphology of 26-8, in Romanian. Trichoptera, there is a general section with a The Trichoptera, known also as detailed characterization of the external caddisflies, inhabit a large range of structure (head, thoracic segments, freshwater habitats from cold springs, abdomen, wings, legs) of an adult, streams, and rivers to the littoral zones of admirably illustrated and labelled. In a deep lakes and to marshes and temporary similar way the author describes and pools. Due to their abundance they certainly illustrates the morphology of trichopteran have a significant role in the transfer of larvae and pupae. In the same section, matter and energy through the aquatic important information is presented on a systems. More recently, the species of variety of subjects such as feeding habits Trichoptera have become a component in and diet, adult flight, mating behaviour and the calculation of some biological indices life cycle. After a brief discussion on some used in water quality assessment. Despite phylogenetic, paleological and their importance, knowledge of their biogeographical aspects, a very useful taxonomy in Romania was restricted to a subsection follows which deals with few taxonomists who have dealt with these collecting techniques of both adults and insects collected in different regions of the larvae, and procedures for preserving and country. Aquatic biologists have always preparing specimens for micro analysis. encountered difficulties with the The main body of vol. 1 consists of identification of trichopterans. taxonomic keys of adult Trichoptera species. The publication of an up-dated and It begins with a key to the superfamilies, comprehensive monograph of this group of families and genera. Then identification insects in two impressive volumes for keys are presented for the species of each Romanian ecologists and limnologists by genus. In this volume there are keys for 110 Dr. C. Ciubuc is more than welcome. The species belonging to 26 genera, eight two volumes, comprising over 700 pages, families and two suborders (Scilipalpia and are a result of the broad professional Annulipalpia) identified within the experience of the author, in the field of Romanian territory. Identification keys are insect taxonomy and aquatic biology. given separately for males and females for Although the two volumes deal mainly two of the richest genera in number of with the taxonomy of the adults of species, Rhyacophila and Hydropsyche.

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Each species is described in detail, clear and slavorum and Polycentropus ieraptera with color illustrations, most of them slovenica, which could not be found in other originals, which facilitate the identification areas of the country. of species. A positive side is the addition of Each volume ends with a checklist of synonyms for each taxa and also of taxa belonging to the suborders presented in ecological notes for each species. Included the respective book, an index of localities are also the locations where the species was where Trichoptera species were collected collected and a statement regarding the characterized by geographical coordinates geographic distribution of the taxa in the and a map of Romania showing the world. sampling locations. A rich and diverse list of Volume 2 consists of taxonomic keys references and a good taxonomic index and description of the adult Trichoptera conclude each volume as well. belonging to the Suborder Integripalpia. 166 I found a few typographical errors, species belonging to 12 families and 57 which is not unusual for such big volumes. genera are described and illustrated in 415 Both volumes are hardbound and the quality pages. The format and the presentation of of the presentation of both text and each taxa is similar to those of volume 1. illustrations is excellent. I am impressed by The identification keys are given separately these two volumes, and both the author and for the males and the females of two genera the editor deserve the appreciation of their Limnephilus and Drusus. colleagues working in the field of taxonomy It has been stated that although the and aquatic biology and of the Romanian various species of Trichoptera are scientific institutions for having created such distributed all over the country, most species a synthesis of this important group of insects are found in the prealpine and alpine zones inhabiting the Romanian ecosystems. of the Carpathian Mountains in the southern The two books would be a most part of Romania. This is because the area useful addition to Romanian terrestrial and comprises a large network of lotic and lentic aquatic biologists, and to others as well. aquatic systems. Out of 83 genera These volumes should be in the library of indentified within the Romanian territory, every academic and research institution three are best represented in number of involved in ecological and limnological species: Rhyacophila (24 species), studies in Romania. They can also be an Limnophiles (22 species) and Hydropsyche educational tool for the universities in which (17 species). Twenty eight genera are each zoology and limnology are part of the represented by a single species. Based on curricula. his own and other Romanian taxonomists’ In spite of the two volumes being data, the author mentions that 130 species, written in Romanian, they can also be useful which is almost half of the total of to European taxonomists on Trichoptera due trichopteran species identified within the to the clear illustrations of each taxa. This Romanian territory, inhabit the western may help them in clarifying some aspects of region of the country named Banat. He biogeography related to these organisms. An hypothesizes that this is related to the attempt to translate these two volumes into Mediterranean climate which influences an international language, although very this region. In this zone he also identified costly, would be a valuable asset for two Mediterranean species, Synagapetus European taxonomy. REVIEWER:

1 Claudiu TUDORANCEA [email protected]

Aquatic Bio-Services, Doon South Drive, 463, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada, CA-N2P 2T6.

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ACTA ZOOLOGICA BULGARICA, SUPPLEMENT 7 ‒ INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR DANUBE RESEARCH (IAD). LIMNOLOGICAL REPORTS 40. IAD 40TH ANNIVERSARY CONFERENCE “THE DANUBE AND BLACK SEA REGION: UNIQUE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN WELL-BEING UNDER CONDITIONS OF GLOBAL CHANGES”, 17-20 JUNE 2014, SOFIA, BULGARIA

‒ REVIEW ‒

Roumen KALCHEV 1 and Teodora TRICHKOVA 2

The 40th Anniversary Conference of discussions on various topics highlighting the International Association for Danube the application of ecosystem and sustainable Research (IAD), entitled: The Danube and development approaches, which are Black Sea Region – Unique Environment essential in order to strike a balance between and Human Well-Being Under Conditions the economic development of, and the of Global Changes was held on 17-20 June, protection of, the unique environment 2014, in Sofia, Bulgaria. It was the fourth represented by the Danube River basin. The conference organised in Bulgaria, after those contributions and discussions during the held in Varna in 1966, in Sofia in 1976 and conference covered the following scientific again in Varna in 1990. Following the topics: established traditions of Bulgarian Danube 1. Biodiversity – freshwater, riparian River limnology, this scientific event was and floodplain flora and fauna, dedicated to the memory of the eminent and conservation, soil diversity and highly respected Bulgarian hydrobiologists protection; Prof. Dr. Wesselin Naidenow, Prof. Dr. 2. Protection and rehabilitation of Boris Russev and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Milen Danube sturgeons; Vassilev, who as IAD leading scientists over 3. Ecosystem services, wetlands, many years, devoted much of their efforts sustainable use of biological and time to the study of the Danube River, resources; and who have made valuable contributions 4. Climate change, habitat change, in the fields of the Danube zooplankton, hydromorphology; macrozoobenthos and fish community 5. Invasive alien species – early composition and dynamics. warning, priority species and The Conference was co-organised by pathways, risk assessment and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the management; Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem 6. Water quality elements, ecological Research, the Ministry of Environment and status, emerging pollutants, Water of Bulgaria, and the IAD General microbiology, ecotoxicology, Secretariat. It was held within the biomonitoring and saprobe systems; framework of the Bulgarian Presidency of 7. Ecological functions and integrated the International Commission for the basin management of lotic and lentic Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) in ecosystems; 2014 which also coincides with the 20th 8. Riparian landscapes, land use, flood anniversary of the Danube River Protection risk assessment, hydrological Convention. modeling and restoration; The 40th IAD Conference provided a 9. Sustainable development and public forum for the presentation of long-term participation in the Danube and multidisciplinary research activities and Black Sea region.

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Supplement 7 of Acta zoologica first one focuses on the variation of species bulgariaca comprises 31 of the richness in the wide ecotone zone between contributions presented at the conference, the riverine freshwater and marine within seven of the initially announced environment in Kyliya branch. The authors scientific topics, one project review and report that the mixing zone between fresh three papers devoted to the memory of the and marine water is distinguished by low respected Bulgarian hydrobiologists, diversity and abundance, which seems to including their bibliography related to the deviate from the ecotone concept, according Danube River. to which the abundance and diversity should Topic 1: Biodiversity – freshwater, increase. However, the authors demonstrate riparian and floodplain flora and fauna, that the transition zone is heterogeneous and conservation, soil diversity and protection. the extension of the delta into the sea leads There are eight contributions on the to the formation of bays along the coastline, first topic, which focus on biodiversity of where the stabilisation of abiotic indices species and habitats belonging to the river increases, which causes also an increase in and its catchment. species richness. The marine environment is Nikolett Tarjányi and Árpád Berczik distinguished by higher abundances of investigated the spatial distribution of Polychaeta, Amphipoda and other Crustacea phytophilous macroinvertebrates in a side species, while the freshwaters support more arm of the Middle Danube River (Hungarian abundant Gastropoda, Oligochaeta and part) ‒ the Mocskos-Danube side arm and Insecta populations. In the second paper, Riha Oxbow in submerged (Ceratophyllum Artem Liashenko and Kateryna Zorina- demersum) and in emerged (Trapa natans) Sakharova continues their study on stands. The average abundance of macroinvertebrates in the transition zone macroinvertebrates in the marginal band of between the fresh and saline waters in two C. demersum patches relates to the central other branches of the Danube Delta ‒ parts as 3:1. The habitat diversity in C. Bystryi and Vostochnyi. Only 10% of the demersum stands is greater than in T. natans benthic macroinvertebrates of the drift, patches and as a consequence the latter has a mainly euryhaline and eurytopic species lower number of species. transported by the river, mostly Crustacea, Dunja Popović, Mihajla Djan, manage to survive in the open waters of the Ljiljana Šašić, Dragana Šnjegota, Dragana marine zone. Obreht and Ante Vujic studied three The following two papers are related populations of Merodon avidus species to fish species diversity in the Middle (Diptera: Syrphidae) in the region of Danube River, Hungarian sector. In his Djerdap and Fruska Gora, Serbian Danube paper “Diurnal changes in fish assemblages River sector, in order to delimitate cryptic in the Danube River section upstream of taxa within the species complex by means of Budapest and its tributaries” Imre Potyó and molecular markers. The morphological Gábor Guti show that standard monitoring characters and the molecular markers of of fish abundance and species composition allozymes confirm the occurrence of M. in rivers by electrofishing undergoes avidus Rossi and M. moenium Wiedemann, considerable fluctuations depending on while the mtDNA sequences fail to the day-night cycle, the river size and discriminate these two taxa. Therefore, the water regime (low or high water levels). authors recommend the integrative usage of In the Danube River at Szob (rkm 1,709- allozyme and morphological markers for 1,707), the authors recorded the highest species identification. species richness at night and during low Two papers of Artem Liashenko and water levels. However, the day and night Kateryna Zorina-Sakharova are devoted to difference in species richness and abundance the study of macroinvertebrates in the is not significant in a small stream and Ukrainian part of the Danube Delta. The increases with the size of the watercourses.

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András Weiperth in his study on the Gábor Guti makes a review of the major juvenile fish community in the lower section threats to sturgeons: historical over- of the Ipoly River from Ipolytölgyes to the exploitation, the loss of spawning habitats, mouth, and five sections along both banks of interruption of migratory routes between the the Danube River downstream the Ipoly key habitats and pollution. According to our mouth, reports a high species richness, with present knowledge, up- and downstream cyprinids preferring large woody debris and migrations of sturgeon from the Iron Gates flooded terrestrial vegetation, and with seems to be questionable and of very limited gobies occurring in ripraps. The author efficiency. The authors conclude that concludes that not only the different habitats conservation measures should be focused but also distant spawning and nursing zones downstream of the Iron Gate dams, where of a tributary are of importance for the fish the populations should be restored in order community in the Danube River. to have individuals able to migrate In their paper “Diet composition of upstream. the dice snake (Natrix tessellata Laurenti, With their paper “Biomonitoring and 1768) (Reptilia: Colubridae) in the Danube genetic analysis of sturgeon in Serbia: A River catchment area” András Weiperth, contribution to their conservation” Mirjana Imre Potyó and Miklós Puky present a Lenhardt, Marija Smederevac-Lalić, Vesna comprehensive survey of dice snake diet in Djikanović, Gorčin Cvijanović, Branka 10 countries from the Danube River basin. Vuković-Gačić, Zoran Gačić, and Ivan Jarić The feeding spectrum includes 38 fish and strongly support the general considerations six amphibian taxa with differences among of the previous author by underlining that Lower Danube (Bulgaria, Romania), Middle there is still lack of data on sturgeon Danube (Hungary) and Upper Danube River spawning, nursing and overwintering (Austria) countries. habitats in the Serbian Danube River sector. The paper of Sergey Afanasyev, The absence of reliable estimated number of Olena Lietytska and Olena Marushevska sturgeon migrating upstream of the Iron presents results of river re-naturalisation in Gates II dam and their spawning success the Tisa River basin, after forest harvesting also hinders protection measures, whose activities. River re-naturalisation actions, efficiency additionally requires an taken by the authors included clearing of the international cooperation against illegal remained timber, restoration of natural sturgeon fishing. conditions by means of building rapids, spits Topic 3: Ecosystem services, and capes from local stones, and creation of wetlands, sustainable use of biological depth drops and areas with different flow resources. velocity. These works were followed by The importance of wetlands is stocking the stream with invertebrates and recognised world-wide, as reflected in the fish. The observed recovery of benthic and significant number of conference fish communities led the authors to conclude contributions. Roumen Kalchev, Maria that even little efforts for re-naturalisation Dinka, Mihaela Beshkova, Hristina might result in fast and considerable Kalcheva, Árpád Berczik, and Edit Ágoston- improvement and restoration of the river Szabó compared and analysed differences biota and ecological status. and factors that are influencing the nutrient Topic 2: Protection and and other chemical variables in the Middle rehabilitation of Danube sturgeons. Danube (Hungarian) and Lower Danube The restoration of the Danube (Bulgarian) wetlands. The results indicate sturgeon in the Danube River has focused that the Bulgarian wetlands have higher TP the attention of scientists, because of their concentrations than the Hungarian wetlands, current high conservation status. In his paper which in turn show higher TN “Can anadromous sturgeon populations be concentrations. Wetland morphological restored in the Middle Danube River?” connectivity with the river seems to have a

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stronger influence on the nutrient dynamics services. However, the results of Luchezar in the Lower Danube River, while flow Pehlivanov, Radka Fikova, Nevena Ivanova, availability and direction are of significant Roumen Kalchev, Stefan Kazakov, Milena importance in the Middle Danube wetlands. Pavlova, and Svetla Doncheva, presented in Hristina Kalcheva, Roumen Kalchev, their paper “Analysis of ecosystem services and Michaela Beshkova studied of wetlands along the Bulgarian section of “Bacterioplankton of wetlands along the the Danube River” show that not all known Lower Danube River (Bulgaria) and its past services of the wetlands in Bulgaria can relation to environmental factors” and found be restored even after implementing that the hydrological regime strongly rehabilitation, conservation and appropriate influences bacterial abundance in the management. This mostly concerns the pelagial of the Bulgarian wetlands. Their exploitation potential of wetland natural number increased in 2011 when the water resources (e.g. fishery, reed bed materials, level was low and decreased in 2012 after flooded meadows and related cattle the renewed flooding followed the total breeding, and floodplain forestry). drying up of some wetlands. Turbidity, Topic 4: Climate change, habitat chemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen and change, hydromorphology. wetland depth are positively related, while The hydrological regime of the ammonium and the distance from the Danube River and its catchment is in most Danube River are negatively related to the cases of primary importance for events and morphology type and dynamics size of biodiversity development, and ecological bacterioplankton. status is increasingly dependent on global Stefan Kazakov, Károly Schöll, climate changes. Dieter Rank, Stefan Roumen Kalchev, Luchezar Pehlivanov, and Wyhlidal, Katharina Schott, Martin Jung, Anita Kiss extended the comparison Gerhard Heiss, and Marian Tudor state in between the Middle Danube (Hungarian) their paper “A 50 years’ isotope record of and Lower Danube (Bulgarian) wetlands the Danube River water and its relevance for with respect to zooplankton species hydrological, climatological and diversity. Fifty and fifty-five rare species environmental research” that the Danube were recorded in the Hungarian and water’s isotope time series as a basic data set Bulgarians wetlands, respectively. The are a powerful tool for hydrological Detrended Correspondence Analysis shows investigations as well as for assessing future a separation between both Middle and impacts within the Danube Basin including Lower Danube wetlands, as well as within climatic/hydrological changes (temperature the two sectors according to the wetland changes, change of precipitation connectivity to the river. distribution) as well as anthropogenic The restored hydrological regime impacts on the hydrological regime caused was also crucial for the restoration progress by reservoirs changes in land use, etc. of four wetland areas (Babina, Cernovca, Another useful tool for the Popina and Fortuna) of the Danube Delta determination of the pristine Biosphere Reserve in Romania monitored hydrogeomorphologic conditions in the by macrophyte species composition. The river-floodplain ecosystem is the historical results are presented by Erika Schneider in habitat analysis successfully applied by her paper “Aspects of wetland habitat Kinga Farkas-Iványi and Gábor Guti in their restoration and monitoring in the Danube study “The effect of hydromorphological Delta: Water macrophytes as quality changes on habitat composition of the indicators in evaluation processes”. Szigetköz Floodplain”. By means of The restoration of large wetland historical maps from the early 19th century areas in the Lower Danube River aims at in the Szigetköz floodplain of the Danube preserving the biodiversity and extending River the authors show how the effects of the range and efficiency of ecosystem canalization has led to a decline in area in

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aquatic habitats, changes in river bed load Ágoston-Szabó, Mária Dinka, Károly transport, and a decrease in the lateral river- Schöll, and Árpád Berczik in the period floodplain connectivity. 2002-2009. The results, presented in Ulrich Schwarz Fluvius presents the their paper, Microcrustacean (Cladocera, development of a new method for Copepoda, Ostracoda) diversity in three continuous hydromorphological assessment side arms in the Gemenc Floodplain of the Danube River by subdividing it in 10 (Danube River, Hungary) in different km segments. Besides a concise hydrological situations’ demonstrate that hydromorphological assessment of the occurrence of flow as well as connectivity navigable Danube River, the 10 km long and hydrological distance to the main assessment stretches can be applied for any arm are the main factors that influence further interdisciplinary purposes, e.g. the density and diversity patterns of sediment and nutrient fluxes, monitoring zooplankton assemblages. of habitats and species, floodplain Topic 5: Invasive alien species – assessments and also such demanding early warning, priority species and tasks as preparation of hydromorphological pathways, risk assessment and reference conditions in large rivers. management. The latter should present the necessary Although invasive alien species are firm foundation for a successful recently posing a growing threat to the implementation of the Water Framework Danube River basin, only one paper focuses Directive of the European Union (EU WFD) on this topic. Miklós Puky reports on an in the Danube River. The method was adult form of the spiny-cheek crayfish applied during the Joint Danube Survey 3 Orconectes limosus (Rafinesque, 1817), (2013). which was observed walking from the Kateryna Zorina-Sakharova, Artem Szeremle dead arm towards the Danube Liashenko, and Iryna Marchenko present River in Hungary. It is the first record of O. their results on the “Effects of salinity on limosus in the Danube River catchment the zooplankton communities in the fore- crossing on land from one water body into delta of Kyliya Branch of the Danube another. This behaviour definitely helps the River”. The authors report a decrease of colonisation of new water bodies when only species richness linked to increase in small stretches of land separate inhabited salinity. A more pronounced sharp decline and non-inhabited water bodies, or allow the in zooplankton is observed at about 2‰. use of terrestrial escape routes in case of The calculated linear regression equations desiccation or pollution of the water body. between salinity and number of zooplankton Topic 6: Water quality elements, species indicate that the group of ecological status, emerging pollutants, freshwater mesohaline species is the most microbiology, ecotoxicology, biomonitoring abundant, followed by freshwater and saprobic systems. oligohaline species, and only about six The ecological status of the target freshwater species at zero salinity. The aquatic ecosystems and the water quality sharpest decline linked to salinity increase is elements applied for its specific evaluation observed in the number of freshwater are one of the important issues of recent mesohaline, and the lowest in freshwater ecological research. The high human impact species. on the Danube River, such as the Recent modifications of morphology considerable hydromorphological changes, of the Hungarian Danube River sector very diverse long-lasting pollution and and the hydrological regime related to it are invasive alien species, represents a special among the main environmental factors challenge for implementation of the which determine species diversity in requirements of the EU WFD in the Danube the wetlands, including that of zooplankton River basin. species studied by Anita Kiss, eds.

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One of the biological quality The macrozoobenthos being the most elements used in ecological assessment is frequently applied biological quality element phytoplankton. The paper of Martin T. for the assessment of ecological status of Dokulil and Ulrich Donabaum aims at the river ecosystems, it was also used in the study of phytoplankton longitudinal long- study of Mila Ihtimanska, Emilia term variations. The authors note that Varadinova, Stefan Kazakov, Radostina despite the observed pollution and turbidity Hristova, Svetlana Naumova, and Luchezar decline and the significant increase of Pehlivanov in the Bulgarian sector of the nutrients for algal growth, the dominance of Danube River. The authors compared the diatoms, particularly centric taxa, still macrozoobenthos taxonomic groups using persists. Furthermore, the complex environmental variables and found that most hydrological character of the Danube River of macrozoobenthic groups had positive and the timing variability of phytoplankton correlations with the concentration of seasonal maxima complicate the water nutrients and negative with the quality evaluation according to the EU concentration of heavy metals. The WFD. macrozoobenthos together with physical and The paper of Melita Mihaljević, Filip chemical parameters of water was also Stević, Dubravka Špoljarić, and Tanja Žuna applied for the ecological status assessment Pfeiffer “Application of morpho-functional of Ogosta River, a Bulgarian tributary of the classifications in the evaluation of Danube River, by Teodora Stoyanov and phytoplankton changes in the Danube Ivan Traykov. The authors reported a Bad River” also focuses on the assessment of ecological status downstream of Montana ecological status of the Danube River by town and a Moderate status in the remaining means of phytoplankton, but by application stretch further downstream until the inflow of algal species functional groups. By means into the Danube River. of redundancy analysis the authors reveal In their paper “Assessment of fish that the higher percentage of variance is stocks and elemental pollution in the explained when environmental factors are Danube, Sava and Kolubara rivers on the related to algal composition presented by territory of the city of Belgrade, Serbia” morphology-based functional groups Katarina Jovičić, Mirjana Lenhardt, Željka rather than by classical taxonomic Višnjić-Jeftić, Vesna Đikanović, Stefan classification. Skorić, Marija Smederevac-Lalić, Milica Volodymyr Liashenko presents Jaćimović, Zoran Gačić, Ivan Jarić, and results on water quality assessment in the Aleksandar Hegediš made an assessment of Ukrainian part of the Danube Delta by the current state of fish resources and means of biotesting (using Daphnia magna, elemental pollution in Belgrade fishery Allium cepa and Lactuca sativa as toxicity waters, in order to establish a good basis for test organism) and bioindication (using the development of a monitoring system on Trent Biotic Index, Belgian Biotic Index, the state of fish stocks and their exploitation. Biological Monitoring Working Party Index, The tissue’s heavy metals content was below and Goodnight-Whitley Index based on the maximum allowable concentrations for macrozoobenthos). Biotesting shows a many fish species. Thus, the authors decrease in toxic impact level from 2007 to recommend fish in the human diet, but only 2012, while biotic indices mostly reveal a in limited quantities and select pikeperch Poor ecological status for all sampling and freshwater bream for the monitoring of stations through all years of monitoring. fish meat quality. It is recommended that the This allowed the author to exclude toxic implementation of a fishery monitoring pollution from the main causes of low water program should comprise both economically quality in the Ukrainian part of the Danube important fish species and certain Delta. nonindigenous species.

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Milena Pavlova and Yavor Topic 7: Ecological functions and Rabadjiev studied the relation of fish integrated basin management of lotic and species composition to some environmental lentic ecosystems. variables including nutrients and heavy There is one contribution on this metals in both water column and sediments, topic by Marian Mierlă, Iulian Nichersu, as well as sediment size structure in Cristian Trifanov, Iuliana Nichersu, Eugenia the Bulgarian Danube River sector. They Marin, and Florentina Sela, which focuses reveal the bottom substrate as a very on flood risk and its effect on environmental important natural environmental factor parameters, such as soil and land for the distribution of fish communities (vegetation) cover types in the area of the along the riparian zone, so long as there Romanian part of the Danube Delta. are no significant hydromorphological Different soil and land cover types were changes along the Bulgarian Danube River affected in different way by floods, which sector. happened within periods of 30, 100 and Stefan Kazakov, Maria Kerakova, 1,000 years. The results can be applied in and Mila Ihtimanska assessed the ecological composing flood risk management plans, status of stagnant water bodies of four particularly in areas located close to water Danube wetlands in Bulgaria using the bodies (stagnant or running waters). ECOFRAME approach, which was Project Review developed for shallow lakes within the Verena Winiwarter and Gertrud implementation of the EU WFD. The Haidvogl made a review of the project results suggest that the ECOFRAME Danube: whose future aim is to contribute to method needs further verification for sustainable development in the Danube the specific conditions of shallow oxbow River Basin with particular focus on lakes in the Lower Danube River humanities. The project is a multi-annual floodplain. It should be noted, that according program (2013-2020). It consists of two to EU WFD, the wetlands have to be modules: (a) capacity building and (b) considered as part of the surface water body sustainability-related research with a long- they belong to, when evaluating their term socio-ecological component. The ecological status (Common Implementation capacity-building module started in 2013 Strategy for the Water Framework Directive with a first series of International Schools to (2000/60/EC), Guidance Documents no. 12, be held annually at least until 2015. 2003). However, it is envisaged to establish the Edit Ágoston-Szabó, Károly Schöll, International Schools as permanent activity Anita Kiss, Árpád Berczik, and Mária Dinka beyond 2015 and 2020, respectively. Further studied the decomposition dynamics of information about the project, its structure, willow (Salix alba) leaf litter in Nyéki aims and work can be found on Danube Oxbow Lake, Hungarian Danube www.danubefuture.eu. River sector. The authors report that fungi The published contributions in this significantly contribute to the breakdown of volume show the active participation of willow leaf litter and the main factors that scientists from most of the Danube influence the decomposition are the litter countries. There are 11 scientific papers quality, pH and the temperature of from Hungary, followed by Bulgaria (8), surrounding water. Ukraine (5), Austria (4) and Serbia (3). Scientists from Germany, Croatia, and Romania published one paper per each country. The current volume demonstrates the great potential of international scientific cooperation within the Danube River basin that should be further developed following the good example of IAD.

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REVIEWERS:

1 Roumen KALCHEV [email protected]

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Gagarin Street 2, Sofia, Bulgaria, BG-1113.

2 Teodora Trichkova [email protected]

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Gagarin Street 2, Sofia, Bulgaria, BG-1113.

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TRANSYLVANIAN REVIEW OF SYSTEMATICAL AND ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH 16.1 (2014) ‒ THE WETLANDS DIVERSITY ‒ REVIEW ‒

Erika SCHNEIDER-BINDER 1

Transylvanian Review of Systematical digeneans, 20 cestodes, 11 nematodes, seven and Ecological Research 16.1 (2014), The acanthocephalans and five annelids from 71 Wetlands Diversity, Editors Angela different wild fish (64 native, four Curtean-Bănăduc and Doru Bănăduc, Sibiu transitional, three introduced fish) species Romania 2013, “Lucian Blaga” University from freshwaters of Turkey. The Cyprinidae of Sibiu, Faculty of Sciences, Department of family is dominant with 50 species among Ecology and Environment Protection, ISSN- the examined fish with regard to species L 1841-7051, online ISSN 2344-3219. diversity. With all the included information With this volume issued recently at the paper provides a highly welcomed the “Lucian Blaga” University of overview of recent knowledge in this field Sibiu/Romania we have again in our hands a of research, important from a scientific and very full of content volume from the practical economic point of view. different fields of Wetlands diversity The “Species composition of the researches. This volume continues the series benthic macroinvertebrates on the coastline of scientific papers issued in the previous vegetated rocky substrates of the Southern volumes including systematic and ecological Caspian Sea” written by Amir Faraz research from different countries and Ghasemi is an interesting biocoenological continents. In this way it is a large, study concerning the benthic macrofauna in recognised and highly welcomed and strong relation with seagrass beds on rocky appreciated Forum to present, to discuss and substrate on the Southern shore of the to exchange results and experience from the Caspian Sea. Research and monitoring were systematic and ecological research in the carried out along the coastline during winter large field of waters and wetlands around and summer of 2013, with registration of the world. 1,286 specimens of the five species The recently issued volume of Pontogammarus maeoticus Balanus Wetlands Diversity 16.1 presents, like the improvisus, Mytilaster lineatus, Palaemon antecedent volumes, a number of interesting elegans and Alitta succinea. For these subjects in the field of habitats research, species were also recorded the total biocoenosis and ecosystems from different abundance as well as the biomass in the countries. winter and the summer season. The first paper presented by Ahmet The author indicates that from the Öktener is dedicated to the “Revision of five collected species only one Parasitic Helminths reported in Freshwater Pontogammarus maeoticus is an indigenous Fish from Turkey” including a new checklist species and concludes that the others are for updating the helminths of freshwater non-indigenous species which potentially fishes known according to new researches could have an effect on native benthic from Turkey in the last 10 years. The update fauna. As an additional food source, they includes additional records makes could facilitate the recreation of corrections of the errors and omissions that commercially exploited fish stocks, but in were present in the preceding version from the same time is pointed out, that further the year 2003. The review of literature studies are required to monitor their indicated the occurrence of 123 parasite potential interacts and impacts on the species which included 60 monogeneans, 20 Caspian Sea fauna.

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With their study concerning presents high importance for the “Molecular methods for detection of natural management plans of the protected sites of hybrids in sturgeon populations” the authors community interest and the proposals of Alexandru Burcea, Iulia Elena Florescu, appropriate measures for safeguarding the Andreea Dudu, Sergiu Emil Georgescu and populations of the mentioned fish species. Marieta Costache present the results of their Results of a study concerning “The research with high importance for the effect of seasonal changes on freshwater fish conservation of the endangered sturgeon assemblages and environmental factors in populations of the Danube River. They the Bukit Merah Reservoir (Malaysia)” is underscore that due to the construction of presented by Zakeyuddin Mohd Shafiq, Md Iron Gates dams, the Lower Danube has Sah Amir Shah Ruddin, Hazrin Hashim suffered a decrease of sturgeon populations. Zarul, Puteh Khaled, Mohammad Syaiful This decrease of areal leads to the and Wan Omar Wan Maznah. There are overlapping of reproduction areas for all analysed the seasonal changes of freshwater sturgeon species and the easiness of fish assemblages and environmental factors hybridization, characteristic to these species, in Bukit Merah Reservoir for the dry season resulting at least in the current situation in from January-February 2013 and the wet an increased number of hybrids. For this season March-April 2013 by measuring reason the authors propose a set of several physico-chemical parameters such as molecular methods for hybrids identification dissolved oxygen (DO), water temperature, using DNA markers represented by pH, water conductivity, total dissolved microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA. The solids (TDS) and water clarity. From the obtained data is important for sturgeon season difference comparison the authors farms because of the lack of correctly find out that there are differences in catches identifying individuals. In this way it is between dry and wet season, the mean Catch possible to avoid the difficulties that might per Unit Effort (CPUE) for total catch and appear in the identification of individuals biomass being significantly different based only on morphological criteria. between dry and wet season. Also, based on The authors Luiza Florea, Sorin a T-test analysis, water temperature, pH and Dorin Strătilă and Mioara Costache refer in conductivity were stated significant their paper “The assessment of community differences (p < 0.05) between seasons. interest fish species from protected area From all the fish species studied, only mean ROSCI0229” to three fish species of the CPUE for individuals (CPUEn) of community interest Gobio uranoscopus frici Osteochilus vittatus and Oxygaster Vladykov, 1925, Barbus meridionalis anomalura had significant differences petenyi Heckel, 1847 and Cottus gobio between seasons, probably – as the authors Linné, 1758 in the Natura 2000 protected conclude- an indicator of their migration site Siriu. During the field research made in season. These results are important from a the year 2010 in all the three monitored practical economic point of view. rivers Buzău, Siriu and Crasna, a total The paper from Milca Petrovici and number of 193 fish individuals were Attila Nagy concerning “Structure of bird collected and recorded, 49 individuals of communities from Cefa Nature Park Barbus meridionalis and 37 individuals of (Crișana, Romania)” presents the birds Cottus gobio. According to the analytical communities from the Cefa Nature Park in indices of population, frequency, numerical the North-Western part of Romania on the abundance and density, the authors assessed basis of a long term monitoring (1991- a favourable population status for Barbus 2012), the area being recognised for its bird meridionalis petenyi in Buzău River and a fauna, especially for water and wetland medium favourable population status for birds, but also for the birds of the whole Cottus gobio in Buzău River and its habitat mosaic with forests, meadows and tributaries Crasna and Siriu. The data agricultural lands with extensive use. From

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the identified species, 78 are protected and presents a welcomed contribution for the recorded in the Annex I from Birds actual problems related to GMO. Directive 79/409/CEE. In addition to those, Oksana Omelchuk and Bohdan Prots 168 species that are not included on the are discussing in their paper “Effects of river annexes of the Bird Directive were regulation on plant dispersal and vegetation” indentified. The total number of 246 species a very important problem related to rivers is remarkable for the Cefa area representing and their importance in plant dispersal and 66% of the total bird fauna of Romania. effects of river bank reinforcements for seed “Diversity of aquatic ecosystems in bank, plant dispersal and invasion of alien urban area – public expectations” is a very species. This study compares the vegetation actual and needed approach to a social and seed deposits of free flowing parts of a problem related to the aquatic ecosystems in river with those regulated by straightening, urban areas presented by Joanna Sender and as well as identifying the correlation Weronika Maślanko. The authors underline between the breadth of the riverbed, existent the difficulties to balance the needs of vegetation and distribution of plant species inhabitants as in cities there are many along the river corridor. The study realised problems associated with the lack, on the rivers in the Ukrainian Carpathians sometimes the excess, as well as poor water showed that effective distribution of plants quality. Listing the type of urban aquatic had a place in native (non-regulated) river- ecosystems, the study was realised corridors with a river-bed breadth of 15-30 according to the aim of the study, which was m. The reduction and straightening of the the determination of public awareness about river-bed decrease the number of species the role of aquatic ecosystems in cities with that can be dispersed along rivers leading in different size and number of inhabitants. the same time to a great increase of the The need of the water presence in the percentage of alien species seeds, in the surroundings was mentioned as a necessary regulated parts of rivers. Finally the authors part of the proper functioning of urban life, conclude that river regulation has a clear as well as a place for rest and recreation. In negative effect on vegetation by decreasing the same time a deficient management and the resistance of plant communities to alien poor ecological status of the waters were species, a fact to be taken into account for a noticed. sustainable, ecosystem friendly river Genetically modified organisms management and their environment. (GMO) and Biotechnological problems are The paper “Implementation of a the subject of the paper with the title “The sustainable logistic model of systems for Nightmare: genetically modified organisms collection of the communal waste in the as alien species” presented by Meliha Merve municipality of Bitola (Macedonia)” by Ivo Hiz and Cüneyt Aki. The authors underline Dukoski and Nikolche Talevski presents the that biotechnological applications in problems related to the collection, transport medicine, industry and agriculture allow the and depositing of the communal waste in the economic production of important products, Municipality of Bitola in Macedonia. They influencing national economy and revenue. present a model for another systematic But genetically modified organisms also approach toward the communal waste in the give rise to severe actual debates on aspects Municipality of Bitola discussing the benefit of safety and environmental impact of gain by the implementation of this kind of transgenic products. There are also sustainable logistic model of a system for discussed ethical, legal and social collection of the communal waste. The acceptance aspects of GMOs, which are authors are summarizing that the obtained strongly influenced by social, economic and benefits would lead to the improvement of political conditions, due to the strong living conditions, being important from a economic impact of high incomes of social and the environmental point of view. biotechnology companies. The paper

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Continuing from the endangered cannot provide it an efficient filter. The species Marsilea quadrifolia L. the author ecotechnical method presented helps both to Erika Schneider-Binder presents her paper protect the SPAs into Hartibaciu River basin “The Four Leaf Water clover (Marsilea and to clean the river throughout the city of quadrifolia L.) an endangered species. Agnita. By means of this method the quality Aspects of conservation and management” of Cibin River can also be improved. The problems related to all Marsilea species of paper can be considered also as a starting Europe. Special attention is given to point for discussions about the ecological Marsilea quadrifolia, the single species role of natural rivers and their banks and occurring in Central and South Eastern floodplains for the improvement of water Europe. Based on field research made on the quality and in general for a sound Upper Rhine in Germany and the Lower environment. Danube in Romania, the ecological Finally in the series of the papers requirements of the species and plant devoted to protection and conservation communities where the species is living are subjects the authors Doru Bănăduc and analysed and compared with data from other Angela Curtean-Bănăduc presents “Rhodeus European countries. Due to the decline of sericeus amarus Bloch, 1782; monitoring the species populations as a consequence of elements in the new Natura 2000 context in human activities, all European Marsilea Croatia”. There are discussed problems species are rare, vulnerable, endangered by related to the implementation of the Birds extinction or extinct in the wild and included Directive (79/409/EEC) and Habitats in the Red data books of the most European Directive (92/43/EEC) in Croatia, the countries. Also all the European water principal element being the set up of a clovers Marsilea strigosa, Marsilea Natura 2000 network of protected areas, a batardae and Marsilea quadrifolia have network which should be based on a specific been included in the Appendix I of the Bern monitoring plan at Croatian national level Convention (1979) as strictly protected for each species which is considered of species and in the Annexe II of the European community interest. In this general context, Flora Fauna Habitat Directive 92/43/1992. the presented study suggests a set of After analysis of ecological conditions, the monitoring elements for the fish species state of conservation and the Red List Rhodeus sericeus amarus for the Croatian categories of Marsilea quadrifolia following Continental Biogeographical Region. The IUCN criteria in the countries of occurrence suggestions are based on eight selected are presented and discussed possible criteria: Croatian national borders proximity measures for conservation as well as realised sectors overlay; very good quality reintroduction in the wild of the species. populations of Rhodeus sericeus amarus in The authors Răzvan Voicu and terms of population density and structure Liliana Voicu are facing in their paper (e.g. protected areas) in characteristic good entitled “Description of an ecotechnical habitats; habitats which need ecological method proposed for Hârtibaciu River along reconstruction to allow this fish species the sector in Agnita, Sibiu County” populations structure ameliorate or natural ecological problems of the Hârtibaciu River, repopulation; key sectors with importance a tributary of the Cibin River. Being for connectivity (e.g. lotic sectors between canalized and covered by concrete in the different important sectors, rivers sector of the town Agnita, the river confluence areas, etc.); sectors influenced by represents the source of numerous local human impact like: industrial pollution point pollutions with a negative impact on the sources, sectors influenced by agricultural environment, both qualitatively and diffuse sources of pollution, sectors quantitatively. The authors underline, that influenced by habitats modifications the lack of riparian vegetation gives the (watercourses remodelling, watercourses Hârtibaciu River an unpleasant aspect and regulation, etc.), geographically extreme

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monitoring sections in the most-upstream It is the special merit of the co- and most-downstream sections of the rivers, editors Angela Curtean-Bănăduc and Doru in this species range and in the near outer Bănăduc to realise this volume which needs proximities of these extremes. much attention for evaluating and reviewing All presented scientific papers the papers as well as bringing them together include maps, tables, demonstrative figures in a thematically good structured and which are completing the written assembled volume. As a specific debate explanation and discussions in the text, platform for the wetlands conservation, as rounding up each presentation, which all the editors expressed, the data presented in together constitutes a valuable and this volume “will develop knowledge and diversified volume of 211 pages in the series understanding of the ecological status of the of Wetlands Diversity. wetlands and will continue to evolve”.

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REVIEWER:

1 Erika SCHNEIDER-BINDER

[email protected], [email protected] KIT – University of Land Baden-Württemberg and National Research Centre of the Helmholtz Society Institute for Geography and Geoecology, Division WWF-Institute for floodplains ecology, Josefstrasse 1, Rastatt, Germany, D-76437.

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THE ACADEMIC LIFE OF MR. FRANCO PEDROTTI AND MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH HIM

Kevin CIANFAGLIONE 1

‒ LAUDATIO ‒

I would like to thank the organizers, for a long time as his student and for inviting me at this event at the Museo collaborator, until I started my phd with Civico di Zoologia di Roma (Civic Museum other professors. of Zoology of Rome), to bear my testimony Despite our distance and mutual to and participate in the celebrations of the commitments, the friendship and the eightieth anniversary of Franco Pedrotti, as connection of science and work are still a tribute to his long career as a botanist and consistent, as normally happens between conservationist. Entitled “Una vita per la him and all his past students. ricerca e la protezione della natura. I cannot forget when he brought me Testimonianze per gli ottanta anni di Franco and guided me through those sanctuaries of Pedrotti. Martedì 3 aprile 2014” [A Life for nature that up to then I had only seen in the research and for the protection of documentaries and studied in books; an nature. Testimonies for the eightieth experience that all students of the natural anniversary of Franco Pedrotti. Thursday, sciences, agricultural, landscape ... (Sensu April 3, 2014]. Latu) should do. As the youngest of his students, I feel Today, though I am a doctoral student really under-qualified to describe the under the care of other professors, he is complex activity of the Professor, since always ready to give advices and ideas, many others have known him much longer always with his almost boy-like passion and or had the opportunity to spend more time spontaneous energy. I had the opportunity to with him than I had. Therefore, I will travel with him a few times, although I take advantage of the opportunity to would have liked to have done this more. recall my personal experience with him, Each travel was fruitful and a unique which has been very fruitful, valuable and experience, sometimes with light-hearted intense, and has instilled in me a passion for moments, that I will always remember with research. fondness. Thus I was able to discover many Those who work in sciences, often places, among them Romania, Poland, Peru, seem to forget the conscience of things, Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands, Bolivia, working in an automatic, cold, sterile, South Africa, Namibia, Lesotho and dogmatic and almost inhuman way. Madagascar. We conducted many studies Professor Pedrotti, instead, led me to together in many parts of the world, and I consider the research not only as scrupulous was involved in many projects, congresses, work, but also to have respect, admiration, publications, video documentaries (also for and feeling for this work and for the subjects the Italian public television), etc. I came to of our studies, encouraging also a certain know many habitats, to recognize many critical sense and openness to discussion animals and plants and I was introduced to about different ideas. understanding and applying the I met Professor Franco Pedrotti about Phytosociology, the Ecology and how to ten years ago when I was a student in one manage the natural resources and the of his courses at the University of Camerino. landscape. On many occasions I had the I was very interested about his subjects and opportunity to appreciate the vast learning of I was one of those students who had many Franco, with whom it was possible to questions. Not long after, I found myself discuss anything and everything, and in

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whom I was able to confide often, as in a [International Youth Federation for the brother, mutually. For those who have been Study and Conservation of the Nature], an near him like me, it was not difficult to organization affiliated with the UICN ‒ experience Professor Pedrotti’s attitude for International Union for the Protection of helping the students who came up along his Nature (today the IUCN). journey. He is always a useful guide and His interest in Nature was always remains a teacher always ready and wide, ranging from plants to animals, so as available for all. For those who have to produce a thesis of zoological character. surrounded him so long, like me, it was not But his university career was launched by difficult to know the man as an institution Professor Carlo Cappelletti who called him and at the same time also his more fallible to work as a technician at the Botanical aspects; not only about the work-related Garden of the University of Padova, on aspects, but also concerning his more human November 1, 1958; few days after Pedrotti’s side. It was not difficult to know also his graduation in Natural Sciences. Here he noble soul, ready to fight his various battles, began his research in Phytosociology under near and far, not only in the interests of the the guidance of Professor Sandro Pignatti, environment, but also for philanthropical on whose advice he stayed in September- ends and to the benefit of disadvantaged October 1960 at the Station Internationale people. de Géobotanique Méditerranéenne et Alpine Finally, I would like to mention [International station of Mediterranean and Pedrotti as the sincere husband who, to Alpine Geobotany] of Montpellier, where he celebrate the memory of Carmela Cortini, conducted studies in Phytosociology under his dear wife and colleague of a life, bought the guidance of Josias Braun-Blanquet. In a forested holding in the “Monti della Laga” 1961 he moved to the University of Mts. (Abruzzo Region), so it would never be Camerino at the proposal of Professor felled again and could be dedicated to the Vittorio Marchesoni; in later years he taught study of secondary succession, in loving at the University of Milano (1965-66), memory of his wife. The forest now named Catania (1972-73) and Ferrara (1973-77) “Bosco Carmela Cortini” is located near the and in 1977 he returned to the University of village of Valzo di Valle Castellana. Camerino, where he finished his academic Now I will offer some biographical career as Professor Emeritus, by Ministerial details about Professor Pedrotti. nomination. In this way he could continue to During his high school years Franco Pedrotti teach his favourite classes (Nature spent time in the Museum of Trento, where Conservation and Geobotany Mapping) and he had the opportunity to participate in to supervise Masters and PhD students. various naturalistic activities and to come In addition, he served in prestigious into contact with some Italian botanists like positions, among them as a member of the Giuseppe Dalla Fior, Benedetto Bonapace Commission for Nature Conservation of the and Vittorio Marchesoni, who introduced CNR – Centro Nazionale di Ricerca [Italian him to the knowledge about the flora of National Research Council] from 1973 to Trentino region. During these same years he 1980. He had a string collaboration also with met Professor Renzo Videsott, Director of the IGM – Istituto di cartografia militare the Gran Paradiso National Park, who [Italian Militar Institute of Cartography] encouraged him to become active in nature and CFS ‒ Corpo Forestale dello Stato conservation. In 1954 Professor Videsott [Italian State Forest Police Corp]. sent him to the conference for nature He was President of the SBI- Società protection in Hasselfors, Sweden, organized Botanica Italiana [Italian Botanical Society] by the IUCN. In 1956 in Salzburg he from 1982 to 1990; President of the represented Italy at the foundation of the Association Internationale Francophone de Fédération Internationale de la Jeunesse Phytosociologie [International Francophone pour l'étude et la conservation de la nature Association of Phytosociology] (1982-

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2005); member of the Board of the Abruzzo Camerino, successor to the former School of National Park starting in 1982, and President Specialization. He was also the promoter of of its Scientific Committee since 1988; the first university course in Nature Vice-President of the Tridentine Museum of conservation, in Italy, at the University of Natural Sciences in Trento (since 1991); Camerino. member of the Scientific Committee of the As an acknowledgement of his Center for Alpine Ecology of the Mt. Viotte scientific prestige, some newly described of Trento (since 1993); President of the species, both botanical and zoological Commission for Flora of the Ministry for the (phylum Tardigrada), have been named after Environment (since 1991); Delegate for him: Italy for the habitat directive at the European ‒ Protopodocarpoxylon pedrottii Economic Community in Bruxelles (since Biondi (a fossil gymnosperm); 1993); Member of the Scientific Committee ‒ Taraxacum pedrottii van Soest of the Natural Parks of the Province of (Pedrotti’s dandelion); Trento (since 1989). He is a member of the ‒ Ranunculus pedrottii Spinosi ex Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali Dunkel (Pedrotti’s buttercup); [Italian National Academy of Forestry ‒ Hypsibius pedrottii Bertolani Sciences]; of the Accademia Marchigiana di (Pedrotti’s water bear). Scienze, Lettere ed Arti [Marchigean Outside Italy he has conducted Academy of Sciences, Humanities and Arts]; research in Bolivia, (the Bolivian High of the Accademia degli Agiati of Rovereto; Plateau, between Titicaca Lake and Isla del of the Accademia degli scrittori di Sol, Uru-Uru Lake, Nevado Sajama, Montagna and of the Accademia degli mesothermic valleys of Cochabamba and Accesi of Trento, which he served as of Tarija), central Siberia (taiga in the President since January 1st, 2014. zone of Novosibirsk), Poland (Bialowieza His main scientific activity has Forest), and Romania (the Carpathian concerned Phytosociology, Geobotanical Mountains). Cartography, Forestry, Biogeography, In 1970 he obtained for the University Ecology, Nature conservation and of Camerino the donation by Marquis application in the Territory management. Mario Incisa della Rocchetta, President of As tireless and enthusiastic worker, the Italian W. W. F., a mountainous tract of Franco Pedrotti has devoted his life to 312 hectares, in the municipal territory of science and dissemination of knowledge. Pievetorina and of Montecavallo (in the During his long scientifical life, as a teacher Umbro-Marchigean Apennines), and in and academic researcher, for half a century that year he promoted the establishment he passed his knowledge to generations of of the Torricchio Nature Reserve, approved students. He is an organizer of many from April 4, 1977 Decree of the scientific events: from 1957 to 2005, he Agriculture and Forestry Ministry, and organized 36 conferences, symposia later included in the European network of and scientifical society excursions about biogenetic reserves of the Council of various themes such nature conservation, Europe. This reserve represent the oldest phytosociology, geobotany and ecology. protected area in Marche Region. He In 1998 he was promoter of the School promoted the establishment of the of Specialization in Management of Natural “Museum of the Protected Areas” in a Environment and Protected Areas, at the special building of the Camerino Botanical University of Camerino. After the abolition Garden. of some Schools of Specialization by In 1990 he founded the Arboretum Ministerial reform, in late 2004 he set up Apeninicum of the University of Camerino, and then directed a new degree, Master in in an 11-hectares area of the Comunità Landscape Planning and Management of Montana di Camerino (Municipalities Protected Areas at the University of Mountain Community of Camerino) near the

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village named Tusseggia di Camerino. Blanquetia; journals edited in Camerino for According to phytosociological criteria, it is long time. He is a member of the editorial composed by groups of trees arranged so board of 28 scientific journals. that it reconstitute the principal associations In homage to all the people of the Apennines. (employees, students, alumni, visiting He belongs to or has participated scholars and professors) who had studied or directly in the scientific committees of worked in the former department of Botany numerous and various protected areas and and Ecology of the University of Camerino, environmental associations, such as the Prof. Pedrotti wrote and published a Italian W. W. F. and “Federazione yerabook review that gathered precious and Nazionale Pro-Natura”. relevant information from 1950 until 2006 His scientific production is very and even later. significant, not less than 450 scientific He received four honorary degrees publications between journals, books, and (Laurea honoris causa): the first, in October numerous expert reports and summaries in 1994, in Biology, from the University fields of Botanical sciences and Nature “Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca (Romania); in conservation. the December 1998, in Biology, from the Franco Pedrotti’s editorial activity is University “Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi (Romania); in fruitful. He is the editor of Geobotany November 2006, from University of Studies, L’uomo e l’ambiente [Man and Palermo in Ecology and Biogeography; and the Environment], La Riserva naturale the last in Geoarchitecture from the di Torricchio [The Torricchio Nature University of the Bretagne Occidentale, in Reserve series], numerous conference Brest (France) in September 2014. proceedings and books, and of the book To his immense pleasure, he is still series “Natura e Aree Protette” [Nature addressed with respect and friendship as and Protected Areas]. He is co-editor “honored teacher”, “esteemed Professor” or of: Colloques Phytosociologiques “dear President of the centenary of the [Phytosociological symposiums], Italian Botanical Society”, by people who in Documents Phytosociologiques turn have become professors, professionals, [Phytosociological Documents] end Braun- and prominent figures.

AUTHOR:

1 Kevin CIANFAGLIONE [email protected]

School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, Via Pontoni 5, Camerino (MC), Italy, I-62032.

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