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Canada The effect ofguided Iisrening on evaluation of • solo vocal penonnance.

by Elizabeth Ekholm

Submined in partIal fulfillment ofthe reqwrements for the degree ofMaster ofArts in Music Education in the Faculty ofGraduate Studies and Research ofMcGill University. Montreal July. 1994 National Library Bibliothèque nationale of Canada du Canada

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Canada A BSTRACT

The purpose of thls stud~ "'as tO Investlgate whether mUSI~ students ~ould be

• svstematl~alJv tralned. bv means of a gUided hStenang ~ourse. to Improve the rehablhty and

vahdll'. of thelr evaluatlon of solo VOI~e performan~e Flfty.four musl~ students were randoml~

and evenly dlv.ded Into two groups The treatment group took an 8-hour home study gUided

hstenlng ~ourse. whl~h focussed on twelve criteria of vocal production. denved l'rom a prevlous

study wlth expen vo.ce teachers Ar the end of the course. treatment subJects rated. on a seven­

pOint Llken scale. twelve criteria and "overall score" for each of 15 performances of the same

excerpt The excerpt chosen was a pOnIon of Mozan's hed "R1dente la calma" Il was performed

by 19 stngers of dlffenng vOlce c1assl fi calions and achlevement levels. SIX of the performances•.

"'ere presented tWlce The control group took the evaluallon test. but recelved no treatmenl

InterJudge rehabl1l~. tntraJudge rehablhty and valldl~ were assessed tor the two groups

and for 22 expen vOlce teachers Treatment subJects achleved slgnaficantly hlgher scores than

~ontrol subJects for InterJudge rehabl1lty and valldlty No slgnaficant dlfference was found.

however. for tntraJudge rehablhty The expen group achle\'ed slgmficantly hlgher scores for all

three measures than elther of the student groups. No slgmficant dlfferences were found between

graduate students and undergraduate students. nor between vOlce majors and non,vOlce majors

Treatment subJeclS scored hlgher than control subJects on valldlty of thelr evaluallons of all

twelve cntena and "overall score"

1 SU,H.HAIRE

Le but de cene etude et3ll de savoIr SI des etud,ants en musIque pouvaient amel,orer, a • l'aIde d'un cours d'écoute gUIdee. la tiabdlle et la valldlle de leur evaluatlon de la production vocale de chanteuses et chanteurs sol,stes Cinquante-quatre etud,ants en mUSique ont ete diVIses

au hasard en deux groupes egaux Les membres du pre:l1It"r groupe Ont SUIVI un cours par

correspondance d'écoute gUidee. d'une duree moyenne de hUIt heures. qUI portall sur do uzes

cméres J" production vocale. ;dentlfiés lors d'une etude precedente auprés d'experts de

l'enseIgnement vocal Le cours. a été SUIVI d'un test d'evaluatlon A l'aide de formulaires

d'évaluation, les sUjets ont alors donné une cote de 1 a7 selon les douze cmeres ainSI qu'une note

d'évaluallon globale. a 2S prestallons d'un mème extrllll L'extrlllt chOISI étlllt une panle de la

melodle de Mozart «Rldente la calma.» Cet extrlllt a éte Interprete par 19 chanteuses et chanteurs'

de dlfferents niveaux de competence et de dlfferentes classifications vocales SIX des prestallons

ont ete presentees en double. Les sUjets du groupe de contrôle ont passe le tes! d'evaluatlon sans

avoir SUIVI le cours

La fiablllte Inter-Juge, la fiablhte mtra-Juge et la validIte ont ete calculees pour les deux

groupes et pour 22 experts en enseIgnement vocal Les sUjets qUI ont SUIVI le cours d'ecoute

gUidee ont obtenu des resultats slgmficallvement s'Ipeneurs à ceux du groupe de contrôle pour

la flabtllle mter-Juge et la valIdite. Aucune difference slgmficatlve n'a ete trouvee pour la

fiablhte mtra-Juge. Le groupe des experts a obtenu des resultats slgmficallvement supeneurs à

ceux des deux groupes d'étudiants pour chacune des troIs mesures. 11 n'y a eu aucune différence

slgmficallve entre les etudiants de premier cycle et de deuxleme cycle ou entre les etudlants

specialises en chant et les autres. pour chacune des mesures de fiablhte et de validité. Les sUjets

qUI ont SUIVI le cours ont amélioré la validité de leurs évaluallons pour chacun des douze cntéres

et l'évaluation globale.

II TABLE OF CONTENTS

• A BSTRACT 1

SOMMAIRE II

LIST OF TABLES IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V

INTRODUCTION

MErHOD 10

RESULTS 18

• DISCUSSION 30 Suggestions forfunher research 40

TABLES 42

REFERENCES 54

APPENDIX A - GUIDED L/STENING PROGRAM IN VOICE EVALUA TION Introduction PIIrt 1 Pan 2 Evaluation test (instruction sheet) Vocal production evaluation fonn Questionnaire for participants in guided listening program

• ID :.fST OF TABLES • Tabl~ 1 Int~rJudg~ r~lIabll1ty co~fflcl~nts for stud~nts and experts

Tabl~ 2 3-way factonal Ind~p~ndent groups analysls of vanance of students' Int~rJudg~ r~lIabllIl!' COeffiCl~ntS

Tabl~ 3 IntraJudg~ r~lIablllty co~fficl~nts for stud~nts and exp~rts

Tabl~ .. 3-way factonal Ind~p~ndent groups analysls of vananc~ of stud~nts' IntraJudg~ r~lIabllIty Co~fficl~nts

Table 5 Validlty co~fficl~nts for students and experts

Tabl~ 6 3-way factonal tndependent groups analysIs of vanance of students' valldlty coefficIents

Tabl~ 7 Cmena and overall score hsted ln order of decreasang mean valldlty coefficent. averaged ('ver ail students

Table 8 Cmena hsted m order of decreasmg Improvement m valldlty for treatment group over control group

Table 9 Course evaluation questIonnaire. ratmgs of course usefulness

Table 10 Course evaluanon questlonnalle. amount of lime spent on course

Table II Course evaluation questlonnlure: ranngs of prograln notes. hstenmg examples and difficulty for indivldual cmena

Table 12 List of criteria m order of mcreasmg difficulty. as denved from questionnaire. compared W1th liS! of cntena m order of decreasmg mean valldity coefficients

IV • A CKNOWLEDGMENTS

1 \\ilsh to éxpréss my gramudé to Professor Joel Wapmck whose guidance and instruction

~on~érnmg thls réséarch haVé plovéd mvaluable.

1 \\iould IIké to thank Proféssors William NeIll. Wmston Purdy. Jan Simons. Allan Fast

and Bémard Turgéon of thé Faculty of MUSIC and Ms. Kathleen Anderson of the McGill

Consérvatory of MUSIC for thélr suggestions on Iistening examples for the gUlded Iistenmg course

and thélr ~OOpératlOn regardmg recrultmem of subJects. The advlce on StatlStlCal analysis glven

by Pr Jféssor J 0 Ramsay of thé Psycholo",.y Department. Professor Emme Sarlgollu of the

Faculty of Managemént and Mr. Michael Walsh of the McGill Computmg Center IS also

appréclated.

1 would Iike to éxtend my gratitude also to the students who partlclpated in the study. and

\\ihOSé énthuslasm and perseverance made It possible. Finally. 1 wlsh to glve specIal thanks to

my husband. Andre Monn. for hls encouragement and support. and to my chlldren. OlivIa.

Caroline and Philippe. for theu patience and understandmg.

v • INTRODU(7JON Evaluation is an important aspect of any apphed musIc teacher's Job Not only are

teachers required to evaluate students dunng applied musIc exams and "'lnous 'ludmons. but

evaluation. whether implici' or explicit. is pan of every lesson. EvaluatIon of the student's

progress towards certain goals or standards lets the teacher know whether or not hlslher methods

are effective or need to be revised. Evaluation also can be useful in helping the student to get

a better idea of the competencies slhe is striving to achieve and to comprehend the degree of

progress made.

Fiske (1977a) concluded that the abi1ity to evaluate reliably is not acquired m the normal

course of learning to play an instrument. This ability may be acquired independently of other

• musical abilities. However. there are few opponunities for mUSIC students to gain systemallc

training or experience in this important skill. An extensive search ofpublished research Iiterature

yielded no evidence of any attempts to teach evaluation skills to music students. Research by

Boyle (1992), Bumsed, Hinkel and King (1985), Fiske (1977a & b). Duerksen (1972). Radocy

(1975, 1976), Tunks (1987) and Wapnick. Flowers. Alegant and Jasinskas (1993) assessed

evaluative ability rather than sought to improve it.

AJthough there has been research on evaluation in music performance, very linle has been

done specifically in the area of vocal performance. Harold Jones (1986) used factor analysis to

consttuet a rating scale for evaluation of high school vocal solo performance. This scale

expanded upon the traditional five-factor rating scale of interpretation/musical effect. tone.

technique, suitability/ensemble and diction. His rating scale consisted of32 statements descnbmg

• 1 • the performance. The Judges rated these statements accordlng to level of agreement or

dlsagreement, on a fIve-polnt scale. Seven of the st3tements dealt ",ah non-musical aspects of

the performance (e.g. "Posture is calculated but not rigid", "Exhibas pOIse ln 3 concert situauon"l,

and one solely with the accompanist (" Accompaniment poorly rendereè"). Sorne of the items

dealt with the technique used to produce the vocal sound (e.g. "Breathin.,; IS diaphragm"tic", "Soft

palate too low during singing"). There is. however. " great deal of controversy over what

consututes correct singing technique. According to Dwayne Jorgenson (1980), "the writings [on

vocal production] provide a history of confusion ... It is still possible for teachers and singers to

take most any position they choose and support that position with an authoritative source"(p.31).

Consequently. Jones' items dealing with technique may cot be relevant for some Judges.

One solution to this ~ntroversy is an evaluation scale that focusses on the end product

•- the quality of the vocal sound being produced. This is the basic element with which the singer

creates hislher art. The vocal sound is the essential component of vocal performance. without

which the other important components, such as interpretation/musical effect or non-musical

aspects. become irrelevan!. It is the aspect of the art of singing. upon which the majority of

lesson time is spen!. Most importantly. focussing on the end product makes it possible to find

gcneral standards upon which experts can agree regardless oftheir own pedagogical approaches

to vocal technÏ'}ue.

There is therefore a need te identify more specifically and fully criteria for evaluation of

the purely auditory aspects ofvocal production. These criteria could then be useful for evaluating

singers al any stage of development, from novice to professional. regardless of the particular

vocal techniques they use. and regardless aise of whether the audition is live or taped. Voice

• 2 • evaluallon has oflen been descnbed as totaliy subjective or purch' a mattcr of pcrsonai tastc

Most singers would nevenheless agree that there are general standards of vocai product",n wh,ch

need to be met for professional quallty performance.

Radocy (1987, p.80) observed that "there is no such thlng as an objective cvaluatlon of

performance; 'good' performances are good because they are deemed so by observers

Subjectivity is irtherent in the judgments of human observers" Subjectlvlty IS often equated w\th

unreliability. However, the abiiity of the human ear to make reliable judgments is not to be

underestimated, when evaluative standards are dearly defined. Subjectlvlty in evaluatlon IS often

equated also with personal preference. Il is possible, however, to appreclate the level of

achievement of an accomplished singer without necessarily being "tumed on" by that partlcular

vocal sound. If generally accepted standards can be found ln the evaluatlon of vocal

• performance, benefit could be derived by teachers and students of vocal techmque from making

those standards explicit

Auditory properties of vocal performance, such as intonation, dynamics and vocal tone,

can be analyzed objectively by using eleclronic equipment to measure the frequency, intenslty

and harmonie structure ofthe sound waves produced. According to Helier and Campbell (1971),

"every perceptually significant nuance of the auditory component of musical performance, no

matter how complex, can be described as a function of these anributes of sound waves" (p.2).

In the 1930s Carl Seashore, Harold Seashore and M. Metfessel sought to measure the components

of artistic singing in an anempt to explain the art quantitatively. The material used for the

analysis consisted of "excellent performances (of concen songs in legato style) by smgers who

[were] aceepted by current musical audiences and critics" (H. Seashore, 1936, p. 13), bath

• 3 • recorded and bve. The researchcrs mcasured pltch accuracy. regulanty. extent and rate of

vIbrato. pllch patterns m transitIOns from one note to another (atlacks. releases and portamentos).

mtensllY (dynamlcs). duratlOnal factors (tempo vanallons. duratlon oftones. transitIOns and restsj.

rhythmlC factors. and phrasmg and legato movement. Thetr research supported the theory of

"devlation from the regular as an art principle". which had been proposed in an earlier paper

(C.E Seashore and Metfessel. 1925). They demonstrated that the evaluallon of artlstlC smgmg

was more than the objecllve measurement of variables of the sound waves produced and

comparison of these measurements to sorne standard of accuracy. Even though one of thetr

objectIves was to establish norms of good musical performance. the authors realized that

psychological factors goveming the Iistener's perception of the performance were perhaps even

more important than the purely mechanical factors (H. Seashore. p. 76). The ultimate test of

• "good" smging is that il be perceived to be "good" by Iisteners.

Robison. Bounous and Bailey (1993) asked a panel of 13 Judges. selected for thetr

expertise in classical singmg, to rate 19 classically trained baritones and 8 trained female "belt"

singers on vocal beauty. A ID-point scale was used. The researchers concluded that "a group

of knowledgeable listeners attuned to the vocal sounds preferred by a particular culture will

apparently agree with statistical reliability on the relative beauty of an array of singing sarnples

sung with the intent to meet their common cultural expectation." (p. 3). The researchers then tried

to find differences in the acoustical patterns that distinguished the most beautiful voices from

those judged to be less beautiful. They found that the most beautiful voices had several elements

in cornmon which differed from the voices heard by the j udges to be less beautiful. One element

was the presence oflegato. which was defined for purposes ofacoustical measurement as "vibrato

• presence and evenness throughout the sung phrase" (p.5). The best baritones had vibrato

throughout more than 80% of the sung phrase and a standard deviation from the mean of the

4 0 • speed by wldth of the vIbrato of less than -1 0 Another related e1ement was Ill

and wldth of vibrato. The two bantones whose VOlceS were JuJged mos! beaullful had average

Vibrato speeds cf 5.4 and 5.3 cycles per second and Vibrato wldths of 5-1 and 58 Hz, respectlvelv

(measured at the second pamal). These measurements were averaged over a bnef passage l'rom

Adolphe Adam's U Ho/y Nig/u "Fallon your knees. 0 hear the angel vOlces. 0 mght dlvlIle".

beginmng on Bb,. with O. as the hlghest note. As long as the Vibrato patterns were acceptable.

the judges preferred baritones with brighter timbres. (i.e. more energy ln the singer's formant

spectrum. around 3000 Hz) over those with darker timbres. However. they also preferred the

darkest-voiced belt singer. (i.e. more energy in the low formant. around 600 to 700 Hz) ln other

words. the judges preferred brighter timbre in naturally dark voices (baruones) and darker timbre

in naturally bright voices (belters). As the researchers pomted out. thls supports the Idea of

• "chiaroscuro". or a balance between bright and dark timbre. advocated by the old Itallan masters

ofBel Canto. Among the most highly rated baritone voices. the beauty rankmg was found to be

highly correlated with the "cleanness of the voice". or the relative lack of "nonharmonlc nOIse"

The researchers alse observed the movements of the singers' chest and abdommal cavitles to

investigate possibie similarltles ln breathing among the most hlghly rated barltones. From

relative measurements of chest and abdominal cavities. they concluded that the most highly rated

baritones favored "ventricular" over "costal" breathing. They aise mferred l'rom measurements

ofthe speed of abdominal movement and extent ofabdominal closure that the most highly rated

baritones had a higher rate of breath flow during phonation than did the other barllones.

Other studies alse have attempted to define vocal beauty and to find general standards of

excellence in vocal production among voice experts. Jorgensen (1980) compared the wntlngs

• on vocal technique of many renowned vocal pedagogues. l'rom the old masters of Bel Canto to

the contemporary exponents of scientific research. He concluded that there were at least two

5 • maIn area:; of agreement on what constlluted good vocal productIon: "The first IS that there

should be an ease In the musculature that IS involved. There should be no stretching or pushIng.

The vocal 'noise' should not be forced. The second is that there IS an acoustlcal 'adjustment' in

the vocal tract that results in the 2800 cycle ring" (p.35).

A recent study in expert evaluation of vocal production in solo voice performance

supports the existence of performance standards which are generally accepted by expert voice

teachers (Wapnick and Ekholm, 1993). ln this study, twelve criteria for excellence in vocal

production were distilled from interviews with expert voice teachers at the university level.

These criteria were: appropriate VIbrato, color/warmth, diction, dynamic range, efficient breath

management, evenness of registration, flexibility, freedom throughout vocal range, intensity,

intonation (pitch) acc:lracy, legato line, and resonance/ring. Rating scales were subsequently

• construeted, based on these twelve criteria, and tested on 21 experts (voice teachers at the

university level across Can:lda). Significant degrees of inteljudge reliability and intrajudge

reliability, or test-retest consistency, were achieved in rating these criteria AIso, there were

significant correlations between ratings for each criterion and the "overall score" rating. ThtS

suggests that these twelve criteria are generally meaningful and recognizable to experts in voice

evalua:ion, and that they are all significant components ofgood vocal production. It is interesting

to note that all oft.lte elements ofvocal beauty measured in the study by Robison, Bounous and

Bailey correspond to criteria for the eva1uation of vocal production found in Wapnick and

Ekholm (legato line, appropriate vibrato, resonance/ring, color/warmth, intensity and efficient

breath management). The similarity ofthese criteria is further confirmation of the existence of

generally accepted standards of vocal production.

• ln a related study, expert voice teachers achieved significantly higher levels of inteljudge

and intrajudge reliability in evaluating vocal quality in solo voice performance t.'lan did student

6 • evaluators (Ekholm. 1993). This study suggests that expert vOlce teachers are s.gmflcantly more

rehable and consistent than students in evaluatmg vocal qual.t)" Comments from expert VOlce

teachers also indicated that many voice students seem to have very Imle Idea of the professlonal

standards that they are working to achieve in thelr voice lessons. This concluSlOn was supported

in the study by the fact that in a blind evaluation test the experts ranked toe two professlOnal

recording artists first and second. whereas the students ranked them fourth and tenth, respectively

The group of students who had had no voice training, but who indicated that they regularly

attended voice concerts and listened to recordings ofsolo vOlce performance showed slgnificantly

higher intetjudge reliability than either voicc majors or non-voice majors with some vOlce

training. This suggests that voice lessons per se do not necessarily train the student's ear to listen

to singing in the way experts do, nor to appreciate the characteristics of voice quality whlch

• distinguish the best singers from others. It would appear that rime spent singing is not as

effective as time spent listening to others sing for the development of cririca! listening skills

necessary for effective evaluation in teaching and adjudication.

It is not known yet what makes experts more reliable judges than students, nor what

makes sorne experts more reliable than others. Experience might be a key factor. Wapnick and

Ekholm (1993), however, found no correlation between reliability or consistency and either age,

years of experience in teaChing voice, or experience in adjudication. Perhaps the most reliable

judges possess extraordinary aurai perception ability, which allows them to develop their critica!

listening skills te a high degree. The German voice teacher Fredenc Husler wrote of "the acute

sense of hearing once possessed by great teachers of singing" (1965, p.XV ).

As evaluation is an important aspect ofmusic teaching, the ability to evaluate reliably and

• consistently is an asset te any aspiring music teacher. Furthermore, there is much in the literature

to suggest that this ability could be important to the student long before slhe begins to teach.

7 • The wrJlIngs of vocal pedagogues through the ages often express the Imponance of the novIce

slnger's hstenlng to the best examples of vocal an in order to develop c1ear audllory images of

good vocal tone. As early as 1723, Pietro Francesco Tosi recommended that the novice singer

"hear as much as he can the most cel.lbrated singers ... because from the attention in hearing

them, one reaps more advantage than from any instruction whatsoever" (1968, p.52). In 1917

D.A. Chppinger wrote, "A tone exists first as a mental concept, and the quality of the mental

concept determines the quality ofthe tone" (cited in Günter, 1992, p.6). David Frangcon-Davies,

a famous singer and teacher in Europe at the beginning of this cer:~IlrY, stated: "The training of

the ear is one half of the training of the voice." (cited in Günter, p.7). James Cooke related that

Enrico Caruso remarked that he "leamed instinctively that the beauty oftone did not depend upon

the vocal organs alone, but upon the concept of tone beauty in the mind" (Cooke, 1952, p.63).

• Cornelius Reid further supported this idea: "When the aesthetic judgment is correct the voice will

immediately, if gradually, respond by a steady increase in power, resonance, range and

flexibility." (Reid, 1950, p.25). Horst Günter, intemationally acclaimed singer and voice

teacher/coach, wrote, "The young singer who wants to become a classical singer in the sense of

Bel Canto ... has to build up a Slrong mental image of this specific sound quality." (Günter, p.

46).

The present study attempted to train students to listen critically and to evaluate the vocal

quality of a performance re1iably. This could prove to be of benefit to students, not only when

they become involved in teacbing and adjudication, but also as perfonners. By helping to clarify

students' technical goals and providing them with a clear auditory image of the kind of vocal • quality they are striving to achieve, evaluation training could be ofimmediate practical benefit • Purpose ofthe study: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether mUStc students could be

systematically trained, by means of a guideci listening course. to Improve the reliability and

validity of thei: evaluation of vocal production in solo voice performance. Reliability was

measured by means of an evaluation test, which was designed for this purpose. The test had

been field-tested on 21 voice teachers at the university level (Wapmck and Ekholm. (993). Two

types of reliability were measured: interjudge reliability. or degree of consensus withm each

group of students (treatment and control); and intrajudge reliability, or degree of correlalton

between evaluations of six performances presented twice in the eval uatlon test. Validity was

measured as the degree of correlation between student ratings and those of a group of 22 expen

• voice teachers.

•

9 • METllOD Subjecls

Twenty-seven music students partlcipated in the treatment group. These included 17

undergraduates and 10 graduate students. The control group consisted of 18 undergraduate and

9 graduate mUSIc students. There were 26 voice majors, 13 in each experimental group, and 28

non-voice majors, 14 ln each experimental group. The retum rate for the treatment group was

75 % overall: 71 % for the undergraduates and 83 % for the graduates.

Subjects were assigned randomly to treatment and control groups. However, some of the

subjects who ended up in the control group refused to participate un1ess they were allowed to

• take the treatmenl. It therefore became necessary to al10w control subjects to take the guided

hstening course, which they did after taking the evaluation test.

The evallllltion test

Preparation oftlle evallllltion form:

Seven experts, all experienced voice teachers at the university level, were interviewed to

determine what criteria they used to evaluate vocal production in solo voice performance. The

interview format was semistructured. Experts mentioned any imponant criteria that came to

Mmd, and explained thelr use of terms when necessary. They were subsequenùy shown a list

of criteria collected from a survey of literature on vocal production, and asked to comment on

• the imponance of these criteria. This was done in order to ensure that imponant criteria had not

been overlooked. From these interviews, a list of criteria, which all seven experts had indicated

ln .'-5 bemg imponant. was drawn up. Cmena which obvlously referred to the same dement of

• "ocal production were grouped together under the term or pair of terms that had been used mos!

often to describe thi~ element. A Iist of twelve cntena was th us denved l'rom the expen

interviews.

On the evaluation form. the following tweive cmena were listed alphabetlcally:

appropriate vibrato. color/warmth. diction. dynamic range. effiCient breath management. evenness

of registration, flexibility, freedom throughout vocal range. intenslty. intonation accuracy, legato

line, resonance/ring. Beside each criterion was a rating scale. rangmg l'rom 1 for "poor" to 7 for

"excellent". Below the rating scales was a section fl,r the expens to write their comments on the

particular strengths and weaknesses of each performance, This was to allow for the possibility

that not all of the criteria considered imponant by all the expens may have been listed. lt was

also hoped that the expens' comments would provide funher valuable inslghts mto thelr

• evaluation ofvocal production and the relative imponance ofthe listed criteria. Finally there was

an overall rating, on a 1-100 scale, of quality of vocal production in each performance. lt was

specified on the form that the overall rating need not necessarily reflect the individual criterlon

ratings from the first part.

Preparation oftoped exœnples:

A digital audio;ape was prepared from performances of the same excerpt by 19 different

singers. These singers varied in voice classification and also in level of vocal achievement, from

novice to professional. Two ofthe performances, by Elly Ameling and Roberta Alexander, were

from professional recordings. The tape included a retest, as six of the performances were

• presented twice. There were thus 25 performances to evaluate. The excerpt chosen was Mozan's

lied "Ridente la calma", section A only (mm. 1-27). This excerpt was chosen for several reasons, (1) It was avatlable 10 both medIum hlgh and medium low verSIOn, whlch made It appropnate

• for slOgers of vmually any VOlce classIfication, (2) the text was 10 Itahan and fairly easy to

pronounce, thus mlnImlZlng the posslbIilly that novices would be detected from pronunciatlon

problems alone; (3) the relauvely slow,lyncal nature of the song made It suitable for almost any

type of voice; (4) it was techmcally complex enough to reveal strengths and weaknesses in the

slOger's vocal production, (5) the range was broad enough to allow evaluation of most of the

slOger's range; (6) it was nottoo musically complex to master in a short period of time; and (7)

stylistically, Mozart's musIc is typlCal of standard vocal repertoire and is well-known to virtually

all singers and teachers regardless of thelr partlcular repertoire specializations.

Performance order on the tape was determmed randomly, except that the six retests

constituted the last six performances. The 25 performances were recorded on both sides of a 40­

mmute tape. Each performance lasted about one minute and 15 seconds. This was deemed more

• than enough time for evaluation purposes, since research by Vasil (1973) showed that the length

of a performance, whether two minutes, one minute, or thiny seconds, had no effect on the final

ranking of performers.

The master tape was recorded in Pollack Concert Hall, McGill University, a medium-sized

hall with a seating capacity of600. Three pairs ofmicrophones were used: one pair ofBruel and

Kjaer model4011 microphones, one pair ofBruel and Kjaer model4006 microphones and a third

pair consisting of a Sennheiser model MKH30 microphone and a Sennheiser model MKH40

microphone, This was done in order to slightly vary the sound quality ofthe taped performances,

and thus obscure any obvious differences beIWeen the Pollack Hall recordings and the IWO

professional recordings. ûther recording equipment used for the master tape was a Sony console

• 12 MCP 3000 senes. a PCM 3402 analog to dIgital convener and a OAT recorder. modcl l'CM

• 2500A. Sony OAT tape was used. The expenmental master tape was reeorded from a TASCAM

OA-30 recorder to a Yamaha KX-SOOU cassette recorder Sony Metal-SR audlotape was used

Copies ofthe experimental master tape were made on a KABA Realllme ProfesslOnal Ouphcatmg

System. using Maxell XLII high bias audiotape cassettes

Expert ratings:

Copies ofthe experimental master audiotape and voice performance evaluatlon forms were

sent to 29 expens. all of whom were experienced voice teachers at the university level The

expens were instructed to listen to each performance only once while completmg the evaluallon

forms. The evaluation procedure thus simulated common adjudication practices m festIvals and

auditions more closely than if more than one hearing had been allowed. Expens were further

• instructed to rate only vocal production, and not interpretation or any other musical concerns

They were to treat each excerpt as though it were simply a vocalise or a scale. and focus solely

on how the singer was using the voice. They were also urged to use the enllre range of the

rating scales and to try to be as objective as possible. They were assured that the smgers would

not be informed of their scores. A rest period was recommended between sldes one and two of

the tape, so as to minimize any effects offatigue on adjudicator reliability. Expens were advlsed

to use the same playback equipment for the entire tape, so that the sound quality would be the

same for all the performances. Twenty-two expens participated in the study, which represents

a retum rate of approximately 76 %.

• 13 • Tile guided listening course

A gUlded hstenlOg course was created for the purposes of thls study. Part One of thlS

course focussed on delinlOg and illustrallng the twelve cmeria used on the vocal evaluallon form.

Part Two conslsted of further illustrations of the twelve critena. often Wlth finer discriminations.

Also. in this part of the course. subjects practiced evaluating these criteria through use of the

vocal evaluation forms. Due to time constraints. it would have been Impossible to schedule

classes for the treatment group to meet for the course. lt was therefore decided that a home study

format was the only pracllcal way of carrying out this investigation.

The home study course consisted of four lOO-minute Maxell XLII high bias audiocassene

tapes. an instruction sheet. a 34-page booklet of notes defining the criteria and explaining the

listening examples. a 13-page booklet of practice vocal evaluation forms. a vocal evaluation test

• consistmg of an instruction sheet and 26 vocal evaluation forms. and a 3-page questionnaire.

mcluding the subject's personal data and evaluation of the guided listening course. (See

Appendix A.)

Preptll'tllion oflaped exœnples 10 illustrtlte criteria:

Six university \'''ice teachers were interviewed in order to collect suggestions regardmg

possible examples of vocal performances which would most clearly illustrate each criterion.

Exarnples were needed not only to show the presence of each criterion to a high degree. but also

to show the comparative absence of each criterion. Pairs of contrasting examples thus could be

used to help listeners define each criterion. It was relatively easy to find examples illustrating

• 14 the presence of each critenon to a h,gh degree. lt was more d,ffleult. howc"cr. to fllld cxamplcs

• illustratir!g the absence of each criterion. as most smgers who make rccordlllgs l'osscss ail thc

components of professional vocal quahty Nevertheless. recordmgs wcrc found or madc ,,l'

amateur and semi-professional singers at varying levels of vocal ach,evemenl Also. recordmgs

of professional singers who nad continued to record weil pastthe,r pnme werc located. The ,deal

contrasting pair of examples to illustrate any given critenon cons,sted of two rendlllons of the

same aria, by singers ofthe same voice classification (e.g. lyric soprano. bass-bantone etc.l. usmg

the s:une accompaniment (e.g. piano or orchestral etc.). As many elements of the performance

as possible were kept constant in order that students might focus c1early on the cntenon 11\

question. ln a few cases, an example was not paired or three renditions of the same p,ece were

presented in graduated sequence from poor to excellent.

Audiocassette tape #1 began with a recorded introductory message m Enghsh and then

• m French, which explained the importance of evaluation and the purpose of the study. and

provided sorne basic instructions. The rest oftape #l, tape #2 and most of tape #3 contamed the

listening examples for Part One of the guided listening course. There were generally three or

four contrasting pairs of examples to iIIustrate each of the twelve Criteria, for a total of 82

examples. The examples required approximately four and a half hours of listenmg time.

The rest of tape #3 and the first half of tape #4 contained a review of the twelve Criteria.

One pair of contrasting examples, or three examples in graduated sequence, were presented for

each criterion. The discriminations in this part tended to be more subtle. These examples also

were intended for practice in using the vocal evaluation forms.

The second half of Tape #4 contained the voice evaluatlon test. This was the same test

• 15 that Wapmck and Ekholm (1993) had admmlstered 1021 expert vOlce leachers. lt conslsted of

• 25 performances of the same excerpt from Mozart's hed "Ridenle la calma", sung by 19 smgers

of dlffenng vOlce classificatIOns and levels of achlevement from nOVIce to professional, with 6

of the performances presented tW1ce.

Preparation ofIWles 10 accompany Ille lislening examples:

The definitions of the twelve criteria were based largely on the comments of the expert

vOlce teachers who partlcipated in the onginal study on expert evaluallon of vocal production

(Wapnick and Ekholm, 1993). Other sources of information on the basic elements of vocal

production were Bunch (1993), Burgin (1973), Fields (1947), Van den Berg et al. (1959) and

Vennard (1967). Burgin and Fields were particularly useful. Their works are surveys ofwrillngs

on vocal pedagogy, and therefore reflect the ideas ofa great number of vocal pedagogues rather

• than simply those ofthe authors themselves. Sorne practica! hints regarding the features to focus

on m each example were included in order to facilitate subjects' identification of each criterion

in the listening examples. Program notes of interest on the performers chosen as examples of

excellent vocal production and on the pieces also were included in order to enhance the subjects'

listening experiences.

The criteria were presented in increasing order of difficulty of comprehension and

recognition, as estimated by the experimenter. The order chosen was: "intonation accuracy",

"diction", "legato line", "dynamic range", "flexibility", "evenness ofregistration", "efficient breath

management", "resonance/ring", "appropriate vibrato". "color/warmth", "intensity" and "freedom

throughout the vocal range".

• 16 Followmg the first round of IIstenlng examples diustratlllg ail twelve ,mena, there was

• a review section. During this portIOn of the treatment, subJects pra'l.œd uSlIlg the evaluat"'"

forms. Each criterion was reviewed by presentmg e.ther a ,ontrastlllg pair of eX:lll1p\es tH a

graduated sequence of three examples Whde IIstemng to these exall1ples. SUbJé'ts were

instructed to rate the criterion bemg revlewed. from 1 to 7. on pracllœ evaluallon forll1s

provided. Practice was cumulative in that each cnterion presented for reviéw was added to the

list of criteria to be rated on the evaluat.on forms.

After completing the guided Iistenmg course, subjects took the evaluatlon test. SubJc'ts

then answered the three-page questionnatre. whlch prov.déd pérsonal data on cach subJcct as wcll

as the subject's evaluation of the guided Iistenlng course. The éxpenméntcr's mam obJccllvc III

including the questionnaire \Vas to supplement the evaluation test a~ a source of mformallon

regarding the effectiveness of the guided Iistening course and to gatn deeper insight mto vanous

• aspects of the treatment.

• 17 • RF.....ULTS

Data from the completed evaluauon tests were analyzed to determme reliability and

validity for both expenmental groups. Two types of reliability were measured: interjudge

reliability, or degree of consensus within the group, and intrajudge reliability, or degree of

correlation belWeen evaluations of six performances presented twice in the evaluation test.

Validity was determmed by companng subject ratings with those of a group of 22 expert voice

teachers.

lnteljudge reliability:

A Pearson correlauon matrix was derived for subjects in both experimental groups, using

• subjects as independent variables and the ratings (from 1 to 7) from the evaluation tests as the

dependent variable. For correlation purposes, overall score was converted to a rating out of 7.

This yielded a Pearson r coefficient for every pair ofsubjects within each group. These Pearson

r coefficients were then averaged for each subject, providing a measure of each subject's

agreement with his/her experimental group. This average Pearson r coefficient was used as a

measure of interjudge reliability.

A one-way independent groups analysis of variance was perforrned to compare the

interjudge reliability scores of the subjects in the treatment and control groups with those of a

group of22 expert voice teachers, who had also taken the evaluation test. Significant differences

were found among the three groups (F=57.70, p<.OOI, df=2, 73). Fisher's Least-Significant­

Differences (LSD) pos't hoc test showed that the experts had significantly higher interjudge

• 18 reliability scores than either of the student groups. wlth a group average of 0.49 The trealment

• group ofstudents also had slgnificantly hlgher InterJudge reliability scores than the control group.

with averages of 0.38 and 0.28. respeetlvely. Table 1 shows the InterJudge reliablllty coefficIent

for each student and each expert.

A three-way fully factorial independent groups analysis of variance was done on the

interjudge reliability coefficients of the students. The three factors were group (treatment and

control), major (voice and non-voice) and level (undergraduatc and graduate). There was once

again a significant main effect for group (F=16.96, p<.OOI, df= 1.46). Subjects in the treatment

group achieved significantly hlgher intefJudge reliability scores than subjects ln the control group.

with averages of 0.38 and 0.28. respectively. No significant main effects were found for elther

major or level, and there were no significant interactions. Table 2 gives the analysis of variance • table for interjudge reliability of the students.

IntrajwJge relüzbüity:

lntrajudge reliability, or test-retest consistency, was measured as the degree ofcorrelauon

between the ratings given by each subject for 6 performances presented twice on the evaluauon

test. A Pearson r coefficient was calculated for each subject as a measure of intraJudge

reliability.

A one-way independent groups analysis of variance was performed in order to compare

the intrajudge reliability coefficients of the subjects in the treatrnent group with those ID the

control group, and also to compare each experimental group with the group of 22 expert vOlce

teachers. Significant differences in intrajudge reliability were found (F=4.1 0, p<0.02, df=2, 72)

• 19 Flsher's LSD post hoc test showed that the experts achieved significantly hlgher IOtraJudge

• rellabdlty coefficIents (average 0.69) than elther the treatment group (average 0.56) or the control

group (average 0.58). There was no slgnificant difference between the treatment and control

groups 10 intraJudge reliability. Table 3 displays the intrajudge reliability coefficients for the

students and the experts.

A three-way factorial independent groups analysis ofvariance was done on the intraJudge

rehablhty coefficients of the students. The three factors were once again group (treatment and

control), major (voice and non-voice) and level (undergraduate and graduate). No slgnificant

main effects or interactions were found. Table 4 gives the analysis of variance table for

intrajudge reliability of the students.

Validity:

• Validity was defined as the degree of consensus between each subject and a group of 22

expert voice teachers. This was measured by correlating the ratings given by each subject with

those given by each expert and then averaging the 22 correlations to obtain an average Pearson

r coefficient for each subject

A one-way independent groups analysis of variance was perforrned on the validity

coefficients ofthe experts, treatment subjects and control subjects. ln the case ofthe experts, the

validity coefficients were the same as the inteljudge reliability coefficients. Significant

differences were found among the three groups in validity (F=28.49, p

expected. Fisher's LSD post hoc test showed that the experts had significantly higher validity

coefficients than either of the student groups (p

• 20 Imponantly, the treatment group achleved significantly hlgher vahdlly coeffiCIents than the

• control group lp

validity coefficients of the three groups.

A three-way factorial independent groups analysis of variance was done on the validity

coefficients of the students. The three factors again were group (treatment and control), major

lvoice and non-voice) and level (undergraduate and graduate). There was agaln the slgmficant

main effect for group (F=7.54. p<.009. df = 1. 46). wlth the treatment group achieving

significantly higher validity coefficients than the control group There were no slgnificant main

effects for major or level and no significant interactions. Table 6 glves the analysis of variance

for the validity coefficients of the students.

Comparison ofreliability and validity measures:

• A Pearson product-moment correlation matrix was done on the students' interjudge

reliability. intrajudge reliability and validity coefficients. lt was found that InterJudge reliabihty

and validity were highly correlated (r=.87). Intrajudge reliaolhty had much lower correlations

with bath interjudge reliability and validity (r=.37 and .38. respectively).

Comparison ofcriteritl:

In order to determine the relative effectiveness of the treatment for each of the twelve

criteria on the evaluation forms and for "overall score". it was decided to compare them in terms

ofstudents' agreement with the experts in rating these items. Validity coefficients were computed

for each student for each criterion. This was done by selecting one cntenon and correlating each

• 21 studcnt's rallngs for that cntenon wllh those of the 22 experts. and then averagmg the resulllng

• 22 correlation coefficients for each student ThIs procedure was repeated for each cntenon and

for "overall score".

A two-way mlxed design analysis of varIance, wlth repeated measures on one factor, was

performed on these validlty coefficients. The mdependent groups factor was group (treatment

and control) and the repeated measures factor was criterion (twelve criteria and overall score).

Significant main effects were found for group (F=76.0S, p<.OO\, df = 1,676) and for criterion

(F=19.47, p<.OOI, df = 12.676). The treatment group achieved significantly higher validity

coefficients than the control group on ail the criteria and overall score, with least squares means

of 0.42 and 0.33. respectively. Fisher's LSD post hoc test found that. among the twelve critena

and overall score. students obtained significantly higher validity coefficients for "intonallon

(pltch) accuracy" liI1d "overall score" than for any other critena. Valldity coefficients obtamed

• for "diction" were significantly lower than for any other critena and overall score. Table 7 lists

the twelve criteria and overall score with their mean validity coefficients. No significant group

by criterion interaction eff~ct was found (F=0.S8, p<.86. df = 12. 676).

Table 8 lists the twelve criteria and overall score in order of difference in mean validity

coefficient between treatment and control groups. This is used as a measure of improvement of

the treatrnent group over the control group for each criterion and overall score. The greatest

lmprovement in validity was found for "freedom throughout vocal range"• with a mean difference

of 0.12 followed closely by "flexibility". "overall score". "dynamic range". "appropriate vibrato"

and "intensity". all with mean differences of 0.11. The least improvement in validity was found • for "evenness of registration". with a mean difference of 0.02. 22 Effect ofprevious /istening experience:

• One of the questions ln the questionnaire asked studenls 10 cStlm:lle the frcqucncy wllh

whlch they listened to recordings of solo vocal musIc. attended concerts of solo vocal mUSIc or

attended operas. Students responded by indicatlng ellher "often". "sometlmes" or "hardly ever"

Thiny-five students replied "often" for one or more of the three categones. or "sometlmes" for

ail three. These students were classified as relatlvely frequent hsteners. The remaining nineteen

students were classified as relatively infrequent listeners No slgmficant differences were found

between frequent and infrequent listeners for any of the three measures of rehability and validlty

ColUSe evaluation questiotllUlÏre:

Tables 9, 10 and Il display the results of the course evaluatlon questionnalTe. Table 9

shows the subjects' evaluation of the usefulness ofthe course. On the average, the subjects found

• the course useful. They felt that it helped them to understand and to hear the 12 criteria of good

vocal production, and that it helped them "ecome more reliable j udges of vocal production in

solo voice performance. A one-way analysis ofvariance showed no significant differences ln the

students' ratings for usefulness of program notes, usefulness of listenlng examples, course

effectiveness in helping students understand the 12 evaluative criteria of vocal production, and

course effectiveness in helping them hear the 12 criteria (F=2.00, p<0.12, df = 3, 100).

The average amount of time subjects spent on the course and their evaluation of the

adequacy ofthis time period are shown in Table 10. Excluding the evaluation test, subjects spent

an average of approximately 8 hours on the course, with a minimum of 6 hours and a maximum

of 15 hours. Fourteen out of 26 subjects felt that the amount of tlme they spent was enough to

• fully grasp the subject matter; three subjects indicated that the amount of time they spent was

23 more than enough to fully grasp the subJecl malter; and nme subJects judged that they had nol

• spent enough lime. A one-way analysis of vanance for each of the three measures of reliabihty

and validity showed thatthere were no slgmficant differences ln reliabihty or validity among the

studenls who judged that the penod of time spent on the course was too long. just long enough.

or too short.

Usefulness ratings. on a scale of 1-5. for the program notes and listening examples for

each criterion were generally over 4. The lowest average usefulness ratings for the program notes

were 3.88 (s.d.=1.24) for the critenon "color/warmth" and 4.04 (s.d.=1.22) for "resonance/ring".

These criteria also received the lowest ratings for usefulness of listening examples: 3.64

(s.d.=1.11) for "resonance/ring" and 3.81 (s.d.=1.02) for "color/warmth". "Intensity" and

"flexibility" were the other two criteria that received average ratings below 4 for the listening

examples (3.92 each. with standard deviations of 1.08 and 1.26 respectively). As expected. the

• criteria that received the lowest mean ratmgs for program notes and listening examples were

among those judged to be the most difficult to understand, recognize and evaluate. Table II

gives the mean ratings for the program notes. listening examples and degree of difficulty for each

criterion. The four criteria that had average difficulty ratings ofover 3 were "intensity" (average

rating 3.71. s.d.= 1.1 6). "resonance/ring" (average rating 3.46. s.d.=1.27). "efficient breath

management" (average rating 3.23. s.d.=1.27) and "color/warmth" (average rating 3.04, s.d.= 1. 02).

The criteria that were judged to be the easie5t to evaluate were "intonation accuracy" (average

difficulty rating 1.54, s.d.=1.03) and "diction" (average difficulty rating 1.73, s.d.=1.00).

Table 12 lisls the criteria in order of increasing difficulty, as derived from the

questionnaires. This ranking is compared to the ranking of the criteria in order of decreasing

• 24 • mean validity coefficient for the treatment group. For elght of the cntena. thcsc ranklllgs correspond fairly weil to each other. For five criteria. however. thcre are notable dlscrcpanclcs

between subjects' judgment of their difficulty and the same subjects' actual success m evaluatmg

them according to expen standards. Subjects overestimated the difficulty m evaluatmg "frccdom

throughout vocal range". "resonance/ring" and "intensity". and underestimated the dlfficulty 10

evaluating "diction" and "legato line".

Students' comments on tlte course:

In the course evaluation questionnaire, students commented on various aspects of the

guided listening course, including the usefulness of the course, ItS length, general criticisms and

suggestions, and each of the twelve criteria. In general, comments were positive, indicatlOg that • the students had enjoyed the course and found it usefuL The following are some typlcal comments:

"1 found this program to be incredibly helpful to me in a mechanistic way - a manner in which 1 do not believe voice teachers have been traditionally instructed."

"1 am generally very critical of voices. This pmgram forced me to pinpoint what 1 like and dislike about a singer. Even if 1 don't like a cenain type of voice, now 1 can recognize quality in a voice. Very enriching experience. Bravo!" (free translation from French)

"1 had a lot of fun going through this prograrn. The program notes are concise and te the point; the technical terms weil explained in reader-friendly language, without jargon. The examples were properly selected. The artiS! profiles are interesting. The audio quality of the cassettes is good in general. The program helped me to understand how vocal performance is, and should be, judged with respect to vocal quality. It changed my perception of singing."

"1 leamed a great deal, and my ear can already better distinguish the different • elements of vocal production." (free translation from French) 2S "Dlverslty of VOlces good - not bonng Program notes excellent. Weil organized program. Useful teachmg tool wlth sorne revislOn. 1wish 1 had done this sooner. • Following criteria IS good for good Iistenmg ski Ils. Brava'" Sorne positive cornrnents deaJt speclficaJly Wlth the presentation of the Iistening examples.

Students praJsed the idea of painng good and bad examples to illustrate a criterion. They aJso

Iiked the idea of presentmg three examples in a graduated sequence from poor to excellent.

explaining that It helped them to fine-tune their ears to hear more subtle differences. Also,

students Iiked the cumulative presentation of evaJuation criteria in Part 2.

There were aJso many suggestions for irnp~ovement. SeveraJ students commented that the

Iistening examples were too long. They would have preferred short excerpts, which particularly

illustraled the cnterion in question, .ather than entire arias. They feh they needed 10 hear the

good and bad examples doser logether. They explained that when they listened 10 any particular

singer for a longer period of time, they gol accustomed 10 the sound of the voice and forgot the • criterion on which they were trying 10 focus. Also, it was poinled OUI that shorter examples would allow lime for more examples.

A few students commented that the sound quality of the listening examples could have

been better. They complained that the poorer sound quality of the examples of amateur singers

gave away their level of accomplishment before harclly a note had been sung, and thus biased the

listener.

Students complained that they found the evaluation test

they found it almost impossible to rate twelve criteria in such a short period of time (1 minute

and IS seconds). They remarked that they would need much more evaluation experience before

they would feel confident that their evaluation skills were sufficient for such a task. One student • thought that the excerpts were only 30 seconds long, and declared that this was not long enough. 26 It was aIso observed that the order of the criteria on the evaluallon test was not the same as the

• order ofthe criteria presented in the guided listening course. and Ihat tlus caused some confusIon

on the lesl.

Sorne students found it difficuh 10 use the rating scaIe. One student commented that she

was initiaIly confused as to which end of the scaIe was poor and whlch was excellent. as she had

not immediately noticed the indications on the evaIuation form. Several students expressed thelr

difficulty in deciding which rating to give. Though 1 was c1early "poor". 7 c1early "excellent".

and 4 "average", they found it difficult to distinguish between 2 and 3 or between 5 and 6. One

student remarked that she would have preferred a rating scaIe from 1-5

SeveraI students commented that this course would have been better taught m a c1assroom

situation. They feh that some criteria could be better explained by a teacher m person, and betler

demonstrated by live performances, as in a master c1ass. They pomted out that a classroom

• situation would enable students to receive feedhack from the teacher and the group on the degree

to which their ratings corresponded to ratings given by others. They feh that thls kmd of

feedback would help them leam to make more subtle discriminations in rating. Students

mentioned that they would have liked evaIuations of their evaIuations. One student suggested

that the eva!uation test be in IWO parts. The first part would be sent to the teacher to be

corrected and retumed to the student, before proceeding to the second part of the test.

With regard to the length of the course, severa! students indicated that they needed to

listen to the examples more than once to really be able to hear the cntenon in question. A few

students mentioned that they had gone through Part 1 twice or three tlmes before progressmg to

Part 2. Some stated their intention to keep the tapes as a reference tool and Iisten to them again

• 27 aCter the proJect was completed. Some students who had not had ume to listen to the examples

• more than once, expressed thel' need to have spent more tlme on the course ln order to "fuHy

dIgest" the contents.

SludenJs' commenJs on individuaJ criteria:

"Color/warmth" elicited numerous comments. Although students found this cnterion more

"subJective" than the others. they feh that the listening examples helped them to develop an

"Instinctive idea" as to its evaluation. They had difficulty separating this element from the size

of the vOlce or the range, since they found that larger voices and lower voices tended to have

more "color/warmth". One student commented that too much "color/warmth" was not good. since

1\ meant that the voice was "too dark". Others admitted that they confused "color/warmth" with

"resonance/ring" and "intensity".

• Regarding "diction", students commented that they appreciated the distinction between

"enunclation" and "pronunciation". the two components of "diction" that were defined in the

course. They found evaluation of this criterion easier when they knew the piece or the language

in which it was sung.

"Efficient breath management" caused some confusion. One non-singer found this

element difficuh to judge without knowledge of singing technique. Another student questioned

whether this was really an element of good vocal sound or an element of technique that caused

good vocal sound.

"Evenness of registration" was a criterion that some students. especially non-singers. had

difficulty grasping. One student commented that there were not enough examples of male

• 28 singers to illustrate this criterior Another felt that the hstenlng examples \Vcre rdatlvdy dear.

• but the examples in the evaluation test were difficult to evaluate for thls element

For "flexibility", there was some disagreement wlth the c·lolce of one of the examples and

a suggestion for another possible pair of examples. "Freedom throughout vocal range" caused

problems for sorne students who found it difficult to dinstlnguish from "evenness of reglstratlon"

and "efficient breath management", and to a lesser extent from "flexlbllity" and "intenslty".

The comments on "intensity" mostly dealt with difficulty ln distlngUlshlng thls element

from "resonance/ring" and "color/warmth". Although "intonation lPltch) accuracy" seemed to

present few problems, one student commented that it was "easler to ascertain flat slnglng than

sharp singing". Another student, who found this criterion difficult to evaluale, suggested that

students be provided with the scores of the pieces, upon which the flat or sharp sections would

be clearly marked.

• Approximately 27% ofthe respondents commented that "resonance/ring" was hard to hear,

either on the recordings. or in general. Again there were comments regarding the difficulty of

distinguishing this element from "intensity" and "color/warmth". One student observed that

"resonance/ring" could sometimes be confused with "harshness" or "nasal quality". Another

student found the course "very informative" on this criterion.

• 29 • DISCUSSION

ThIS study mvesllgated whether musIc students could be tramed, by means of a gUlded

I.stenmg course, ta Improve the reltabiltty and validitv of their evaluation of vocal production in

solo voice performance. Two types of reltability were measured: interjudge reliability, or degree

of consensus within the group; and intrajudge reliability. or degree of correlation between

evaluations of six performances presented twice in the evaluallon test. Validity was determined

by comparing student ratmgs with those of a group of 22 expen voice teachers.

F/fectiveness oftreatmenl:

The significant increase in interjudge reliability in the treatment group over the control

group indicates that the guided listening course helped students to learn a set of evaluation

• standards. The application of these standards in the evaluation test resulted in increased

consensus within the group. The validity of these standards was tested when student evaluations

were compared to expen evaluations. The signiticantly higher validity coefficients in the

treatment group over the control group indicate that the evaluation standards taught in the guided

listening course \.~;~ similar to those used by expens.

The lack of any significant difference belWeen the treatment and control groups in

intrajudge reliability. or test-retest consistency. suggests that the guided listening treatment was

not effective in improving this type of reliability. The relatively low correlation belWeen

students' intrajudge reliability coefficients and their interjudge reliability and validity coefficents

indicates that interjudge reliability and validity were relatively poor predietors of intrajudge

• 30 rehabillly, and Vice versa. For example, Il would be possIble to be consIstent and vet 10 b~L'e

• one's judgments on completely personal standards that had hllie to do wlth standards or others

in the group or expen standards. If a panel of chtldren were asked to evaluate \Villes, one e1l1ld

might be very consistent in preferrmg the sweetest ones, another mlght conslstelllly ravor the

fruitiest. a third - the reddest. and so on, while bemg totally unaware of the complex standards

that expen wine-tasters employ in the evaluation of fine wmes. Such a group of Judges would

have relatively high intrajudge reliability, but low mterJudge reliability and validlty. This could

explain why control subjects were as consistent as treatment subjects, while at the same tlme

achieving significantly lower group consensus and validity. Students in the control group may

have had a greater tendency to be influenced m thelr evaluations by relatively consIstent tastes

in vocal sound. Such tastes, however. apparently had little to do with expen standards for

evaluation of the quality of vocal production.

• Guided listening appears to have been ineffectlVe in improving intraJudge rehabihty. A

possible explanation might be that as subjects were trained to rely on expen standards rather than

on personal preference, evaluation became more complex. Perhaps more practice would have

enabled subjects to assimilate a set of consistent evaluation standards. Funher research may be

able to detennine whether the significantly higher intrajudge reliability of expens is mamly a

result of practice or some innate ability.

No significant differences in interjudge reliability. intrajudge reliability or validlty were

observed between graduate and undergraduate students. This is somewhat surprismg. smce It

might have been expected that the increased experience of the graduates would have enhanced

their knowledge of professional standards. It thus appears that improvements in eval uallon

• 31 rehabI1lly and vahdlly are not generally achleved dunng lime spent in a university seltmg.

• No Slgmficant dlfferences m rehablllty or validlty were found between voice majors and

non-vOl ce majors. One mlght have expected that greater performance skill would be assoclated

wlth greater evaluatlon skill in any given instrument or voice. However, this outcome is

consIstent wlth two of Fiske's findings: (1) that the ability to evaluate reliably is not associated

wlth learning to play an mstrument or to sing; and (2) it is not necessary to be a specialist in the

mstrument bemg judged in order to be a reliable judge of that instrument (Fiske, 1977a).

F//ecliveness 0/treatmenJ for itulividual criteria:

The treatment appears to have been effective m improving the validity of students'

evaluatlons of ail twelve critena and "overall score". As there was no provision for ratmg

"overall score" m the treatment, the significant validity difference in favor ofthe treatment group

• for "overall score" suggests thattraining in rating the elements ofgood vocal production resulted

in greater validity in global rating.

The smallest differences between groups occurred for "evenness of registration",

"color/warmth" and "diction". The treatment for "evenness of registration" focussed on audible

breaks or differences in sound quality between the registers of the voice. The exarnples for this

criterion in the guided listening course were more obvious than those on the evaluation test. as

none of the singers in the test had obvious registration breaks. This may account for sorne

ambiguity in its evaluation in the test. Also. the smaller range of examples of this criterion on

the evaluation test would account for lower correlations in the ratings. There appears to have

been some confusion regarding the rating of "color/warmth". Feedback from subjeets indicated

• 32 that there was sorne uncenaInty as to whether sIngers wlth overly dark or artlflClallv darkened

• voices had a great deal of "color/warmth", an inapprop.iate amount of Il, or a lack or Il These

considerations need c1anficatlon for Implementauon In subsequent gUlded ItstenIng courses The

difficulty Wlth "diction" may be slmply that the ablltty to evaluate dl cuon requtres ItngUlsuc

abilities beyond the scope of the gUlded Iistemng course.

When cmena were rankeà accordir.g to mean valiàlty coefficIents. both treatment and

control groups were most successful in evaluating "intonation (pltch) accuracy" and "overaII

score". This is not surprising. as accurate intonatlOnjudgments are essentlal for success In mUSIc

Nevertheless. intonation ratings of the treatment group agreed more wllh expen ratlngs lhan dld

ralings of the control group. The high validity of "overall score" supports Fiske's (1 Q77a)

findings thal adjudicalors apparently found it easier 10 raIe overall score lhan Indlvldual cntena

Both experimental groups had the least success in evaluating "legalo line", "color/warmth" and

• "diction". The problems with "color/warmth" and "diction" were previously discussed Il 15 nol

c1ear why "legato line" would prove difficult to evaluale. especially as Il is a quallty lhat many

musicians strive 10 achieve.

Course evallUltion questioNUZire:

Results ofthis study suggest that the kind oflislening musIc sludents engage In when lhey

listen to recordings or attend concerts may not be effective in improving thetr evaluallve ablIilles

The exhortations of vocal pedagogues to go and listen to the best examples of the art of SIngIng

may be in vain unless students receive sorne guidance to help them focus on the importanl

features of professional quality performance. It appears that critical lislening skills essenllal for

• 33 rehable and vahd evaluauon need to be leamed. and that gUlded hstenmg to carefully chosen

• examples IS an effeclJve teachmg method. These findings must be qualified. however. by the fact

that thls study was not deslgned pnmanly to inveslJgate guided listemng versus other kmds of

hstenmg. Funhermore, the data regardmg the frequency ofsubjeclS' listenmg to solo vocal musIc

were hlghly subJective. More objective data on subjeclS' unguided listenmg could be collected

by havmg subjects keep track of hours spent on thlS activity over a certain period of time. It is

possible thatlistening to the specific pieces to be evaluated or listening with the intentto improve

evaluation skills may be effective in improving reliability and validity.

As mdicated in Table 10, subjeclS spent an average of approximately 8 hours on the

guided listenmg course. Fourteen out of 26 subjeclS feh that the arnount of time they spent was

enough to fully grasp the subject maner; three subjeclS indicated that the arnount of tlme they

spent was more than enough; and nine subjeclS judged that they had not spent enough time.

• There were no significant differences in intefJudge reliability, intrajudge reliability or validity

between subjeclS who thought they had spent too linle time, enough time or more than enough

time. ft appears that subjeclS' level of confidence in their evaluation skills had no effect on, and

no basis in, their evaluation abilities. It is possible that sorne subjeclS who indicated that they

had spent enough time or more than enough time may have really been indicating their

unwillingness to spend any more time on the treatment. Others may have feh that they had

acquired as much as they could from the treatment, without necessarily believing that they were

now expert judges. Further research is needed to determine the limitations of guided listening

as a training tool for evaluative ability. Nevertheless, eight hours of guided listening appears to

have been enough to make significant differences in inteljudge reliability and validity.

• 34 Students' lowest mean ratmgs for usefulness ofthe program nole:s we:re: for "coilwwarmth"

• and "resonance/ring". These cntena also recelved the lowest ratmgs for use:fuhle:SS

examples. and were among the four cntenaJudged by students to be IllOSt ùlfticultlO unùe:rstanù.

hear and evaluate. These two critena were also among the four cntena for whlch the: gUlde:d

listening course produced the smallest differences m validtty between the groups The:re: appears

to be a need for improvement of the course materials for these cntena. Feedback l'rom students

in the treatment group regarding "resonance/ring" indicated that thts element was dlfticult for

some students to hear. even though the listening examples in the course were chosen for

maximum clarity. It is possible that students who had difficulty hearmg thls e1ement m the

recorded performances might be able to hear it more clearly in live performances. Another

solution would be to measure the frequency spectrum of live or recorded examples of smgers

• using an electronic device, such as a spectrograph, in order to clearly demonstrate to slUdents the

relative presence or absence of"singer's formant" in the sound. Thus the eye may be able to help

train the ear to hear "singer's formant" or "resonance/ring". Further investigation is needed in thlS

area

As presented in Table 12, students' rankings of criteria in order of difficulty corresponds

fair1y weil to rankings derived from the mean validity coefficients achieved for each cntenon m

the evaluation test ln other words, students were able to judge their own ability to understand,

hear, and evaluate each criterion reliably according to expert standards. For example, "intonatIOn

(pitch) accuracy" was the criterion judged by the students to be easlest to understand, hear and

evaluate. It was aise the criterion for which students' evaluatlons were closest to those of the

experts. The exceptions to this observation were "freedom throughout vocal range".

• 35 "resonance/nng". "Intenslty". "legato hne" and "diction" If Il IS assumed that decreasIng mean

• vahd.ty coefficients correspond to Increasing difficulty In evaluauon. students overesllmated the

dlfficulty of "freedom throughout vocal range". "resonance/nng" and "Intenslty" and

underestlmated the dlfficulty of "legato hne" and "dlcuon" It.s possible that students found

"freedom throughout vocal range", "resonance/rIng" and "intens.ty" conceptually complex, and

thls may have undermined their confidence in thelr abihty to grasp them. The techmcal

explanations in the program notes for "resonance/ring" and "intensity". referring to "singer's

formant" and so on, may have unduly intimidated sorne students. Perhaps good diction is

relatively simple to understand as a concept, but difficult to evaluate without a certain level of

knowledge of diction.

Sludents' commenJs on IIU! course:

• It appears that sorne students would have preferred a more focussed approach to the

listening portion of the course, consisting only of phrases which most obviously demonstrated

differing qualities of the criterion in question. The reason for including entire arias in the course

was to enhance the listener's enjoyment. It was felt that enhancing listening pleasure would

increase the chances of listeners completing the course. Il is possible that if short excerpts only

had been employed. many students would have complained of frustration from not being able to

hear the entire aria. A compromise is probably the best solution. For example, short pieces or

intact sections of longer pieces may be helpful in bath training and maintaining interest. There

were a1so complaints about the relatively poorer sound quality of amateur singers' examples.

Unfortunately, high quality recordings of singers who are not professional recording artists are • rare. 36 The fact that students found the evaluatlon test dlfficult IS not surpnsmg. as ~"p~rts had

• expressed the same opinion. The gUided Iistenmg course afford~d only about

cumulative practlce in actual ratlng of cntena. The subJects had rated only two ~"all1pl~s for ail

tweive criteria, and none at ail for "overall score". SubJects' comments mdlcate that they would

have liked more practlce in using the evaluation form before takmg the test. Further mvestlgatlon

is needed to determine the effect of practice using the evaluatlon form on reliability and valtdlty

lt might have been helpful had the order of the critena on the evaluatlon test been tht:

same as the order of the criteria presented in the guided Iistenlng course. Tht: discrepancy arost:

because the evaluation test was designed before the guided Iistenmg course. The test was

designed to discover whether the twelve criteria on the evaluatlon form were meaningful and

recognizable to expert voice teachers and to determine their relative Importance in inl1uencmg

overall impression. ln order to avoid any bias in the order of Importance of the criteria, It was

• originally decided to simply list them in alphabetical order on the evaluation form. The cntena

in the guided listening course. however. were presented in order of increasmg complexlty. as

estimated by the researcher. As it was important for the validity of the experiment that the

students take the same evaluation test as the experts. the original evaluation forms had to be used.

and the discrepancy in the order of listing the criteria resulted. One solution to this discrepancy

would have been to allow for practice in using the test evaluation form.

The problem oflack offeedback in the home study format was mentioned by the students.

The ideal format for feedback and discussion would be a classroom course. The classroom

situation would allow the teacher to identify criteria that appear to present problems to the

students and to provide supplementary explanatlons and listening examples as necessary

• Students might be actively involved in collecting examples to illustrate various cntena Such

37 actlvlty mlght provide excellent evaluatlve pracllce. Aiso. an accredlled course would allow more

• tlme for Iistenmg to examples than would on a non-credit course.

Students' commenJs concenùng individual criJeria:

The fact that "color/warmth" eliclted numerous comments is not surprising in view of the

relative difficulty students had in evaluating this element, and in view of the relatively low

effectiveness of the treatment on this cnterion. Students tended to confuse "color/warmth",

"resonance/ring" and "intensity". This confusIon is understandable, as "intensity" generally

encompasses both "color/warmth" and "resonance/nng". A voice that possesses a hlgh degree

of "intensity", or focus, generally has most of the sound energy concentrated at the high and low

formants, which produce "resonance/ring" and "color/warmth", respectively. Although these

criteria appear to overlap somewhat, experts nevel1heless discriminate between them as three

• distinct elements of vocal production. lt IS theorellcally possible to have a great deal of one

without the others.

"Efficient breath management" is an element of vocal technique rather than an element

of vocal sound. Nevertheless. certain sound qualities are often described in terms of breath

management. For example, a "pushed", "forced" or "spread" sound is characteristic of using too

much breath pressure. The sense that the singer is gasping for breath and struggling to finish

phrases is a sound quality that is usually described in terms of breath management. "Pushed"

or "forced" vocal quality could be described in terms of lack of "freedom throughout vocal

range", and "spread" quality could be described as lack of "intensity" or focus. lt would be

difficult.. however, to find another criterion to describe the phenomenon of running out of breath

• at the ends of phrases or gasping for breath between phrases.

38 Students found "freedom throughoul vocal range" difficulllO dmstmgulsh from "cvcnness

• of reglstration" and "effiCIent breath management" To a lesser extcnl they confused Il w,th

"flexibility" and "intensity". Many cnteria overlapped 10 sorne extenl. and Il was somellmes

difficult to define the distmguishing charactenstlcs of each cntenon. A gUlded hstenmg course

should probably focus more on this issue. For example. certaIn kmds of poor breath management

can affect freedom or intenslty. and yet they are dlstmct elements m vocal productIon. Another

example would be the frequent overlappmg of "intensity" with "resonance/ring" and

"color/warmth".

Conclusion:

This study shows for the first time that music students can be systemallcally Iramed 10

improve their ability to evaluate vocal production in solo voice performance. The slgnificanl

• difference in inteljudge reliability in favor ofthe treatment group suggests thal the students were

able to assimilate a set of standards and apply them in an evaluation test. The s,gmficanl

difference in validity in favor of the treatment group suggests that those stlll'dards were slm,lar

to the ones used by experts.

The lack of significant difference in evaluation reliability between voice majors and non-

vOlce majors, and between undergraduate students and graduate students. supports prevlous

research findings that suggest that the ability to evaluate reliably is not normally acquued ID the

course of learning to play an instrument (or to sing), nor is it generally acquued dunng the years

spent in a university setting. Since few opportunities exist for music students 10 gaIn traimng or

experience in this important skill. this study suggests that it may be worthwhile to make guided

• listening courses in evaluation available to music students in a school environment.

39 • Sugge.,ûlJtls flJr furtller researcll

ThIS study demonstratcs that evaluallon skills can be significantly Improved through

gUlded listenmg. There IS a need, however, for further research to determme the effects of

reducmg and extending the amount of lime spent on guided listening. Would two hours of

gUlded listening produce as much Improvement as elght hours? Would 16 hours of guided

listening produce tWlce as much Improvement as elght hours? At what point does the law of

diminishing retums come into effect? lt is possible that the achievement of expert levels of

reliability and validity in evaluallon requires thousands of hours of experience, a period of lime

beyond the scope of any gUided listemng course.

A logical next step would be the development of the guided listening course in vOlce

evaluatlon into a full semester course. lmprovements with regard to certain criteria for which the

• course appeared to be lcss effective, namely "resonance/ring", "color/warmth", "evenness of

registration" and "diction", seem called for. Listening examples could be validated by a panel

ofexpert voice teachers. Experts could verify the criterion that cach example best illustrates and

suggest an appropriate rating for that cnterion. ln order to provide students with samples of

expert evaluation, experts could rate other listening examples on ail criteria and "overall score".

Students could then compare their evaluations to those of experts. Another means of validating

the listening examples might be to analyze them objectively using electronic equipment to

measure the frequency. intensity and harmonic strucrure of the sound waves, as suggested by

Helier and Campbell (1971). Subjective evaluative critena could thus be described also in terms

of measurable properties of the sound waves. This might prove to be a useful training aid.

• especially for criteria that may be more difficult to understand, hear or evaluate.

40 The resultmg gUided Iistemng course could be fidd-tested wlth populations or mUSIc

• students to determine ItS effectlveness as a complement to tradltlonal fonns of musIc tr;unmg

Data l'rom field-testmg could be analyzed to determme. for example. whether mtraJudge reltablltty

could be improved through an extended program ofgUided hstenmg. The posslbl1lty ofachlevmg

expert levels of rehability and validlty through guided hstemng could also be myeslIgated

Further investigation could disclose whether there were components of evaluatlve ablhty that

could not be improved by guided listening. Perhaps sorne aspects of evaluallve ablhty cannot

be improved by training; perhaps they are genetic. such as excepllonal auditory memory or "the

acute sense of hearing once possessed by greatteachers of singmg" (Husler. 1965. p.XV)

According to results of the course evaluation questionnaire shown m Table 9. subjects

found the program notes and the listening examples to be equally usefu!. lt would be mterestmg

• to investigate the relative effects ofprogram notes and listening examples upon evaluallon abl1lly

Subjects could be divided into three treatment groups: gUlded listening, hstemng only and gUIde

only. Sucb researcb could shed light upon the relative importance of cognitive and audl!lve

components of evaluation training.

ln addition to voice, this study may bave implications for evaluatlon trammg for

instruments. For any given instrument, criteria for professional standards could be denved l'rom

interviews with expert pedagogues, tested for reliability and validity with a larger group of

experts, and then defined and ilIustrated with listening examples in a guided hstentng course.

Il could also be beneficial to music pedagogy to explore the effects of guided hstenmg

on students' progress as performers. ln the area of vocal pedagogy, in partlcular, there is a need

to verify the claim by vocal pedagogues that improving the quality of voice students' mental

• concepts of good singing could improve the quality of their performance.

41 Table 1

InteIJuJKe ",habllIly mejfl<'lents .Jor I1uJents

42 • Table 2 3-way }cu:ruria/ il/depel/dem groups ana/ysis (~f "anal/cc of s//Idcms' lmcr}udg<' n:iI

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

SOURCE SUM-OF-SQUARES DF MEAN-SQUARE F-RATIO P GROUP 0.082 0.082 16.961 0.001 MAJOR 0.005 0.005 1.006 0.321 LEVEL 0.001 0.001 0.180 0.674 GROUp·MAJOR 0.009 0.009 1.797 0.187 GROUp·LEVEL 0.004 0.004 0.873 0.355 MAJOR·LEVEL 0.000 0.000 0.010 0.919 GROup·MAJOR· 0.003 0.003 0.613 0.438 LEVEL • ERROR 0.222 46 0.005

• 43 Table 3

Intra/uJ~e relzablluy c'uefficlents for s/UJents ùJ1J expens TrelllJllen: Control Expert .52 .67 .83 • .74 .76 .73 .53 .59 .89 .68 .28 .73 .73 .72 .78 .22 .29 .66 .51 .64 .52 .60 .80 .67 .:>.-, .82 .69 .31 .53 .81 .55 .87 .80 .64 .62 .75 .51 .58 .71 .75 .64 .33 .69 .45 .70 .78 .74 .78 .37 .79 .53 .46 .52 .79 .67 .79 .81 .65 .33 .42 .45 .63 .71 .74 .64 .60 .48 .26 .69 .23 .25 .66 .71 .31 .-49 MelIII .56 .58 .69 S.D. .16 .19 .1-4 Muimum .78 .87 .89 Minimum .22 .23 .33

44 Table 4

3-",ay fa4lUna/ znJepenJenr groups ana/ysis of variance of students' intrajudge reliabi/it)' • L'oefficients ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

SOURCE S Li~l-OF-SQL; ARES DF MEAN-SQUARE F-RATlO P GROUP 0.004 0004 0.141 0.709 MAJOR 0.007 0.007 0.220 0.642 LEVEL 0.069 0.069 2.255 0.140 GROUp·MAJOR 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.994 GROUp·LEVEL 0.018 0.018 0.589 0.447 MAJOR·LEVEL 0.003 0.003 0.106 0.746 GROUp·MAJOR· 0.043 0.043 1416 0.240-· LEVEL ERROR 1.380 45 0.031

45 9v

, e t(" Il· tt" WnW!D!W LS" OS" 6t· wnw!DW 1.0· 01· 1.0· ·O·S

l,;t" Ot· URl\! - 1. L' Lt· 91 tt" lt" rt· rt· St· O. 6t· Ot· oS" 9t" SS" Ot" rt" LS" Il· lit" 6t" Ll" lt· lS" lt" n" lS" ZZ· tt" tS" 9. lit" e 6t" 9. tt" OS" ll" rt" tS" L' 6Z" LS" lX' S. LS" 6," 9. tt" Ill' tt" Zt" Ill" O. tt" 6Z' 6. tf' S. If" 6t· a' a' Lf' 1If" 9f" St' 61' tt· tS· Lf" 1t' Lt' 1t· tf" tS" lit· Ilf" lJ:>lh3 Innuo::> IU~WJI':U l. e -'j.J~d;o pUD .Ç!U~pn]-' JO/ ,Ç,U~I"'fl;'o,' ,ÎJlplT".1

S ôlf

• 3-""'Y jCJJ.:wn<1l mdependenr groups ù/ltllYSIS of "ù17<11k'e of "",dell/s' ,·tllldllY "',,e!li"'letltS

A:"ALYSIS OF VARL-\:"CE

SOCRCE SC:'\I-OF-SQL' .... RES DF :'\1E .... ~-SQL' .... RE F-R ....T10 P GROL'P 0.057 0057 7535 0004 :l.1 ....JOR 0001 0001 o0'12 0763 LEVEL 0004 0004 0585 0448 GROUP*\OIAJOR 0011 0011 1411 o 241 GROUP*LEVEL 0.001 0001 0161 06'10 MAJOR*LEVEL 0.002 0002 0283 o5'1:; GROUP*\OIAJOR" 0.002 0.002 0.290 0.593 LEVEL ERROR 0348 46 0008

,

47 Table 7

('mena and u"erall ,.:ure Ù'leJ ln "nier uf Je.:reasln){ mean "alIJI/Y .:uejjï.:tent. lft'era){eJ u"er ail S1uJent'

• Critenon Mean Significance validity coefficient Intonation (pllch) 53 slgmficantly hlgher than ail other crltena. but not accuracy overall score OveraJl score .50 slgmflcantly hlgher than ail cmena. except mtonatlon (pltch) accuracy Freedom throughout 42 slgmflcantly hlgher than dynam.c range. flexlbl1lty. vocal range mtenslty. efficient breath management. legato Ime. color/warmth and diction Appropnate v.brato 40 slgmficantly hlgher than mtenslty. efficient breath management. legato lme. color/warmth and diction Resonancemng .39 slgmficantly hlgher than mtenslty. effic:ent breath management. legato lme. color:warmth and diction Evenness of .38 slgmficantly hlgher than legato \me. color/warmth reg.stratlon and diction Dynamlc range .37 slgmficantly hlgher than legato Ime. color/warmth and diction Flex.b.hty 36 slgmficantly hlgher than legato lme. color:warmth and diction Intenslty 34 slgmficantly hlgher than color/warmth and diction Efficient breath .33 slgmficantly hlgher than diction management Legato hne .31 slgmficantly hlgher than diction Color/warmth .29 slgmficantly hlgher than diction Diction .22 slgmficantly lower than all other cmena and overall score

48. Table 8

emena IisreJ In oruer 01 Jecfl?"smg J,ae1'f!n.·es herw eell gmup.\ In \·•.IIiJIIY

• Criterion Mean validity Mean ,. a1idity Difference in fa"or coefficient for coefficient for of trealJ11ent group treattnent eroup control el'oup

Fr~~dom rhroughout ~8 36 1: vocal range

Flexlblhty ~2 31 11

Overall score 55 .~~ Il

Dynamlc range ~2 31 11

Appropnate vibrato ~6 35 Il

Int~nslty .3~ 28 11 Legato hne .36 .26 10 Intonation (pltcy) .57 A8 09 accuracy EfficIent breath .37 28 09 management

Resonancemng ~3 35 08 Diction .25 19 06 ~ Î '/armth 32 .26 06 1-- Even .s of 39 37 02 reglstratlon

49 Table 9

• Course evaluation questionnaire

Ple

Mean S.D.

This program helped me to understand the 12 4.38 0.75 criteria used on the valuation fonn.

This program helped me hear the 12 criteria 4.08 0.89 as elemenlS ofvocal production.

The program notes were helpful. c1ear and 4.50 0.91 concise.

The Iistening e18mples iIIustrated the criteria 4.04 0.ï2 weil.

On the whole. this program achieved ilS goal. 3.92 0.93 i.e. to help me become a more reliable judge of \ocal production in solo voice performance.

1found this program usefuL 4.78 0.64

50 Table 10 • Course evaluation questionnaire

1 e.~timate that 1 ~pent _ huu,"" un the pmgram (nut cuunting the el'a/uatiun te.'t}. Thi.' anwunt uftime "'a~: nut enuugh tu ju/(.. gru~p the ~ubject matter: enuugh tu jully gru.~p the .,ubject mutter: mure than enuugh tu jU/(I' gru.~p the ~ubject matter.

Hours spent on the program

Minimum Maximum

8.32 2.10 6.00 15.00

This amount of rime was:

Not enough Enough More than enough

# respundents # resoundents # resoundents

9 34.6% 14 53.8% 3 Il.5%

51 Table Il

• Course evaluation questionnaire

FlJr eaL'h crilerion. rate the u.\efulne.\s ofthe program notes and the listening examples. and the degree ofdifficulty YIJU Jound in grusping that criterion (understanding it. remgni:Jng it in the li.\tening examples. f!l·u/uating it). Use a .\cale of1 to 5. where 1 i.\ the lowe.\t rating and 5 the highest (program notes 1 = useless. 5= "elj-' useful: listening examples 1 =useless. 5 =velj-' useful: difficulty ofcriterion 1 =very eusy. 5 ="elj-' hard).

Program notes Listening examples Oifficultv of criterion

Mean S.O. Mean S.O. Mean S.O.

Intonation (pitch) accuracy 4.37 0.93 4.48 0.80 1.54 1.03

Diction 4.42 0.76 4.50 0.76 1.73 1.00

Lrgato line 4.38 0.94 4.42 0.95 2.00 1.06

Dynamic range 4.50 0.91 4.23 0.86 2.00 1.20

Flexibility 4.50 0.76 3.92 1.26 1.96 0.82

Evenness of rrgistration 4.58 0.70 4..31 0.84 2.58 1.21

Efficient breath management 4.31 0.97 4.04 1.08 3.23 1.27

Resonance/ring 4.04 1.22 3.64 1.11 3.46 1.27 Appropriate vibrato 4.54 0.95 4..31 0.88 1.92 1.00

Color/warmth 3.88 1.24 3.81 1.02 3.04 1.02

Intensity 4.20 1.00 3.92 1.08 3.71 1.16

Freedom througbout rang!! 4.50 0.72 4.50 0.59 2.58 1.02

52 Table 12

LI'I (~f c'mena ln urtier uf Inc'fl!a'lng JI(hc'IIiIY, as Jen\'.:J.lmm ,/ues/l

Ranking of criteria Mean Ranking of criteria \lean derived from difficulty derived from mean validity questionnaires rating \'a1idity coefficients coefficient \-5 Intonation \pllch) 1 54 Intonation lpltch) U57 accuracy accuracy Diction 173 Freedom throughout vocal 048 range Appropnate vibrato 192 Appropnate vibrato 046 Flexlbl1lly 196 Resonancel nng 043 Legato lIRe 2.00 Flexlbl1lly 042 Dynanllc range 2,00 Dynamlc range 0.42 Evenness of reglstratlon 258 Evenness of reglstratlon 039 Freedom throughout vocal 2.58 [ntenslty 039 range Color/warmth 3.04 EffiCient breath 037 management EffiCient breath 3.23 Legato IIne 0.36 management Resonancel nng 3,46 Color/warmth 0.32 \menslty 3,71 Diction 0,25

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S6 , 1

APPENDIX A

GUIDED LISTENING PROGRAM

IN

) VOICE Ef'ALUATION

) INTRODUCTION

GUIDED L1STENING PROGRAM IN VOleE EVALUATION

You are about to partlclpate ln the first research project ever to try to teach evaluatlon skills. Your performance ln thls projeet IS very Important to further research ln this area. Any • Indication of success ln thls pilot proJect could have Important ImplicatIOns for mus'c education. So Just relax. take your tlme, and glve It your best sho!

ln thls package you will find.

- a smaller package. containlng 4 cassette audiotapes: - a green booklet. entllied Part 1: - an orange booklet. entitled Part 2: - a white booklet, enlilied Evaluation Test: - a yellow 3-page Questionnaire; - a white. self-addressed, stamped envelope.

To start the program. you will need audiocassette # 1 and the green booklet of program notes. entltled Part 1. Listen to the introductory message on audiocassette # 1. which deals with the purpose of this projeet. This takes about 4 minutes. (It is followed by the same message in French.) Atter Iistening to the introduetory message. you v,ill be ready to begin the guided Iistemng program. The prog:am notes in the green booklet. emilied Part 1, are meant to guide you as you Iisten to the examples on the audiocassettes.

This gUided listening program focusses on 12 criteria that were found. in a previous study. to be used by expert voice teachers in evaluating vocal production in solo voice performance. 1 would advise you to read the defimtion of each criterion in the green booklet before you Iisten to the examples. and then read the program notes for each example as you listen. This program reqUires a great deal of concentration. So do one or Iwo criteria at a time, and then take a break. This will minimize the confounding effects of fatigue.

When you have completed Part 1. you may begin Part 2. This is a revlew of the 12 criteria. wlth practice using rating scales. Some of the discriminations in Part 2 are more subtle. and are deslgned to fine-tune your ear for critical Iistening. The ratings in Part 2 are for your own praetlce. and should not be retumed to me in the retum envelope.

Attar you have completed Part 2. there is an evaluation test. This consists of 26 examples. on audiocassette # 4, side B. of different singers performing a short excerpt from Mozart's lied "Ridente la calma". You will have to fill out an evaluation form for each example. and retum these forms to me in the retum envelope provided.

Finally. there is a questionnaire to be completed atter the evaluation test and retumed to me with the test in the same retum envelope, if possible. before the end of.May (1994).

Thank you for participating in this experimental research project. 1 hope you will find it Interesting, enjoyable and worthwhile. If you Mve any questions or difficulties with this project. wlth the exception of the evaluation test, piease do not hesitate to cali me (collect. if you are out of town) at (514) 674-4147 (residence). Good lucl

Elizabeth Ekholm •

PART 1

GUIDED USTENING PROGRAM IN VOleE EVALUATION

Elizabeth Ekhom, April 1994 • Program Notes

These notes are meant to guide you through Part One of the guided listening program. They are dlvlded mto twelve sections. each covering one of the twelve cnterla of evaluation. They contain definlliOns and descriptions of the criteria. presentations of the examples. as weil as notes of interesl.

The following icons are used throughout the progr<:tm notes in order to facilitate reading during your listening sessions:

indicates definitions and descriptions of criteria. as weil as general hints on what to Iisten for; the text is in bold caracters;

indicates presentations of the recorded examples on the cassettes used to illustrate each criterion;

indicates notes of general interest on the pieces or singers; these notes are not essenlial to the program but have been included for your enjoymenl.

Part One begins after the a-minute introduction section (4 minutes in each official language) on cassette # 1, sida A, and includes ail of cassette # 2, and side A and half of side B on cassette # 3. TC/tal Iistening lima for Part One is aoout four and a half hOlJrs. It is a good idea to leave yourself extra lime, since you may wish to listen to some examples more than once. So take your time. These program notes are merely a guide. Listen carefully and concentrate on trying to hear the different criteria and on developing your own mental image of them. 1hope you will enjoy this experience. cassette #1, side A: 1. Intonation (pitch) accuracï

1. /1 One ofthe basic requirements of good perfonnance on most Instruments la !Il ta play the notes in tune. 50 il Is for s1ngers. 5lnglng out of tune la more often a symptom of poor vocal prodL:ctIon than of poor pltch discrimination (Jack of musical ear), and can be overcome by good vocal technique. For example, using too much breath pressure ("overbJowlng, can of'Ien cause the pitches to go sharp, much as in wind instnlments.

r.i.'Ii1 Example 1(a): Focus on the pitch accuracy of this example. Are the I!I!J majority of notes right on pitch, or are you often aware of pitch problems? If there are pitch problems, does the singer tend to sing fiat or sharp? Are the attacks (beginnings of notes) c1ean and right on pitch? Compare this example•. with the next one, example 1(b).

Both singers are singing Marguerite's aria, "D'amour l'ardente flamme", from the opera La Damnation de Faust by Berlioz. It occurs in Scene 15 as the heartbroken, innocent Marguerite sits alone, waiting in vain for another visit from • Faust. Example 1(b): This example, which was chosen to iIIustrate accurate intonation, is sung by Frederica Von Stade (b.1945), the American mezzo­ soprano, who made her Metropolitan Opera debut in 1970.

l'1Von Stade's best-known roles include Cherubino in Le Nozze di Figaro by Mozart, the title role of Cenerento/a by Rossini, Sesto in Mozart's La C/emenza di Tito, Rosina in 1/ Barbiere de Siviglia by Rossini and Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier by R. Strauss. According to J.B.Steane, in his excellent new book Voices: Sinqers & Critics, Von Stade "in many ways represented the ideal concept ofthe lyric mezzo, with a stage appearance that had nothing of the middle-aged tema/e relative about it, and a personality that drew attention through sympathy rether than anything m"f8 ostentatious: she might indeed have won hearts throught the eres a/one", (p.37)

~ Example 2: Here is a rendition, by a Russian bass, of "Swan Song" by the ~ Russian composer Arensky (1861-1906). Focus, once ûgain, on the intonation (pitch) accuracy. Are the pitches c1ean and c1ear, or are they obscured by the vocal production?

l ~ !:;:ample 3: Once agaln. try to focus only on the pitch accuracy. Are you ~ aware of any pitch problems? If l:>O. does this singer tend to go sharp or flat? (This IS not Important ln evaluation pE:r se. but it is good ear training • practlce. and would certalnly have diagnostic value for a singing teacher.) Is the pltch stable. or does it waver on any glven note? This is the well-known Italian ana. "Alma dei core", by Antonio CaldE'ra (1670-1736). It is often one of the first pleces that a novice singer will learn.

!&1 Example 4(a). Here IS yet another example to help you practice evaluating ~ pitch accuracy. Are there noticeable pitch problems, which detract from the overall effect? What proportion of notes have faulty pitch? To what extent do pltch problems mar the performance? These considerations should help you decide which rating, from 1 to 7, to give for intonation (pitch) accuracy on the evaillation form.

Example 4(b): Compare this example to the previous one. It was chosen-o as an example of good intonation (pitch) accuracy.

1'" Vou have just heard two presentations of Adele's "Laughing Song" from the opera ~ Die Fledermaus by Johann Strauss. It is sung in Act 2 of the opera, at Prince Ortofsky's masquerade bail. Eisenstein appears at the bail in costume, and has himself announced as "Marquis Renard". He believes he recognizes his wife's chambermaid, Adele, among the guests, and discloses his suspicion. Ortofsky and the other guests mock him at the absurdity of such an idea, and Adele sings this delicious soubrette aria, "Mein He" Marquis", in which she allows herself to laugh at her employer without restraint.

The singer in this example is Rita Streich (1920-1987), bom in Bamaul (Siberia), daughter of a German father and a Russian mother. At the age of 19, Rita Streich made herdebut at the Bertin State Opera and soon was regarded as one of the Great stars in the small intemational circle of coloratura divas. In 1953 she became full member of the State Opera in Vienna where she remained for the rest of her career. Steane describes her as "a representative of the German school... whose Zerbinetta in Ariadne auf Naxos is so totally satisfying on records". (p. 11)

2 2. Diction

• r7l The bottom line in good diction is the communication of the text of the ana lMJ or song. Diction can be divlded into 2 components: enunciatlon and pronunciation. Enunciation could be defined as the clarity of the sounds being articulated by the singer; pronunciation as the degree to which the vowel and consonant sounds produced by the singer accord with standards for a given language.

~ Example 5(a): Focus on the diction ln this example. Can you recognlze ~ the language? Can you hear the consonant and vowel sounds clearly? If this is a language you normally understand. can you understand the lYriCS of the aria? If there are diction problems, are they problems of pronunetation or enunciation? (This distinction has no importance ln rating the diction, but It could help to improve criticallistening skiIls and diagnostic skills. Poor pronunetation can usually be cured by a good diction coach, whereas poor enunetation may be symptomatic of more serious vocal production problems.) What proportion of the lyrics were c1ear and intelligible? These considerations should help you decide the rating, from 1 to 7, to give for diction on the evaluation form.

~ Example 5(b): Here is the same aria, "Must the winter come so soon", ~ from the opera Vanessa by th~ Amencan composer Samuel Barber, wlth libretto by his fnend Gian Carlo Menotti. This example was chosen for the clarity of the diction. In spite of a rather unusual and poetic text, every word is clearly intelligible.

1"'1 This beautiful mezzo aria is sung by Erika in Act 2, as Vanessa, Vanessa's ~ mother the Baroness and Erika. Vanessa's niece. are ail awaiting the arrivaI of Anatol, Vanessa's former lover, whom she has not seen for more than 20 yeers. The setting is Vanessa's country house in a northem country, the year about 1905. This aria depicts the hunger, cold and darkness brought on by winter ln these parts, which is refJected in the souls ofthe characters.

Must the winter come so soon? Night affer night 1hear the hungry deer wander weeping in the woods, and from his house of brittle bark hoots the frozen owl. Must the winter come so soon? Here in this forest neither dawn nor sunset marks the passing of the days. It is a long winter here.

3 The singer ln this example IS Rosalind Elias (b.1931), American mezzo, particularly associated with the Italian and French repertoires. A rich-voiced singer of fine muslcianship. she created for Barber this role of Erika in Vanessa, which won the 1958 • Pulitzer Prize. and also the role of Charrnlan in Barber's Antony and Cleopatra, which Inaugurated the new Metropolitan Opera House ln 1966.

r.J:il Example 6(a): Focus agaln on the diction in this aria. What language is this? l!J!J How weilis the language belOg pronounced? How cJear1y are the consonants and vowels belng enunClated? How much of the text can you hear clear1y (clear1y enough to repeat the sounds. whether or not you understand the language)? If you normally understand this language, how much of the text of this aria can you understa'ld?

Example 6(b): Compare exam:)le 6(a) to this rendition of the same aria, "Vision fugitive", bantone ana for Herod in Act 2 of Hérodiade by Jules Massenet.

The singer in this example is Emest Blanc (b. 1923), French bariton~. c1<'seli identified with the French repertoire, whose intemational career was limited apparently by his disinclination to leave France.

Ce breuvage pourrait me donner un tel rêve! Je pourrais la revoir.,.contempler sa beauté! Divine volupté A mes regards promise! Espérance trop brève. Qui viens bercer mon coeur et troubler ma raison.,. Ah! ne t'enfuis pas... douce illusion!...

Vision fugitive et toujours poursuivie, Ange mystérieux qui prends toute ma vie, C'est toi que je veux voir, o mon amour, 0 mon espoirt

liIliI Example 7(a): Here is another example of problematic diction. The ~ enunciation is dear, but the pronunciation of Italian is poor. The vowels and consonants can be heard dearly, but they are Americanized and do not resemble those of the Italian language. For example, in the phrase "E lucevan le stelle", the "e" vowels are Americanized and sound Iike the diphthong "ay", as in ''way'', ln rating diction, we should consider both enunciation and pronunciation (to the best of our ability to judge pronunciation in a foreign language).

4 Example 7(b): Although there are non-Italian tenors who sJng thls ana weil, 1 thought it best to choose an Italian as an example of good Italian • pronunciation. The singer is Italian Iync tenor, Luciano Pavarotti.

Pavarotti IS particularly associated with the Itahan repertolre. One of the most popular of contemporary opera smgers, he has a voice of great beauty and richness, with thril/ing high notes, which he uses wlth a fine techmque. He starred in the film Yeso Giorgio. and his autoblography, Mv Own Story, was published m 1981.

The aria is "E lucevan le stelle". sung by the painter Mario Cavaradossi in the final act of Puccini's opera Tosca, while Cavaradossi is in prison awalting his imminent executlon. He reminisces about his love for Floria Tosca and their wonderful, romantic moments together.

E lucevan le stelle e o/ezzava la terra, When the stars were IJrightly shining ana. stridea l'uscio dell'orto e un passo faint perfumes the air pervaded, creaked sfiorava la rena ... Entrava ella, fragrante, the gate of the garden and a footstep its me cadea fra le braccia ... Oh! dolci baci, precincts invaded ... 'Twas hers, the' o languide carezze, mentrio fremente le fragrant creature. In her soft arms she belle forme disciogliea dai ve/i! Svani clasped me ... with sweetest kisses, per sempre il sogno mio d'amore ... l'ora tenderest caresses, a thing of beauty, of è fuggita e muoio disperato! e muoio matchless symmetry in farm and feature! disperato! E non ho amato mai tanto la My dream of love is now dispelled for vita. tanto la vital ever ... 1 Ilved ';nGaring and now 1 die despairing! And ne'er was life so dear to me. no neverl

5 3. Legato line

• r7l These are definitlons of legato Une glYen by vocal pedagogues: lM..J - slnging or playlng wlthout any perceptible Intenuptlon; - going tram the heart of one vowel dlredly to the heart of the next vowe~ in spite of the intenuptlon of the consonants; - continuity of consecutive tones or pltches ln a melody; - a steady fIow of tone; - a flowing river of sound in which no sense of jertdness Is apparent to either singer or listener; - thinking and slnging in terms of groups of note& and short phrases, rather than in indMdual notes and syllables; - c10sely joinlng successive tones to each other.

The <:bUity to join the notes (legato) has been described as the singer's greatest asset Johannes Hüler, founder of the Gennan Singspiel (1764) Is quoted as saying. "He who knows not how to joln. knows not how to sing." (clted ln Vlctor_ Fields, Training the Singing Voice. p.232) Pure legato s1nglng tram beglnnlng to end was aise emphaslzed by the ltallan masters of Bel Canto.

Example 8a: Focus on legato line in this example. Notice how eac." note is separate from the next, and how jerky the Hne is. Try to apply the above list of definitions to this example.

~ Example 8b: Compare the previous example with this rendition ofthe same ~ song, "Serenada Oon-Zhuana" ("Don Juan's Serenade"), by Tchaikovsky. Notice the legato line. In this example we hear phrases rather than a succession of individual notes. The singer in this example is the young Russian baritone, Omitri Hvorostovsky, who is rapidly becoming an international star.

This is one of Tchaikovksy's mosr papu/ar songs for baritone. It is distinguished by its brilliance and theatrica/ness almost to the point of resembling an operatic aria. In this song. an amorous Don Juan vigorously summons his Nisetta to come out onta the balcony:

The golden edges of the distant Alpujarra are growing darlc, ln response ta the beckoning ring ofmy guitar, Come out. my beloved! Ail those. who would say that another one here is your equa/. 1. consumed by love. challenge themall to mottai combat! The moonlight makes the sky blush. 0, come forth. Nisetta. ta the balcony. quickly!

6 ~ Example 9a: Here is another example of choppy singlng. The flow of lYJ sound is nol constant. Instead we are aware of an altack and ensuing • crescendo on almost every note, a sort of "wah-wah" effect. The top notes are much louder than the rest and stick out, further interrupting the flow of the phrases.

r.Iil Example 9b: The same aria, "As wh en the dove", from the Pastoral ~ Serenade Acis and Ga/atea by Handel, is now sun;j by Amerlcan soprano, Kathleen Battle. Compare her legato line to that of the singer in the previous example. Try to focus on what makes this a better example of legato line.

1"'1 This Pastoral Serenade was first performed at Cannons near Edgware in 1718. ~ The shepherdess Galatea longs for the retum of her shepherd Acis in this beautiful da capo ana in F major. _.

Born in Portsmouth, Ohio, Kathleen Battle attended the Conservatory of Music of the University of Cincinnati, where she studied voice with Franklin Bens, and also worked with' the orchestral conductor and professor Robert Sadin and the famous Italian bass Italo Tajo, Her voice soon came to the attention of conductor Thomas Schippers, who invited her to perform at the Spoleta Festival in Brahms' German Requiem. In 1977 she made her début at the Metropolitan Opera in the role ofthe shepherd in TannhIJuser, under the direction of James Levine, with whom she has worked closely ever since. Her most notable roles include: Susanna, Pamina. Zerlina, Blonde and Despina, in the Mozart operas; Zerbinetta, Sophie and Zdenka, by R. Strauss: Adina and Nonna. by Donizetti: Rossini's Rosina; Nannetta and Oscar, by Verdi; and Eurydice by Gluck.

liIIil Example 10a: Focus once again on legato line in this example, Do you ~ hear the vocal Une in phrases, or successions of individual notes? Does it f1ow, or merely plod along? Is the vocal line steady, or are you aware of a "wah-wah" effect? Once you have decided whether this example of legato line is good or bad, ask yourself how good or how bad. Decide on a fair rating, from 1 to 7, for this criterion,

7 liIi1 Example 10b: ThiS IS the same song, "Nurwer die Sehnsucht kennt" ("None ~ but the lonely heart", or in the original Russian, "Net, tol'ko tot, kto znal"), • by Tchaikovsky. Compare the legato line with that of the previous example Is there a difference? If so, how would you descnbe the difference? Determine how you would rate thls criterion in this example.

The singer in this example is the German tenor, Peter Anders (1908-54). Possessing a beautiful voice used with fine musicianship, he began as a lyric tenor and was especially successful in Mozart roles. Alter the war, he undertook heroic roles with equal success. He was killed in a car accident.

This is one of Tchaikovsky's best-known songs. It was a setting of a Russian translation of Mignon's plaint, "Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt", by Goethe.

Only he who knows yeaming knows what 1suffer! Alone and cut off from every joy 1look to the firmament in one direction. Ah! He who loves and knows me is far away; 1feel giddy, rny bowels bum. Only he who knows yeaming knows what 1suffer!

end of cassette #1, side A

8 cassette #1! side B • 4. Q.ynamic ranM, r:7l Dynamic range refers to the variation and control of the loudness or lM..J softness of the tones. The variation refers to the amount of differentiatlon that the singer is able to produce between the loudest and softest notes. The control refers to the singer's ability to produce the apropriate dynamic level, as opposed to, for example, singing ail high notes loudly and aillow notes softly.

The writings of vocal pedagogues ally dynamlc range wIth resonance, breath management and freedom from excessive tension in the vocal apparatus. It Is thus another useful indicator of the quality of the vocal production. For example, a singer that can only sing loudly often has poor breath management, ln that he/she is probably ''pushing'' or "overblowing". On the other hand, a singer that can only sing softly May be lacklng in resonance, and/or May be "t1ght" (lack of freedoml, and/or May not be using the breath etJectively. The causes and cure~ of poor dynamlc range, however, are beyond the scope of this course. You need only be concemed with how to recognize and evaluate a singer's dynamlc range.

~ Example 11a: Focus on the dynamics in this example. How weil is this ~ singer able to differentiate betweer. fortissimo and pianissimo? Are you able to hear any contrasts in dynamics? If so, how great are these contrasts? Is the singer able to control the volume regardless of the pitch or tessitura (average position of the notes - high, medium or low)?

fa\] Example 11 b: 1have chosen this rendition of Rachmaninov's song, "Ne poy ~ krasavitsa" ("0 never sing to me again"), by the famous Russian soprano Galina Vishnevskaya, as an example of excellent dynamic range. Listen to her high "A"s, which are ft on first appearance in the climactic middle part of the song, and later retum pp in the final section. Her low notes are also loud or soft, as required by the music.

l'1Ga/ina Vishnevskaya (b.1926) is particu/ary associated with the Russian and Italian repertoires. A powerful dramatic performer, she had a rich voice of considerable power and range, which she used with outstanding intelligence and musicianship. Married to the cellist and conductor Mstis/av Rostropovich, she /eff the USSR in 1974. and she and her husband were stripped of their Soviet citizenship. Her autobiography, Ga/ina: a Russian StOry, was pub/ished in 1984.

9 Example 12a: Once again listen for the dynamic range. To what exlent is this singer able to prodL:ce differences in volume? Is everything at the • same dynamic level - elther ail loud, or ail soft?

Example 12b: Compare the last rendition of this well-known tenor aria with this rendltion by Luigi Alva. Here is an excellent example of dynamic range. Notice the sensitive dynamic shading.

~ The aria is "Dalla sua pace la mia dipende" ("Upon her peace depends my own"), ~ Don Ottavio's aria from Act 1, Scene 3, of Mozart's Don Giovanni (Don Juan). It • is sung immediately after his fiancée. Donna Anna. has declared that she has recognized Don Juan's voice as that ofthe man who killed her father and seduced her ("Or sai chi l'onore"). In this aria. Don Ottavio expresses his love for Donna Anna and his readiness to assist her in gaining revenge.

Peruvian lyric tenor. Luigi Alva (b. 1927), was particularty associated with Mozart, Rossini and lighter Donizetti roles. One of the leading tenore di grazias of the postwar era, witlT' a fine technique and excellent diction, he was also an accomplished comic actor. In 1981, he founded Peru's opera company, Fundacion para Arte Lirica, of which he became. produCfJr and artistic director.

liIiI Example 13a: Focus once again on the dynamlc range in this performance ~ of Sesto's aria, "Deh, per questo istante solo", from Act 2 of Mozart's opera La clemenza di Tito (The Clemency of Titus). How much variation is there in the dynamics? None? A Iittle? A wide range? Are the dynamic variations appropriate to the expressive needs of the music, or do they seem to be caused mainly by fluctuations in pitch or tessitura (e.g. high notes generally loud, low notes generally soft)?

~ ExampJe 13b: Compare the last example to this one sung by Cecilia Bartoli. ~ Notice how gracefully and skilfully she is able to vary the dynamics, seemingly unaffected by the pitch or tessitura (e.g. in the pianissimo retum of the opening lines, followed by the forte section). Notice also the wide range between her pianissimo's and forte's.

1\ 1 ln this aria, Sesto (usually sung by a mezzo), who has been captured and sentenced ta death for betraying the Emperor, asks Tito not ta forget their former friendship. He heroically refuses ta implicate Vitellia. even though it was she who used him for herevil machinations against Tito. Forhim death hoids no terror and he only regrets his betreyal of Tito.

10 1er. 1 Cecilia Bartoli. the young Italian mezzo-soprano, is prominent among the most .. recent exponents of an il/ustrious tradition of mezzos, who ant able to sing the ~ notoriously difficult coloratura repertoire, notably Rossini's operas. Bartoli made • her operatic début at the age of nine, as the Shepherd Boy in a performance of Tosca given in Rome. where she later went on to study at the St. Cecilia Academy. At one time she thought she would do anything rather than sing for a living, but opera wu in the blood; both of her parents were singers. She herselt soon caught the attention of some of her seniors in the profession. most notably the soprano Katia Ricciarelli. The young mezzo's appearance in a concert at the Paris Opera in memory of Maria Callas introduced her to the international public, and it also provided an entrée to the French houses in which she has been able to develop a repertoire and consolidate her style and technique. The Iwo dominant composers so far in her career have been Rossini and Mozart.

11 5. Flexibiiiiy

• Dl Flexibility can simply be defined as the ease with whlch the voiee moves ~ !rom one note to the next. The opposite of f1exibility is rigidity, singing in which one can sense that effort is required to move !rom one note to the next, or even to attack a single note. Flexibility is most apparent in fast-moving coloratura passages where the singer is required to move rapidly !rom one note to another in continuous sequence. In this particular aspect of vocal production, the lighter, smallervoices generally have the advantage, and this is reflected in the kinds ofmusic they are requlred to sing (e.g. more coloratura passages). Although It may seem unfalr that IIghter volces will generally achleve hlgher ratlngs for f1exibllity, it ail evens out in th~ long run, sinee the heavier, more dramatlc voices generally have the advantage in other areas, such as dynamic range.

~ Example 14a: Here we have an accomplished singer, who seems to be ~ having no problems until we get to the first long ccloratura passage on the.. word "rage" in "Why do the ;'lations rage". Notice how the singer cannot move from one note to the next rapidly enough to keep up with the tempo and: gets behind the orchestra. Can you hear any other trouble spots in this piece, related to lack of flexibility? Notice also that when he tries to keep up to the tempo in some of the long running passages, his intonation gets sloppy. It is as though he does not have the tlme he needs to clearly establish one pitch before going on to the next.

~ Example 14b: Here is an example of the same bass aria from Handel's ~ Messiah, "Why do the nations (so furiously rage together)". This time it is sung by Robert Hale. Notice that the tempo is faster than in the previous example. Nevertheless this singer shows no flexibility problems. His tempo and pitches in the runs are right on. Another interesting thing about this singer is that his voïce, a full resonant bass, is no smaller or Iighter than that of the singer in the previous example.

~ Example 15a: Focus on flexibility in this example. Is this singer able to IWJ change notes as quickly and easlly as required by the music? To what degree: never, hardly ever, sometimes, most ofthe time, always etc.)? Are the pitches in these faster note changes exact and clear, or are they sometimes approximated and obscured due to an apparent need for more time to move clearly from one pitch to another? If you are aware of any such flexibility problems, determine a rating commensurate with (and inversely proportional to) the degree of severity of these problems and their rate of occurrence.

12 Example 15b: Here is the same ana. sung by Joan Sutherland. Notice the ease and rapidity with whlch she changes notes. Notice also how cleanly • and clearly she establishes each new pltch. \6. 1 This aria is the bo/ero. "Merce. di/ette amlche" ("Thank you. young friends") frorT' ... Act 5 of Verdi's opera 1Vespri Sici/ian; (The Sici/ian Vespers). It IS sung by Elena, the sister of Frederick of Austria. in the gardens of the palace of Monforte. govemor of Sicily. where she is abo;;t to marry Arrigo, a young Sici/ian. Elena. in bridai dress. comes down the steps from the palace. and sings this ana to the maidens, who offer her flowers.

Australian soprano, Joan Sutherland (b. 1926), has been particularly associated wlth Italian and French co/oratura roles. especiafly Lucia in Donizetti's opera Lucia di Lammermoor. One of the greatest singers ofthe 201h century (dubbed "La Stupenda" by the Italians). she possessed a voice of great beauty and far greater power than most co/oraturas. combining extraordinary agi/ity with flawless intonation and a phenomenal trifl. She was known for her total command of Bellinian and Donizettian style. Her husband is the conductor Richard Bonynge.

Example 16a: Focus once again on f1exibility. Listen particularly to the faster second section at "Agitata è l'alma mia" ("My soul is troubled"). How easily, quickly and accurately does this singer go from one note to the next?

Example 16b: Compare the last example with this rendition by the well­ known countertenor, René Jacobs. Notice that he takes the coloratura section at a faster tempo and seems to have less problems navigating the runs.

~ This excerpt is from the opening of Handel's secular Italian solo cantata. "Mi ~ palpita il cor" ("My heart beats loudly"). The theme is agitation, suffering, doubt, and the pains of love.

RenJ Jacobs, who sang in the cathedral choir in Ghent, Belgium, for six years, obtained his licentiate for c/assical philology at Ghent University and studied solo singing inter alia in Brussels with Lode Devos, the tenor. His development into a fa/settisl, however, wu ta a large extent the result ofseff-teaching, except for a summer course with Alfred Deller in Senanques, Provence. The Belgian and Outch "Baroque specialisls", such as Gustav Leonhardt and the Kuijken brothers awakened René Jacobs' interest in music of the Renaissance and Baroque periods. He has appeared with the Leonhardt Consort, and has made many concert tours and recordings. His initial predilection for the solo recital increasingly tumed to oratorio and baroque opera.

end of cassette #1, sIde B

13 cassette #2, side A • 6. Evenness of registration r7l "Registers '" arc subtle adjustments of the vocal apparatus govemed by ~ chailges of pitch and which in a tnJly frce production take place automatically." (George Baker, The Cornmon Sense of Singing. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1963, p.25) The ideal in vocal production is that these adjustments be imperceptible, inaudible. This is sometimes referred to as "seamless" vocal production from one end to the other of the vocal range. In many singers - sorne quite competent - one can nevertheless hearabrupt changes in vocal quality between different parts of the vocal range. ln female singers, the distinction is often made between "chest" register and "head" register. In males, the 'Talsetto" register has a distinctily dilferent quality from the rest of the vocal range, usually sounding Iighter, hootier and breathier (as in the case of a man tryi!lg to imitate a woman's singing). The terms ''heavy mechanism", '1ight mechanism" and 'Talsetto mechanism" are also used. A typical example of a woman singlng in pure "chest" register would be a femélle pop singer belting out a Broadway show tune. Pure ''head'' register would be used, for example, by a woman trying to sing Ilke a Iittle girl Trained singers, both male and female, generally use a mixture or blend of "head" and "chest" registers, which ls' somet!mes referred to as "mlxed register". The exception is countertenors, men who sing in falsetto register.

fiIi1 Example 17a: Focus on evenness of registration in this example. Do you ~ hear any registration breaks (abrupt changes in tone quality from one pitch ta another)? Listen for the phrase "per ridonarmi una patria, una reggia, e il nome illustre che qui celar m'è forza!" (the 5th phrase in the aria). Can you hear the sudden change in vocal quality on the underlined "a" in "un2 patria". Here the singer sudr1 ely shifts ta pure "chest" register. She remains in this register until the final "e" of "Illustre", at which point she f1ips baci< into her normal "mixed" register. Try ta hear any other such registration breaks, especially as the singer goes into the lowest part of her singing range. Listen for the phrase "trionfar nel plausa dell' Egizie coorti!". Hear the sudden switch ta pure chest register on the ward "dell" and remaining in this register for the rest of the phrase. Listen for the registration breaks on the final "e" in "struggete" bath times (the octave leaps). Are there any other registration breaks that you can hear?

~ Example 17b: Here is the same aria, "Ritama vincitor" ("May laurels crown ~ thy brow"), from Verdi's opera Aida, sung by K8~!a Ricciarelli. 1 have chosen this as an example of evenness of registration, since she generally avoids pure chest voice in this aria, and stays in mixed register throughout. There is only one brief instance of pure chest vClice in this performance. Did you hear it? (On the word "parola" at the end of the second phrase of the aria, "E dal mio labbro usci "empia parola!", where it is used for special emphasis.)

14 1~ 1 This ana is sung at the end of the first scene of the opera by Alda. a s.lave of the ~. Egyptians. who IS secretly the captured pnncess of Ethlopla. Alda has Just • leamed that the man she loves. Radames. IS gomg to lead an Egyplian army to fight the Ethioplan army. whlch IS led by Alda's father. the Kmg of Ethlopla. Alda bemoans the cruel fate that IS teanng her heart m Iwo. because she IS unable to s/de wlth either he. lover or her father

Italian soprano. Katia Ricclarelli (b. 1946). is partlcularty assoclated wlth Bellini. DOnizetti and Verdi raies. especially Luisa Miller. The leading contemporary Italian Iync soprano. she has a beautiful. well-schooled and mtelligently used vO/ce and an attractive stage personality. She appeared as Desdemona in Zeffirelli's film of Otello. opposite Placldo Dommgo.

Example 18a. Here is an example of a male smger who flips mto falsetto register. Can you hear when this occurs ln the plece?

Example 18b: Here is the same song, sung by Enrico Caruso. The song is actually in Russian originally. It is "Otchego" ("Why") by Tchalkovsky Notice how Caruso manages the top note wlthout havlng to "cheat" by resorting to falsetto.

1fil,. 1 Enrico Caruso (1873-1921) is popularty regarded as the greatest tenor of a." time. • ... His most famous raies were Nemorino. the Duke of Mantua. and Eléazar ln La Juive (the last raie he undertook). He was known for his glorious. rich vOlce with a dari< and powerfullower register. and his phrasing, diction and technique. He created Maur.tio in Adriana Lecouvreur. Federico in L'Arfesiana. Dick Johnson ln La Fanciulla dei West, Loris in Fedora, and Loewe in Franchetti's Germania.

lilIIiI Example 19a: Listen carefully, especially to the lower notes. for registration ~ breaks between mixed reglster and pure chest register. Notice in the first section of the aria that the lowest range of notes is generally in pure chest voice, with a kind of yodel occurring when the singer ascends into the middle or upper ranges. There is a definite change of quality (Iike two different voices). This singer purposely uses pure chest register to get more volume and more dramatic effect in the lowest notes, while sacrificing beauty of tone and evenness of registration.

~ Example 19b: Here is an example of the same aria. "0 don fatale" ("0 fatal ~ gift"), trom Verdi's opera Don Carto, but this time sung in French instead of ItaHan. This singer does not use pure chest register at ail. She therefore has good evenness of registration.

lS ~ This aria tS sung at th", end of Act 4, Scene 1, by Princess Ebali, one of the ~ greatest roles for drdmatic mezzo. In it she curses her fatsl gift ofbesuty thst hss • made .'Jer vain and haughty, and caused her to betray the Queen, her compsnion, • to the King. Eboli is suffering rem orse at having Sllggested to the King thst he search the Queen 's jewellery box, which contains a portait of Don Carlo. Ebali reslizes now that because of her crime, Don Carlo has been sentenced to die the next day, and she resolves to save hlm.

The smger in thls example is Lucia Va/entini-Terrani. She was bom in Padua and studied at the Conservatory there. She made her début at Brescia in 1969 in the title role in Rossini's La Cenerentola and as Rosina in his Bat1Jiere di S.'viqlia. He performance in La Cenerentola took her soon after to the Verssilles Castle Theatre in Psris, La Scala in Milan, the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, and Covent Garden in London. At the same time she won the Rossini Competition organised by the RAI Radiote/evisione /taliana, and subsequently sang Isabella in Rossini's L'ltaHana in Algeri at La Scala and at the Metropofitan Opera, New Yor/<.

~ Example 19c: Here is a third rendition of this aria, this time by the Americart ~ mezzo, Grace Bumbry. Her lowest notes have a lot of chest register in them, but she so skilfully blends the registers that no registration breaks are· perceptible. There are no sudden changes in voice quality from one register to another.

1" 1 Grace Bumbry, bom in St. Louis, Missouri, first began singing at the age ofeleven ~ in a Methodist church choir. She began to serious/y study singing shortly thereafter. At the age of 17, she sang "0 don fatale" on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts, and carried away the first prize. At Northwestem University she met the renowned singer and respected teacher, Lotte Lehmann, and joined her master classes there. At the Paris Opera in 1960, she was the highly-praised Amneris in Aida. She then began singing with other notable European opera companies and greatly extended her repertoire. She wss invited to travel to Japan as the star in the Paris Opera production o{ Carmen, a'role with which she became identified. As Venus in Tannhtiuser at the Bayreuth Festival, she scored a most important triumph, which won her international acelaim, ln 1965 Miss Bumbry made her Metropolitan Opera début, singing the role of Princess..Eboli in Don Carlo. Since then she has performed frequently at the Met.

16 7. Efficient breath management

• l7l The voiee is in many ways a wind instrument The repiratory organ serves lM...J as the activator ofvolee production, and therefore emcient use ofthe breath is vital to good singing. The question is, can we hear breath management? And if so, how does it sound? With efficient breath management, one has the impression that the voiee is 'lIoating"freely Oil the breath. The bestway, however, to leam to appreciate good breath management, is to hear examples of poor breath management The reason forthis is that with good breath management the listener is usually not aware of the breathing. The main problems of breath management, which 1 have tried to iIIustrate in the following examples, are insufficient breath pressure, uneven breath pressure, and excessive breath pressure.

liI5l Example 20: Here is an example of a novice singer performing the song, ~ "Fair, sweet, cruel", by the English lutenist and composer of lute songs, Thomas Ford (b.abt.158D;d.1648). Notice the breathiness of the tone and the lack of solidily in the pitches. ïhe pitches f1uctuate, especially on the longer held notes. This is an example of both insufficient and uneven breath pressure. The pitch fluctuation is a result of not keeping the breath pressure or f10w constant. There are many terms to describe this: lack of breath control, lack of (breath) support, not "singing on the breath", not being "connected" to the breath, and 50 on.

ljIi] Example 21a: Here is an example of another common fault in breath ~ management. This is often called "pushing" or "overblowing", and refers to the use of excessive breath pressure. The vocal production sounds strained, tight and efforttul, especially on the higher notes, and you can often hear an unusually loud grunt at the ends of phrases, when the accumulated breath pressing against the vocal cords is allowed to escape. The vocal production sounds strained because it lacks the resonance produced when the vocal cords are allowed to vibrate freely at optimum breath pressure.

~ Example 21b: Compare the last example with this rendition of the same ~ aria, Don José's "Flower Song" trom Bizet's opera Carmen ("La fleur que tu m'avais jetée"). There is little evidence of strain, tightness or effort in this vocal production. The voice seems to ''float on the breath", as it resonates treely.

17 1e.. 1 ln thls well-known ana. Don José declares hls love for Carmen. the free-spirited • ~. gypsy. who cannot accept hls leavmg her to retum to his army regiment. The smger is the most famous French tenor of the 20th century. Georges Thill. He was admlred for the fullness cf h/s tone. the elegance of h/s phrasmg. the precision of his diction. and the clevr., mixture of head and chest reg/sters enabling him to culminate an ana m a hlgh C of the utmost qualdy. Thill made his début at the Paris Opera in 1924. Ir. 1928 his intemational career started to take off. and at the age of thirty-two. Georges Thlll had become a legend. Fram then on it was up to recordings to immortalise. sustain and up-

ritil Example 22a: Here is another example of using too much breath pressure ~ or "pushing". Although this mezzo has a tendency to push, she aoes not do it ail the lime. Can you hear when she is pushing? The sound quality becomes stralned. and the voice does not resonate (or vibrate) freely. In the present example, this results in a pronounced "bleat" (since the natural vibrato is relatively fast, and the excessive breath pressure interferes with its free functioning and distorts it).

liIIi1 Example 22b: Here is the same aria, sung by American mezzo Risë lM] Stevens. It is performed in its original key of Eb major. whereas the previous example was lowered atone to Db major. (High notes become more difficult when there is a tendency to push). Notice how the voice "tloats on the breath" No sign of strain or effort here. and the high notes sound free and easy.

l'1The aria is "Non so più cosa son, cosa faccio" ("1 no longer know who 1am, nor what 1 do") from Act 1 of Mozart's opera Le nozze di Figaro. It is sung by Cherubino. an adolescent boy in the service of Count Almaviva as a page. In this aria. Cherubino confides to Susanna, the Countess' maid. that he does not understand why every waman makes him blush and his heart beat wildly. and he asks Susanna to explain ta him about love. This role is usually sung by a mezzo-soprano. and is an example ofa "pant raie", i.e. a male raie sung by a temale singer.

Risé Stevens was bom of Norwegian descent. in New York city, on June11, 1913. She studied voice with Anna Sch(jn-René at the Juilliard School of Music. In 1935 she went to Vienna ta study further. She made her début as Mignon with the Prague Opera in 1936. She went on to leading roles at the Vienna State Opera, Teatro Colon and Glyndeboume before making her début with the Metropoliten Opera as Mignon in December 1938. Her best-known raies were Octavian in Strauss' Der Rosenkava/ier. Cherubino in Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro. the title role in Bizet's Carmen. and the title raie in Mignon by Ambroise Thomas. In the 1940s Stevens made two Hollywood films - The Chocolate Soldier. opposite Nelson Eddy, and Going My Way, with Bing Crosby. She continued her association with the Metropolitan Opera and, afterherlast Carmen, in 1961. served for a time as General Manager ofthe Met's National Company.

18 rail Example 23a: Here IS yet another example of breath management ~ problems. The symptoms are: gasping audibly for breath at the end of each phrase: gOlng sharp or. some high, long-heId notes: wobbly pltch on • some notes: generally effortful-soundlng vocal production. This singer has a tendency to use too much breath pressure or "push"

~ Example 23b: Comoare the previous example with thls rendltlon of the ~ same song, "Die Nachtigall" from Alban Ber~l's Sieben Fruhelieder (Seven Early Songs). It is sung by American soprano, Cathenne Rowe. Notice that even though she takes it at a muc." slower tempo, she seems to have plenty of air for each phrase, and is not gasplng for breath. The vocal production here sounds easy, free and effortless, One does not getthe impression thatthe singer is working hard. The voice "f1oats on the breath". This is an example of efficient breath management.

1~ 1 Catherine Rowe has been popularwith composers and conductors because. ~ of her excellent musicianship and perfect pifch. She spec/alizes in "vocal chamber music", with the contemporary and Baroque styles as he'. favorites, She is also a specialist in oratorio, An enthusiastic music/an, she enjoys teaching as much as singing, She has taüght at Sarah Lawrence College, Rutgers and her alma mater. the Peabody Conservatory.

end of cassette #2. sicle A

19 cassette #2, side 8 • 8. Resonance/ring

r71 Vocal quality can be objeetively detennined by the fonn of the sound wave lM..J issuing fr'om the singer's mouth, and the frequencies and intensities of its overtones. A physical description may be stated as follows: a vibrato of 5 to 7 cycles per second (depending on the voice type); a low fonnant (overtone) centering around 600 to 700 cycles per second for warmth and color oftone; and a high fonnant (often called the "singer's fonnanr1 centerlng around 2800 to 3200 cycles per second for metal or ring. These three criteria will be discussed and iIIustrated in the following examples under the tenns: resonance/ring, vibrato and colorfwarmth.

Resonance, or ring, refers to the presence of a concenteratlon of energy in the sound waves around 2800 to 3200 cycles per second. This produces an audible rtnging or metallic quality, sometimes called "ping", whlch allows even relative~ small volees to project over a long distance and overa Ioud orchestra. The ltallan tenn "chiaroscuro" (''bright-darl(1 is a good descriptive tenn for the well-balanced· singing volee. It refers to the necessary balance between high (''brighf1 and Iow' ("darl(1 fonnants in ideal vocal tone•

The best way 1know of describing what "rtng" sounds Iike is a klnd of shimlT;~ror • brtlliance that seems to IIoatfreely above the rest ofthe vocal sound. Sorne volee pedagogues describe rin~ as a klnd of free resonating buzz. This is especially descrtptive of male vo!œs. Anothertenn often used by volee teachers to descrtbe this phenomenon is "dome". This descrtbes a high and rounded sound that gtves the impression ofhaving no upperIImlt, as opposed to a sound that appears to be strainlng agalnst a ceWng or upper IImlt.

Example 24a: Here is a voice that lacks "ring". As a result, it sounds dark and throaty in quality. and would have difficulty projecting in a large hall or over an orchestra.

~ Example 24b: Here is the same aria, "Ballade de la Reine Mab" (''The ~ Ballad of Oueen Mab"). which is sung by Mercutio near the beginning of Gounod's opera Roméo et Juliette (Romeo and Juliette). The singer is Canadian lyric baritone. Gino Ouilico (b.1955). The younger Ouilico is known for his clear. bright. ringing vocal quality., he has no trouble projecting over the orchestra, because of this brightness or ring.

20 fiIil Example 25a: Here is some aceomplished and very controlled singing. ~ However, the vOlee tends to lack resona!'lce. This often happens when a singer tries to artificially "darken" the sound quality, perhaps in order to • sound more like a "mezzo" or "contralto" or "bass". The dangers of this type of production are that the high notes become less free and therefore more difficult, and the voice does not resonate and carry weil.

~ Example 25b: Here is the same aria, sung by Teresa Berganza. Notice ~ how much more ring she gets. One has the impression of the voice resonating in the facial mask (across the bridge of the nose and around nasal sinuses), rather than in the throat, and the vocal production sounds freer and more effortless as weil,

The aria is "Una voce poco fa", sung by Rosina in Act 1, Scene 2, of Rossini's comic opera, 1/ barbiere di Siviqlia (The Barber of Seville). In this aria, Rosina muses that although docile and respectful, she will play a hundred tricks if she i... crossed in her love for Count Lindoro.

Spanish mezzo, Teresa Berganza (b. 1935), is noted for Rossini and Mozart roles and' identified with Carmen and the Spanish repertoire (incll'ding zarzuela). Possessing a rich and alluring voice of great range and agility. together with an outstanding technique, she was one ofthe leading mezzos of the postwar era.

liJi1 Example 26a: Listen once again for the ring, Can vou hear any, or does ~ the voice sound dull and stuck in the throat? Ring is usually aceompanied by a sensation of vocal freedom, since ring cannot generally occur in a tense or tight vocal production. (The words in this example may be unrecognizable to Vou because it is sung here in Swedish, instead of the original German.)

Example 26b: Compare the previous example with this rendition of the same aria, Notice the free ringing quality of the vocal production throughout this example.

'-"1 The aria is Prince Tamino's aria. "Dies Bildnis ist bezaubemd schOn" ("This ~ portrait is incomparably beautifur), from Mozart's opera Die Zauberf/Ote (The Magic Flute). Tamino has jus! been shown a portrait of the princess Pamina, whom he is supposed to rescue from captivity, and he expresses in this beautiful • aria the extreme ardor ofhis sentiments towards this lovely young woman. 21 1"1 T.'le singer is Léopold Simoneau lb. 1918). Canadian tenor. particularlyassociated ~ with Mozart roles and with the French repertoire. A singer of outstanding style and refinement. he was arguably the finest interpreter ofthe French lyric repertoire • during the 1950s and early 1960s. He was artistic director of the Opéra de Québec for a brief penod from 1971. His wife. Pierette Alarie lb. 1921). was a successful coloratura soprano.

r.2i1 Example 27a: Foeus once again on ring. It may be confusing when ~ listening to a soprano. since there are so many high frequencies in the voice naturally. Ring or singer's formant, however, refers to a specifie phenomenon which oecurs oniy when the voice is allowed to resonate freely.

Example 27b: Compare the previous example to this rendition of the same aria by American soprano Julia Migenes. Can you hear the ring?

The aria is "Dieu. quel frisson" ("My God, what shivers") from Gounod's opera . Roméo et Juliette. It is sung by Juliette at the end of Act 4, as she gathers up' her courage to drink the potion that will give her the appearance of death.

Julia Migenes lb. 1945) is a powiJrful and at times flamboyant singing-actress with a voiee ofhighly individual timbre. She came to international prominence in 1984 playing Cannen in Franco Rosi's film, opposite Placido Domingo. She has also had considerable success as a television personality.

22 9. AJ;mropriate vibrato

• r:7l "The 'vibrato' is a periodic pulsation in pitch frequencies, the average of LMJ which is approximately 6.2 to 6.6 per second ... Vibrato is an Integral part of good quality." (American Academy of Teachers of Slnglng. Termlnology in the Field of Singing. New York: G. Schirmer, 1969, p.23) '"The vibrato is caused by an intermittent supply of nerve energy, resulting in regular fluctuation of muscular energy in the vocal bands (cords) ... Vibrato is an essential concomitant for beauty and freedom of vocal tone." (Van A. Christy, Expressive Singing. Vol. 2. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co., 1961, p.43)

According to Meribeth Bunch in Dynamlcs of the Singlng Voice (New York: Springer-Verlag. 1993, p.75), an acceptable vibrato can be anywhere from 5 to 8 pulsations per second, with a deviation from the true pitch as large as a semitone. The important thlng is that the vibrato maintaln a regular rate of pulsation, and consistency in the interval of devlation from true pitch.

Vibrato problems are generally an indication of excessive tension or force in the vocal production. They manlfest themselves ln several ways. A vibrato that is too. fast and tight, up to 12 pulsations per second, is calied a "Iremolo". It is olten heard as a group of tones rather than a single one, and in that case, sounds o somewhat IIke the bleat of a sheep. Another common problem isthe vibrato that istoo w1de (coverlng too w1de a range offrequencies) ortoo siow (less then 5 pulsations per second). Vibrato that is too w1de or too slow is heard by the Ustener as separate pJtches, and is dlstracting, olten obscurlng the pJtches of the melody belng sung. This is olten caJJed a ''Wobble''. It Is usually caused by muscle fatigue, and is olten found in older slngers, who are past their prime, especlally If they have been s1nglng very dramatlc roles and forcing thelr volees (pushlng).

Another vibrato problem Is the Iack of Il This is known as straight tone or white tone ("voix blanche'. It is olten round ln novice singera who have exceSlive tension ln their vocal produ:tlon, whlch Impedes the natural free vibration of the vocal corda.

There is a w1de margln of acceptabDlty ln vibrato, and much depends upon the volee c1assllcatlon andthe repertolre. ~rorheavlervoices and more dramatie repertoire aJJow w1der and sIower vibrato. Forexample, one recent study showed that barJtones, whose voices were Judged by experts to be beautlful, had average vibrato rates of around 5.4 pulsations per second.

23 ~ Example 28: Can you idenlify the vibrato problem in this example? The ~ song is a selting of Shakespeare's poem "Come away death" from the play Twelfth Nighl. This is an example of lack of vibrato, or straighttone. The • singer is probably a young novice, who has yet to develop a freedom of vocal production. Straight tone is sometimes used for effect or in sorne stylES of early music or choral singing, but this is generally by choice.

Example 29: Here IS an example of excesslvely wide vibrato or wobble. This singer seems to work very hard, singlng with too much breath pressure.

~ Example 30a: This is another example of excessively wide "ibrato, or ~ wobble. Notice how the vibrato is uneven - fluctuating between straight tone and wobble. This is an accomplished singer, who has recorded past her prime, The wobble is a sign of a vocal deterioration, caused by aging and/or vocal abuse.

Example 30b: ln this example, the same aria is sung by Julia Migenes. Compare the vibrato here with the previous example. 1have chosen this as an example of good vibrato.

The aria is "Depuis le jour que je me suis donnée" ("Since the day that 1 surrendered (to love)") from the opera Louise by Charpentier. ft is sung by Louise at the beginning of Act 3. In this aria she expresses ail her happiness since she has been living with her lover, the young artist Julien.

Example 31a: Focus once again on vibrato in this example. Here is another example of wobble. Judge the degree of severity, and decide the rating, from 1 to 7, that you would give for this vibrato,

~ Example 31b: Now Iisten to the same aria, "Di Provenza" ("From ~ Provence"), trom Verdi's opera La Traviata, sung by Matteo Manuguerra (b. c1925). Contrast the vibrato in this example w/th that of the previous example. Can you hear the difference? (You may find it easier to rate the previous example now that you have compared it to a standard of acceptability iIIustrated by the present example.)

24 ln this aria, Germont, the father, tries to assuage hls son's pam at havmg leamed that Vio/etta, his lover. has just left hlm. The son. Alfredo, does not reallze. • however, that it was his father who had convmced Violetta to leave him. Matteo Manuguerra is a Tunisian-bom French ban/one, particularly assoclated wlth the French and Itallan repertolres, especial/y Verdi. Possessing a nch and firm vO/ce of considerable power, he did not begin singmg until the age of 35, but became one of the leading Verdi baritones of the 19705.

end of cassette #2, side 8

25 cassette #3, side A • 10. Color/wannth r=7l Celor or wannth can be objectlvely detennlned by measurlng the amount lM...J of energy centered around the Iow tonnant, that la, around 600 to 700 cycles per second. The Iow tonnant can be heard ln the volee, and there are many tenns used to descrlbe It color, wannth, rlchness, mellowness, roundness, fullness, dari< quality, velvet quallty, and 50 on.

~ Example 32a: Focus on the colorJwarmth (Iow formant) in this singer's vocal ~ production. Try to fit any of the descriptive terms in the above list to this voice. Your rating, from 1 to 7, would depend upon your assessment of the extent to which any of those qualities can be found in this voice.

Example 32b: Now compare the previous example with this rendition of the same aria by Frederica von Stade. Can you hear any difference in· colorJwarmth?

The aria is "Nobles Seigneurs, salutl" ("Noble Lords, greetings"J from Meyerbeers opera Les Huguenots. It is sung by Urbain, the page of Marguerite de Valois, another "pant role". This aria is often called "La Cavatine du Page" ("The Page's Cavatina "J.

Example 33a: Listen once again for colorJwarmth in this example by a countertenor. If it helps, try applying the list of descripti"'~ terms given above to this voice. Decide on the rating, from 1 to 7, that you would give here.

~ Example 33b: Now compare the previous example to this rendition of the ~ same aria, "Che faro senza Euridice" ("What shall 1do without Euridice") trom Gluck's opera Qrfeo ed Euridice. It is sung by the Belgian countertenor, Jochen Kowalski. He is remari

26 1'"' 1 Jochc.'1 KCl"alski (b. 1954) studlea as a fer.or at the Hanns Eis/er Conservatory ~ in Berlin. East Germany. and asplred to a career in opera as a herolc tenor. For years he struggled wit.i tr.e .study (Jf Jyr;c tenor parts until - almost by accident ­ • he fir:;t heard his true vocal niche. t.ie male alto. on a recording. Encouraged by this experience. he auditioned for Marianne Fischer-Kupfer. a vocal instructor and ttle wlfe of producer-director Harrl Kupfer. and the highly e,penenced smger was enthused. An invitation to the 1982 Handel Festival in the East German city 0" Hal/e fol/owed. The director general of East Berlin's Comlc Opera House was there and hired the taler.ted singer on the spot for his first role in Bertin. Fedor m Mussorgsky's Bons Godunov. His second appearance. in Handel's Giustino. gave him the opportunity to shine vocal/y in the tille role. Ever since this spectacular success in 1984. Kowalski has been considered one of the intemational/y most sought-after countertenors. and is heard on the opera stages of Westem Europe.

r.Ii1 Examples 34a, band c: The next 3 examples are ail baritones or bass­ ~ baritones singing the first of Brahms' Vier Emste Gesange (Four Serious Songs). They are (a) Shura Gehrman, (b) German baritone Hermann Prey, and (c) Canadian bass-baritone George London (1920-1985). 1have placed them. in ascending order of color/warmth. Try to fccus on this criterion and compare the three singers for yourself, to get a clearer idea of what this criterion sounds like..

1"1 The Vier emste Gesange op. 121 for bari/one and piano were completed in May ~ 1897, less than a year be(ore Brahms' death. They are among the most compelling and mature compositions of a composer beset by a growing sense of resignation. Brahms himself chose the words from the Scriptures: "For that which • befal/eth the sons of men befal/eth beasts, as the one dieth. so .:tieth the other. "

27 11. IntensiPl

• Dl Intensity in vocal production basically refers to the ratio of tone to non­ lM..J harmonic ''noise'' that the singer produces. Ideally, the amount of energy channelled into tone should be maximized, and the amount of energy escaping as noise minimized. This is sometimes referred to as 'Tocus". Noise can be heard as escaping breath orvarioustuzzy and unfocussed sounds that interfere with the clarity or purity of the vocal tone. ''Spread tone" is another manifestation of lack of intensity.

Intensity can be measured on electronic instruments, as weil as perceived by the ear. An excellent singe:'s vocal production will make a pattern on a sonagram in which one can see two dark bands - one around 600 to 700 cycles per second (rememberthe lowformant?) and another around 2800 to 3200 cycles persecond (high, or singer's, formant). This indicates that the energy in the sound waves being produced by the singer is concentrated, or focussed, around those two important frequencles. A singer who Iacks intensity will produce a sonagram wIttt a more even distribution of energy throughout the frequency range. In other words, he will be produclng a sound with less energy focussed at the harmonie frequencies (overtones ofthe fundamental frequency ofthe note) and more energy spread over the non-harmonie frequencies than the excellent singer. The following 4 pairs of contrastlng examples should help you ta l!nderstand and recognize this criterion.

Example 35a: Notice, in this example, how the purity of the tone is often overshadowed and obscured by extraneous vocal noises. This will be easier to understand and hear when you compare this example with the next one.

ljIi] Example 35b: Hear how much clearer the tone is, and how there is much ~ less extraneous vocal noise. Much more of the sound energy is concentrated in pure tone. The sound has more intensity, since most of the energy is going into vibrations that produce tone, rather than being dissipated as non-harmonic noise.

1"'1 The aria in this pair ofexamples is "Hai gii vinta la causa", Count Almaviva's aria ~ from Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro. In this aria, the Count has just overtJearrJ Susanna, the Countess' maid, saying "Hai già vinta la causa" ("1 have already won the case"), and he an."rily repeats this phrase to himself. This leads into an aria expressing his indignation that his servant, Figaro, will enjoy what he himseffcannot have. name/y Susanna.

28 The smger m th/s example is the Belgian bass-baritone. José van Dam (b.1940). " José van Dam wa.i !lom in Brussels. He made his début at the Paris Opera in ~• 1961 and remained witt: the Company unti/1965. He then sang for two seasons • at the Geneva Grand Theatre before joming the Duetsche Oper. Berlin. in 1967 Smce 1970 he has sung at La Scala in Milan. Covent Garden in London. the Metropolitan Opera m New York. the Vienna and Berlin Operas. and at the Sa/zburg and Aix-en­ Provence FestIVals. He sang Leporello in the Joseph Losey film of Don Giovanni. You may have seen Van Dam recently m the tifle role of the film. Le maitre de mus/gue. MusIc critic J. B. Steane writes ·(José van Dam) is another instance of.3 bass-baritone who has successfully preserved an exemplary style of voice-production. witt/out coarsenmg of tone (Iack of intensity) or loosening cf vibrancy (wobble). He has in prac!ically everything been a model ofgood singing according to 'classical' standards, still to be heard in our time.· (p. 98)

Example 36a: Focus once again on intensity. How much vocal noise do you hear? How focussed is the sound energy in pure tone? How much is being dissipated or wasted in noise? How pure or clear is the vocal tone? Compare this example with the next one.

liIi1 Example 36b: Here is the same excerpt from the aria "Cruda sorte, amor ~ tiranno" ('Cruel fate! Tyrannicol love!") from Rossini':; opera, L'italiana in Algeri, sung by Cecilia Bartoli. 1have chosen this as a good example of • intensity. Can you hear the difference in intensity between the 2 examples? liIll Example 37a: This is a good example of lack of intensity. Notice how this ~ tenor loses a lot of energy in breathy noise. One gets the impression that the tone is spread, rather than focussed. Compare this example to the next one.

lilI51 Example 37b: Although 1could not find another example of a tenor singing I!I!!J this song, Hermann Prey's baritone rendition shows a great deal more intensity than the previous example. Try to hear the difference in intensity. Focus on the tone-to-noise ratio. if that helps make it clearer.

The song is "Allersee/en" ("Ali Souls' Day·) by R. Strauss.

Place on the table the fragrant mignonettes, Bring here the last of the red asters, And let us speak again of love, as long aga in May. Give me your hand that 1may secretly clasp ft, And if ft is observed by others. 1will not mind; Give me one of your sweet glances, as long aga in May. Today each grave is flowen'ng and fragrant. Once a year is Ali Souls' Day, Come ta my healt that 1again may have you. as long aga in May.

29 Iilllil Exam.pie 38a: T.hls exam. Pie. proVld.es another opportunlty for you to focus ~ on intenslty. lt is a good example of a singer who uses a lot of energy. a signlficant portion of whlch IS disSlpated in nOise. Can you hear what 1 • mean?

1~.I This excerpt is from the aria. "Nemico della patna" ("An enemy ofthe stateï. from .... the opera Andrea Chenter by Umberto Giordano (1867-1948). In thls ana. Charles Gerard. a powerful agent of the Revolutionary Tribunal in France. IS about to slgn a paper falsely denouncing André Chenier. a poet. as an enemy of the state. He hesitates. remembering the idealism that had originally led him to work for the Revolution. But driven by jealousy and the desire to possess Madeleme. who is in love with Chenter. Gérard signs the requisition. It is a very powerful. dramatic aria. with many shiftmg emotions.

r.Iil Example 38b: Here is the same excerpt. sung by the Italian baritone. Leo ~ Nucci (b. 1942). Try to focus on the difference in intel"'sity between these two eXâmples. Can you hear how much more intensity there is in thi5" vocal production?

Leo Nucci is considered a true "Verdi baritone". He is especially known for a nch and bright-toned voice with a thrilfing upper register and good stage presence.

end of cassette #3. side A

30 cassette #3, side B • 12. Freedom throughout the vocal rang~

Dl Freedom has been defined as: a condition of natura~ unforœd and lM..J unrestrlcted operation ofthe vocal organs; easp. In the musculature; Iack of muscular Interference; gMng the IUusIon of elfortless s1nglng; the greatest amount ofsonorous tonal volume forthe Ieast amount ofelfolt; seemlng asthough the singer ls never at the limit ofhlslher capaclty to s1ng hlgher, Iouderor hold the note longer.

liIi1 Example 39a: Here is an example of a novice tenor, who has not yet ~ developed an acceptable degree offreedom. His vocal production sounds tight or strangled (muscular interference) and forced or effortful. (He has_. transposed the piece down a semitone, probably due to tightness on the high notes.)

liIll Example 39b: Compare the previous example to this rendition of the same ~ piece, the popular tenor air, "Mattinata", by Leoncavallo. Can you hear the difference in vocal freedom? The singer in this example is (you guessed it) Luciano Pavarotti.

~ Example 40a: Focus once again on freedom throughout the vocal range. ~ Do ail the notes sound free and effortless, or do they ail sound tight and effortful? Are sorne parts of the vocal range freer than others? How much of the vocal range sounds free and easy? How much of the piece sounds free and easy? These questions should help you determine an appropriate rating for freedom, from 1 to 7.

~ Example 4Ob: Compare the previous example with this rendition of the ~ same aria, "Questo 0 quello" from Verdi's opera Rigo/etto. Focus on freedom throughout the vocal range. Can you hearany diffeFence between these two examples? The singer is once again Luciano Pavarotti.

ln this aria, sung by the Duke of Mantua in the opening saene of Rioo/etto. he boasts to his coultiers about his fDving healt. which would defy any obstacle to make a new conquest.

31 fiIlil Examples 41a and b: Focus agam on freedom throughout the vocal range l!I!J compare these Iwo rendltlons of the ana. "En tu". from the last act of Verdi's opera. Un balla in maschera (A Masked Bali). Decide not only who • you think has the freer vocal production. but also the rating from 1 to 7 that you would give each one.

~ This aria 15 very demanding for barftone. In thls scene. Renato. who mlstakenly ~ belie'les that his wife has been unfaithful. has decided ro kllJ her out of vengeance. ln a movmg aria. she begs him to let her klss their son one last tlme. Touched. Renato decides to spare her. (Singing weil can sometimes be a matter of life and death.) "Eri tu" demands a great deal of dramatic intensity m the first half. a contrasting Iyricism in the final part. and exceptional sustaining ability and vocal power throughout the aria.

The second example in this pair (41b) is sung by one of the leading Italian barftones of recent years. Renato Bruson (b.1936). Bruson is especially noted for Verdi and Donizetti roles. and has been hailed as one of the greatest barftones of the 20th century. He is known for his glorious. rich and even-toned voice. which he uses with intelligence. il" flawless technique and scrupulous good taste. He is a restrained and dignified singing­ actor. seen to best advantage as Macbeth.

liIIi1 Examples 42a, band c: The next three examples are renditions of the ana. ~ "0 mio babbino caro" ("0 my dear daddy"). from Puccmi's opera. Gianni Schicchi. 1have arranged them in ascending order of freedom througnout the vocal range. Focus on this criterion, and try to hear why 1have arranged them in this order.

1" 1The last example (42c) is sung by the Italian soprano. Mirella Freni (b.1935). ~ Mirella Freni tells us that at the age of rIVe she imitated records of the coloratura soprano Toti dal Monte. At ten (accompanied by her future husband, Leone Magiera, the conductor) she sang Vio/etta's aria from La Traviata at a school performance. Later, on Benjamino Gigli's advice. she underwent a thorough training and. in 1955, made her début in her native Modena as Micai!/a in Bizet's Carmen. Engagements at various Italian opera houses followed. In spite of these first early successes Mirella Freni was wise enough to continue her training and perfect her technique. She went on to sing at opera houses ail over the wor/d. The keystone ofher repertoire is formed by the great Verdi and Puccini Iyrical roles, especia!ly Mimi in Puccini's La Bohème. In addition she has performed leading roles in 19th century Iyrical French opera, Gounod's Marguerite and Juliette, Massenet's Manon, and Mozart's Zer/ina in Don Giovanni and Susanna in Le nozze di Figaro.

END OF PART 1

32 •

PART 2

GUIDED USTENING PROGRAM IN VOleE EVALUATION

Elizabeth Ekholm, April 1994 • Instructions for Part 2

The Iistenlng examples for Part 2 begln on cassette # 3. slde B About halfway through the tape. you wili hear a rather abrupt message. announclng the end of Part 1 and advlslng you ta turn ta the instructIOns before proceedlng further 1Sarry about the abruptness. 1 forgotto leave enough si-ace for my message Chalk It up ta expenence l )

Part 2 is designed as a revlew of the 12 cntena. Each criterion will be announced on the tape. followed by 2 or 3 examples. You may find some of the discnmlnations that you are required ta make in thls section more subtle. Oon't be discouraged If you have difficulty hearing any differences between some of the examples. The effort alone of concentrating on the criterlon in question will be beneficial in itself You can always refer back ta the program notes in Part 1. if you need ta refresh you memory regarding any' criterion.

ln Part 2 you will have the opportumty ta practlce evaluation uSlng raling scales The first criterlon ta be reviewed is intonation (pitch) accu13cy, and YOu will rate the examples for thls criterion using the rating scale provided on the next page. Then as each successive crltenon IS presented, you will rate not only that criterion, but ail the criteria prevlously reviewed, in a cumulative fashion. Once the twelfth criterion is reached, you will be rating the examples on ail 12 of the criteria. You will thus be rating not only the crlterlon that the examples are illustrating, but ail the criteria reviewed until then. Please feel free ta Iisten ta the examples as many times as you wish.

Use the entire range of the rating scales, from 1 ta 7. and try ta be as objective as possible. Remember that you are rating only vocal production. not interpretation or any other musical concerns. In other words, treat the excerpt as though it were slmply a vocalise, and focus solely on how the singer is using hislher voice.

You're on your own now, so good luck, and have fun! (As always, please do not hesitate to cali me if you are having problems with this section.) 1. Intonation (pitch) accuracy

Example A • poor excellent intonation (pitcb) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Example B poor 9xcellent intonation (pitcb) accuracy 1 2 3 5 6 7

2. Diction

Example A poor excellent intonation (pitcb) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

Ex:omple B poor excellent intonation (pitcb) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. Legato line

Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato lin. l 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example B poor excellent intonation (pUch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato lin. l 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 4. Dynamic range

Example A • poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. Flexibility • Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Ex:mple B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynlllllic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 • flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 • 6. Evenness of registration

Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato lins l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic rang.. l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility l 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration l 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility l 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenneslI of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 • 7. Efficient breath management

Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

le,lato l;.ne l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynam:i.c range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility l 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration l 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management l 2 3 4 5 6 7

Exarnple B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 " 5 6 7 diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility l 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration l 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management l 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 • 8. Resonance/ring Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 1 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• Example B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

f~exibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 • 9. Appropriate vibrato Example A poor excellent ~ intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 "- 3 4 5 6 7

~ diction 1 "- 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenneS5 of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato 1ine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath lIUlDagement 1 2 3 4 'i 6 7

reso::lance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 • 6 • 10. Color/wannth Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath aaanag_ent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

apprc~riate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7 • Color/wannth (continued)

Example C

poor , excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 .' 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 11. Intensity

• Example A poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato 1ine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

intensity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

EXample B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility l 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration l 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath manag_ent l 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring l 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato l 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth l 2 3 4 5 6 7

intenaity l 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 Intensity (continued) • Example C poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

intensity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10 12. Freedom throughout vocal range

Exaruple A poor excellent • intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7 diction l 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line l 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility l 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration l 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management l 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring l 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato l 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth l 2 3 4 5 6 7

intensity l 2 3 4 5 6 7

freedom throughout vocal range l 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example B poor excellent intonation (pitch) accuracy l 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynamic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath l118Dagellent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/rinç 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

intensity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

freedOll throughout vocal range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11 Evaluation test

The tape you are about to IIsten to contams 26 performances of the first secnon of • Mozan's lied "Rldente la calma". performed by vanous slagers of diffenng vOice c1asslficanons and levels of vocal achlevement from novice to professlonal.

InsbUctions:

1 Please fill out one evaluatlon form for each performance. bemg careful to wnte the correct performance number. as stated on the tape at the begmmng of each performance. A rest penod IS recommended after the first 13 performances. or whenever you begm to feel ured. so as to mlmmlze any negatlve effecls of fatigue on your reliabllity as an adjudlcator

2 Please do not IIsten to any performance more than once. This is to slmulate normal adjudication condlllons m festivals. exams or audlllons.

3 Please use the same playback equlpment for the entue tape. so that the sound quahty WIll be equal for all the performances.

4 Please use the entlre range of the ratmg scale. from 1 to 7. and try to be as objecllve as . possible. Confidentiality IS assured. 1be singers will deli1Ùœly IlOt Ile infonned of their sco~s.

5 Remember also that you are rallng only vocal producllon. nol mlerprelallon or any olher musical concerns. ln olher words. Ireal the excerpt as though Il were slmply a vocalise or a scale. and focus solely on how Ihe smger IS usmg hls/her VOlce.

6 Please do not consult wlth anyone regarding thlS evaluallon lesl. or allow anyone 10 mfluence your ratmgs. Trust your own judgmenl.

7 Quest'~n 1:12 on the evaluatlon forms IS opllonal.

8 Plea.;e l'ememi..;:~ 10 glve an overall ratmg OUI of 100 for each performance. There IS a space for this ratlng al the bonom of each evaluallon form.

'1 When you have completed thlS evaluallon lest. place the 26 evaluallon forms m the self­ addressed slamped envelope provlded. These are to be returned along Wlth the quesllonnaue. It would be greatly appreclaled if these llems could be recelved as early as possible. and by the end of May (1994) al the laIes!. ThIs will allow enough lime for the data to be analyzed and for the theslS to be completed by the end of July (1994). Please do not try to mlUl the tapes m the return envelope. as the postage IS msufficlenl. If you Wlsh. you may leave the lapes for me Wlth the recepnoDlst at the Faculty of MUSIC at McGill Umverslty.

Elizabeth Ekholm. McGill Umverslty resldence telephone: (514) 674-4147 VOCAL PRODUCTION EVALUATION FORM

Performance number

• 1. Please cirtle the number beslde each Itsted cn!enon WhlCh IDdicates your ratmg of this element of vocal productIon ID thls perfo:mance (Cmena are Itsted in alphabetical order.)

poor excellent appropriate vibrato 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

color/warmth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

diction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

dynlllllic range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

efficient breath management 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

evenness of registration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

freedom throughout vocal range 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

intensity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

intonation (pitch) acuracy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

legato line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resonance/ring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. Please comment on particular stl'en&tbs and weaknesses of the vocal production in this performance.

3. OVerall rating of vocal production in thi. perforaance: this score need not necessarily reflect the cntena ratings in question 1.

100 Questionnaire • for participants in guided listening course in voice evaluation

Personal data

Place a check mark (,f) beside the category that descnOOs you oost.

__undergraduate music student

__.ljgraduate music student

Age __ Major instrument, _ Years of VOlce training, if any _

VOlce classification, if known' _

Singing experience' _

Do you Iisten to reCOrdings of solo vocal music? Hardly ever_ Sometimes_ Often_

Do you attend concerts of solo vocal music? Hardly ever_ Sometimes_ Often_

Do you attend opera? Hardly ever_ Sometimes_ Ot:en_

Name some ofyourtavorite singers,, _ • Course evaluation Ple..se use the rallng scales to rate the followlng statements from 1 to 5 as follows;

1 = strongly dlsagree 2 = disagree 3 = neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree

1 ThIs program helped me to understand the 12 criteria used on the evaluation forms. 1 2 3 4 5

2. This program helped me to hear the 12 criteria as elemenls of vocal production. 1 2 3 4 5

3. The program notes were helpful. clear and concise. 1 2 3 4 5

4 The Iistening examples illustrated the criteria weil. 1 2 3 4 5

5. On the whole. thls program achleved ils goal. i.e. to help me become a more reliable judge of vocal production in solo voice performance. 1 2 3 4 5

6. 1found this program useful. 1 2 3 4 5

Comment lurther. if you wish. _

7 1estimate that 1spent __ hours on the program (not counling the evalualion test).

8. This amount of lime was: ,not enough to lully grasp the subject matter. ___.enough to lully grasp the subject matter. ___,more than enough to fully grasp the subject l'I'là1ter.

Commentfurtherontheprogramlength.ifyouwish. _

2 For each cntenon. rate the uselulness 01 the program notes and the hstenong examples. and the degree 01 difficully you lound in graspong that cntenon (understandong ,1. recognlzong .t on the hstenlng ex amples. evaluatong ,t). Use a scale 01 1 to 5. where 1 15 the lowest ratong and 5 the h.gheSI.

• critefic,n program lislening diflicully of convnents noies examples crilenon 1 = use.". 1 • uaeleu. 1 • very e~ ..y 5 = very useful 5 :1 very usetul 5 • very h.alm

'ntonallon (p,tch) accuracy

diction

legato line

dynamic range

flexibility

evenness 01 registralion

efficient breath management

resonance 1 nng

appropriate vibrato

colorlWarmlh

intensity

Ireedom throughout vocal range

General comments on the program: (what could be improved: what was good about il; was anything

super1luous; was anything missing; did you enjoy it; etc.l _

3