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Game Changers: Everyday Gamemakers and the Development of the Video Game Industry

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Game Changers: Everyday Gamemakers and the Development of the Video Game Industry GAME CHANGERS: EVERYDAY GAMEMAKERS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VIDEO GAME INDUSTRY by Christopher James Young A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of PhiLosophy FacuLty of Information University of Toronto © Copyright by Christopher James Young 2018 Game Changers: Everyday Gamemakers and the DeveLopment of the Video Game Industry Christopher James Young Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Information University of Toronto 2018 Abstract This dissertation examines the emergence of everyday gamemakers and their roles in transforming the cultural norms and practices of the global video game industry. Everyday gamemakers are digital game creators who share multiple professional and leisure-based gamemaking identities, including developers, “indies,” modders, user-generated content creators, and writers of interactive fiction. Since the Apple App Store opened in 2008, game engines and digital venues have developed and enabled widespread production and distribution of digital games. Game engines such as Unity3D, GameMaker Studio, and Construct 2, which simplify the process of making a digital game using “drag-and-drop” tools and editors, have enabled a range of gamemakers with no programming or artistic experience and training to create digital games. The simultaneous release of digital platforms such as Google Play, Steam, and itch.io, has also streamlined the process of distributing digital games into new and traditional communities of players. These developments have emerged because the video game industry perceives everyday gamemakers to be innovators in diversifying and producing products, creating jobs, and increasing profits. However, I argue that the inclusion of the everyday gamemaker has simultaneously enabled local and grassroots norms and practices to transform the production process of digital game creation in the global video game industry. To demonstrate how these ii gamemakers are changing norms and practices across the industry, I focus on gamemakers’ work and leisure identities as creators of digital games; the cultural activities of the scenes in which they participate; the game engines and tools of production they use to make their games; the working conditions in which they build their games; and the distribution platforms on which they release their games. I argue that gamemakers wear many labour hats within their craft of gamemaking, which not only diversifies the work and leisure contexts of digital game production, but also enables the mixing and transformation of cultural norms and practices within the mainstream industry and the places of leisure more broadly. iii Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to Paul, Teresa and Adrian Young, my parents and brother, whose endless supply of love and support made this dissertation possible. iv AcknowLedgements This dissertation began with a research methods term paper submitted to Sara Grimes, my supervisor, during the first year of my master’s degree. It is difficult to imagine I would be completing a well-funded dissertation without her countless meetings, phone chats, reference letters, article and dissertation reviews, and words of inspiration and wisdom. It’s been a privilege to have such a strong ally and mentor whose intellectual guidance will shape my future scholarship and career. I am extremely blessed to have had the opportunity to benefit from an incredible network of support, insight, and guidance over my graduate career. I would especially like to thank Nicole Cohen and Leslie Regan Shade for their feedback, questions, and for challenging me to be a better scholar. I would also like to thank my colleagues at the Faculty of Information, University of Toronto Libraries, and other institutions around the world. They include Bardia Bina, Christine Grace Chan, Mia Consalvo, Anne Dondertman, ginger coons, Greig de Peuter, Wendy Duff, Alan Galey, Elysia Guzik, Jenna Hartel, Lynne Howarth, Asen Ivanov, Jenna Jacobson, Jessica Lapp, Ava Lew, Chaya Litvack, Heather MacNeil, Loryl McDonald, Darragh McGee, David Nieborg, Matt Ratto, Gabby Resch, Seamus Ross, Hervé Saint-Louis, Mark Sedore, Rianka Singh, Brian Cantwell Smith, Harrison Smith, Dan Southwick, Siobhan Stevenson, Elisa Tersigni, and many other colleagues whose conversations have influenced and inspired me throughout my graduate career. Thanks to my family, whose unconditional love gave me the support to pursue an education and my dreams. A special thank you to my parents, Teresa and Paul Young, my v brother, Adrian Young, and my partner, Farzaneh Victoria Fard, for their constant intellectual and emotional support. An important thank you to all of my participants, informants, and the organizations that made this research possible, including Dames Making Games, Gamma Space Collaborative Studio, Hand Eye Society, Royal Ontario Museum, TOJam, Torontaru, Toronto Global Game Jam, Toronto Unity Developers Meetup, and the Vector New Media Festival. This project was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). I would like to thank the people at SSHRC for their ongoing support of my research, and acknowledge the vital importance of a federal funding program that supports academic studies focused on critical inquiry, measured analyses of media production, consideration of marginalized groups and social justice issues, as well as public policy research. It is my great hope that SSHRC will not only continue to support these types of projects in the years to come, but expand its mandate to foster theory-driven, critical research aimed above all at the advancement of knowledge. vi Table of Contents Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ vii Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... xi List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. xiv List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Everyday Digital Gamemaking ........................................................................................... 1 1.1 A Window Into the Video Game Industry ........................................................................................8 1.2 A Note on Definitions .....................................................................................................................12 1.3 Gamemaking Literature ..................................................................................................................14 1.4 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................................18 1.5 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................23 1.5.1 Data Gathering ...........................................................................................................................25 1.5.2 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................33 1.6 Chapter Overview ...........................................................................................................................35 Chapter 2 Concept ...................................................................................................................... 41 Gamemakers ........................................................................................................................ 41 2.1 Everyday Gamemakers ...................................................................................................................44 2.1.1 Cody ............................................................................................................................................46 2.1.2 Benjamin .....................................................................................................................................48 2.1.3 Christine .....................................................................................................................................50 2.1.4 Margot ........................................................................................................................................52 2.1.5 Cameron .....................................................................................................................................55 2.1.6 Michael .......................................................................................................................................57 2.1.7 Lisa .............................................................................................................................................60 2.1.8 Clay ............................................................................................................................................62 2.1.9
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