R. Museu Arq. Etn., 28: 31-41, 2017.
The Athenian Parthenon: reception and display
Katerina Thomas*
THOMAS, K. The Athenian Parthenon: reception and display. R. Museu Arq. Etn., 28: 31-41, 2017.
Abstract: In this article the Parthenon is considered in the context of the multiple meanings that the west has ascribed to it as well as its alterations and damages through time. Fateful events in the course of a turbulent history in the land of Greece not only affected the state of the Parthenon but added to a debate that focused on this monument as the most important classical building leading to the creation of an outstanding museum in Athens.
Keywords: Parthenon; Ancient History; Heritage; Museum.
he Athenian Parthenon has been The debate concerning the proper display Tadmired and glorified as no other of its sculptural decorations has involved a western monument has. Through time it has number of complex issues some of which are yet been ascribed meaning and ideologies in striking to be resolved but has also led to the creation contrast to the sparse references we have about of one of the most remarkable museums in it from antiquity. It has been called the most the world that does justice to the monument. perfect Greek temple that marks the culmination Yet, the reason that issues pertaining to this of the Doric order, the most important building museum have been so much in the spot light in the history of western culture, the symbol is partly relevant to the meaning that Europe of democracy, and the symbol of modern has assigned to the Parthenon within the last Greek national identity. Consideration of three hundred years. This paper which is based the Parthenon in the context of the multiple on a public lecture I delivered during my visit layers of contrived symbolism has featured in at the University of Sao Paulo in May 2014 will several recent discussions. The reception of the provide a brief summary of the history of the Parthenon and the temple’s transformations Parthenon, its reception through the ages and through the ages is one of the most captivating the issues that led to the creation of the new topics surrounding this iconic building. The Acropolis museum1. Parthenon has come to symbolize so much, to The story of human activity on the provoke diverse interpretations and dominate Athenian Acropolis began in the prehistoric era discourse on classical architecture that references when its slopes were inhabited in the Neolithic to it as a “tyrant of a monument” (Papalexandrou 2009) or as a “utopian building” (Ferrari 2006) 1 I am grateful to Professor Maria Beatriz Borba Florenzano should not surprise us. and Professor Maria Cristina N. Kormikiari, Labeca, Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, University of Sao Paulo, for having invited me for a two week stay at (*) PhD, Dean at Frances Rich School of Fine and the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, USP in May Performing Arts. Professor of Art History at Deree – 2014. I would also like to thank Dr. Gina Borromeo for The American College of Greece.
31 The Athenian Parthenon: reception and display R. Museu Arq. Etn., 28: 31-41, 2017.
period. The rock, although not the highest in of the Parthenon’s immense significance, the Athenian area, must have been chosen in its celebration as a symbol of democracy antiquity for being naturally defensible with and identification as the most important access to water sources. Having served as an classical temple. administrative center during the Mycenaean Thucydides, (The Peloponnesian War period and having survived the devastations 1.10.2) in referring to Sparta’s lack of impressive that brought the Bronze Age of Greece to an temples and monuments that could speak end, the Acropolis assumed a different role of her power in posterity, contrasts her and experienced a growing significance in the unimposing appearance to that of Athens, historical period as a religious center. The stating that generations to come would perceive Athenians honored their patron deity Athena her power twice as great as it is, should the with a sanctuary on the Acropolis rock, her first city cease to exist. Thucydides makes no temple having been built in the 8th c BCE at the explicit reference to the Parthenon and no site where the Erechtheion was later constructed. connection between the Athenian temples and For centuries goddess Athena was the democratic ideals of the time. The issue worshipped there. In the Archaic period the is Athenian power and that is the case also in sanctuary witnessed momentous growth: new what Plutarch (1916) writes centuries later (Life temples were constructed including earlier of Pericles 12.1). He refers to the wonderful versions of the Parthenon and the temple of beautification of Athens by Pericles with public Athena Polias, Athena in her role as protector and sacred buildings: of the city. The sanctuary’s premises were enhanced by the display of numerous offerings But that which brought most delightful made of a variety of materials, the most well- adornment to Athens, and the greatest known being the korai. amazement to the rest of mankind; that These Archaic buildings and dedications which alone now testifies for Hellas that suffered destruction when the Persians reached her ancient power and splendor, of which the Acropolis in 480 BCE. Eventually at the so much is told, was no idle fiction, – time of Athenian supremacy, Pericles decided to I mean his construction of sacred edifices… undertake an ambitious building project on the Acropolis. The Parthenon, dedicated to Athena Yet, he states that these accomplishments Parthenos, “Athena the Virgin”, is the most were the most heavily criticized ones by Pericles’ well-known monument of that building project. enemies for having spent the allies’ money to Nevertheless we are struck by the reference adorn Athens: to the Parthenon in one of the major ancient sources, Pausanias (1918 1.24.5): And surely Hellas is insulted with a dire insult and manifestly subjected to As you enter the temple that they tyranny when she sees that, with her own name the Parthenon all the sculptures you enforced contributions for the war, we are see on what is called the pediment refer gilding and bedizening our city, which, for to the birth of Athena, those on the rear all the world like a wanton woman, adds pediment represent the contest for the land to her wardrobe precious stones and costly between Athena and Poseidon. statues and temples worth their millions. (Plutarch 12.2) He devotes only this sentence to the entire Parthenon and seems to be more interested Similar to Pausanias, Pliny in his Natural in the colossal chryselephantine cult statue History focuses on the statue of Athena of Athena which he describes in more detail. Parthenos. One would expect to find in Pausanias’ There is a striking discrepancy between writings confirmation of more recent notions modern interpretations and what the
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ancients have actually left in writing about only mythical ones and the violation of this the Parthenon. Could it be that the meager condition constituted sacrilege. Furthermore, number of sources has nothing to do with how there are a number of inconsistencies between much was originally written but with how much what the frieze depicts and what actually took has survived (Beard 2002)? Even so, modern place in a Panathenaic procession. Many interpretations clearly have not been based believe that understanding the frieze subject on ancient testimony. The exact purpose and could be crucial in perceiving the meaning original significance of the Parthenon has often of the Parthenon in antiquity. Alternative been discussed in recent times. As was the interpretations include those proposed by rule for ancient Greek temples, the Parthenon John Boardman and Joan Connelly. Boardman housed the statue of a deity, the colossal gold makes a connection between the number and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos, Athena of males in the cavalcade represented in the Virgin, the work of Phidias who was the the frieze (excluding the charioteers) to the overall director of the sculptural decorations number of Athenians who died in the battle of the building. Normally, the orientation at Marathon and states that “the connection of Greek temples was East-West and this was with Marathon is everywhere” (Boardman & the case with the Parthenon. The important Finn 1985: 250). For Boardman the message of feature where rituals were enacted was the altar the Parthenon to contemporary Athenians was located in front of the entrance but there is no clear and continued to be important while the evidence that the Parthenon had an altar. It has Persian issue was current (Boardman & Finn been written that “without an altar, a temple 1985: 251). In modern literature, the reference is simply not a temple at all.” (Ferrari 2006: to the Persian wars has also been made in 7). Ferrari actually suggests that the building relation to the metopes which represent could have functioned as a thesauros, a treasury. mythological subjects of strife. Others propose the Erechtheion as the most Joan Connelly in her work entitled The significant religious building on the Acropolis Parthenon enigma (2014) discusses the meaning given its location, the incorporation of several of the Parthenon having pointed out how that cults in a structure of unusual plan and housing meaning has been distorted by varied responses of the old, most revered statue of Athena Polias. to the monument through the centuries. The distance between our perception For some time Connelly had focused on the of the Parthenon and its original context is interpretation of the frieze in the context of further accentuated by the disappearance two hundred and fifty lines surviving from the of the original, dazzling colors in its lost play by Euripides called Erechtheus. She entablature. The notion that Greek temples gives a new meaning to the much discussed were completely white is totally false and has scene of the handing of the peplos which she shaped several wrong assumptions about Greek sees as a depiction relating to the sacrifice of religious architecture. one of Erechtheus’ daughters to save the city In discussing the Parthenon, twentieth of Athens when threatened by Eumolpus. century scholars would exalt the building as For Connelly, this slab does not refer to the signifying the peak in the development of Panathenaic events but to a heroic act, “the Greek religious architecture. Changed current ultimate sacrifice” (Connelly 2014: 165) for the perspectives even question the exclusive role of continuity and well-being of Athens. Pericles in this project. The interpretation of the As the political dominance of Athens interior decorated Ionic frieze of the Parthenon declined and momentous developments as the Panathenaic procession has provoked changed the Greek and Eastern Mediterranean much debate because such a theme contradicts lands, the Parthenon’s original significance long established rules in Greek architecture. for the people of Athens faded away. The cult Sculptural decorations of Greek temples were statue of Athena Parthenos had to be repaired not to represent contemporary scenes but in the 2nd century BCE due to damages it
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suffered in a fire. Among the devastations an important pilgrimage destination in the caused by the invasion of Athens by the Heruli, Byzantine period. It was also in the Byzantine a Germanic tribe in 267 CE, was a tremendous period that the Parthenon provoked antiquarian conflagration of the Parthenon which deprived interest. According to Kaldellis (2009: 4), it was the building of a roof for many years. It was during the period of the Enlightenment that repaired in the 4th century but using terracotta the Byzantines were classified as “oriental” and, roof tiles, the original ones having been of “un-Hellenic” and thus the importance of the Pentelic marble as had been the case for the monument as a Christian church was ignored. entire building. This roof was smaller than the Classicism endowed the Parthenon with original and did not extend all the way to the ideologies that do not correspond to ancient outer colonnade but only to the cella walls. Greek ideas about the monument. Blocks from other ancient buildings including From the 13th to the 15th century Athens columns from a stoa were incorporated into the fell under Latin domination. A bell tower cella (Korres 1994b: 48). was added in one of the Parthenon’s western The Acropolis and especially the Parthenon corners and the building was now a Catholic underwent transformation during the Early church dedicated again to the worship of Saint Christian times as a number of Classical Mary of Athens. Eventually, the Acropolis buildings were eradicated while the Parthenon became a fort that housed the Catalan guard. and the Erechtheion were converted into Athens fell to the Ottomans in 1456 and Christian churches, a common practice at the subsequently the Acropolis continued to be the time. When exactly the Parthenon became place where the garrison was stationed while the a Christian church cannot be accurately Parthenon was still a place of worship but now ascertained but in the age of Justinian it seems in the form of a mosque with the Christian bell that it functioned as such. It may have been tower modified into a minaret. This mosque dedicated to the Holy Wisdom (Aghiastou was deeply admired by those who travelled to Theou Sophias) at first and eventually, to Athens — including the Turkish 17th century Theotokos (Mother of God) – Atheniotissa traveler Evliya Çelebi — and praised as the most (of Athens) or the Virgin obviously a excellent mosque in the world. The Erechtheion continuation of the cult of Athena Parthenos. housed the harem of the leader of the Turkish The necessary adjustments had to be made garrison. However, these changes did not cause in the building so it could function as a the most severe damages on the Parthenon as Christian place of worship including changing the most devastating ones were yet to occur its orientation from E-W to W-E, opening new and would be caused by westerners. The first doors, adding windows and creating murals dramatic incident occurred in the context and mosaics with Christian themes. Despite of the Venetian attack under Morosini 1687 the damages that these alterations caused in (described in Hadziaslani (1987)). In order to addition to deliberate mutilation of some face the threat, the Turks undertook a number sculptural decorations, the conversion into of defensive works along the western side of the a church contributed to the preservation of Acropolis for which they used the blocks of the the building as it continued to be used and temple of Athena Nike as building material after maintained. The Christians preserved much of dismantling this small amphiprostyle temple. the building and its decorations intact. A large quantity of gun powder had been In his book The Christian Parthenon: deposited inside the Parthenon. The building classicism and pilgrimage in Byzantine Athens, was bombarded and a mortar bomb found its Antony Kaldellis (2009) claims that the target as it entered the temple through the roof. Parthenon played a much more significant The ensuing explosion was cataclysmic. The role as a Christian church than it had as an cella walls, columns, decorations and roof were ancient temple. Instead of sinking into oblivion severely affected, hundreds of people who were as is commonly claimed, Athens became inside the temple were killed and the Acropolis
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burnt for days. This event left the Parthenon Central in the controversy surrounding this in a ruinous state. Morosini’s destructive entire matter is the question of what exactly actions on the Acropolis further included the authorities specified that Elgin could take. attempts to remove sculptures from the west This is directly linked to a letter of permission, pediment of the Parthenon but he was not able a firman that he was granted by the Ottoman to accomplish this “mission” as they fell to the authorities in Istanbul. The original firman no ground and shattered. Fortunately a number longer exists; there is only an Italian translation of drawings of the architectural sculptures had of it. Initially, the local authorities in Athens been made ahead of the explosion, possibly presented obstacles to Elgin’s team as they by Jacques Carrey, the French Ambassador’s required a fee each time the members wished painter in 1674 (although the identity of the to enter the Acropolis and allowed them only artist has been recently reconsidered). to make drawings (Rothenberg 1974: 131) The Venetians did not hold on to their Elgin turned to the authorities in Istanbul conquest of Athens and the Ottomans gained and received a firman which secured his team control again in 1688.The garrison was entrance to the Acropolis without interference stationed on the Acropolis on which a number and disruption allowing them to make of houses were built. A small mosque was drawings, casts and to conduct excavations. constructed among the ruins in the Parthenon, More importantly, it gave them permission a mosque that could not compare in size and to remove any (some?) pieces of stone with splendor to the one that had been so admired inscriptions or figures (Chamberlin 1983: 16; by travelers. Several of the travelers who visited Rothenberg 1974: 134). Questions arise from the Acropolis removed small pieces that they this statement because of its ambiguity. Did the found on the ground. authorities actually grant Elgin permission to Another fateful event that had critical extricate blocks from the buildings themselves consequences for the Parthenon concerned or just take what had already fallen off? Thomas Bruce, known as Lord Elgin, British A further issue often discussed, relates to Ambassador at the Sublime Porte in Istanbul. which extent Elgin might have exploited his In 1801-1804 Elgin removed many sculptures diplomatic status in making this agreement which belonged to the pediments, metopes with the Sublime Porte. Did he take advantage and the frieze. He also removed one of the of it or act as a private citizen? Elgin claimed Caryatids and one Ionic column from the that the ancient monuments suffered greatly by Erechtheion, as well as blocks from the travelers as well as the Turks who occasionally Propylaea and the Temple of Athena Nike. would crush statues in order to make mortar Elgin appointed Giovanni Battista as overseer (Hitchens 1988: 79). Therefore the argument of this entire venture. Battista was an artist but that ensued was that this was a mission to save of a much lesser caliber than Turner whom the antiquities from further destruction. Elgin preferred but had not chosen because The realization of this project meant that of the steep compensation he had asked the building would suffer extensively including for. A key personality involved in the entire the cella walls. Destructive means such as saws undertaking and one who played a decisive role were used in order to remove stone mass from was Reverend Philip Hunt. Not all the pieces the back surfaces of the frieze slabs for the of this affair can be put together with certainty purpose of lightening their weight. Inevitably, but one critical factor that played a role in the as blocks were being extracted, portions of support Elgin received from the Sublime Porte the entablature crumpled. Elgin used his was related to political affairs of the time. The own ship “Mentor” to transport some of the French navy had been defeated by Lord Nelson works to England, and as the ship sank off in 1798 and the Sultan saw great benefit in the island of Kythera he even covered the cost allying with the British in order to safeguard the for the retrieval of the cargo that had sunk. Ottoman Empire from French hostility. The extracted ancient works reached England
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where in 1816 they were bought by the British time. Other arguments used against the idea Museum at a much lower price (35,000 pounds) of the return include the issue of precedent: than the one expected by Elgin. Before the more countries will reclaim antiquities that purchase was decided, the Select Committee were removed by westerners in the past. debated on the usefulness of this transaction Furthermore, the presence of the marbles in the and skepticism was expressed as to whether British Museum has supposedly played a major these works were worth buying or not. role in the rise of philhellenism and influenced The possession of the marbles by the many cultures for which consequently the British Museum has created a huge controversy Parthenon is part of their cultural heritage as in recent years. Elgin’s arguments focused on well. Arguments of this type have made the the issue of protection from future damage issue of ownership more complicated and as he claimed with certainty that if the works one that cannot be claimed exclusively by the had been left on site they would be doomed to Greek State. destruction. In fact some damage which cannot The Parthenon as a symbol of Greece’s be repaired was inflicted on the Parthenon national identity is central to the arguments marbles by conservators in the British Museum for the return of the marbles and a distinctive many decades ago when they used metallic point in the continued emphasis on these brushes to scrape their surfaces in the context antiquities versus so many others removed in of the wide spread misconception that classical the past which Greece could reclaim. The idea sculptures were originally completely white in of the monument’s integrity is also stressed, the color of the marble. denouncing the deplorable extraction of its Over a number of decades the issue of decorations as an act of violence against a the Parthenon Marbles’ return to Greece has building for which architecture and decoration been intensely debated and many claims have were conceived as one. The lack of a proper been presented by each side: The argument museum to house these antiquities for a very put forth by the British Museum Trustees long time placed the Greek side at a disadvantage focuses on the immense value for the public in claiming the restitution of the Parthenon when viewing the marbles in the context of its works. Now Greece has one of the most universal collection. “The British Museum tells impressive museums in the world which could the story of cultural achievement throughout display the Parthenon marbles in close proximity the world, from the dawn of human history and direct dialogue to the temple itself. This is over two million years ago, until the present the best that can be done given the fact that they day. The Parthenon Sculptures are a significant could never be placed on the monument itself part of that story” (The Parthenon Sculptures due to the damaging effect of the atmospheric [20--]). According to this line of argument the pollution. All remaining decorations from the displays in the British Museum transcend the Acropolis buildings were removed in order to be narrow confines of British history and focus on protected inside the museum a long time ago. the ecumenical. Various discussions on cultural The new museum enables the visitor to imagine heritage include the contention that artifacts and understand the original setting and physical which have been displayed in a particular environment of the works. museum for a long time have become an Beyond the legal issues, ethical issues integral part of this nation’s tradition. concerning the removal of antiquities in the In many discussions Elgin has been age of colonialism directly relate to the debate absolved from the accusation of abusing about the return of the marbles. How should authority in his capacity as ambassador of Britain view this today versus its actions as Britain and has been presented as having acted an Empire in the past? Despite the various as a private citizen. It is maintained that he suggestions to reach a solution that would be operated within the confines of the law having acceptable to both sides, the arguments remain obtained permission from the authorities at the complex, multifaceted and unresolved.
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Clearly the intense focus on the return approach has been a point of some contention of the Parthenon marbles versus the return of as it resulted in erasing the traces of the medieval other very significant ancient Greek antiquities past which according to a number of scholars is closely connected to the endorsement of was a significant chapter in the history of Greece. the Parthenon as the symbol of the Modern The Acropolis seized to be the post of the Greek state. For a long time in the past the garrison. Excavations and restoration projects field of ancient Greek art history had been commenced according to 19th century amateur dominated by the emphasis on the High methods and limited means which often proved Classical period which was viewed as a phase to be problematic (Von Klenze’s role and the during which Greek art reached its “peak”. phases of subsequent work on the Acropolis Following the 1821 war of independence against are discussed by Mallouchou-Tufano (1994)). the Ottomans the European states played an Haphazard incorporation of scattered ancient important role in promoting the link between blocks and eventually bricks into the buildings the newly formed Modern Greek state and the made these projects even more the problematic. glorious ancient past, the Parthenon being the The material of the temple of Athena Nike was most suitable symbol for conveying this idea of recovered but the first restoration was faulty and continuity. As expected, Otto of Bavaria, the had to be followed by another one later on. In designated first king of Greece (1832-62), as 1874 the first museum was built on the Acropolis well as the architects Karl Friedrich Schinkel rock materializing Von Klenze’s idea. The and Leo von Klenze featured prominently in the museum was small and unobtrusive but built at implementation of this ideology. Fortunately, an inappropriate spot within the sanctuary and Schinkel’s extravagant plans for building a over the remains of ancient structures. It was to palace for King Otto on the Acropolis did be extended later on. not materialize. Before that, and for a period From 1885 on restorations were taken over of two years during the war (1824-1826), the by Nikolaos Balanos who despite his energy Parthenon had functioned as a school for and commitment used highly inappropriate girls. Now, it functioned as a space for the methods ignoring emerging new approaches display of royal pomp and dissemination of for restoration in Europe. He caused extensive propaganda, promoting the connection with damage that had to be repaired by later the Athenian golden age: in 1834 in imitation restorers. An example of his inadequate and of the Panathenaic procession Otto, having destructive methods relates to the inclusion approached the Acropolis on horseback and of iron clamps to hold blocks together. Greek accompanied by various groups e.g. select temples were constructed of masonry without citizens, soldiers etc., entered the Parthenon any bonding material. Metal clamps, which were and sat on a throne – this event is described in of lead, were used to hold the blocks together Connelly (2014: xi). Intended to alleviate the but Balanos used iron clamps without coating image of Greece as an impoverished, desolate them in lead. As iron oxidizes it expands and country, the Bavarian monarchy helped to cracks the marble. This is was one of his most construct this connection, advancing the idea serious mistakes that had to be addressed that the king was ruling a nation that had an subsequently. illustrious past. Due to the German respect for the As a major proponent of this idea, Leo Classical past the Parthenon survived the von Klenze wished for the Acropolis to contain Second World War unharmed. But the greatest purely the ancient buildings. Expressing danger in the 20th century came from the contempt for the historical phases that post atmospheric pollution which proved to be classical structures represented, he was therefore extremely destructive for the monuments. As instrumental in initiating the process of the industrial sector grew and vehicles increased removing any later additions including the significantly, acid rain that contained pollutants mosque and other Ottoman structures. This caused irreversible damage to the monuments
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turning portions of the marble into gypsum. second award. Challenges included the shape This made the need for a major conservation of the plot and the existence of buildings in the project urgent, something that started in 1977 vicinity that could not be demolished due to the with the establishment of the Committee for important architectural styles they represented. the Conservation of the Monuments of the These interfered either with the view to the Acropolis. This committee worked on a strategy Acropolis or with the overall aesthetics of the based on the expertise of many specialists museum premises (the story of the competitions besides archaeologists and the implementation for the museum are described in detail in of highly sophisticated technology. The project Philippopoulou (2011)). It took many decades has yielded outstanding results. However, the for the project to materialize. damages caused by the atmospheric pollution In 1979 a second competition was remains an acute problem that cannot be solved announced which gave rise to many objections despite the efforts to find a solution (farfetched and debates that delayed the submission of ideas in the past included the construction of proposals. The dispute primarily concerned a transparent dome over the Acropolis). The issues that this particular location posed. The restoration project has a number of facets existence of antiquities in the area added to ranging from amending earlier restoration the reservations about the suitability of this mistakes to identifying ancient blocks and lot. Again, the committee did not award a placing them correctly on the buildings to first prize. There was a temporary decision making new discoveries in the process such to upgrade the existing museum and not to as fragments of a frieze, pediments, evidence proceed with the construction of the new one. concerning acroteria or an old shrine being The 1982 Unesco World Summit on located in the north peristyle of the Parthenon. Cultural Policy in Mexico marked a turning Particularly interesting is the reference to the point in the deliberations on the most suitable columns of the back room as possibly being Acropolis museum. A Recommendation was Corinthian and the existence of two large voted for the return Elgin Marbles to Greece windows in the pronaos for providing natural following M. Mercouri’s official declaration in light for the cult statue (Korres 1994a: 176). her capacity as Minister of Culture, that Greece Insertion of modern materials is made only will claim the return of the Parthenon marbles. when absolutely necessary. A material which has Melina protested against the reference significant advantages in these restorations is to the Parthenon works in the possession of titanium. The approach is systematic, scientific the British museum as “Elgin marbles”. The and based on the most up to date methods. more suitable and correct title “Parthenon The threat that the atmospheric pollution marbles” is currently being used. The need posed for the continued future existence of for a new museum was now more urgent but the monuments made the transfer of the the process would be long and cumbersome. sculptural decorations inside the museum an The British Museum argued that Greece did absolute necessity some time ago. The originals not have a suitable museum to house the were replaced by copies on the buildings Parthenon works. The old museum could not themselves. This transfer added to the debate properly accommodate the enormous crowds concerning the suitability of the old museum. of visitors that it received annually. There Not only was its location not appropriate but were many other issues that pertained to the its size necessitated a very crowded display in storage areas and the displays themselves. It improper conditions. was an overcrowded building in many senses. Discussions about the creation of a new Lengthy debates ensued and the problems museum at a location below the Acropolis seemed insurmountable. Three locations called Makrygianni, started and the first were suggested: Makrygianni, Dionysos and architectural competition took place in 1976. Koile. Melina had even discussed the issue None of the proposals could be given first or with I.M. Pei but this collaboration did not
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work out. The Greek State decided to hold are displayed, proceeding further up to works yet another competition in 1989 which was of the Archaic period which include remains opened to international architectural firms. of temple decorations and dedications to the The competition was completed in 1990 and sanctuary most prominently the korai as well the first award was given to Italian architects. as Early Classical works of the Severe style, all Reaction was mixed. In addition to strong presented in such an innovative way that makes or angry statements all kinds of obstacles this a genuinely engaging experience. From here appeared, including the commencement of the the visitor may continue to the top floor where metro project. All these delayed the process the Parthenon works are displayed and then and eventually led to the cancellation of return to the first floor to view works relating the competition. to the temple of Athena Nike, the Propylaia, Melina’s legacy following her passing in the Erechtheion with a dazzling presentation of 1994 was continued by her husband Jules the Caryatids on a balcony and conclude the Dassin through the establishment of the Melina tour with a range of works from the 5th c BCE Mercouri Foundation (MMF). The mission of to the 5th CE ranging from the Classical to the the Foundation focuses on the return of the Hellenistic through the Roman periods. Parthenon marbles but the MMF also played an As the atmospheric pollution has made important role in the construction of the new the removal of the sculptural decorations from Acropolis museum. the Acropolis buildings absolutely necessary, Problems and complications were not the proximity of the Parthenon display to the avoided in the process of planning for the new Acropolis rock and the relationship that could museum but finally the fourth competition was be established between the two spaces was announced in 2001 and the first award was crucial. This was addressed in an ingenious way given to Bernard Tschumi who collaborated by the architects. The museum top floor in the with the Greek architect Michael Photiades. form of a glass shell is slightly tilted in relation The old museum closed on 2 July 2007. to the floors below, the objective being for The process of removing original decorations this space to have the same orientation as the from the Parthenon for the sake of preservation temple itself. The room is drenched in natural was completed. The challenging task of light which creates an experience as close as transferring the contents of the museum to possible to seeing the works in the open on the the new museum was brilliantly addressed by Acropolis. Sophisticated technology has been placing the works in specially prepared crates deployed in order to achieve the best results in and lowering them to the new location with relation to how light is diffused. three cranes, a process that lasted for over E. Philippopoulou in her book on the three months. Acropolis Museum states that the museum is The Museum is exceptionally welcoming characterized by extroversion as opposed to to the visitor starting with the curiosity it the norm which is introversion – museums do instills as one approaches the entrance where not communicate with the outside world in antiquities discovered during construction order for the visitor’s interest to be channeled are displayed in situ below a transparent glass toward what is displayed (Philippopoulou surface. The same is true for the lobby where 2011: 375). The original frieze slabs along a glass floor permits a view of the architectural with copies of the missing ones have been remains preserved below. The display enables placed at a low level on a wall in the middle the visitor to perceive the various phases that of the room and the visitor is invited to walk have been documented on the Acropolis along the four sides which have the same through the study of the monuments and dimensions as the Parthenon cella walls. The a number of archeological discoveries. This metopes are displayed in front of the frieze starts with one’s ascent through the ground and in between metallic columns imitating the floor where finds from the Acropolis slopes Parthenon columns. The view of the Acropolis
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is glorious and thus a close visual connection interwoven with all the assumptions and is established between this room and the meanings that the West has assigned to Parthenon which offers a truly unforgettable it emphasizes now more than ever the experience to the visitor. unquestionable importance of its correct The review of the Parthenon’s reception conservation. Today one can feel reassured that through the ages is a most revealing the Parthenon, the other Acropolis buildings endeavor that adds to the fascination that and their sculptural decorations are being cared this monument can exert on the viewer. for in the most appropriate and responsible way The Parthenon’s rich legacy for humanity so they can be enjoyed by generations to come.
THOMAS, K. O Partenon ateniense: recepção e exposição. R. Museu Arq. Etn., 28: 31-41, 2017.
Resumo: Nesse artigo, o Partenon é considerado a partir do contexto de múltiplos significados a ele atribuídos pelo Ocidente. Alterações e danos sofridos ao longo do tempo são igualmente incluídos na análise. Eventos fatídicos dentro da turbulenta história da Grécia afetaram tanto o estado de conservação do Partenon como também acrescentaram a um debate que focou esse monumento como a mais importante construção clássica. Foco esse que levou à construção de um fantástico museu em Atenas.
Palavras-chave: Partenon; História Antiga; Patrimônio; Museu.
Bibliographic references
Beard, M. 2002. The Parthenon. Profile Books Ltd, Hitchens, C. 1988. The Elgin Marbles. Should they be London. returned to Greece? Nea Synora, Athens.
Boardman, J.; Finn, D. 1985. The Parthenon and its Kaldellis, A. 2009. The Christian Parthenon: classicism sculptures. Thames and Hudson Ltd, London. and pilgrimage in Byzantine Athens. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/NY. Chamberlin, E.R. 1983. Loot! The heritage of plunder. Thames and Hudson Ltd, London. Korres, M. 1994a. Recent discoveries on the Acropolis. In: Economakis, R. (Ed.). Acropolis Connelly, J.B. 2014. The Parthenon enigma. Alfred restorations: the CCAM interventions. Academy Knopf, New York. Editions, London, 174-179.
Ferrari, A. 2006. The history of an archaeological Korres, M. 1994b. The History of the Acropolis utopia: The Parthenon in Athens as an imaginary Monuments. In: Economakis, R. (Ed.). Acropolis place. Spaces of Utopia: An Electronic Journal restorations: the CCAM interventions. Academy 1: 5-12 Available at:
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Papalexandrou, N. 2009. Review of The Christian Plutarch. 1916. Life of Pericles. Harvard University Parthenon: classicism and pilgrimage in Press, Cambridge/MA. Available at:
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