The Study of Classical Sculpture at the End of the 20Th Century BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY

Bryn Mawr College Scholarship, Research, and Creative Work at Bryn Mawr College Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology Faculty Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology Research and Scholarship

1994 The tudS y of Classical Sculpture at the End of the 20th Century Brunilde S. Ridgway Bryn Mawr College, [email protected]

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Custom Citation Ridgway, Brunilde S. 1994. The tudyS of Classical Sculpture at the End of the 20th Century. American Journal of Archaeology 98:759-772.

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The Study of Classical Sculpture at the End of the 20th Century BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY

SCULTURA GRECA DEL IV SECOLO. MAESTRI E a 1993 publication as a starting point: Luigi Todisco's Scultura del IV secolo. SCUOLE DI STATUARIA TRA CLASSICITA ED EL- greca Although restricted to a single as contrasted with cover- Todisco. century, Furtwingler's ampler LENISMO, by Luigi (Repertori fotografici age,3 this monograph at the same time marks what is Longanesi & C. 8.) Pp. 507, figs. 41, pls. 427. newest and what is still the same in our field. I shall start Longanesi & C., Milan 1993. Lit 360,000. by reviewing Todisco's book, and shall then attempt to ISBN 88-304-1111-6. define other current trends, in an overview of methodo- logical theories and publications. Needless to say, my se- The year 1993 has marked the centenary of Adolf Furt- lection will be guided by purely personal and subjective wingler's influential Meisterwerkeder griechischenPlastik, criteria, necessarily informed by my own preferences and and such an important anniversary should not pass un- restricted by the limits of my own knowledge. noticed.' That book signaled the beginning of a strong current in studies of ancient one that is sculpture, usually ANCIENT ART AS ARCHAEOLOGY known by such German terms as Meisterforschung and Kopienkritik. It was based on the premise that the style "Not until about 10 years ago was it first explicitly of ancient sculptors could, and should, be identified acknowledged that it is impossible to exclude the contri- through the Roman replicas of their lost originals, and bution of artistic and artifactual manifestations from the proceeded on the assumption that attributions could be process of reconstructing the history of ancient Greek made not only on the authority of mentions in the ancient society."4This emphatic statement on the value of ancient sources but also on purely formal and iconographic art forms the premise of Todisco's major study dedicated grounds. In the words of Andrew Stewart, "the continu- to Greek sculpture of the fourth century B.C. It joins a ing spell of Furtwangler'sachievement, and of the great chorus of other voices that have recently been raised, in sculptors themselves, has ensured that much of the bibli- this country and abroad, in defense of the study of classi- ography of Greek sculpture still addresses, one way or cal art as an intrinsic part of classicalarchaeology-a de- another, these basic concerns, often to the detriment of fense that would have been considered astonishing, or at other lines of inquiry."2 least superfluous, at the turn of this century, but which It seems therefore fitting to choose this moment to has become increasingly necessary as such pursuits have review the status of Greek sculptural studies 100 years been viewed as extraneous, even frivolous, within the later. In particular,it may be appropriate to do so using context of "true"archaeology.5

I am to grateful the Editor-in-Chief of AJA, who in- 4 The entire quotation, in its original language, reads: vited me to provide this review, and to the friends who "Paradossalmente,solo a poco piii di dieci anni fa risale have commented on a first draft of this article:A.A. Dono- dunque il primo esplicito riconoscimento anche della im- hue, G.R. Edwards, M.D. Fullerton, and P Rehak. prescindibilita del valore delle espressioni artigianali ed this the term classical Throughout essay, (in lower artistiche nel processo di ricostruzionestorica della societai case) refers to both Greek and Roman art, whereas Clas- greca antica" (Todisco 1993, 11). sical (capitalized) applies specifically to that of the fifth 5 See, e.g., Snodgrass 1987, 132-33: "It seems to me a and fourth centuries B.C. The bibliography at the end of strength, not a weakness, of classical archaeology that it this text is meant not only as a list of abbreviations, but should automaticallybe taken to include the study of art, also as an overview of recent important works on Greek and that the same people should often choose to practice, sculpture. and be required to teach, in both fields. The special con- 2 Stewart 1990, 30. It is perhaps worth noting that tribution the subject can make to art history derives from Stewart himself is under the spell of the ancient masters, this very circumstance, that the same people can be ex- not only because of his 1977 monograph on Skopas, but pected both to offer the artistic analysis and to have mas- also since his 1990 book gives such a large part to their tered the archaeological evidence." He then cites R. albeit "in oeuvres, context," on which see infra. Bianchi Bandinelli, who in 1966 could charge "thatclassi- 3 Note, however,that because of his emphasis on artistic cal archaeology is guilty of 'the almost total abandonment the personalities, German scholar paid relatively little at- of art history'."The same thought is echoed by M. Torelli, tention to the Archaic and the Hellenistic phases, for in Todisco 1993, 8, where he laments that classicalsculp- which few proportionately sculptors' names could be re- ture is ever more neglected by current archaeological re- covered from the ancient sources and from the evidence search ("sempre piui negletta dalle ricerche dell'ar- then available. cheologia contemporanea"). 759 AmericanJournal of Archaeology98 (1994) 759-72 760 BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY [AJA98

Once again I find myself in the unenviable position of ographical guidelines are topically grouped on pages having to uphold the archaeologicalapproach to ancient 469-72, an extensive list of abbreviations provides an sculpture, but this time not in contrast to the art historical impressive scholarly documentation updated to 1992 one.6 Rather, my comments are meant to address the (with even the occasional 1993 item), and lengthy captions current tendencies in archaeological circles-not only the to the illustrations serve as concise catalogue entries, cit- strongly anthropological and sociological ones of the so- ing the most significant or recent publications on each called (albeit now almost defunct) New Archaeology, piece--chosen, however, according to the author's prefer- which would virtually eschew ancient art from considera- ences. This format eliminates the need for crediting vari- tion, but also the more favorable, such as the theoretical ant theories, and occasionally allows the author to waver ones based on structuralism and semiotics, and the more in his position without taking a stand. For instance, the traditional, focusing on masters and masterpieces. Cer- legend to figure 4 attributesthe Ares Borghese to Alkame- tainly, the study of ancient sculpture has benefited from nes with a question mark and refers to Hartswick 1990, all these approaches, and the last half century has wit- but the text on page 39 does not give the grounds for the nessed a considerable shift and progress in our studies;7 hesitation; similarly, both figure 5 (the Velletri Athena) yet much remains to be done for the field of ancient art, and figure 6 (the Cherchel Athena) are captioned as the specifically sculpture, to be ranked by most archaeologists Hephaistia by the same master, the apparent contradic- at the same "objective"level of, say, Greek epigraphy and tion being tacitly resolved by a larger umbrella over both: architecture. "afterAttic originals of the Pheidian school."Out of a total of 317 plates (some showing multiple views of the same SCULTURA GRECA DEL IV SECOLO piece), only 94 carry no question mark after attribution or cautionary terms such as or in Todisco's book is volume 8 in the series of the Repertori "possible" "probable" their identification. This becomes all fotografici published by Longanesi & C. The reader is (dis)proportion the more significant when one considers the therefore led to expect that the illustrative corpus will many examples of architectural and animal included, whose form a major component of the work. Its 427 photo- sculpture identification is not in In addition, graphs and 41 line drawings confirm such expectation, question. only figures in the round are illustrated, save for the few reliefs that and the quality of the plates is almost invariably superb, are connected to a master's name or are to reflect even when dealing with such mediocre figures as heavily thought lost As a result, restored Roman statues with their incongruous attributes masterpieces. fourth-century originals such as gravestones and votive reliefs are omitted, and chaste fig leaves (e.g., fig. 60). A foreword by Mario as products of anonymous craftsmen.8 Torelli explains the motivation for this book precisely In its general this book is admirable. An within the context of comparable photographic conception, corpora, articulated into sections outlines but joined to a modern and critical text meant to exem- introductory chapter the history of Greek culture within the fourth cen- plify the current state of our knowledge. Todisco himself, (grecitit) tury: 1) historicalevents from 404 to ca. 300 B.C., not in his preface, pays homage to the influential views of only on the Greek mainland and in Asia Minor, but also (ex- Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli, here extensively quoted to- tensively and commendably) in Magna Graecia; 2) gether with other contemporary Italian scholars who politi- cal institutions, analyzed by area; 3) economic conditions; stress the unity of the archaeological inventory, whether 4) intellectual history and philosophy; and 5) city plan- sherd or statue; he also acknowledges the difficulty of ning, architecture, and the various art forms, by region, establishing a historical profile of fourth-century sculp- including Lycia, Karia, and Macedonia (in this order). ture in the round, given the almost total lack of freestand- The main discussion then follows, with chapters on "Ori- ing Greek originals. Yet Todisco has given his book a entation and Problems" and one on sculptural antece- revealing subtitle:Maestri e scuoledi statuariatra classicithed dents. A useful listing of ellenismo.He has therefore focused on the names fourth-century sculptors, by great region, is derived from extant statue bases (often drawn that have come down to us from and on what- antiquity, with surviving imprints) together with those ever schools can be from the evidence literary sculptural gleaned sources establishing collaboration and A of extant monuments and statue bases. In so he chronology. doing, stemma of members of the "School of Polykleitos"leads has a text both and produced progressive retardataire, to a discussion of masters by generation, and moves from critical still well yet subjective, remarkably informed but archaeological evidence to modern attributions. Sections also somewhat deficient in acknowledging problems and on "Masters of Architectural cover the latest controversial Sculpture" opinions. reconstructions of the Xanthian Nereid Monument and To be sure, the author addresses his work not only to the Asklepieion at Epidauros, the latter articulated into all students of classical culture but also to a larger public discussions of participating artists. Here Timotheos is generally interested in the roots of Western art (p. 12). credited with both one set ofakroteria and the models for The format, without footnotes or specific references in the one pedimental composition (p. 57), which on the next main is text, in keeping with this wider scope. Yet bibli- page turn into models for the entire sculptural program

6 For my previous see and efforts, Ridgway 1986, my 7 For a history of the development of studies, answer sculptural to William Hood in ArtB 68 (1986) 480-82. See see, e.g., Stewart 1990, 29-32. also, intended for an archaeological audience, Ridgway 8 Such reliefs are, however, occasionally mentioned; 1982 and 1991b. see, e.g., p. 102. 1994] THE STUDY OF CLASSICALSCULPTURE 761

of the temple and give the master total supervision for the one of the most famous names preserved for us by the work. Yet philologists keep stressing that li3toL cannot be ancient sources, on minimal objective grounds, that in- translated as "models," and Posch's recent proposal forms A. Corso's otherwise useful trilogy (1988, 1990, for a differentW. (AA 1991, 69-73) interpretation (relief/ap- 1992), as well as the writings of many other modern pliqu6s for the dark limestone slabs forming the base of authors. How can we be sure, for instance, that the Pour- the cult is overlooked. image) ing Satyr type copies the bronze original from the Athe- With the on Todisco his entry Timotheos, begins ex- nian Street of Tripods and that therefore "its pais of panded coverage fourth-century masters, relying now sweetness reflects the docility appropriate to the slaves of on attributions and ancient stylistic sources even when the class to which the wealthy sponsor of the work be- evidence is unavailable: archaeological Demetrios, longed" (pp. 67-68)? In the same vein, Lysipposis said to Kephisodotos I, Praxiteles, Skopas, Bryaxis, Euphranor, have known Alexander the Great since (the ruler's) child- Leochares, Silanion, Lysippos, Lysistratos,Praxiteles' sons hood (p. 120), and the Macedonian is credited with car- and the of the Akanthos Column in pupils, sculptor Del- rying around with him the Herakles Epitrapezios "since and sons and It phi,9 Chairestratos, Lysippos's pupils. is the time of the campaign against Thebes" (p. 117). Yet no here that his admirable and Todisco, despite premises his reliable ancient source I can find gives this specific infor- vast reverts to learning, antiquated models, attributing mation.10Recreating the social and chronological context works on the basis of the laconic purely listings in Pliny of a work of art is highly desirable, but at times the line or other ancient and to traditional sources, subscribing between reconstructive history and fiction seems danger- views of a sculptor's style even without ancient documen- ously thin. tation. Perhaps my most serious objection to this book, and in a few The discussion on uses Just examples. Skopas the general to comparable studies of Greek sculpture, is the term no fewer than 13 and considers a new pathos times, amount of emotionalism involved in stylisticjudgment. If formulation of it the distinctive of component the best a work can be attributed to a major master, no matter on Yet Skopasian style (p. 87). no single ancient source men- what tenuous grounds, then even a mediocre Roman tions in connection with the Parian and our pathos master, version cannot prevent a glowing description and inter- modern is interpretation largely based on the pedimental pretation. If, in contrast, no famous name can be con- of the Athenaion at of which is sculptures Tegea, Skopas nected with a statue, even if a Greek original, or no known to have been the architect.The current chain of attribute is preserved to clarify its message, then judg- attributions stems nonetheless from this stylistic very body ment is suspended or adjectives like "cold" and "aca- of and not well carved highly fragmentary particularly demic" are used." Todisco, and many others as well, tend the famous known pieces--including Meleager type only to read into the ancient pieces what they believe should which can claim a through copies, Skopasian paternity be there, ready to reconsider if a different attribution or because it shares its matter with one primarily subject chronology can be argued. Roman copies are given as obvious Tegean pediment, although local connections ex- much significance as Greek works, and nowhere is the the choice for the Todisco plain mythological gable. problem addressed that renderings could be modified to stresses rather of Meleager's expression pathos,which he suit the taste of the Roman patrons. Moreover, a Greek considers as manifested in the Dres- typically Skopasian prototype is sought behind each sculpture, even when den Maenad, the and Copenhagen/Dresden Herakles, outright Roman creation in imitation of Greek styles can the Pothos-all attributions that have been and will con- be suspected.'2 It is this persistent bias, combined with the tinue to be questioned. uncertainty and complexity of the "attribution in the Hermes of game," Similarly, discussing Olympia (pp. that has given sculptural studies a poor reputation in 75-76), Todisco it as a Neo-Attic work, but also as accepts archaeological circles, or, at best, a skeptical reception. a "ratherfaithful" rendition of a Praxitelean marble origi- I do not want to give the impression that Todisco'sbook nal, which can then be used to corroborate other hypo- has little value. To the contrary.As an in-depth study of thetical attributions. We sense here the same romantic the sculpture of a specific century (a rare feature in itself), determination to flesh out the and personality oeuvre of with excellent photographs even of little-known pieces,

9 Todisco 138 "drastically"refutes attribution of the East and West" (comitemoccasus secum et ortus)is Column portabat Karyatids to Praxiteles, but more recent discus- generic and hardly grounds for the Theban inference, nor sion seems to support the epigraphical reading proposed can 4.6.70 (ferturThebanos tantum excusasse be C. Vatin triumphos) by (which includes that master' s signature) on the related to the previous section. of Corso 1988: de authority J. Waele, RA 1993, 123-27, " See, e.g., Todisco's description of the Dresden Ar- 127. esp. temis attributed to Praxiteles (69, fig. 105), and contrast comment about 34.63: a 10 Pliny's Lysippos (HN pueritia his evaluation of the Lansdowne Herakles (101-102, fig. eius[sc. Alexander] orsus)can scarcelybe credited; not only 201) or that of the Antikythera Youth does it seem (102, fig. 202). influenced by Julio-Claudian dynastic prac- Equally noncommittal or even is Todisco's tices as faintly negative known to Pliny,but it is also contradicted by Anth. evaluation of the Akanthos Column, whose unknown mas- Pal. 16.336, which states made a Lysippos portrait of the ter is said to have "ratherlimited sensitivity"(138). youthful Alexander in his old age (Stewart 1990, 291). 12 See, e.g., the caption to the Sorrento base, fig. 137, Similarly, the expression in Stat. Silv. 4.6.61, that the despite reference to Roccos 1989. Herakles Epitrapezios kept Alexander company "alikein 762 BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY [AJA98 eloquent prose, and extensive, informed discussion, this years of the Peloponnesian War and the plague, but the volume will be consulted frequently and for some time to idea persisted in antiquity,and found its modern advocate come. For the specialist, its bibliography alone would be in Johann Joachim Winckelmann, whose influence, albeit and essential, which commendably comprises both Italian subconsciously, can still be felt in some of today's preju- in contrast to the that foreign titles, many publications dices and biases about classicalsculpture, for instance, that seem to consider works in their own or in only language of the Hellenistic period.'15 the authoritative German. The set- introductory chapter, In a restricted sense, context can be taken as the impact the for the monuments, is and ting stage outstanding of specific historical or political events on contemporary Even the "faults,"such as are, are comprehensive. they art, and this concept has been explored and even ex- common to the of books on Greek majority survey sculp- ploited for a long time. I need here recall only the many and therefore not to this ture, specifically imputable par- studies the of the Parthenon sculp- ideas explaining meaning ticular author, who often tries to express original tures in relation to the events of the Persian War,Perikles' and of his own. positions politics, and Athenian imperialism or, conversely, democ- racy.16For earlier phases, comparable debates have raged, of the SCULPTURE IN CONTEXT-THE SOCIO-HISTORICAL for instance, over the message and chronology and Boardman has APPROACH Athenian Treasury at Delphi, John spearheaded a whole movement correlating historical In its focus on masters and masterpieces, Todisco's figures with mythological iconography of the Archaic pe- book, although much more informed and better illus- riod. That such studies are of relative value is shown by trated, is not far from Furtwingler's pioneering work--in- the fact that the same monument can be viewed as the deed, the German scholar is cited in several of its embodiment of diametrically opposite ideals or the same to different Art historians photographic captions. In its comprehensive acceptance myth as referring personalities. of attributions and reliance on the ancient sources, the are now becoming aware of the possibility that context does not translate into content, and that art Italian volume continues the tradition of monographs on necessarily has its own and of contem- individual sculptors, such as the already cited trilogy by validity message independent events. This statement is doubly true with refer- Corso on Praxiteles, the numerous publications by porary ence to Greek art, which was always strongly anchored to Moreno on Lysippos,'"the books by Kreikenbom (1990) religion and used mythology as its primary message, re- on and by Palagiaon Euphranor (1980). Polykleitantypes gardless of other possible layers of meaning.17 On the other hand, in his to a sociocultu- attempt provide Art historicaltheory on the value of context has reached ral context for the works, Todisco is more in line with a position of almost complete skepticism. Realizing that and authors such as Stewart (1990, 1993a), Pollitt (1986), context, intended as the sum of all the circumstancesthat Hurwit much is made of (1985).14 Although being today may come into play around a work of art, could be in- illuminate the context of a work of the this need to art, definitely extended, it has argued that therefore total notion is not new, and can be traced back to the ancient context is impossible to establish. At the same time, it has writers, who often equated political stability or freedom seen the artistic creation as the product of outside forces, with creativity in the arts, and conversely saw the arts de- and has therefore tended to minimize the importance of cline or even cease in moments of civic unrest. That this the creator. Finally, it has warned that a reversal of the picture is patently wrong can be demonstrated by the theoretical process is possible, and that "context used to splendid Athenian sculptural production during the clark determine content" may be turned into "content used to

13 It is impossible to list here all the publications by 15An important article on Winckelmann and the an- Moreno on the Sikyonian master. Todisco's abbreviations cient sources, by A.A. Donohue, will appear in the forth- (483) list 21 entries relevant to the subject, ranging firom coming publication of a symposium on Polykleitos 1971 to 1991. (Polykleitos,the Doryphoros and Tradition)held at the Univer- 14 I have tried to limit my bibliographical mentions to sity of Wisconsin in October 1989. The same scholar is works of the last two decades, and to include work in currently writing a monograph on the historiography of progress or of forthcoming appearance (cited only in the ancient art. notes, rather than in the bibliography), in order better to 16 Such studies on the Parthenon have intensified in highlight current trends, but this selection should not be recent years because of the extensive conservation work taken to imply that earlier publications are outmoded or being carried out on the Athenian Akropolis, with its con- superfluous. I have also given preference to authors writ- comitant discoveries; for a bibliographic update, see, e.g., ing in this country, but comparable efforts by scholars Ridgway 1992. abroad should be mentioned: e.g., Marcade 1969, H61l- 17 For discussion and bibliographical reference to scher 1973 (and many other articles since), Giuliani 1986, Boardman's work and that of others along comparable Himmelmann 1990 (and his many other earlier works), lines, including M. Vickers and D. Francis, see Ridgway and, most prominent and probably earliest among Italian 1993, 8 and ns. 1.6 and 1.12 on pp. 16-17, as well as archaeologists, Bianchi Bandinelli 1943. Finally, I have passim.For the primary religious message of Greek sculp- frequently cited my own publications, because they con- ture, see, e.g., Ridgway 1989a and 1991a. A strong case for tain much more extensive references than are feasible to context in connection with Roman portraiture has been cite in the present article. made by Gazda and Haeckl 1993. 1994] THE STUDY OF CLASSICALSCULPTURE 763

determine context."18 This danger is particularlyacute in been. Thus Pergamon has loomed large in all our sculp- the case of ancient sculpture, for which so little solid tural interpretations because of its excavational presence information exists. Indeed, Boardman has commented and abundant information, to the detriment of possible that modern preoccupations with the function of the Roman inspiration for the "copies" in Hellenistic style.23 sculptures within the society for which they were made Even Greek originals, such as the so-called Pergamon "may themselves grow outdated once the limitations of Altar, have been dated more on presumed historical con- our evidence are properly acknowledged rather than en- nections than on archaeologicalevidence, so that redating thusiasticallyignored."'9 and reinvestigation are now in progress.24 If art historical context means not simply creation, set- The reverse process-trying to "see" known historical ting, patronage, but also other concomitant circum- and political events reflected in the extant monuments- stances, archaeological context-as part of a discipline has yielded mixed results. The commemoration of 2,500 that physically unearths its own inventory--can be ex- years of democracy was highlighted in this country by tended even further. It includes not only excavational loan exhibitions from the Greek government and by sym- findspots, obviously often different from initial settings,20 posia, both in the United States and in Athens, exploring but also, in the case of classical sculpture, the major issue the effects of political changes as witnessed in architecture of original versus copy, with all the nuanced intermediar- and sculpture. The sculptural exhibition on The Greek ies of adaptation, imitation, inspiration, and pastiche.2' Miracle,although vastly interesting for the specialist and Setting, in such cases, must be determined in function not greatly admired by the masses of visitors, attracted the only of the purpose for which the original was made, but justifiable barbs of art critics, not for the quality of its also of that for its copy, which may be separated in time contents but for failing to fulfill its purported intent. In a by several centuries and involve basically different cul- more specialized vein, a session of the 1993 Annual Meet- tural needs. It is then that the circularityof the process of ing of the Archaeological Institute of America ("The Ar- context versus content may become apparent, especially chaeology of Athens and Attica in the Time of since the availableancient sources were usually written for Cleisthenes") was devoted to papers exploring how the entirely different reasons than to provide true art history. onset of democracy was traceable in Athenian architec- This realization hasjust begun to sink in, witness the more ture, institutions, and art. The concluding comments, by recent commentaries on Pliny and other literary refer- Michael Jameson, pointed out that the speakers, to some ences.22 As for the historical events underlying certain extent, had not proved the intended point, either by monuments known only through single Roman sculp- showing that civic progress had already been made under tures, we are starting to see that we have tended to stress the tyrants (J. McK.Camp), or by demonstrating that later what we happen to know rather than what might have authors had taken as laws what had instead been practical

18 Most of my comments are derived from the impor- superior workmanship, it must be Greek") are now being tant article by Bal and Bryson 1991. See, in particular,177 revised, subject to marble analysis or to technical investi- on the perpetuummobile of context, and 180 on the "death gation in the case of ancient bronzes with all their possi- of the author" (= artist). They point out that humanist art bilities for piece-casting and overcasting. See infra. historians consider the author-function as "essentiallysac- 22 See, e.g., Donohue 1988; Isager 1991, and its review ramental," whereas modernist art historians eliminate by A.A. Donohue in BrynMawr ClassicalReview 3.3 (1992) "romanticsuppositions concerning the creative"and "the 192-97. baggage of mythified authorship ... to describe the limit- 23 See, e.g., sculptures such as the Capitoline Trum- ing conditions that make the myth of genius impossible." peter and the Ludovisi Gaul, at first considered Greek 19 J. Boardman, "Romancingthe Stone. A Review of A. originals, then accepted as copies, but of Hellenistic Per- Stewart's GreekSculpture," in TheNew YorkTimes Book Re- gamene bronzes of the end of the third century B.C., and view (30 September 1990) 38. now challenged as possible Roman creations on grounds 20 It is, perhaps, superfluous to reiterate in thisJournal of content (the suicide motif, the victimizationof women), the importance attached to the scientific recovery of exca- iconography (physical appearance, type of trumpet), and vational context, and thus the need to curb illicit digging. size (lack of correlation with the bases on the Pergamene The famous Porticello Head continues to be considered a akropolis): Ridgway 1990, 284-304, with bibliography;J. portrait (albeitof a "philosopher"in quotation marks)and Marszal, "The Composition of Attalos's Victory Monu- to be dated ca. 400 (e.g., Todisco 1993, 62 and fig. 88), ments at Pergamon,"AJA 95 (1991) 296 (abstract);"The although a chronology closer to the Parthenon frieze Death of Decebalus and the Motif of BarbarianSuicide," seems better to with agree the style of the head and the AJA 98 (1994) 335 (abstract). Note also the continuing related Even fragments. the turn into the fourth century debate on the correct assessment of the Sperlonga sculp- would not have been considered a plausible date, had the tures, perhaps best summarized in two contrasting points material not come from a datable wreck. of view: Andreae 1988 and Ridgway 1989b; but see also 21 On the various forms of copying, see, e.g., Ridgway Himmelmann 1991. 1984 and Bartman 1992, as well as further discussion be- 24 See, e.g., Rotroff 1990, a useful article in general for low. Even this we beyond issue, are still unable to decide the chronology of Hellenistic sculpture based on pottery with certainty whether an ancient sculpture was physically and terracottasfrom datable contexts. The German view executed in the Greek or in the Roman period. Judg- on the dating of the PergamonAltar appears as an appen- ments traditionallymade on the basis of quality ("ifit is of dix to B. Andreae ed., Phyromachos-Probleme(Mainz 1990). 764 BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY [AJA98 customs for the identification of citizens by demotic or by order to validate our tentative decipherment. In the case patronymic (S. Brenne). The paper most relevant for of classical art, we possess contemporary literary sources sculpture (I. Trianti) concerned the redating (to ca. 500 that may throw light on thoughts and customs of antiq- B.C.) and reinterpretation of the so-called Akropolis uity, yet even this information is limited by the chance of scribes, completed through the joining of disiectamembra survival and the purposes of the ancient authors. As for and seen now as the secretaries of three new political the artworks themselves, sculpture has not survived in bodies. Yet even this exciting discovery concerned reli- sufficient examples to provide many coherent original gious more than civic arrangements.25 wholes. In fact, Stewart (1990, 32) could comment that semiotics had so far made little or no inroads into sculp- tural in contrast with vase research. SEMIOTICS studies, painting This perception can now be slightly modified by cur- Art historical theory on context is partly based on the rent projects. A forthcoming book by Gloria Ferrari Pin- theory of signs and sign-use. It can thus interpret the ney, although primarily focused on Attic vases, has work of art itself as a text whose visual elements corre- implications for some sculptural categories, such as the spond to sentences or to their component parts. As the Archaic kouroi.26Joan Reilly, one of her students, has alphabetical (verbal) symbols stand for sounds and to- investigated Attic gravestones with representations of gether they form words, which in turn create a discourse, women adorning themselves, reaching a novel, symbolic so visual signs are symbolic of specific messages, which interpretation.27Both these studies have alerted us to the become incorporated into a work of art meant to address fact that what appear as depictions of everyday life may an audience capable of decoding them. This considera- in fact be allusions to moral concepts or even to a heroic tion is, of course, especially relevant for a society whose past whose reality may have been more relevant to the literacy was limited and thus had to rely heavily on visual ancients than it seems to us. Certainly,gravestones, with icons. The difficulty for our studies lies in the fact that the the repetition of motifs proper to their class, offer good keys to the ancient "codes"are largely lost to us, and that grounds for other comparable investigations. They have we therefore tend to interpret images in terms of our own already been explained as exponents of status symbols experiences, far removed in time from those of the period during the Hellenistic period-the literate, well-educated when the artwork was created. As in deciphering an un- man in the guise of the orator or the philosopher, and the known script or language, a linguistic approach to ancient wealthy woman surrounded by attendants and personal art demands that enough "texts" be available to study belongings, as they appear on the stelai from Old occurrences and correspondences; in addition, it is nec- Smyrna-and new publications will facilitate further essary to have a "translation"in a known language in speculation.28

25 Summaries of these presentations appear in AJA98 Fullerton,AJA 98 (1994) 377-80. (1994) 283-85. I understand that some of these papers 26 G. FerrariPinney, Figures of Speech,to be published by had already been given as part of the "Democracy 2500 the University of Chicago Press. The author has already Project" at the symposium "The Archaeology of Democ- expressed some of her theories in public lectures in 1992 racy" held at the American School of Classical Studies at and 1993. Athens on 4-6 December 1992 (forthcoming as W.D.E. 27 J. Reilly, The Imageryof FemaleAdornment on Ancient Coulson et al. eds., TheArchaeology ofAthens and Attica under AthenianGrave Reliefs (Diss. Bryn Mawr College 1992). An the Democracy[Oxbow Monographs 37, 1994]), with a fol- article on this subjectis now in preparation,but the author low-up in Washington, D.C., on 16-18 April 1993. For has anticipated her conclusions in a paper delivered at the critical comments on the message of the exhibition "The Annual Meeting of the College Art Association in New Greek Miracle," see, e.g., R. Hughes, "Greeks Bearing York, February 1994. A focus on Attic gravestones is the Loans. The Masterpiece Road Show," Time 141.2 (11 subject of C. Dallas, "Syntaxand Semantics of Figurative January 1993) 48-49. Art: A Formal Approach," in P Reilly and S. Rahtz eds., A comparable situation prompted the 1990 exhibition Archaeologyand the InformationAge: A Global Perspective and symposium on "Lo stile severo in Sicilia. Dall'apogeo (New York 1992), which I know, however, solely through della tirannide alla prima democrazia,"which resulted in the mention by S.S. Lukesh in her review of the book, AJA an excellent catalogue with important introductory essays 98 (1994) 356-57. and in papers of forthcoming publication. Yet the effort 28 The speculation on Hellenistic gravestones is by to show that the change in style coincided with democracy Zanker 1993, as presented at a Berkeley University sym- did not succeed, in that many of the best monuments posium on the Hellenistic period in 1988. As that study exhibited were due to tyrannical sponsorship. For the was sparked by Pfuhl and M6bius 1977-1979, so perhaps essay on stone sculpture, see De Miro 1990. new investigations will be promoted by the appearance of Although framed for a broader context, the comments the major corpus in six volumes of text and one of plates, by Whitney Davis (1990, 23-29) on "reading from style to by C.W. Clairmont, ClassicalAttic Tombstones(Kilchberg history,"and "reading from history to style" may be per- 1993), meant to update and replace A. Conze, Die attische tinent, including, in the second section, a discussion of Grabreliefs(Berlin 1890-1922). Iconographic studies of At- semiotics. tic stelai by J. Bergemann and A. Scholl are also forthcom- For a more focused study primarily based on the evi- ing. dence of statue bases and honorary practices, which even Other serial sculpture, such as votive plaques and the reserves consideration of the extant sculpture for a future so-called Record Reliefs, could also be subjected to com- work, see H6ghammar 1993, but also the reviews by M. parable analyses. The former have been treated only in 1994] THE STUDY OF CLASSICALSCULPTURE 765

Some semiotic vocabulary has also infiltrated archae- investigation in progress, by Andrew Stewart, promises to ological publications, so that, for instance, the terms "sig- focus on the conception of the female body as expressed nifier" and "referent"can now be found and understood by sculpture, from the rendering of costume, including within sculptural contexts. Visual narrative (as contrasted diaphanous drapery, to outright nudity. with icons), given its more obvious relationship to verbal Many other studies, by declared feminists, have made techniques, has also proved fruitful ground for specula- primary use of ancient literature, with the occasional tion. Beside the work by Richard Brilliant (1984) on sculpture thrown in as exemplification of specific posi- Etruscan and Roman art, Andrew Stewart (1985) has tions. Yet, as pointed out above in discussing context, made use of linguistics and literary criticism, adopting there is an unavoidable tendency to interpret the past in such expressions as syntagmatic and paradigmatic rela- the light of current experience; moreover, the Classical tions within a work of art, as if within a written text, to authors were not describing normal occurrences but writ- analyze the sculptural program of the Nike temple on the ing tragedies with mythical heroines, or arguing trials Akropolis and its parapet. He has continued in a similar with female offenders. In the United States in particular vein in his more recent work on ancient narrative (1993b), (as far as I, a Mediterranean woman, can judge), there by comparing the baroque ("Pergamene")style to Asiatic seems to be a built-in assumption that equates power and rhetoric and the use made by both of metaphor and prestige with the right to vote and prominence in political allusion. As Bal and Bryson warn us (1991, 270), "readers life, yet these were not priorities in an ancient woman's and viewers bring to the images their own cultural bag- life. The balance may now begin to swing in the opposite gage," and so art criticism may run the risk of being too direction, or at least to regain a middle ground, with clever and sophisticated, thus reading into the sculptures studies focusing on the more official, often religious, evi- meanings and purposes well beyond what the evidence dence provided by sculpture, and specificallyon Amazons can sustain.29 seen not as victims but as lower-key duplications of the goddess Athena, and on women as sponsors of civic works and art.31 ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND GENDER STUDIES Anthropology has not only promoted gender studies, Although based on linguistic theory, Ferrari Pinney's but has also emphasized the importance of transitionritu- and Reilly's research rests as well on anthropological ten- als. A great deal of attention has therefore been devoted ets and benefits from the new trends in gender studies. to rites of passage, whether for men or women, as markers These latter are a by-product of the feminist movement of transformation from childhood into maturity and-for that has extended to an investigation and a reevaluation men--citizenship, and the rituals around marriage and of the past, at least within Anglo-Saxon, perhaps primarily death. A spate of publications on funerary customs is now American, circles. Here again, vase painting has been being balanced by others on initiation rites for both gen- better served-or at least, better investigated-than ders. Although these concerns are more usually directed sculpture, although Natalie Kampen and Diana Kleiner to the prehistoric phases of Greek culture, some focus on have written important commentaries on images of Ro- the classical. Studies on ritual haircuts have thrown new man women, in funerary statuary and reliefs and on sar- light on sculptural depictions, and marriage rites have cophagi. A forthcoming book by Joan Connelly, on been used to explain the Lokroi pinakes, for instance, or depictions of priestesses in Greek antiquity,will stress the other sculptural monuments. Nudity in Greek male statu- position of women in festivals and rituals by considering ary has also been explored from the point of view of the evidence of statue bases and monuments.30 Another initiation.32

general (e.g., Neumann 1979) or in fragmented fashion, ture. An extensive literature on gender studies, albeit with by recipient (e.g., Tagalidou 1993); the latter have been emphasis on prehistoric times, is given by J.B. Rutter in gathered by Meyer 1989, but another work on the.same his "ReviewofAegean Prehistory II,"AJA 97 (1993) 758 n. topic, by C. Lawton, is forthcoming. 44. See also Bacus et al. 1993. A well-written 29 exegesis may then become a self- 31 See, e.g., M.Y. Goldberg, "The Amazon Myth and sufficient work of art in its own right, like the epigrams of Gender Studies,"AJA 98 (1994) 334-35 (abstract),in an- the AnthologiaPalatina or the Latin poems in praise of ticipation of her monograph on Amazons. For an all too ancient How masterpieces. dangerous some interpreta- cursory review of women and the arts, see Ridgway 1987. tions may be is demonstrated by Stewart 1993b, esp. 173- Connelly's new interpretation of the Parthenon frieze, 74 n. 16, which also shows how a chronological shift of "The Parthenon Frieze and the Sacrifice of the Erech- one or two decades can affect the only political allusions of theids: Reinterpreting the Peplos Scene," AJA 97 (1993) the "Altar." Pergamon 309-10 (abstract),would also give considerably more im- An essay by H61scher (1987), on Roman sculpture, de- portance to the role of Athenian women in civic life than rives its theoretical framework from semantics, and uses hitherto supposed. Greek as sculptures comparisons and contrasts to the 32 On ritual haircuts, see, e.g., Harrison 1988a; on the Roman and of Classicalforms and usage meaning types. Lokroi pinakes, see Sourvinou-Inwood 1978. On nudity, 30 Kleiner Kampen 1981; 1977, 1987, and, to some see, e.g., Bonfante 1989, with bibliography, and Ferrari exent, her book on Roman major sculpture, 1992. Con- Pinney (supra n. 26), forthcoming. Note also the many s Womenand Ritual: nelly' book, Priestessesin GreekArt and publicationsby Sourvinou-Inwood (e.g., 1988, 1991), and will Society, be published by Cambridge University Press. by Kahil (e.g., 1981) in connection with the cult of An earlier publication, Mantis 1990, although concerned Brauronian Artemis. with both men and women, is primarily devoted to sculp- 766 BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY [AJA98

Religion is playing an ever increasing role in our un- a purely decorative reproduction of Classicalprototypes, derstanding of ancient art, as attested by the symposia these works are now being assessed within the same spec- held periodically by the Swedish Institute at Athens. My- trum of interpretation, imitation, and emulation, as the thology is as ever at the iconographic forefront, now "copies" in the round. It stands to reason that if work- through the invaluable aid of the LexiconIconographicum shops of the Roman period were capable of this creative MythologiaeClassicae (LIMC), which is approaching com- range for statuary, they could also exploit it for reliefs, pletion. The danger here is that mythological depictions often drawing their inspiration not simply from stone are sometimes taken as proof of cult activities, in a some- models, but also from engraved bronzes and vase paint- what circular argument. But certainly the extensive analy- ings.35 sis of changing depictions of the same myth (or divine In line with these conceptions is the understanding that image) has yielded fruitful theories not only on the nar- "revival"styles are not limited to the well-establishedsets rative techniques of ancient art but also on the varying of Archaic-Archaisticand Classical-Classicizing.We now interests and beliefs of different periods.33 can add Severe-Severizing, and, although no new term has been coined for it, we acknowledge the existence of Roman "Hellenistic."In it is now better under- ACHIEVEMENTS particular, stood that revival (i.e., Roman-period) styles, like literary Aside from these theoretical currents, publications on genres or poetic meters, could be chosen to depict specific sculpture have focused on other aspects of the discipline. subjects: Archaistic to denote great antiquity, Severizing Perhaps the most important step forward, in my opinion, for mythological beings or events, Classicizing for divine is our increased understanding of the so-called Roman images, Hellenistic for epic narrative." Mixtures of styles copies. Although earlier authors had tried to see them as were also possible, according to current taste or intended products of their Roman environment, the emphasis had setting. consistently been on the alleged Greek prototypes. Now In terms of the evolution of Greek style itself, it is now this emphasis has shifted, and the most important ques- convincingly argued that the linear development tradi- tions being asked are not about what was being copied but tionally advocated for Greek sculpture on theoretical why and how. An important book by Elizabeth Bartman grounds may not have corresponded to reality.37More (1992) considers copies at reduced scale and prefaces than one trend could coexist at any time even in Classical three case studies with penetrating comments on the times, but this is especially true of the Hellenistic period, whole copying industry and process. Roman motivations with its many influences. Pre-Pergamene baroque with for obtaining replicas of Greek works were explored by roots in the fourth century is now an accepted fact, as is Marvin (1989) at a 1985 symposium at the National Gal- the presence in that same (still Classical) period of the lery of Art,34and have been the subject of several German Classicizing phenomenon not limited to the second-first studies. In particular,it has been pointed out that certain centuries B.C.38 Roman works derive general, rather than specific, inspi- The traditional assumption that styles spread through- ration from Greek iconography, and therefore go back to out the Greek world at a more or less even pace has also a Grundtypus that allows endless variations within a spe- undergone revision. Beyond the recognition of a "Linger- cific group (Landwehr 1990, Kranz 1989). Still among the ing Archaic"style not to be considered strictlyArchaistic desiderata is the establishment of a corpus of Roman or Archaizing, there is also the awareness that the Classical statuary in the round seen as Roman creations, even if style of the mid-to-late fifth century promoted by Athens echoing Greek styles. did not spark similar developments elsewhere until the The same approach is being applied, although more following century. It has been suggested that this was not sporadically, to the study of two-dimensional sculpture, so much because of preference for the Severe style, but especially the so-called Neo-Attic reliefs. Long considered primarily because the great building activity that quick-

33 See, e.g., L.E. Roller's review of the otherwise sig- a paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the College nificant Shapiro 1989, in AJA95 (1991) 352. On the con- Art Association in February 1994. nection between myth and cult, see also Calame 1990. An 36 See, e.g., Archaistic, Severizing, Classicizing, and example of the changing images of Athena on the Athe- Hellenistic/Roman sculptures as discussed by Fuchs 1992, nian Akropolis can be found in Ridgway 1992. with bibliography. See also M.D. Fullerton's review of 34 Miranda Marvin and Elaine K. Gazda recently of- Fuchs, AJA 98 (1994) 378-80. Important comments on fered an NEH Summer Seminar at the American Acad- Roman Hellenistic can be found in Weis 1992, esp. ch. 4, emy in Rome (6 June-22 July 1994) on "The Roman Art "HellenisticStyle and Narrative in the SilverAge"; see also of Emulation," which specifically addressed this phe- her ch. 5, "Patternsof Popularity and Copy Design." nomenon: see the outline of the course in AJA98.1 (1994) 37 See, e.g., the forthcoming book on the Aphrodite of in the announcements section after p. 188. Knidos, by C.M. Havelock, to be published by the Univer- 35 For the use of interpretatio,imitatio, and aemulatio,as sity of Michigan Press. applied to Roman copies, see, e.g., Ridgway 1984, ch. 7, 38 For pre-Pergamene baroque, see, e.g., Pollitt 1986, with bibliography.The same principles applied to Neo-At- 111-12; for Classicizingin the fourth century, e.g., Roccos tic reliefs: besides my early efforts (Ridgway 1970, ch. 8), 1986, 16-26, and 1991; in more general terms, also Mar- new ground is being covered by M. Fullerton in a forth- cade 1988. coming study. He has anticipated some of his thinking in 1994] THE STUDY OF CLASSICALSCULPTURE 767 ened the pace of sculptural development in Attica did not are still unable to distinguish with confidence the portrait correspond to similar construction elsewhere. Only when of a Greek from that of a Roman is disturbing, but an new structures needed to be erected in the Peloponnesos emphasis on intended political messages and a more scru- and in Asia Minor, even in Italy, were the new stylistic pulous use of numismatic evidence (entire series of coins, forms carried there by itinerant masters or even by pat- rather than sporadic examples singled out to prove a tern books, so that a virtual, albeit apparent, gap may specific, idiosyncratic identification) promise sounder re- exist between Severe and fourth-century styles outside sults.41This revival of interest in Hellenistic rulers finds Athens.39That styles may change largely because of in- a-perhaps unintentional--counterpart in increased at- creased demand and production, or other local circum- tention to Hellenistic sculpture. stances, rather than solely on theoretical grounds or Long considered a quagmire because of the relative because of the impulse of genius, is a new conception that lack of ancient literary references, its vague chronological may need to be considered. and ideological framework, its complex historical back- The consequences of such an approach are twofold. On ground, and our innate prejudice inherited from the Ro- the one hand, regional studies may receive greater impe- mans, the study of Hellenistic art is receiving new impetus tus-witness the 1992 symposium on sculpture from from several modern historical surveys and a more intel- Arkadia and Lakonia edited by Palagia and Coulson ligent analysis of the visual material. Here too, stricter (1993), or the forthcoming exhibition of Magna Graecian definition of what constitutes a Hellenistic original or a sculpture at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. On the later creation in Hellenistic style is essential for our un- other hand, even the contributions of the great masters derstanding and appreciation of this long and multifac- should be reassessed in more realistic and critical terms. eted phase.42 Important advances made in studying A current project distributed among several authors has techniques and materials may strongly contribute to such the potential to provide just the type of penetrating and an undertaking. discriminating essays we need, based on hard evidence This is a field where great progress has indeed been more than on speculation.40 The same desideratum may achieved. The creation of an Association for the Study of be formulated for the field of portraiture, which has suf- Marbles and Other Stones In Antiquity (ASMOSIA),with fered from the same attributionismprevalent in the study its Newslettercirculating since 1988, has promoted rapid of masters, but which may now see progress in a different diffusion of information, both on bibliography and on direction. congresses or symposia on relevant subjects. Although As strong as the desire to recover the operanobilia is the analysis, by various scientific means, has not yet reached to urge recognize famous Greek personages in the por- total accuracy or complete identification of quarries, be- traits that have come down to us in busts and statues of cause of still insufficient data on ancient stone sources, the Roman This period. understandable wish has resulted many steps forward have been made and are changing, in inflated categories, especially for the portraiture of as well as expanding, our understanding of marble trade Alexander the where Great, every youthful head with in the Greek and Roman world. Analysis of quarrying tousled locks has been considered an image of the famous methods and techniques has also allowed increased Macedonian. In recent years, a minimalist reaction has set speculation on foreign influences on the origins of Greek and a more in, discriminating approach is producing bet- sculpture: not simply those, long acknowledged, from ter results. traditional Although studies have continued, Egypt, but also from Anatolia and the Near East, in keep- criticism and doubts are now often expressed. That we ing with recent trends that highlight interconnections

For and their '9 Archaistic/Archaizing definition, see and the more rigorous use of numismatic evidence by Fullerton and 1990, Ridgway 1993, 445-46 with bibliog- Fleischer 1991, esp. 2; cf. also his more concise presenta- raphy on 462-63. Building activity important for the de- tion (Fleischer 1990). from velopment Archaic into Severe: Ridgway 1985. For 42 Historical surveys: see, e.g., Green 1990, Gruen the of earlier trends persistence during the stylisticdevel- 1984. For an overly comprehensive approach, based in opments fifth-century Attica, see my forthcoming pa- partly on literary parallels, see, e.g., Fowler 1989, and its "Lo stile per, severo. Lo stato della questione," as given at review by Pollitt, AJA95 (1991) 176-77. Most of the the on the J.J. Symposium Severe Style, Palermo, February "fixed points" of Hellenistic sculptural enu- 1990. chronology merated by Andreae (1989) seem to me questionable. For 40 This collection of articles, edited by J.J. Pollitt and 0. a more skeptical approach, see Ridgway 1990. Renewed will be in Palagia, published YCS. To be sure, the best interest in Hellenistic art is evidenced, e.g., by the fact that studies on masters stem from the single existence of the latest International Congress of ClassicalArchaeology, their as proven originals by hands, Despinis 1971 for held in Berlin in 1988, was devoted to the Hellenistic pe- Current Agorakritos. excavations at Messene promise to riod; the papers have been published in Aktendes XIII. shed new on light the Hellenistic sculptures by Damophon internationalen Kongresses klassische 1988 and his sons. fiir Archiiologie (Mainz 1990). See also Reeder 1988, and its introductory 41 For the portraiture of Alexander, see, e.g., Stewart essays. 1993a, for a review esp. 56-70, of previous approaches One area that has attracted great interest in recent and examination of Stewart principles. 1979 is also inno- years because of major archaeological finds-Mace- vative in its method. The to political approach identifica- donia-has yet to make an impact on sculptural studies. tion is perhaps most recently exemplified by Smith 1988, 768 BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY [AJA98 throughout the Mediterranean basin and the ancient Greek sculptors for the period from ca. 650 to 30 B.C., world.43Scientific results are, however, subject to the same drawing its photographic documentation largely from the strictures of interpretation as other archaeological evi- extensive Ashmole Archive. In this country, a comparable dence-witness the 1992 symposium on the authenticity project, PERSEUS, sponsored by Harvard University,al- of the Getty Kouros (GettyKouros 1993), where consensus though ampler in its archaeological coverage, provides could not be reached on either grounds. Yet the help concise information on some ancient statuary as well, to- provided by the laboratory should not be discounted or gether with illustrations, often in more than one view, in underestimated. a visual range and with cross-referencing impossible for Equally important is the observation of technical de- standard publications. Even books, their writing and their tails, whether in bronze casting or marble carving. Several editing, have been expedited by the computer, so that recent studies (Palagia 1987, Mattusch 1988, Rockwell now information and bibliography can be kept as up-to- 1989, Pfanner 1989, Marble 1990) have already proved date as a matter of months. Technical advances in the significant for chronological and artistic assessment, and future promise even better visual documentation, such as others are planned. The use of infrared lighting, and even remote imaging, and greater facility in storage and re- close observation in favorable lighting conditions, have trieval of information. revealed on stone traces of paint that have considerably In terms of publications, there will always be the need changed or increased our understanding of the sculp- for superb photographs and large plates, but a recent tures.44Mattusch's second book, on fourth-century and trend has been the appearance of paperbacks on Greek Hellenistic bronzes, is in progress, and promises to shed sculpture (as on vase painting) supplied with many, albeit new light on the serial making of large bronzes from single small, illustrationsaccompanied by a concise but scholarly models; this process would have not only expedited the text (e.g., Boardman 1978, 1985, Smith 1991).47 At the execution of multifigured groups, but also perpetuated other extreme, museums and other sculptural collections the use of certain stylistic forms well beyond the date of continue to be published in voluminous catalogues with the prototype, with significant consequences for our un- extensive bibliography: note, for instance, the German derstanding of style. Even the evidence at our disposal is series on the Munich Glyptothek and the Villa Albani in increasing. Particularmention should here be made of the Rome, or the first volume in the long-awaited French official publication of the Baiae casts (Landwehr 1985), publication of the Greek materialin the Louvre (Hamiaux and of the 1992 underwater discovery of as many as 250 1992). Of the ambitious Handbuchder Archaiologie,in- items from large-scale statues in the harbor of Brindisi tended to replace G. Lippold, Die griechischePlastik (Mu- (ancient Brundisium, Italy), which are bound to virtually nich 1950), only the first volume, on Geometric and double the amount of extant bronze statuary availablefor Archaic sculpture, has appeared (Floren 1987). Special- analysis.45Periodic international congresses on bronze ized, problem-oriented studies continue to be published casting have been held at various locations and their pro- on both sides of the Atlantic, but they seem to reach only ceedings published with regularity;46a future one is few archaeologists, and perhaps even fewer classicistsand planned for Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1996. A sym- general art historians. posium on the Mahdia shipwreck, to take place in Bonn Majoressays and articleson classicalsculpture are often in 1994, will also expand our views on commercial pro- also embedded in volumes in honor of individual scholars duction of artifacts in the late Hellenistic/early Roman (e.g., the festschriftsfor J. Inan, N. Himmelmann, and E. period. Undoubtedly, underwater archaeology, so impor- Simon), acts of international congresses, or exhibition tant for its prehistoric finds, has contributed much also to catalogues. In this last context, special mention should be classical sculpture, and will continue to do so. made of a specific kind of loan exhibition organized by Technology has also helped in other ways, although not American museums (notably that of Emory University, limited to sculptural studies. Computer-aided statistics where MaxwellAnderson has pioneered), that focuses not can be applied, for instance, to the distribution of copies on famous masterpieces but on little-known objects usu- and calculations of sizes or arrangement of fragments. In ally kept in European storerooms and thus largely ig- England, under the sponsorship of King's College, Lon- nored. The resultant catalogues rely heavily on the don, a video data base of text and images called DAEDA- accompanying essays, which offer the opportunity of LUS is gathering all textual, epigraphical, and material breaking new theoretical ground or highlighting new re- evidence relating to the life, works, and style of all known search directions. Given the risk of including (and study-

43 For Anatolian influences on Greek quarrying meth- 45 For a preliminary listing of the Brindisi finds, see the ods, see, e.g., M. Waelkens, P de Paepe, and L. Moens, in special publication by the Ministero per i Beni Culturalie Marble 1990, 47-72. For more theoretical grounds on in- Ambientali, of a Bollettinodi Archeologia:VIII settimana per i terconnections, see Morris 1992; a forthcoming book by beniculturali e ambientali:Bronzi di Punta del Serrone(Rome J.B. Carter,on the beginning of Greek sculpture on Crete, 1992) 3-16. through North Syrian influences, will be published by Yale 46 These proceedings and relevant publications on University Press. bronze casting are annually reviewed by C. Rolley in suc- 44 See, e.g, the major consequences of the recognition cessive issues of RA, beginning in 1983. of paint on the Isthmia perirrhanterion (Sturgeon 1987, 47 I understand that J. Boardman is currently writing 41-45), and of the painted labels on the Siphnian Treasury another book in the same format on the fourth century friezes (Brinckmann 1985). Cf. also Harrison 1988b. B.C. 1994] THE STUDY OF CLASSICALSCULPTURE 769

ing) clever fakes whenever private collections are dis- to place the object in its proper cultural context, so that played, these exchange exhibitions of proven archae- it may serve as a true indicator of its time. Connoisseur- ological finds are to be applauded. ship, not as an end in itself but as a means to a goal, will To keep track of all that appears within the discipline, never be replaced. It must, however, be focused on the or even to read the amount of material being produced, object itself, seen in its reality and not as a reflection of a has become increasingly difficult. presumed Greek prototype or as an illustration to a men- tion in an ancient source. Rhys Carpenter, one of the PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE greatest formalists in American scholarship, used to urge his students to "let the objects for themselves," to These closing comments obviously represent my own speak look first and foremost, without brainwashed wishes for the discipline, based on my personal under- being by previous theories or Theo- standing of it, but they are in part derived from the trends scholarly pronouncements. retical movements, such as structuralism, semiotics, and and practices outlined above and from the current direc- tion of our studies. feminism, can all contribute to our understanding as long as we do not let the dominate or even close First and foremost, it is hoped that the study of sculp- theory replace and direct observation. and laboratories ture will take its legitimate place among the various fields Computers should be seen as invaluable aids, but not as total substi- of archaeological endeavor. This position, to my mind, is tutes for the and the touch. different from the aesthetic preeminence given to it at the eye Once the has been seen and as far as time of Furtwingler's Meisterwerke,when archaeology was object appraised, in its and it is still struggling to define itself as a science rather than as possible, actuality function, imperative that we ask all the basic of a purely humanistic endeavor. Insofar as classicalarchae- questions context, message, and that each its as archae- ology is both a discipline and a technique-the material inspiration give sculpture validity evidence. The difficult task ahead recovery of the record of the past from the earth and the ological is to strike a balance between aesthetic and factual sea-it incorporates features of different specializations appreciation analy- sis, between wishful attributionism and realistic assess- and it employs different research strategies, but they are ment. It will be to abandon all aimed at reconstructing classical culture, and none necessary previously cherished tenets in the realization that the should be considered alien to it as long as it serves the premises on which were based are no final goal. Abandoning the romantic visions of the Golden they longer valid,4•yet we need not reach a of total and Age that affected 18th- and 19th-century scholars,48un- position skepticism agnosticism. But we also must between fact derstanding the historical reasons for preferences and distinguish and theory, between confirmed prejudices, making judicious use of the ancient sources knowledge and hypothetical recon- struction. within their limitations, the study of sculpture could con- In addition, we must overcome our ingrained which tribute greatly to the archaeological purpose, or at least Athenocentrism, judges every sculptural manifes- tation Attic standards and as greatly as the study of pottery, architectural remains, by therefore finds every other and inscriptions-all of which are based, to some extent, regional expression not simply different but wanting and It is on stylistic judgments of development of forms. We provincial. certainly hard to review all that we had been and taken for should cease to expect scientific accuracy from material taught granted, but the very contra- dictions inherent in the "attribution analyses, since our finds are inevitably determined by the game" show that not double chances of survival and recovery. We can certainly all is well with our present understanding. aim for ever greater accuracy in such recovery, but we After 100 years of studying classical sculpture, we may seem shall never be able to control the rate of survival, depend- to have progressed very little beyond Furtwdingler's vision and ent on the vicissitudes of the past. In this light, sculpture approach-we certainly no longer hope indi- can take its rightful place among the other archaeological vidually to achieve the complete mastery of all aspects of fields, as an invaluable documentation of aspects of the ancient art (from statuary to painting to gems to coins) past that would otherwise be irrevocablylost. In its official that the German scholar possessed. But many new finds capacity engendered by its permanence and public dis- have come to enrich our inventory, and many new vistas play, as expression of the religious and political beliefs of have opened up to our investigation of the past. This is the classical world, sculpture constitutes a text unparal- an exciting time for the student willing to ask new ques- leled by any of the literary sources. It is up to us to read tions; even if each generation will provide different an- it closely and accurately. swers, they should all bring us closer to a global Among the currents analyzed above, little or no atten- understanding of the classical past. tion was paid to formal analysis in sculptural studies. Yet even this trend continues apace, as indeed it should-not, DEPARTMENT OF CLASSICAL AND NEAR EASTERN however, as the self-fulfilling task of classificationand dat- ARCHAEOLOGY ing that in its subjectivity and inaccuracy has given the BRYN MAWR COLLEGE discipline its dubious reputation, but rather as the effort BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA 19010

48 Important, in this is the Himmel- respect, study by 49 In this vein, see the comments by Bruneau 1993 to mann 1981, with the penetrating preface by S. Settis. Hartswick 1990. 770 BRUNILDE SISMONDO RIDGWAY [AJA98

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