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Poetics of Silence: Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157) and the Practice of Poetry in Song Dynasty Chan Yulu

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Poetics of Silence: Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157) and the Practice of Poetry in Song Dynasty Chan Yulu Poetics of Silence: Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157) and the Practice of Poetry in Song Dynasty Chan Yulu Christopher Byrne Department of East Asian Studies McGill University, Montreal May 2015 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. © Christopher Byrne 2015 ABSTRACT This dissertation fulfills two aims: First, it provides the first comprehensive analysis of the poetic genres written by Chan Buddhist monks as part of their religious vocation and as collected within yulu (recorded sayings) during the Song dynasty (960-1279). Second, it demonstrates how Chan’s claim to an ineffable insight “not dependent on words and letters” (buli wenzi) paradoxically informs the literary character of its monastic poetry. My research focuses on the poetry of master Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157), who, along with being one of the most prolific poets among Chan masters, is renowned for advocating the meditative practice of “silent illumination” (mozhao) that defines his Caodong sect. I argue that the principle of silence defines the nature of Hongzhi’s poetics as the primary theme and image of his verse. By organizing my literary analysis of yulu according to genre, I demonstrate how each poetic genre adopts conventions particular to its own literary and religious functions, while engaging with the principle of “beyond words” that characterizes yulu collections as a whole. In Chapter One, I illustrate how poetry has remained an integral and significant component of Chan yulu collections since they began to be published as independent works during the early Song dynasty. I then argue that Hongzhi’s doctrinal verses (Chapter Two) poetically express a philosophical paradigm, in which silent meditation and linguistic expression can be seen as complementary aspects of a single practice. In Chapter Three, I show how songgu—verses written in response to Chan gong’an (J. koan)—formed the literary focal point of Chan gong’an collections and how their composition was a central aspect of monastic training and pedagogy, as also reflected in the poetic character of the dialogical sermons that epitomize yulu. In Chapter Four, I examine how the social-occasional poetry of Chan masters like Hongzhi was collected as, and transformed into, Buddhist gatha (Ch. jisong) during the Song, expressing a non-dualistic doctrinal perspective within poetry (a.) exchanged with monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen, (b.) written in the reclusive mode, and (c.) composed for the ritual and economic activities of the monastery. Finally, in Chapter Five, I analyze a sample of the hundreds of portrait encomia (zhenzan) Hongzhi inscribed on his own portrait as a means of promoting the master as an embodiment of total silence in which the distinction between language and silence itself is ultimately dissolved. I conclude that Hongzhi’s poetry represents a distinctively Chan poetics crafted to merge the non-discriminative wisdom of silence with literary expression. i RÉSUMÉ Cette thèse répond à deux objectifs: d'abord, elle fournit la première analyse exhaustive des genres poétiques écrits par un moine bouddhiste Chan dans le cadre de sa vocation religieuse et recueillis dans les yulu (recueil de paroles) au cours de la dynastie Song (960-1279). Deuxièmement, elle démontre comment la revendication de Chan pour un concept inexprimable «ne dépend pas des mots et des lettres» (buli wenzi) nous renseigne paradoxalement sur le caractère littéraire de sa poésie monastique. Mes recherches portent sur la poésie de Maître Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157), qui, tout en étant l'un des poètes les plus prolifiques parmi les Maîtres Chan, est réputé pour défendre la pratique méditative de «l'illumination silencieuse» (mozhao) qui définit sa secte Caodong. Je soutiens que le principe du silence définit la nature de la poésie de Hongzhi comme le thème et l'image primordiaux de ses poèmes. En organisant mon analyse littéraire des yulu selon le genre, je démontre comment chaque genre poétique adopte des conventions particulières à ses propres fonctions littéraires et religieuses, tout en attirant l’attention sur le principe «au-delà des mots» qui caractérise les collections de yulu dans leur ensemble. Dans le premier chapitre, j’illustre la façon dont la poésie est restée une partie intégrante et importante des collections de yulu Chan depuis qu'ils ont commencé à être publiés comme oeuvres indépendantes, au cours du début de la dynastie Song. Je soutiens ensuite que les versets doctrinaux de Hongzhi (deuxième chapitre) expriment d’une façon poétique un paradigme philosophique, dans lequel la méditation silencieuse et l'expression linguistique peuvent être considérés comme des aspects complémentaires d'une même pratique. Dans le troisième chapitre, je montre comment les songgu—des versets écrits en réponse au gong’an Chan (J. koan)—forment le point focal littéraire des collections de gong’an Chan et comment leur composition était un aspect central de la formation et de la pédagogie monastiques comme reflété également dans le caractère poétique des sermons dialogiques incarnés par les yulu. Dans le quatrième chapitre, j’examine comment la poésie sociale occasionnelle des Maîtres Chan comme Hongzhi a été recueillie et transformée en gatha bouddhiste (Ch. jisong) au cours de la dynastie Song, exprimant un point de vue doctrinal non-dualiste au sein de la poésie (a.) échangée avec les moines, les religieuses, les hommes et les femmes laïques, (b.) écrit dans le mode reclus, et (c.) composées pour les activités rituelles et économiques du monastère. Enfin, ii dans le cinquième chapitre, j’analyse un échantillon parmi des centaines de portraits encomia (zhenzan) que Hongzhi a inscrits sur son propre portrait comme un moyen de promouvoir le Maître comme une incarnation du silence total dans lequel la distinction entre le langage et le silence lui-même est finalement dissoute. Je conclus que la poésie Chan de Hongzhi représente une poésie distincte conçue pour fusionner la sagesse non-discriminatoire du silence avec l'expression littéraire. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the many organizations that have provided generous funding for my doctoral research: Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la société et la culture (FQRSC), Chiang Ching-Kuo Foundation (CCK), Paul Hsiang Fellowship, the Department of East Asian Studies at McGill University, and the Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies (CHIBS). A Huayu scholarship from the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China allowed me to study in Taipei and significantly improve my Mandarin at the beginning of my degree, which was very much needed. I would also like to express my general gratitude and indebtedness to the province of Québec. Not only did a major portion of my funding come from the province, but without the province’s policies in support of education, low tuition, families, and healthcare, it is highly improbable that I would have ever begun graduate studies and completed a doctoral degree. My greatest indebtedness for the completion of this doctoral project is to my supervisor Grace Fong. From the moment I walked into her office with the ambitious idea of pursuing a doctoral degree in Chinese literature, Prof. Fong has been extraordinarily generous and supportive in innumerable ways. She has taken considerable amounts of her time to provide assistance and has arranged many invaluable opportunities for my education and research along the way. I have benefited immensely from her intellectual rigor, keen sense of language, fine attention to detail, and vast scholarly knowledge, as she has continually pushed me to re-think my conceptualizations, refine my translations, and revise my arguments. I can only take full credit for the clumsy ideas and expressions that remain. Two other scholars have played a significant role in my academic training and the formulation of this project early on: Victor Sōgen Hori and Robin Yates. Prof. Hori’s undergraduate course on Zen Buddhism was what led me to graduate school where I first began to study Chan/Zen poetry during a Master’s degree that he supervised. My studies with Prof. Hori gave me a solid formation in Buddhist philosophy and scholarly analysis and argument that have been the backbone of my doctoral studies, and I continue to benefit from his insights. Besides taking charge of my education in Chinese history, Prof. Yates has located and obtained many essential sources and reference works, in addition to correcting many misunderstandings in my work and weeding out countless errors and typos (my apologies). Many others have assisted me during my degree. I would like to thank a number of scholars who have read and/or discussed portions of my research as it was unfolding, including: Steven Heine, Ellen Widmer, Morten Schlütter, Miriam Levering, Beata Grant, Jason Protass, Jeffrey Moser, Ken Dean, Christopher Nugent, Timothy Chan, and Li E. Among my fellow graduate students at McGill, I would like to particularly thank Wang Zhifeng, Rongdao, Lin Fan, Sébastien Rivest, Melissa Curley, Wei Tao, and Ryan Jones for their assistance and thoughtful discussions. A special thanks to Wang Wanming who aided me with the translation of most of the poems within this dissertation and who has tirelessly corrected my Mandarin pronunciation over the years. Thanks also to Jöelle Grundman for translating my abstract. Throughout the many years I have been at McGill, I have had the extraordinary opportunity not only to participate in the academic community but to work alongside administrators, grounds- persons, facilities personnel, daycare teachers, library staff, and others—cutting grass, folding iv towels, printing journals, changing diapers, scheduling lectures, and more. My research would not have been possible without them, and I learn from them daily. I am especially grateful to all those who helped me maintain access to essential resources and services throughout the entire research and writing process. My greatest support over the years has come from my parents, Thomas and Katherine Byrne, and my wife, Tara Mawhinney.
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