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Proquest Dissertations CAPTURING THE PLATFORM HOW PUBLIC RELATIONS SPUN THE BEIJING OLYMPICS MANFRED BECKER A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO AUGUST 2011 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre r6f6rence ISBN: 978-0-494-80490-2 Our file Notre r6f4rence ISBN: 978-0-494-80490-2 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduce, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Nnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1+1 Canada Abstract As a carrier of cultural meanings that are available to international audiences amounting to 4 billion viewers, the modern Olympic Games are global events unparalleled in history. The Olympic spectacle provides a unique opportunity for a host nation to construct a desired image and narrative of itself for the world. The Games also give global civil society the opportunity to conquer the Olympic platform and draw attention to various socio-political agendas. Focusing the inquiry on the global civic debate prior to the 2008 Beijing Olympics, this thesis documents the sophisticated yet tactically diffuse public relations campaigns mounted by the organizers and detractors of the Beijing Games. The purpose of this thesis is to contextualize the correlation between the Olympic spectacle and public relations within several theoretical frameworks, by situating it in the interface between state, non-governmental organization advocacy groups, and mass media. Central to the inquiry is the creation of a desired narrative by the Olympic host country, China, as well as the counter-narratives created by the two dominant opposing civil society actors, the NGOs "Dream for Darfur" and "Students for a Free Tibet." The thesis will track which stakeholder occupied the Olympic platform in the lead-up to the Games, and for what reasons. The thesis concludes with the finding that neither side of the conflict, Olympic host nor civil society actors achieved its goal to alter the public's perception of 'China' in Western society. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction/Chapter Layout/ Methodology/ Limitations 1.1 "Ritual, Game, Festival, Spectacle"- Olympism from Coubertin to MacAloon 1.2 "Shifting Grounds" - From Television to Cyberspace 1.3 "How to Sell a Nation" - Public Relations and National Identity 2.1 "Genocide Olympics" - Dream for Darfur and Group SJR 2.2 "A Pebble in the Chinese Shoe" - Students for a Free Tibet (SFT) 2.3 "Politics and Sport Don't Mix" - BOCOG and Hill & Knowlton 3.1 "Countdown from 'Genocide Olympics' to 'Earthquake Olympics' 3.2 "Missions Accomplished" - A Post-Games Assessment 3.3. Conclusion: "The Games Did Not Take Place" - Olympics as Simulacra? List of Interviews Appendices Bibliography v Introduction Iconic Images in Olympic History The Olympic Games have grown to become the largest event in which humanity meets to engage in a self-conscious common activity. The era of the Modern Olympics began in 1896, but it wasn't until the latter part of the twentieth century that the Olympic platform was established through intense capital investments by main stakeholders like corporate sponsors and the International Olympic Committee. The IOC is the self-declared guardian of the "Olympic Spirit" and selection agent of future host cities. Together these "legitimate" stakeholders have built an elaborate system to advance commercial and political messages. After being voted down to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, China set the theme for the awarded 2008 Beijing Games as "One World, One Dream" to project the image of a harmony-seeking country that was emerging as a positive global force. The Olympics were intended as China's introduction to the world for recognition as an economic, political, and social power. If the twenty-first century was to become China's century, the 2008 Olympics would serve as its dramatic entry. That dominant narrative was challenged by various international civil society actors, each offering their own counter-narrative, and each trying to hijack the Olympic platform and its mega media spotlight. Dayan and Katz (1984) applied the term "hijack" to describe the sometimes forceful but always antagonistic seizure of world attention in a singular public 1 event. By making use of public relations methodology to maximize their visibility, a multitude of civil society players benefit from the Olympics as a global media event as it provides them with the opportunity to perform in a global theater of representation by intruding on the expected and dominant narrative. Various dramatic forms of hijacking have been witnessed worldwide in the past when seemingly powerless groups or individuals have gained momentary attention by subverting the Olympic Games in order to take control of the narrative. The following are some key examples. Berlin 1936 2M '* Sources: US National Archives, retrieved at http://www.ushmm.org/lcmedia/photo/wlc/image/14/1449 & Associated Pictures, retrieved at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olvinpics/6008196 The official motto of the Berlin Olympics in 1936 was "I Call the Youth of the World." Hitler's intention was to make use of the Games as a platform to present the ideals of a new National Socialist Germany to the international community. However, a black American athlete subverted that desired narrative by contradicting the idea of the superiority of the Aryan master race. Jesse Owens won four gold medals and - unintentionally - hijacked the Olympics from its host. 2 The image of Owens exploding out of the starting block became the defining moment of the 1936 Games, celebrated even in the official film of the event, Olympiad, which was created by order of Adolph Hitler (Riefenstahl 1938). Mexico 1968 Sources AP, tetneved at http //pictzz blogspot com/2008/08/olympic-opening-ceiemonies-thiough html & Getty Images, http //apps detnews com/apps/multimedia/index php^search=mitt&page=7 Mexico City's motto was "Everything Is Possible in Peace." The 1968 Games were hosted by a military dictatorship that was representing itself as friendly and welcoming to the world: during the opening ceremonies, colourful balloons were released into the sky, while hot pink and vibrant yellow banners framed a white dove of peace that lit up Mexico City. But these images were quickly replaced by that of two American athletes, Tommy Smith and John Carlos, who bowed their heads and raised their fists in a salute to the Black Power movement as they received their medals and stood listening to the American National Anthem. That picture became the defining moment and provided the iconic image of the Mexico Games. However, the visual of more than 300 student and worker demonstrators killed by the Mexican military days before the Games hardly registered in the public conscience, because the world "wasn't watching." 3 Munich 1972 ; ; ^h* i.V>i f .•j-:'.!"(v-'^ ,. "."" ...i.Viii ""ji- '--• .' Sources: Fairfax, retrieved at http://www.smh.com.au/ftimages/2004/07/14/1089694403703.html & AP, retrieved at http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,391525,00.html The motto for the 1972 Munich Olympics, the birthplace of Nazism, was "The Happy Games." These were Germany's first postwar Games and as such they had one central purpose: to replace the Holocaust as the universal collective memory with the projection of a new, open, and non-threatening Germany. The Olympic platform was stormed - literally - by the Palestinian guerilla group "Black September," which carried out the attack on the Olympic Village. By the end of the day, eleven Israeli athletes had been murdered. The image of a masked gunman on the balcony of the athletes' village became the defining moment and provided the iconic image of the Munich Games. A spokesperson of Black September stated: "Sport is
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