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HISTORY EDUCATION for NATION-BUILDING in EXILE: the Case of Tibetan Refugee Schools in India

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HISTORY EDUCATION for NATION-BUILDING in EXILE: the Case of Tibetan Refugee Schools in India HISTORY EDUCATION FOR NATION-BUILDING IN EXILE: The case of Tibetan refugee schools in India Kalsang Wangdu TURUN YLIOPISTON JULKAISUJA – ANNALES UNIVERSITATIS TURKUENSIS SARJA - SER. B OSA - TOM. 479 | HUMANIORA | TURKU 2019 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_cover_wire_B5_2405.indd 1 24.5.2019 8.44 HISTORY EDUCATION FOR NATION-BUILDING IN EXILE: The case of Tibetan refugee schools in India Kalsang Wangdu TURUN YLIOPISTON JULKAISUJA – ANNALES UNIVERSITATIS TURKUENSIS SARJA - SER. B OSA - TOM. 479 | HUMANIORA | TURKU 2019 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 1 24.5.2019 13.41 University of Turku Faculty of Education Department of Teacher Education Supervised by Professor emerita Arja Virta Adjunct professor, Dr. Lauri Kemppinen Department of Teacher Education Department of Teacher Education Faculty of Education Faculty of Education University of Turku, Finland University of Turku, Finland Reviewed by Professor Jukka Rantala Adjunct professor, Dr. Matti Rautiainen Department of Education Department of Teacher Education Faculty of Educational Sciences Faculty of Education and Psychology University of Helsinki, Finland University of Jyväskylä, Finland Opponent Adjunct professor, Dr. Matti Rautiainen Department of Teacher Education Faculty of Education and Psychology University of Jyväskylä, Finland The originality of this publication has been checked in accordance with the Univer- sity of Turku quality assurance system using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service. ISBN 978-951-29-7692-8 (PRINT) ISBN 978-951-29-7693-5 (PDF) ISSN 0082-6987 (Print) ISSN 2343-3191 (Online) Grano Oy - Turku, Finland 2019 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 2 24.5.2019 13.41 To His Holiness the Dalai Lama & the Tibetan refugees iii 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 3 24.5.2019 13.41 UNIVERSITY OF TURKU Faculty of Education Department of Teacher Education Kalsang Wangdu: History education for nation-building in exile: The case of Tibetan refugee schools in India Doctoral Dissertation, 234 pp. Doctoral Programme on Learning, Teaching and Learning Environments Research (OPPI) 2019 Abstract History education is often deemed essential to the construction of national identity and to the project of nation-building. History teaching, in particular, serves to promote and legitimize a certain category of historical knowledge as the official knowledge and participates in the reproduction of the existing social relationships. However, the issue of how sub-nation groups like refugee communities construct their ethnonational identity and the image of their historical legacy via the teaching of history is an understudied one. As such, this research examines role history teaching plays in engendering a collective national identity for the Tibetan refugee children in India. By employing critical discourse analysis of the history textbooks of the Tibetan refugee schools and thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews held with fifteen history teachers, this study analyzes the key features of nation-building project of the Tibetan exiles and how it manifests itself in the curricular and pedagogical practices of history education. The findings of the research show that the teaching of history in the Tibetan refugee schools carries an overriding burden of political and cultural agenda. The discursive repertoires present in the textbooks construct an image of a lost homeland for the young Tibetans born in exile and offer them a victimized subject position. The results also indicate that the history education is deployed to subvert the dominant Chinese colonial narrative on Tibetan history and Sino- Tibetan relationships, and to reveal the colonial nature of the Chinese rule in Tibet. Yet it fails to question the traditional power structure of the Tibetan society. In stark contrast, it perpetuates the dominant Buddhist narrative of Tibetan history. Therefore, it is reasoned that the deployment of critical and decolonial pedagogy in the teaching of history is selective and is guided primarily by political motivations rather than by its interest in questioning power and domination. iv 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 4 24.5.2019 13.41 Based on the findings of this research, it is argued that refugees and other communities in diaspora generally live in a vulnerable socio-political climate where the use of history for the construction of a collective ethno-national identity is more pertinent and urgent. Under such a scenario, the disciplinary goals of the teaching of history remain subservient to the pursuit of nationalist goals. It is also argued that India’s pluralistic and flexible system of education, which allowed the Tibetan refugees to develop a mother-tongue based schooling with a culturally-relevant curriculum, provides an interesting model that can potentially benefit multicultural countries in addressing the question of diversity and representation in education. Keywords: History education, nation-building, refugee education, national identity, Tibetan refugees v 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 5 24.5.2019 13.41 TURUN YLIOPISTO Kasvatustieteiden tiedekunta Opettajankoulutuslaitos Kalsang Wangdu: Historian opetus pakolaisten kansakunnan rakentajana, esi- merkkitapauksena Tiibetin pakolaiset Väitöskirja, 234 s. Oppimisen, opetuksen ja oppimisympäristöjen tutkimuksen tohtoriohjelma (OPPI) 2019 Tiivistelmä Historian opetusta pidetään usein keskeisenä kansallisen identiteetin ja kansakunnan rakentamisen projektissa. Historian opetusta käytetään erityisesti tukemaan ja legitimoimaan sellaista historiallista tietoa, jota voidaan luonnehtia viralliseksi tiedoksi, ja uusintamaan olemassa olevaa yhteiskuntajärjestystä. On kuitenkin vähän tutkimusta siitä, miten erilaiset vähemmistöt (sub-nation groups), esimerkiksi pakolaisyhteisöt, rakentavat etnis-kansallista identiteettiään ja kuvaa historiallisesta perinnöstään historian opetuksen avulla. Tämä tutkimus tarkastelee sitä merkitystä, joka historian opetuksella on Intiassa tiibetiläisten pakolaislasten kollektiivisen kansallisen identiteetin muodostamisessa. Tutkimus koostuu tiibetiläisten pakolaiskoulujen historian oppikirjojen kriittisestä diskurssianalyysistä sekä viidentoista historian opettajan puolistrukturoitujen haastattelujen temaattisesta analyysistä. Näiden analyysien perusteella tarkastellaan Tiibetin pakolaisten kansakunnan rakentamisen projektin keskeisiä piirteitä sekä sen ilmenemistä historian opetussuunnitelman toteutumisessa ja pedagogisissa käytänteissä. Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittavat, että historian opetuksella on Tiibetin pakolaisten kouluissa hyvin voimakas poliittinen ja kulttuurinen agenda. Oppikirjojen diskursiiviset repertuaarit rakentavat nuorille maanpaossa syntyneille tiibetiläisille kuvaa kadotetusta kotimaasta ja tarjoavat heille uhriutuneen alamaisen asemaa. Edelleen, tulokset osoittavat, että historian opetusta käytetään kumoamaan Kiinan dominoivaa koloniaalista narratiivia Tiibetin historiasta ja kiinalais-tiibetiläisistä suhteista sekä paljastamaan Kiinan Tiibetissä harjoittaman vallankäytön koloniaalista luonnetta. Opetus jättää kuitenkin kyseenalaistamatta tiibetiläisen yhteiskunnan perinteiset valtasuhteet. Sitä vastoin se toistaa ja säilyttää dominoivaa buddhalaista narratiivia Tiibetin historiasta. Voidaankin päätellä, että kriittistä ja dekoloniaalista pedagogiikkaa sovelletaan historian opetuksessa valikoivasti ja ensisijaisesti poliittisten vi 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 6 24.5.2019 13.41 pyrkimysten ohjaamana sen sijaan että sen avulla kyseenalaistettaisiin vallankäyttöä. Tämän tutkimuksen tulosten perusteella voidaan väittää, että pakolaiset ja muut diaspora-yhteisöt elävät yleensä herkässä yhteiskuntapoliittisessa tilanteessa, jossa historian käyttö kollektiivisen etnis-kansallisen identiteetin rakentamiseksi voidaan kokea erityisen asiaankuuluvaksi ja tärkeäksi. Tämän skenaarion vallitessa historian opetuksen taitopainotteiset tavoitteet jäävät alisteisiksi nationalistisille päämäärille. Voidaan myös väittää, että Intian pluralistinen ja joustava koulutusjärjestelmä, joka on sallinut Tiibetin pakolaisten kehittää omakielistä koulutusta ja kulttuurisesti sensitiivistä opetussuunnitelmaa, tarjoaa mielenkiintoisen mallin, joka voi olla hyödyllinen monikulttuurisissa valtioissa, joissa pohditaan kulttuurisen moninaisuuden huomioimista koulutuksessa. Asiasanat: Historian opetus, kansakunnan rakentaminen, pakolaisten opetus, kansallinen identiteetti, Tiibetin pakolaiset vii 31127107_Thesis_Kalsang_Wangdu_Faculty_of_Education_inside_B5_2405_2.indd 7 24.5.2019 13.41 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS When I began my doctoral study in the fall semester of 2015, it was amidst a great deal of doubts and personal challenges. However, an inner voice kept telling me to persevere, and thankfully I listened to it. As months rolled into years, it has turned into an incredible journey of academic learning as well as personal fulfillment and growth. The journey has come to a full circle and the hard work to fruition. Over the last four years, I have received guidance and help from so many people, for which I am forever indebted. First of all, I am deeply thankful to my academic supervisors. To my first supervisor Professor emerita Arja Virta, I owed a debt of gratitude. Your expertise, guidance and encouragement have helped me tremendously in all the
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