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Home , Alfonso the Battler, Alfonso V of Aragon, Battle of Aljubarrota, Compromise of Caspe, Crown of Aragon, Henry II of Castile

in the From Frontier to , 1000-1500 NEW STUDIES IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY General Editor: Maurice Keen

PUBLISHED Roger Collins EARLY MEDIEVAL SPAIN Unity in Diversity 400-1000 (Second edition) Alan Forey THE MILITARY ORDERS FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE EARLY FOURTEENTH CENTURIES Michael Haren MEDIEVAL THOUGHT The Western Intellectual Tradition from Antiquity to the Thirteenth Century (Second edition) Edward James THE ORIGINS OF From Clovis to the Capetians 500-1000 Angus McKay From Frontier to Empire, 1000-1500 David Potter FRANCE 1460-1560 The Emergence of a Nation State Michael Richter MEDIEVAL IRELAND The Enduring Tradition Mark Whittow THE MAKING OF ORTHODOX BYZANTIUM, 600-1025

FORTHCOMING Jeremy Johns EARLY MEDIEVAL Continuity and Change from the to Frederick II, 450-1250 Spain in the Middle Ages

From Frontier to Empire, 1000-1500

ANGUS MacKAY

MACMILLAN ©Angus MacKay 1977

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written pcm1ission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence pem1itting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottcnham Court Road, London WI P 9HE. Any person who docs any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

First published 1977 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L TO Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-12817-6 ISBN 978-1-349-15793-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-15793-8

16 15 14 13 12 II 10 9 03 02 OJ 00 99

For Linda, Angus John and Anne Marie Contents

Acknowledgements vii Chronological Table IX INTRODUCTION 1 The Background of Early Eleventh-century Spain 7

PART I: THE AGE OF THE FRONTIER, c. 1000-1350 PROTECTION RACKETS AND CRUSADERS, c. I 000-1212 15 The Eleventh Century: Warriors and Monks in the Age of 15 The Twelfth Century: Monks and Warriors in a Crusading Age 26 2 SociETYANDTHEFRONTIER,c. I000-1212 36 The Moving Frontier, Colonists and Problems of Manpower 36 The Militarisation of Social Groupings 45 3 THE PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF RECONQUEST, c. 1200-1350 58 Reconquest and Repopulation 58 The Reconquest and the Economic Structure 70 4 THE FRONTIER AND CuLTURAL CHANGE 79 The Translators 81 Informal Acculturation 88 5 CoNSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTs: AND Cortes 95 Royal Authority in Castile, c. I IOD-I350 g6 Constitutionalism in the Crown of , c. IIOO-I390 104

PART II: FROM FRONTIER TOWARDS EMPIRE, c. 1350-I500 6 THE PoLITICs oF MARITIME ENTERPRISE AND THE FoRMULATION oF ABsoLUTISM 121 The Hundred Years War and Naval Enterprise I21 Absolutism in Castile 131 vi CONTENTS

7 INsTITUTIONAL CHANGES AND ExPERIMENTS 143 Royal Government in Castile 145 Contributions by the 159 8 EcoNOMIC PROBLEMS AND SociAL UNREST 165 Contrasting Economic Fortunes 165 Social Change and Unrest 173 9 SoCIETY, RELIGION AND CuLTURE 188 Reform, Religious Sentiment, Heresy, the 188 Ballads, Tiles and the Frontier 197 Courts, Scholars and Humanists 205 CoNcLusioN 211 Bibliographies 213 Abbreviations 213 Introductory Note 213 A Select Bibliography of Works in English 213 B Select Bibliography of Works in Other Languages 219 References to Quotations 230 Rulers of the Period 233 Glossary 235 Index 238

MAPS

Medieval Spain: Physical Features Xlll

2 The Reconquest XlV

3 The Pilgrim Route to XV 4 after the Thirteenth-Century Reconquest xv1 5 The Geography and Speed of Popular Unrest: the 1391 xvu

Graph Index of Devaluation of the Castilian Maravedi in terms of Gold and Silver, 1390-1480 xviii Acknowledgements

This book has been written m the intervals of teaching at the University of Edinburgh and its appearance is due not least to colleagues and students whose comments have helped me to clarify ideas which are now less half-baked than they would otherwise have been. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Professor Denys Hay, who first turned my thoughts in the direction of medieval Spain and who has been a source of encouragement and help ever since. The editor of the series, Mr Denis Bethell, has devoted much time to helping me to say what I meant, and the book has benefited greatly from his constructive comments and advice. My father has read successive drafts and has saved me from many a blunder. Dr Richard Hitch• cock, Dr Salvador Giner and Mr T. H. Newcombe have commented on sections of the book and have helped me on particular points. Although archival material has been used for the elaboration of ideas and interpretations (particularly in the second half of the book), the use of extended references in a work of this size would be a luxury. Similarly I have drawn on the researches of so many scholars, most of whom are mentioned in the bibliographies, that I can only express my general gratitude here. However, references are given for quotations. My greatest debt is to my wife without whose comfort and help this book would truly never have been written.

The illustration on the dustcover depicts in battle against the , 1 235· Detail from a panel in a fourteenth-century Valencian altarpiece dedicated to St George; reproduced by courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Chronological Table

711 Muslims win battle of Guadalete and invade Visigothic Spain. 722 Christians under Pelayo win victory at the 'battle' of Covadonga. 732 Charles Martel defeats the Muslims at the battle of Poi tiers. 'Abd al-Rahman I establishes emirate of Cordoba which is politically independent of Damascus. besieges and his rearguard is defeated by the Basques at Roncesvalles. 8oo The Franks take and the Spanish March of the is in the process of formation. 816 The Malikite rite is introduced to al-Andalus. c. 830 The of StJames are found and begin to focus attention on Santiago de Compostela. 866 Reign of Alfonso III of Leon (866-910), during which the Christians advance to the Duero. 929 'Abd al-Rahman III proclaims himself caliph. 931 Fermin Gonzalez of Castile (931-970) and the beginnings of 'independent' Castilian power. Death of al-Hakam II; al-Mansur the power behind the throne in al-Andalus. 985-97 Al-Mansur sacks Barcelona (985), Leon and Sahagun (g88), and Santiago de Compostela (997). !031 of Cordoba finally breaks up into kingdoms. 1037 Castile and Leon united under Ferdinand I. c. 1040 Birth of the Cid. c. 1o6o Compilation of the Usatges begins. 1064 Crusade against Barbastro and beginnings of the Aragonese reconquest. C. 1070 Beginnings of the Romanesque cathedral at Santiago de Compostela. 1074 Gregory VII asks Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon to establish the Roman rite. X CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE I08I Banishment of the Cid by Alfonso VI. 1085 Toledo is taken and the Christians advance to the Tagus frontier; Bernard de Sedirac subsequently becomes archbishop of Toledo and Cluniac influence is strengthened. 1086 The Almoravids arrive in al-Andalus and Alfonso VI is defeated at the battle of Zalaca. I094 The Cid captures ; he dies in 1099 and the Christians lose Valencia in I 102. 1106 Death of Yiisuf b. Tashufin. III8 takes Zaragoza. II26-98 Averroes of Cordoba. II37 Union of and Aragon. I I39 becomes an independent kingdom. I I40 The beginnings of Cistercian foundations in Spain. c. 1145-7 The end of Almoravid rule in al-Andalus and the beginnings of Almohad power. 1158 Foundation of the . C. I I60 'School of Translators' in Toledo. 1188 Representatives of the towns attend the cortes of Leon. 1195 The Almohads defeat Alfonso VIII at Alarcos. I2I2 Christians defeat the Almohads at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. I2I3 Peter II killed at the battle of and Catalan power in southern France collapses. I2I5 Foundation of the university of . I229 James I takes . I230 Final union of Castile and Leon. I230-I End of Almohad power in Spain. 1236 Muslim resistance crumbles and the Christian reconquest accelerates to take Cordoba (1236), Valencia (I238), (I243), (I248) and Cadiz (I265). Nasrid rulers establish their power in . between James I of Aragon and Louis IX of France. Mudejar rebellions in Andalusia and Murcia. Conquest of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon. Privilegio de La union. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE XI 1300 Foundation of the university of Lerida. 1337 Beginning of the Hundred Years War. 1340 Alfonso IX of Castile defeats the Muslims at the battle of Salado. Peter IV of Aragon annexes the . The . The accession of Peter the Cruel is followed by the beginnings of Trastamaran opposition and propaganda. Treaty of Toledo between Henry II of Castile and France. Henry II (of Trastamara) kills his half-brother Peter the Cruel at Montiel. , duke of Lancaster, marries Peter the Cruel's daughter, Constance, and assumes the title of of Castile. defeated by the Portuguese at the . Lancastrian army disembarks at La Corufia, but the invasion of Castile subsequently ends in failure. 1388-g Treaties with Lancaster and the Portuguese; end of the Spanish phase of the Hundred Years War and of the Lancastrian claims to the Castilian throne. Anti-Jewish feeling sparks off a wave of in the towns of the . Death of Ibn Khaldiin. One of the regents of Castile, Ferdinand, takes from the Moors; death of Martin I of Aragon raises the problem of succession to the throne of the Crown of Aragon. The - the regent of Castile, Ferdinand of Antequera, becomes king of Aragon. is taken by the Portuguese. gains control of . John II of Castile and Alvaro de Luna defeat their enemies at the battle of Olmedo. 1449 Anti- movement in Toledo and rebellion of the town against royal authority. Xll CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE !453 Execution of Alvaro de Luna. 1454-8 Cortes of Barcelona coincides with Biga-Busca crisis in Barcelona, continuing tension over the remensa problem, and constitutional clashes between the cortes and the . Civil and remensa wars in Catalonia. The effigy of Henry IV of Castile deposed; civil wars in Castile. !469 The marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. !473 Massacre of in Andalusian towns; printing begins in Spain. Setting up of the Inquisition. Union of Castile and Aragon. Sentence of Guadalupe deals with the remensa problems. Conquest of Granada; expulsion of the ; Columbus discovers America. forced to choose between baptism and expulsion.

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MAP 2 The Reconquest [1) From Tours, Poitiers, Boraeaux llJ From Vezelay, Limoges, Perigueux ~ From Moissac, St Foy de Conques @l From ,

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MAP 3 The Pilgrim Route to Santiago de Compostela ~ Exclusively Christian areas .. · Areas where, because of capitulations, Moors & Christians coexisted until 1264

MAP 4 Andalusia after the Thirteenth-Century Reconquest Leon• Burg.. s Logrono

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M A P 5 The Geography and Speed of Popular Unrest: the 1391 Pogrom 200

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1390 1400 1410 1420 1430 1440 1450 1460 1470 1480 Index of Devaluation of the Castilian Maravedi in terms of Gold and Silver, r3go-r48o. 1430 = roo (Calculated from Data in the Cathedral Archive of ).