Physicochemical Characterization of Whole-Grain Wheat Flour in a Frozen

Journal of Cereal Science 60 (2014) 520e525

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Journal of Cereal Science

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Physicochemical characterization of whole-grain wheat ﬂour in a frozen dough system for bake off technology

* Woosung Bae a, Bon Lee b, Gary G. Hou b, Suyong Lee a, a Department of Food Science & Technology and Carbohydrate Bioproduct Research Center, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-747, Republic of Korea b Wheat Marketing Center, 1200 NW Naito Parkway, Portland, OR 97209, USA article info abstract

Article history: Whole-grain wheat flour was utilized in a frozen bread dough system and its functional and baking Received 3 April 2014 performances were characterized for bake off applications. Whole-grain wheat flour high in dietary fi- Received in revised form bers (11.84%) exhibited greater water hydration properties than white wheat flour at room temperature. 17 July 2014 The opposite results were however observed upon starch gelatinization which could be correlated to the Accepted 6 August 2014 reduced pasting properties of the whole-grain wheat flour. Decreased dough development and stability Available online 16 September 2014 times were measured in whole-grain wheat dough that also exhibited reduced extensibility and resistance to extension. The lower loaf volume and firmer crumb texture of whole-grain bread were observed Keywords: Whole-grain wheat flour as compared with white bread. Frozen storage of dough for 4 weeks had a negative effect on the loaf fi Frozen dough volume and rmness of the bread. The bread samples prepared with white and whole-grain frozen Bread-making dough exhibited a significantly lower loaf volume by 17.9 and 8.8% and firmer texture by 39.9 and 28.8%, Bake-off technology respectively. Thus, the deterioration of the two bread qualities appeared to be less dependent on the frozen storage in the whole-grain dough system. The use of whole-grain flour produced bread with enhanced antioxidant activity which was not affected by the storage of the dough in the frozen state. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The scientific research emphasis of the whole-grains has been placed primarily on their physiological health benefits such as the Whole-grains are composed of the intact, ground, cracked or reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, and cancers flaked caryopsis and include three principal components (starch (Okarter and Liu, 2010). From the food processing point of view, endosperm, germ, and bran) in the same proportion to the intact there have been several preceding studies where whole-grain flour grains (De Moura et al., 2009). Thus, whole-grains contain all was used to produce pasta (Manthey and Schorno, 2002; naturally occurring and essential substances of the entire seed. Villeneuve and Gelinas, 2007; West et al., 2013) and bread Consequently, they are regarded as an excellent source of nutri- (Gelinas and McKinnon, 2011). Specifically, in the case of bread, tional and health-functional ingredients. Thereby, a whole-grain most of the studies placed their research focus on the improvement health claim on food labels has been approved by the US FDA for of bread quality by enzymatic treatments (Jaekel et al., 2012; Shah the possible risk reduction of heart disease and some cancers when et al., 2006) and food additives (Boz et al., 2010; Flander et al., the food contains at least 51% whole-grain ingredients and meets 2007). However, the practical applications of whole-grains to a other requirements such as dietary fiber level and fat content (US wider variety of food products have still been limited. FDA, 2009). With this trend, there has been currently great interest Baking industry is currently facing a challenge of technological in whole-grain foods due to the increasing public awareness of the innovations. Specifically, the segment of ‘Bake Off’ products that relationship between health and diets. The whole-grain market is use frozen dough is one of the fastest growing areas at the indus- growing at a remarkable rate and estimated to reach more than 24 trial level due to their time- and labor-saving advantages (Le-Bail billion US dollars by 2015 (Mozaffarian et al., 2013). et al., 2010). However, the use of frozen dough causes performance disadvantages of baked products. Therefore, a number of studies have been performed in order to minimize the quality loss of bread made from frozen dough. Most of the studies have been * Corresponding author. dedicated to controlling various processing variables such as E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Lee). freezing rate, frozen storage conditions, and pre-fermentation (Le- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2014.08.006 0733-5210/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. W. Bae et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 60 (2014) 520e525 521

Bail et al., 2010; Yi and Kerr, 2009). In addition, a variety of food absorption and development/stability times of the dough during ingredients including hydrocolloids and emulsifiers were evaluated mixing were determined from the obtained farinogram. as a frozen dough bread improver (Matuda et al., 2005; Ribotta et al., 2004). However, there is still a lack of fundamental infor- 2.2.4. Pasting properties mation on the physicochemical properties of frozen dough for A starch pasting cell attached to a controlled-stress rheometer practical applications. Moreover, any preceding studies have not (AR1500ex, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA) was applied to been carried out to investigate the bread-making performance of investigate the pasting properties of white wheat flour, whole- whole-grain flour in a frozen dough system to our best knowledge. grain wheat flour, and their mixture (50:50). Distilled water was Furthermore, it is still necessary to provide the fundamental added to each flour in an aluminum canister to produce a 28 g physicochemical information of whole-grain flour for its better suspension (10.7%, w/w) which was subjected to the following understanding in a food system. heatingecooling cycle: equilibration at 50 C for 1 min, heating to In this study, the physicochemical properties of whole-grain 95 C at a rate of 12 C/min, temperature holding at 95 C for wheat flour were characterized and compared with those of 2.5 min, cooling to 50 C at a rate of 12 C/min, and final temper- white wheat flour. They were also used to prepare frozen bread ature holding at 50 C for 5 min. dough whose quality attributes before and after baking were evaluated for the bake off technology. 2.3. Application of white and whole-grain wheat flours to frozen dough bread 2. Experimental 2.3.1. Bread-making 2.1. Materials Bread samples were prepared with whitewheat flour, whole-grain wheat flour, and their mixture (50:50) according to the AACC method White (power high gluten flour, Pendleton Flour Mills, Chatta- (10e10.03) with modifications (AACC, 2000). The bread formulation nooga, TN, USA) and whole-grain wheat flours (spring whole wheat consisted of 100% wheat flour (14% moisture basis), 2% instant dry flour, ADM Milling Co., Enid, OK, USA) were obtained from a com- yeast (Lesaffre Yeast Col, Milwaukee, WI, USA), 6% sugar (The Amal- mercial source. White wheat flour was used as the control sample. All gamated Sugar Col, Boise, ID, USA), 1.5% salt (Morton Inc., Chicago, IL, the chemicals and reagents used in this study were of analytical grade. USA), 3% shortening (Criso, The J.M. Smucker Co., Orrville, OH, USA), and 50 mg/kg ascorbic acid (J.T. Baker, Phillipsburg, NJ, USA). The 2.2. Physicochemical characterization of white and whole-grain optimum water absorption and dough development time were wheat flours determined from the Farinograph results. Dough was mixed in a Swanson mixer (National Mfg. Co. Lincoln, NE, USA), divided into 2.2.1. Chemical compositions 150 g pieces, and rounded. After freezing at 40 C, the dough sam- The proximate chemical compositions of white and whole-grain ples were stored in plastic bags at 20 Cfor4weeks.After2and4 wheat flours (ash, protein, fat, and moisture) were determined weeks of the frozen storage, the frozen doughs were placed at room based on the AOAC-approved methods (AOAC, 2005). The temperature for 1 h and then transferred to a proofing cabinet (30 C, enzymatic-gravimetric method was used for analyzing the contents 85% relative humidity). The dough samples were punched with a of total, insoluble, and soluble dietary fibers in the white and dough sheeter (National Mfg. Co. Lincoln, NE) after 105 and 155 min whole-grain wheat flours (AOAC, 2005). respectively and molded, followed by panning. After proofing for 1 h (30 C, 85%), they were baked at 215 C for 24 min and then allowed to 2.2.2. Water hydration properties cool down at room temperature for 2 h. The water hydration properties of white wheat flour, whole- grain wheat flour, and their mixture (50:50) were characterized 2.3.2. Extensional properties of dough at two different temperatures. Each flour sample (0.5 g) was mixed Extensograph (Brabender, Duisburg, Germany) was applied to with distilled water (30 mL) at 25 and 100 C for 30 min. After investigate the extensional properties of bread dough samples fl fl centrifugation at 15,000 g for 20 min, the supernatant was oven- prepared with white wheat our, whole-grain wheat our, and e their mixture (50:50). Cylindrically-molded dough (150 g) was dried at 105 C. Three water hydration parameters water absorption index, water solubility, and swelling power, were calcu- rested in a cabinet at 30 C for 45 min, placed in an extensograph lated based on the method of Heo et al. (2013). dough holder, and stretched to measure its maximum extensibility and resistance to extension. wet sediment weight Water absorption index ¼ dry sample weight 2.3.3. Loaf volume of bread The loaf volume of bread was measured at room temperature by dry supernatant weight using a laser-assisted volumeter (TexVol, Viken, Sweden). Water solubilityðÞ¼ WS; % 100 dry sample weight 2.3.4. Firmness of bread The firmness of bread was determined by using a Texture ¼ wet sediment weight analyzer (Texture Technologies Co., Scarsdale, NY, USA). A cylin- Swelling power ½ ðÞ ðÞ= dry sample weight 1 WS % 100 drical probe (25 mm diameter) was lowered to compress a bread slice (25 mm thickness) at a speed of 2 mm/s by 60% strain. The 2.2.3. Dough mixing properties maximum force required to accomplish a given deformation during The mixing properties of white wheat flour, whole-grain wheat the compression was determined from the resultant forceetime flour, and their mixture (50:50) were investigated by using Far- curves. inograph (Brabender, Duisburg, Germany) according to the AACC international standard method (54e21) (AACC, 2000). The flour 2.3.5. Antioxidant activities sample was loaded into a mixing bowl and distilled water was The antioxidant activity of the bread made from frozen dough injected for the optimum dough consistency (500 BU). The water was determined by 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6- 522 W. Bae et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 60 (2014) 520e525 sulfonic acid (ABTS). The bread was cut into slices (25 mm thick- Table 2 ness), freeze-dried, and ground to pass through a 60 mesh sieve. Water hydration and dough mixing properties of white and whole-grain wheat flours (Means with different letters in the same row differ significantly at p < 0.05). Bread powder (10 g) was mixed with 80% ethanol (100 mL) at room temperature for 16 h and centrifuged at 4,000 g for 5 min. This Control 50% whole 100% whole extraction procedure was repeated again with the residue. After the Water absorption 25 C 1.9 ± 0.1c 2.0 ± 0.1b 2.2 ± 0.1a solvent in the supernatant was removed under vacuum at 40 C, the index 100 C 8.3 ± 0.3a 7.8 ± 0.2b 7.5 ± 0.2c c b a extract was re-dissolved in 80% ethanol and its volume was Water solubility 25 C 5.8 ± 0.1 6.8 ± 0.1 7.9 ± 0.1 ± a ± b ± b adjusted to 10 mL (Liyana-Pathirana and Shahidi, 2007; Sedej et al., (%) 100 C 24.3 0.7 23.5 1.0 23.2 0.9 Swelling power 25 C 2.0 ± 0.1c 2.2 ± 0.1b 2.4 ± 0.1a 2010). For ABTS assay (Zdunczyk et al., 2006), the ABTS solution 100 C 11.0 ± 0.5a 10.2 ± 0.3b 9.7 ± 0.2c (7 mmol/L) was prepared by dissolving ABTS (SigmaeAldrich, St. Farinograph Water absorption 62.8 ± 0.1c 68.6 ± 0.3b 74.5 ± 0.6a Louis, MO, USA) in deionized water and allowed to react with (%) ± a ± b ± c 2.45 mM potassium persulfate in the dark at room temperature for Development 10.9 0.3 9.5 0.4 9.0 0.4 time (min) 16 h. The ABTS solution was diluted with phosphate-buffered saline Stability time 13.2 ± 0.2a 11.0 ± 0.1b 11.8 ± 0.5b (0.01 mol/L, pH 7.4) until the absorbance reached 0.700 ± 0.020 at (min) 734 nm. The ABTS reagent (1 mL) was added to the extract (0.01 mL) that was then incubated at 30 C for 6 min. The absorbance was measured at 734 nm by using a spectrophotometer (DU 730, Beckman Coulter Inc., Fullerton, CA, USA). The antioxidant which could be attributed to the presence of more hydrophilic activity was expressed as Trolox (SigmaeAldrich) equivalents (TE) non-starch compounds including dietary fibers. However, it is per gram of sample on a dry basis. noted that the opposite tendency of water hydration properties was observed after boiling. That is, the lower water hydration characteristics were observed in the whole-grain wheat flour, 2.4. Statistical analysis compared to the white flour. It would be primarily due to the lower amount of gelatinized starch in the whole-grain wheat Three batches of bread were prepared and all experimental flour. measurements were made in at least triplicates. Results were re- Table 2 also represents the dough mixing properties of two flour ported as mean values ± standard deviations. Analysis of variance samples which were measured by using Farinograph. The white (ANOVA) was applied by using the SAS system (SAS Institute Inc., wheat flour required 62.8% water absorption to reach the optimum Cary, NC, USA) to determine the difference among samples, fol- dough consistency (500 BU) whereas higher water absorption lowed by Duncan's multiple range test at a level of 5%. (74.5%) was observed for the whole-grain wheat flour. They were in accordance with the greater water hydration properties of the whole wheat flour at room temperature in Table 2. In addition, the 3. Results and discussion whole wheat flour exhibited the reduced dough development and stability times (Hung et al., 2007). These results could be explained The chemical compositions of white and whole-grain wheat by the weakened gluten network by fiber-rich bran particles. The flours were determined as shown in Table 1. Overall, the whole- similar Farinographic effects were observed in the dough prepared grain wheat flour contained higher levels of ash, protein, and fat with wheat (Zhang and Moore, 1997) and rice (Ghufran Saeed et al., than the white wheat flour. Also, the whole-grain wheat flour was 2009) brans. high in dietary fibers in which the amounts of insoluble and soluble The pasting properties of white and whole-grain wheat flours fibers were 10.6% and 0.8%, respectively. Thus, the whole wheat were investigated by using a starch pasting cell. As can be seen in flour can be considered as a good source of dietary fiber. These Fig. 1, the whole-grain wheat flour exhibited reduced values for all results were expected from the fact that whole-grain wheat flour the pasting parameters. It is recognized that swollen gelatinized includes the fractions of germs and brans that are removed during starch granules form a closely-packed structure during the heating the milling process of white wheat flour. They are compatible to the stage, causing the viscosity to increase (Min et al., 2010). In this nutrient data of whole-grain wheat flour provided by US Depart- study, greater amounts of non-starch compounds in the whole- ment of Agriculture (2012). Table 2 exhibits the water hydration properties of white and whole-grain wheat flours at two different temperatures (25 and 100 C). The whole-grain flour showed higher values of all water hydration properties at room temperature than the white flour

Table 1 Chemical composition of white and whole-grain wheat ﬂours (Means with different letters in the same row differ signiﬁcantly at p < 0.05).

(%) White wheat ﬂour Whole wheat ﬂour

Moisture 11.99 ± 0.28a 11.72 ± 0.28a Ash 0.69 ± 0.13b 1.73 ± 0.16a Protein 12.38 ± 0.40b 13.57 ± 0.00a Fat 1.18 ± 0.11b 1.80 ± 0.02a Carbohydrate (by difference) 73.77 ± 0.46a 71.17 ± 0.05b Total dietary fiber 3.15 ± 0.27b 11.84 ± 0.45a Insoluble dietary fiber 2.96 ± 0.31b 10.59 ± 0.22a Soluble dietary fiber 0.50 ± 0.61a 0.79 ± 0.61a Fig. 1. Pasting profiles of white and whole-grain wheat flours. W. Bae et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 60 (2014) 520e525 523 grain wheat flour might produce weaker resistance under heating carried out in order to improve the baking performance of whole- and shear-mixing that gave rise to the decreased viscosity. The grain wheat flour. Haros et al. (2001) and Shah et al. (2006) lower peak viscosity of the whole wheat flour could be correlated applied enzymatic treatments (phytase and xylanase, respec- to its decreased swelling power at 100 CinTable 2. Furthermore, tively) to whole wheat bread and Boz et al. (2010) also combined compared to the white wheat paste, the cooling stage increased malt flour, rosehip, and vital gluten to improve the quality of the viscosity of the whole-grain paste sample to a lesser extent, whole wheat bread dough. indicating a possible measure of reduced starch retrogradation. As one of the essential quality attributes of bakery products, the The extensional properties of dough are the critical rheological firmness of bread is closely related to the consumer perception of factors that have a great impact on the quality attributes of the bread freshness (Faridi and Faubion, 1990). Therefore, the firmness final baked products. Therefore, the extensional properties of the of white and whole-grain bread was measured after frozen storage dough samples were investigated as shown in Fig. 2. Dough of the dough samples. As shown in Fig. 3(c), the use of whole-grain extensibility, that is a measure of dough to extend during proofing wheat flour produced bread with increased firmness, compared to (Yi and Kerr, 2009) was significantly reduced from 196.3 to white wheat flour. As mentioned in Fig. 3(b), the reduction of the 117.0 mm when whole-grain wheat flour was used. In addition, a bread volume gave rise to a compact and closed crumb structure similar trend was observed for the maximum resistance to which appeared to contribute to the increased crumb firmness (Yi extension. Consequently, the use of the whole-grain wheat flour and Kerr, 2009). Also, the bread firmness increased during the yielded a decrease in the dough extensional properties. Higher storage of the dough in the frozen state regardless of the flour type. levels of bran particles (e.g. dietary fiber) in whole-grain flour Freezing can have a great impact on dough by affecting yeast seemed to cause the dilution of gluten in the dough matrix, viability and gluten network, consequently causing the structural consequently weakening its extensible characteristics (Schmiele and textural changes of the bread after baking. It is however noted et al., 2012). that the degree of increased bread firmness by the frozen storage The cross-sectional views of the bread crumbs made from was different among the samples. The firmness of the white wheat white and whole-grain wheat doughs are shown in Fig 3(a). The bread increased from 1.23 N to 1.72 N (that is, 39.9% increase) after loaf volume of whole-grain wheat bread was investigated during 4 weeks while that of the whole-grain bread increased by 28.8%. the frozen storage and compared with that of white wheat bread. These different changes of the bread firmness during the frozen Fig. 3(b) shows that the loaf volume of white and whole-grain storage could be related to their volume loss as previously wheat bread prepared with freshly-made dough was 735.8 and mentioned in Fig. 3(b). Also, these results might be partly attributed 533.5 mL, respectively. The decreased loaf volume of the whole to the reduced starch retrogradation of the whole-grain wheat flour bread samples could be partly correlated to their rheological as mentioned in Fig. 1. characteristics, that is, decreased extensional properties (Fig. 2)(Yi The antioxidant activities of white and whole-grain wheat and Kerr, 2009). Furthermore, less oven spring of the whole-grain bread samples were determined and compared with those of their bread derived from an early structural setting and its high content corresponding flours. As can be seen in Table 3, the relative ca- of water might contribute to the decreased volume (Rogers and pacity of the white wheat flour to scavenge ABTS was 11.47 mM TE/ Hoseney, 1982). The volume decrease of the bread prepared with g while it was determined to be 12.70 mM TE/g for the whole-grain whole-grain wheat flour has been previously observed and wheat flour. These observations implied the abundance of anti- favorably compared with our results (Gelinas and McKinnon, oxidant substances in the outer layer and germ fractions of whole 2011; Seyer and Gelinas, 2009). Also, a significant volume loss grains (Gray et al., 2000). The results were favorably compared was observed for all the bread samples during the frozen storage. with the study by Liyana-Pathirana and Shahidi (2006) that re- It is however interesting to note that a more distinct loss of loaf ported the antioxidant properties of soft and hard winter wheat volume during the 4 week storage was observed for the white depending on their milling fractions. After baking, the antioxidant wheat bread (17.9%) compared to the whole-grain wheat bread effect by the whole-grain wheat flour became more distinct, (8.8%). These results suggest that the gluten network of the white showing that the whole-grain bread (8.90 mM TE/g) exhibited wheat dough might be more severely weakened during the frozen significantly higher ABTS radical-scavenging activity by 1.9-fold storage. There are a couple of preceding studies which were than the white bread (4.73 mM TE/g). It is however interesting to note that there were no significant differences in the antioxidant activities of the breads by the frozen storage of dough. Thus, the exposure to heat during baking seemed to play a critical role in the antioxidant activity of bread rather than the storage of dough in the frozen state.

4. Conclusions

The physicochemical characteristics of whole-grain wheat flour were investigated and its functional/baking performance in a frozen bread dough system was evaluated for bake off technology. Whole-grain wheat flour exhibited different water hydration and pasting properties than white wheat flour, affecting the rheology of dough and bread-making performance. However, whole-grain wheat flour seemed to have good dough stability during frozen storage from the standpoint of bread volume and texture. In addition, the use of whole-grain flour improved the functional value of baked products derived from its abundance of dietary fibers and antioxidants. This study provides additional fundamental information on the processing performance of whole-grain wheat Fig. 2. Extensional properties of white and whole-grain wheat dough. flour, probably encouraging the food industry to respond to the 524 W. Bae et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 60 (2014) 520e525

Fig. 3. Crumb cross-section (a), loaf volume (b), and ﬁrmness (c) of white and whole-grain wheat bread made from frozen dough.

Table 3 Acknowledgment Antioxidant activity of white and whole-grain wheat bread made from fresh and frozen dough (Means with different letters in the same column (ABC) and row (abc) This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program differ significantly at p < 0.05). through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded mM TE/g sample Control 50% whole 100% whole by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology Flour 11.47 ± 1.43bA 12.10 ± 1.23abA 12.70 ± 1.52aA (2013R1A1A2A10004640). Bread made from fresh dough 4.73 ± 0.66cB 6.25 ± 0.61bB 8.90 ± 1.09aB 2 week frozen dough bread 4.52 ± 0.64bB 6.85 ± 0.87aB 8.77 ± 0.08aB 4 week frozen dough bread 4.83 ± 1.02cB 6.23 ± 0.95bB 8.05 ± 0.09aB References increasing demand of a wider variety of healthy whole-grain foods. AACC, 2000. Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists. In a further study, it will be worthwhile to extend the utilization of Method 10-10.03 and 54-21.02, ninth ed. American Association of Cereal fl Chemists, St. Paul. whole-grain our as an excellent source of bioactive components to AOAC, 2005. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, 18th ed. AOAC a wider variety of frozen-food products. International, Gaithersburg. W. Bae et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 60 (2014) 520e525 525

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