Whiteness in the Middle: Mexican Americans, School Desegregation, and the Making of Race in Modern America
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Whiteness in the Middle: Mexican Americans, School Desegregation, and the Making of Race in Modern America Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Danielle R. Olden, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2013 Dissertation Committee: Kevin Boyle, Advisor Lilia Fernandez Judy Tzu-Chun Wu Copyright by Danielle R. Olden 2013 Abstract “Whiteness in the Middle” examines Keyes v. Denver School District Number One (1973) in order to trace the history of racial formation in the post-World War II United States. As the first case to address de facto segregation, or segregation that was not mandated by law but by social practice, in the North, Keyes is an important moment for understanding postwar racial processes. Historians have uncovered the malleability of racial constructions during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as Americans struggled to define who was white and who was not. By the 1940s, the argument goes, the boundaries of whiteness had been defined and racial categories were entrenched. So the great movements for social justice that swept through the nation in the postwar period—civil rights foremost among them—took place within a stable, even rigid system. Those movements thus sought not to redefine racial categories but to dismantle the inequalities that adhered to them. This project offers a dramatically different interpretation. Rather than being fixed, I show, race remained a fluid category well into the postwar period. To make my case, I look at the ambiguous racial space in-between black and white, the racial categories that permeate the history of race in the United States. Keyes provides an excellent case study into the dynamics of race-making because the outcome of the Supreme Court’s decision ultimately hinged on whether Mexican American students were white or nonwhite. The ii battles that surrounded the case, both at the grassroots level and at the national level, demonstrate that the space in between black and white is where the bulk of race work is done. While white privilege remained constant, the boundaries of whiteness were ambiguous and unstable. People’s ability to transgress these boundaries or make them work for their own interests was always a possibility, even after World War II, by which time racial categories were supposed to be well established and unchanging. The struggles to define the boundaries of whiteness were at the heart of Denver’s school desegregation drama and Mexican Americans played a prominent role in determining its outcome. iii For my family. iv Acknowledgments This project started off being something completely different than what it is today, and there have been many ups and downs along my personal and professional path as I was researching and writing the dissertation. My completion of it is no small task, and I have many people to thank for it. First, I never would have made it to graduate school without the love, support and understanding of my family. To my mom, Laura, you are a remarkable woman. You have always been my greatest role model and my biggest source of strength. I am proud to be my mother’s daughter. To my grandparents, Thomas and Ruth Gonzales, your encouragement and support of my educational goals made my decision to pursue graduate studies easier. Grandma, your work in support of the education of Mexican-American youth inspired me to pursue this project. Grandpa, I wish you were here to see me now, but I hope I have made you proud. Please know how much I miss you every single day. To my sisters, Laura Leigh and Whitney, being a part all of these years now has made me truly value the time we get to spend together. Now that I am finally done, I am looking forward to more visits together. And to my extended family in Laramie, I am so thankful for you and I hope I have made you proud as well. This project would not have been possible without the emotional and financial support that my family has always given me. v My intellectual trajectory began at the University of Wyoming, where I learned to love history. I chose U.S. history partly because I loved taking classes from William Moore, who later became one of my research mentors. It was not until I learned about the McNair Scholars Program, however, that I began to think that I, too, might become a history faculty member. While in the program, Zackie Salmon and Susan Stoddard provided outstanding guidance and mentorship as I conducted research, wrote my first article based on original research and applied to graduate schools. Without McNair, I am unsure I would have even applied to graduate school. I look forward to the day when I can mentor a young McNair Scholar and pay it forward just a little bit. At Ohio State University, my faculty mentors have consistently proven themselves to be the best in the business, commenting on writing, grant submissions, and job applications, and writing countless letters of recommendation for me. From my first seminar courses with them to my dissertation defense, they guided my intellectual development, structured my graduate training, and shared their teaching secrets with me. Kevin Boyle, Lilia Fernandez and Judy Wu are the kind of scholars, teachers and mentors whom I hope to emulate. They have given selflessly to me as a scholar and for that I am truly thankful. Also at Ohio State, Susan Hartmann and David Stebenne provided invaluable feedback on my writing. Robin Judd, who was Graduate Studies Chair while I was completing this dissertation, went the extra step to make sure my peers and I had the resources we needed to be successful. I would also like to thank Ed Munoz and Adrian vi Burgos for their support of my work as I neared its completion. My colleagues in the Ohio State Department of History have provided critiques, comments and advice as I made my way through graduate school and the dissertation writing process. I would especially like to thank the Modern U.S. Writing Seminar for allowing me to present aspects of the project. As I developed my topic, conducted research, spent agonizing hours trying to write, stared blankly at my computer screen two hours before a deadline, and navigated the academic job market I had the love and understanding of several important women. Eva Pietri, Yalidy Matos, Delia Fernandez, Tiffany Lewis and Mei-Ling Rivera-Cerezo gave me feedback, provided support, made me laugh, and distracted me when I needed it. I would not have made it through with my sanity intact without your friendship. Thank you. Finally, this dissertation would not have been possible without the financial support of numerous entities. At Ohio State University, I received research support from the Department of History, the College of Arts & Humanities, the Graduate School, the Office of Diversity and Inclusion, and the Diversity and Identity Studies Collective at OSU (DISCO). During the early stages of my dissertation research, I received critical support from the Coca-Cola Critical Difference for Women research program, and as I neared completion of my project, I received a much needed year-long fellowship from the OSU Graduate School that allowed me to dedicate myself to writing. vii Vita October 5, 1983…………………………………….. Born in Laramie, WY 2006………………………………………………… B.A. in History, University of Wyoming 2008………………………………………………… M.A. in U.S. History, Ohio State University 2010-2011…………………………………………… Instructor of Record, Ohio State University 2007-2013…………………………………………… Graduate Teaching Associate, Ohio State University Publications Refereed Journal Articles “The Hispano-Americano Women’s Club and the Laramie Woman’s Club: A Glimpse into Intercultural Relationships in Laramie, Wyoming, 1950-1960.” Annals of Wyoming 79, nos. ¾ (Winter 2008): 14-27. Book/Film Reviews “Invisible Man,” review of Wendell E. Pritchett, Robert Clifton Weaver: The Life and Times of an Urban Reformer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008) in ehistory (www.ehistory.osu.edu), Feb. 2009. Fields of Study Major Field of Study: History Minor Fields of Study: Modern U.S. History History of Comparative Race/Ethnicity Women’s and Gender History viii Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .................................................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. v Vita ............................................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. x CHAPTER PAGE Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1. A “Spanish Fantasy Past”: Mexican Americans and Race in U.S. History ........ 33 2. Race Relations in the Mile High City, 1945-1970 ................................................... 66 3. Denver Public Schools, Race, and Segregated Education in the Twentieth Century ................................................................................................................................... 111 4. “A Wholly Different