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A Guide to Aksum

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Author/Creator Fattovich, Andrea Manzo; Perlingieri, Cinzia Contributor DiBlasi, Michael, Bard, Kathryn Resource type Articles Language English Coverage (spatial) Horn of , , Description This document was born at the CISA of Naples as a completion of the ten years archaeological project that UNIOR and BU carried out at Aksum and after a collaboration between UNIOR and the Aksum Museum. Format extent 2 (length/size)

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http://www.aluka.org AKSUM

The Capital city

Aksum is one of the major archaeological areas in Ethiopia, and one of the most impressive sites in subSaharan Africa. The town is the main religious center of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and is included on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Aksum is located at the edge of a plain, and is dominated by the hills of Bieta Giyorgis and Mai Qoho, which are separated by the Mai Hedja. At present, the ancient settlement is partly covered by the modern town. According to the Ethiopian traditions, the capital had three different locations:

Throne Bases The collapsed "Giant Stela" in the Mai Hedja Field The Nefas Mawcha in the Mai Hedja Stele Field

Culture and Tourism Department P.O. Box 15, Aksum, Tigrai, Ethiopia Tel. 251-4- 750228 Tigrai Tourism Department of CTI P.O. Box 124, , Tigrai, Ethiopia Fax 251-4-401032, Tigrai [email protected]

1. Mazaber, built by the mythical King Itiyopis, son of Cush, on a hill to the northwest of Mai Qoho. The tomb of Itiyopis is traditionally located close to Addi Kiltè, immediately to the west of the modern town. 2. Aseba or Asfa, built by the , to the north of Bieta Giyorgis hill. 3. Aksum, founded at the present site by the kings and Atsebeha, who introduced in the kingdom. Some local traditions also state that the site of Ona Nagast on the top of Bieta Giyorgis hill was the residence of the earliest Aksumite kings. The archaeological area of Aksum includes: 1) The settlement area of the ancient capital, with some traces of a royal (Taaka Maryam) and other elite residences (e.g., Dungur, Addi Kilte), at the base of Bieta Giyorgis hill, and in the valley between Mai Qoho and Bieta Giyorgis. 2) The funerary area with stelae fields, including the monumental royal cemetery ("Stelae Park"), along the Mai Hedja and at the base of Mai Qoho hill, where the so-called tomb of Bazen is located. 3) The remains of the ancient

Aksumite Christian church, and the Gondarian church of the 17th century (Enda Maryam Tsyon), at the center of the archaeological area. 4) The Guedit stelae field and the so- called "Tomb of Menelik," to the southwest and west of the settlement area, respectively. 5) Bieta Giyorgis hill, with a settlement site (Ona Nagast), a cemetery with stelae (Ona Enda Aboi Zewge), and the remains of two Aksumite churches. 6) Two hypogean tombs (Enda Kaleb and Gabra Masqal) and some pit-tombs on the top of Mai Qoho hill.

Some ruins are also visible at Mazaber, to the north of Mai Qoho. A small stelae field is located at Enda Sendodo, to the northeast of Bieta Giyorgis. Many smaller sites, which formed the rural hinterland of Aksum, have also been recorded. The whole archaeological area, though still well preserved, is in great danger because of the expansion of the modern town. In a short time, the modern settlement may cover most of the ancient capital and destroy a great deal of the archaeological evidence.

Rock Cut Niche at the base of Mai Qoho hill

Mai Shum

Stone quarry at the south-west edge of Bieta Giyorgis

Urban Development

The origins and development of the ancient town are still uncertain. Aksum is mentioned for the first time in the "Periplus of the Erythrean Sea," most likely dating to the mid- A.D. The town is recorded as a capital in the "Geography" of Claudius Ptolomeus (ca. A.D. 150). Archeological investigations have demonstrated that the area of Aksum was occupied since the late B.C. The top of Bieta Giyorgis hill was occupied in PreAksumite times (7th-4th centuries B.C.). PreAksumite occupation has also been recorded at the base of the hill, to the north of the present town of Aksum . In the 4th-2nd centuries B.C., a residential area with a monumental building and a cemetery, with man-made stone platforms covering pitgraves cut in the bedrock and marked with monoliths, were established on the top of Bieta Giyorgis hill. Later, in the mid- B.C. to mid-2nd century A.D., a monumental funerary area with rock-cut tombs, stone platforms and carefully carved stelae was located on the top of Bieta Giorgis hill, and an elite residence was also built there. Perhaps, in Early Aksumite times, an industrial area for preparing hides or working ivory was located at Addi Kilte, in the eastern sector of the settlement at Aksum, where a great deal of scrapers have been collected. In Classic Aksumite times (ca. mid-2nd to mid-4th centuries A.D.) a palace was located on Bieta Giyorgis hill. This was associated with an elite or possibly royal cemetery marked by stone platforms, hewn stelae, and rock-cut tombs, including the earliest known Aksumite monumental tomb. Three elite and/or royal cemeteries with man-made stone platforms, monumental stelae, and rock-cut tombs were located to the northeast (Mai Hedja), east (Bazen), and southwest (Guedit) of the settlement. Beginning in the 2nd-3rd centuries, the royal cemetery was located in the so-called "Stelae Park" along the Mai Hedja. In the late 3rd century a middle-tohigh status cemetery was located in the Guedit area, to the southwest of Aksum. No evidence of monumental residences dating to these centuries has been found in Aksum proper. In the 5th century A.D., the palace at Bieta Giyorgis was no longer used as an elite residence, and the stelae ceased functioning as a funerary symbol. Most likely in this period some were built on the plain at the base of Bieta Giyorgis hill. The church of Maryam Tsion was erected in the eastern sector of the settlement, and became the focal center of the town. In the 6th- 7th centuries, large palaces were built at Aksum. A middle-tolow status domestic area was located between Bieta Giyorgis and Mai Qoho, suggesting a northward expansion of the town. Two churches were built in this period on the eastern slopes of Bieta Giyorgis hill. In the late 1st millennium A.D. the settlement at Aksum occupied a much smaller area and was concentrated around the cathedral. No definite evidence of monumental architecture dating to this period has been recorded, but epigraphic evidence suggests that Aksum was still the residence of a prince. Ruins of the ancient structures were frequently reused. In the same period and/or in PostAksumite (medieval) times (ca. A.D. 1000- 1400), hamlets were located on the top of Bieta Giyorgis hill.

Ruins at Dongur Palace

Historical outline of the Aksumite kingdom

Aksum is the site of the capital of the ancient Aksumite kingdom, which dominated the southern in the 1st millennium A.D. At its height in the early to mid-1st millennium A.D. Aksum was one of the great kingdoms of the ancient world, involved in a trading network that stretched from the Mediterranean to . The kingdom was the main African partner of the Roman/Byzantine along the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Ox-plow cultivation of , wheat and teff, which still is the main agriculture system in the region, was definitely established in Aksumite times. The rise of the kingdom resulted from a long process of social and economic transformations, which started in the 3rd millennium B.C. and involved the peoples of the western lowlands, Red Sea coastal plains, and the Ethiopian plateau. The main steps in this process in late prehistoric and early historical times were: 1) The progressive inclusion of the northern Ethiopian plateau in the trade circuit from Egypt and to southern Arabia and the in the 3rd-2nd millennia B.C.. Trade between Egypt and the countries of the southern Red Sea was established in late 3rd2nd millennia B.C. At this time the - from where the ancient Egyptians imported frankincense, ivory, and gold - most likely included Tigrai, and eastern . The northern Ethiopian plateau was directly included in this circuit in the mid-2nd millennium B.C., when Egyptian maritime trade became more intense. Long-distance trade with Egypt and Nubia stimulated the rise of chiefdoms in the western lowlands and possibly the eastern plateau from the 3rd millennium B.C. onward. 2) The rise of a Ethio-Sabean state in the mid-1st millennium B.C. The end of the Egyptian commercial monopoly along the Red Sea, in the late 2nd millennium B.C., opened the way to the expansion of the South Arabs. In the first half of the 1st millennium B.C., the "Kingdom of Saba" (ca. 800400 B.C.) in northern controlled the trade to the , and included the Tigrean plateau in its area of economic and political influence. An Ethio-Sabean state (ca. 700-400 B.C.) arose on the plateau, as a consequence of these interregional contacts. This state soon included most of the plateau from central Eritrea to northern Tigrai (PreAksumite Period, ca. 800/700-400/300 B.C.). A large Ethio-Sabean ceremonial center, with a South Arabian style temple, was located at to the east of Adwa. Minor centers were located around Aksum at Seglamien, Hawlti and Melazo. The royal inscriptions in South Arabian writing record the names of four kings, two of them with the Sabean title of "mukarib." They worshipped South Arabian and indigenous gods. This kingdom apparently collapsed in the late 1st millennium B.C., as there is no royal inscription later than the B.C. 3) The development of a new state "Kingdom of Aksum" in the 1st millennium A.D. The chronology, history, and cultural development of the Aksumite kingdom are still poorly known. The origins of the kingdom are uncertain. Western scholars usually relate state formation in northern Ethiopia/Eritrea to South Arabian migrations and/or economic and political expansion in the early to mid-1st millennium B.C. Ethiopian traditions, however, stress an ancient African origin of the kingdom. The kingdom's decline has been ascribed to socioeconomic and/or environmental factors. Textual evidence suggests that the kingdom was already established in the mid-1st century A.D., and became powerful in the late 3rd century A.D., when the Aksumites controlled southwest Arabia. In the mid-4th century A.D. the kingdom adopted Christianity as the official . The kingdom was still prosperous in the late 7th century A.D., when the capital was no longer located at Aksum. Archaeological evidence indicates that a local polity emerged at Aksum in the 4th-3rd centuries B.C., and developed into a petty kingdom in the mid-2nd century B.C. to mid-2nd century A.D. This polity consolidated into a territorial state in the mid-2nd to mid-4th centuries A.D., apparently declined in the 5th century A.D., and was again powerful in the 6th-7th centuries A.D. The kingdom eventually declined and collapsed in the 8th-10th centuries A.D.

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Excavations at Ona Enda Aboi Zeuge: large stele fields and rock cut tombs

On the left, excavations at Ona Nagast reveal large areas with residential palaces: different rooms and courts with stone steps and thresholds

Chronological Sequence

Recent excavations at Bieta Giyorgis, near Aksum, have demonstrated that the kingdom emerged from a local complex society, beginning in the late 1st millennium B.C. (ProtoAksumite Phase, ca. 400/300-100 B.C.). In the early 1st millennium A.D., the Aksumites extended their dominion over the whole plateau and sent military expeditions to southern Arabia (Early and Classic Aksumite Phases, ca. 100 B.C.-A.D. 400). Major urban settlements were located at on the Red Sea, Matara on the plateau in central Eritrea, and Aksum in western Tigray. The names of a few Aksumite kings of the 1st-3rd centuries A.D. are recorded: Zoskales (ca. A.D. 50), Sembruthes, Gadarat, Adabah, Garamat, and Zaqarnas (A.D. 200-300). Copper, bronze, silver, and gold coins of Roman and Byzantine types were introduced in the late 3rd century A.D., at the time of King Endubis (ca. A.D. 298). The coins also record the names of other kings dating to the early 4th century A.D.: Aphilas (ca. A.D. 300), Ousana (ca. A.D. 322), and Wazeba (ca. A.D. 330). A crucial event was the introduction of Christianity as the official state religion in the early 4th century A.D., at the time of King Ezana (ca. A.D. 330-350). In the inscriptions this king changed his title from "Son of Mahrem" (a local divinity) into "Son of the God of Heavens," and on the coins he substituted the cross for the pagan symbols of the sun disk and moon crescent. According to Ethiopian tradition, Christianity was introduced by the kings Abraha and Atsbeha in the 4th century A.D., but the final conversion of the people occurred at the end of the 5th century A.D. with the missionary activity of monks (the so-called Nine Saints). In the mid-1st millennium B.C., Aksum controlled the trade routes from the African hinterland to the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean (Middle and Late Aksumite Phases, ca. A.D. 400/300-700). The archaeological evidence suggests social stratification of the urban population. The most famous king of this period was Kaleb (ca. A.D. 500-535). During his reign the Aksumites occupied southern Arabia, which they controlled for ca. 50 years. According to Ethiopian traditions, the lithurgy of the Christian church was organized during Kaleb's reign. The kingdom started to decline in the 7th century A.D. because of Islamic expansion along the African coast of the Red Sea, and eventually disappeared in the early 10th century A.D. (Post-Aksumite Period, from ca. A.D. 700). In the 9th century A.D., the capital was located at Ka'bar, but no archaeological evidence of this site has been found. In the early 2nd millennium A.D. the Christian kingdom shifted from the Tigrean Plateau to the southern regions of Lasta (Wollo) under the dynasty of the Zaguè kings.

Proto-Aksumite Period - ca. 400-150 B.C. Aksumite Period Early Phase - ca. 150 B.C. - A.D. 150 Classic - ca. A.D. 150 - 400/450 Middle - ca. A.D. 400/450 - 550 Late - ca. A.D. 550 - 700 Post-Aksumite Period - from A.D. 700

Ruins at Dongur Palace

1 Gudit Stele Field 2 Dongur Palace 3 Churches (D.A.E. Ruins E and F) 4 Beta Giyorgis Hill, Ona Nagast 5Beta Giyorgis Hill, Ona Enda Aboi Zeuge 6 Ruins, D.A.E. Buiding D 7Enda Sem'on 8 Ta'akha Maryam 9 Ruins, D.A.E. Building A 10 Ruins, D.A.E. Building D 11 Ruins, D.A.E. Building C

Monumental stelae in the May Hedja Stele Field

12 Enda Mika'el 13 Arbatu Ensesa 14 Throne Bases 15 May Hedja Stele Field (Nefas Mawcha, Enda Iyesus Church) 16 MaryamTsyon and Archaeological Museum 17 Throne Bases 18 Rock Cut Steps 19 Rock Cut Tomb 20 Throne Bases 21 Throne Bases 22 Inscription 23 Tomb of Bazen 24 Mai Shum 25 Inscription 26 Geza Agumai 27 Domestic Area 28 Camp of Yohannes 29 Tomb of Kaleb and Gabra Maskal 1Market 2 Yeha Hotel 3 Aksum Touring Hotel 4 Africa Hotel

Round topped monolith at Aksum Monoliths at the Gudit Stele Field

Ruins at Maryam Tsion Church a Guide to Aksum Historical Site

History of Research

The occurrence of ancient monuments and stelae in the region of Aksum has been known since the 16th century. So far, only a few sectors of the archaeological area have been carefully investigated by German, Italian, French, American, and British expeditions. The earliest reports of ancient monuments at Aksum are in the writings of travelers and missionaries, who visited the town in the 16th-18th centuries, especially Alvarez (1520), Poncet (1700), and Bruce (1770). More careful reconnaissance of Aksum was conducted in the 19th century by , Rüppel, Lefébvre, and Bent. These scholars provided detailed descriptions of the monuments visible in the town, and the first maps of their location. Archaeological investigations were conducted at Aksum in the 20th century. The first investigations consisted of a comprehensive survey and test excavations by the "Deutsche-Aksum Expedition" (DAE) in 1906. The expedition was directed by Enno Littmann, with the assistance of Daniel Krencker and Theodor von Lüpke. The DAE conducted test excavations at different sites and mapped the most impressive monuments in the town; it also recorded some artifacts and inscriptions. In the 1950s and 1960s, French scholars conducted excavations at Aksum, as part of the research of the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology (now the Authority for the Research and Conservation of the Cultural Heritage) founded in 1952. In 1962, Francis Anfray continued excavations in the area of Maryam Tsyon, and in 1966-1968 he conducted extensive excavations of a palace at Dungur to the west of the present town. Extensive excavations were conducted in the early 1970s by British and Italian expeditions, directed by H. Neville Chittick, who conducted large-scale excavations in the "royal" cemetery along the Mai Hedja, and Lanfranco Ricci, who excavated two Aksumite churches on the southeastern side of Bieta Giyorgis hill, and recorded two ancient sites on the top of the hill. A systematic survey was conducted by an American expedition directed by Joseph Michels. From 1974 to 1993 no archaeological work was conducted at Aksum because of the political situation in Ethiopia. In 1993, archaeological work was resumed in the area of the ancient capital by the Archaeological Expedition of the Istituto Universitario Orientale, Naples, and Boston University, Boston, at Bieta Giyorgis (Aksum) directed by Rodolfo Fattovich and Kathryn Bard, and the Archaeological Expedition of the British Institute in Eastern Africa at Aksum directed by David Phillipson.

Aspects of Culture Inscriptions are an especially relevant aspect of ancient Aksumite culture. They were written in Geez (ancient Ethiopic), South Arabian, and Greek. The most important ones are the inscriptions of King Ezana (ca. A.D. 330350). These inscriptions record raids and military activities in the western lowlands as far as central Sudan. The inscriptions of Ezana are important, as they record the conversion of the king to Christianity. One of these inscriptions is exhibited in the Archaeological Park in the center of the modern town. Coins are another impressive aspect of this culture. Most likely, they also had a propagandistic meaning. PreChristian coins show the portrait of the king with a headcloth or crown on both sides. In Christian times the king with a head-cloth or crown is depicted on one side of the coin, and a cross is on the other side. All coins are inscribed. The earliest ones have a Greek inscription. After the reign of Kaleb in the mid6th century the inscriptions are in Geez. Aksumite art is practically unknown. The only evidence is the relief of a lioness carved on a rock at Gobedra. An ancient Byzantine source (Cosmas Indicopleusetes, in the 6th century) records metal statues decorating the royal palace. At present there is no evidence of this. Pottery is one of the best known crafts from ancient Aksum. In Proto-Aksumite times typical pots include globular-shaped ones with cylindrical necks, and circular and quadrangular basins. These ceramics were mostly undecorated. Early Aksumite pottery include globular pots with cylindrical necks, anthropomorphic pots, tripod pots, and “foot-rest” basins. These vessels were decorated with comb-impressed patterns. In Christian times (Middle Aksumite Phase), open bowls with a ledge rim and ring base, sometimes imitating imported Roman bowls (“terra sigillata”), were frequent. The cross became the most widespread decorative motif. In Late Aksumite times large coarse jars and dishes decorated with crosses were used. Imported Mediterranean vessels and glass occur frequently in Aksumite assemblages. These include imported amphorae, possibly used as containers for wine, East Mediterranean bowls (terra sigillata), small glass flasks for perfume, and glass goblets.

Ancient glass beakers in the Archaeological Museum The "lioness" of Gobedra

D.A.E. Excavations at the Kaleb and Gabra Maskal Toms, beginning of 1900.

Inscription of King Ezana recording his military activities

Architecture and Construction Techniques

Three main types of Aksumite buildings are presently known: large residential elite residences, palaces, churches, and rural houses. We have no good evidence of the pre- Christian temples. Possibly a small rock-cut niche at the western base of Mai Qoho was a pagan shrine. The palaces of the kings and nobles consisted of an architectural complex with a central building with a square plan, surrounded by rooms forming an enclosure with small open courts. The central building was the residence of the master. The small buildings were storerooms, kitchens, and servants' rooms. Most likely, the central palace was a multi-storyed building, as is suggested by the carved stelae, but this has not yet been demonstrated by archaeological evidence. The so-called “Palace of the Queen of Sheba” at Dungur is the only complete palace dating to Christian times (6th-7th centuries A.D.) that has been excavated at Aksum. The evidence of other palaces dating to the 4th- 5thcenturies A.D. was also recorded in the western sector of Aksum: Enda Semon, Enda Mikael, and Taaka Maryam. The remains of two large palaces, built in Proto-Aksumite and Early Aksumite times, respectively, were also found at Bieta Giyorgis. The churches were similar in plan to the Mediterranean basilicas of late Roman and Byzantine times. They had a main room with three aisles, a rounded or square apse, and a narthex (at the entry). Sometimes the churches had a cross plan with two external rooms at the sides. The cathedral of Enda Maryam Tsyon was certainly the most impressive Aksumite church. This church was destroyed by Muslim invaders in the mid-16th century, and only part of the foundations are still visible today under the later church built by Negus Fasilides in the early 17th century. The original Aksumite cathedral was described by a Portuguese priest (Father Alvarez) in the early 16th century. From this description we know that the church was a basilica with five aisles, decorated with paintings, and five square apses. Painted decorations in the church are also recorded in a manuscript of the 15th century, known as the “Book of Aksum.” Two other churches were discovered at Bieta Giyorgis. One of them was cruciform in plan and is similar to Byzantine prototypes. The best example of an ancient church still in Aksumite style, which has survived to the present, is the monastery of Debra Damo in (6th century). Rural houses were simple rectangular buildings with two rooms. A few have been found around Aksum, but are still visible. The thrones are interesting type of monument from ancient Aksum. They were made with a stone slab forming the base, with stone arms and back. At present, only the bases have survived. Twelve thrones are aligned in front of Enda Maryam Tsyon, and were probably used during the assemblies of the king and the nobles. A few other ones are scattered along Mai Qoho, and most likely had a funerary meaning. Aksumite palaces and churches were erected on a massive podium with five steps and one or more stairways. The plan had projecting corners and recessed central parts of the façade. The walls were built with small polygonal or rectangular stones set in mud mortar. The carved stelae show three different types of lattice windows: a cross-shaped lattice, a T-shaped lattice, and an -shaped lattice. The buildings were constructed with a very distinctive technique, traditionally called the “monkey-head” technique, as can be inferred from the carved stelae and the church of Dabra Damo. This technique consists of horizontal timbers laid in the internal and external face of the walls. These timbers were connected with cross-members penetrating the wall and projecting from its surface. The external projecting parts of the timbers are the so-called “monkeyhead.” The “monkeyh e a d ” technique had both a decorative and functional purpose, and they were used to reinforce the stone walls. Stone pillars were used to support the room ceilings. In cross-section they had either concave corners or, less frequently, a star shape. The pillars rested on a stepped base, and were topped with step-shaped capitals. An example of these pillars is exhibited in the small Archaeological Park in the center of modern Aksum. Spouts carved in the shape of a lion's head were used to drain the water from the building roofs. Square stone blocks decorated with a carved vegetal motif and cross were placed in the churches.

Stone column basement Reconstruction drawing of the Ta'akha Maryam Palace by D.A.E. Expedition

Aksumite Funerary Monuments Traditional Aksum

The "double stela" at Ona Enda Aboi Zeuge Standing at May Hedja Stelae Park

The Tomb of the "False Door" at May Hedja The Nefas Mawcha

Artist at work on a painted icon

Women praying near the cathedral

Priest with ceremonial silver crosses A traditional house

Interesting examples of traditional architecture are still visible in the Dabtara and Geza Agumai areas of Aksum. The old cathedral of Enda Maryamth Tsyon, built in the early 17 century by King Fasilides, and the church of the Arbattu Ensesa (Four Animals), as well several houses in the Dabtara area, are particularly remarkable. Other important medieval monuments, such as the thrones of the king and bishops, used during the royal coronation, and two other thrones, for the king and governor, are still visible in the courtyard of the cathedral. Traditional arts and crafts are an important, and still largely unexplored, component of the cultural heritage of Aksum. Traditional crafts can be seen every Saturdays in the Aksum market, and every day in the town shops. Pottery is still produced in a traditional manner in the villages around Aksum. Typical pots are: the jabana, used to prepare coffee; the mogogo, a large ceramic plate to cook injera (the Ethiopian bread made from teff); and the qur'a, to store the local beer (swa). The archaeological record shows a continuity in vessel shapes and suggests that utilitarian wares maintained the same function through many centuries. The area of Hawelti, behind Stelae Park, was traditionally inhabited by metal-workers. Metal crosses, crowns, censers, and sistra kept in the treasuries of churches and monasteries are true masterpieces. Manuscripts and paintings are still produced at Aksum using traditional techniques and subjects. Illuminated manuscripts can also be seen in the monastery of Abba Pantalewon.

Traditional wooden painted icon

Women selling jabana at the market

A metal worker in his atelier

Cooking and storage pots on sale at the market

The tombs of kings and nobles are a particularly impressive aspect of ancient Aksumite culture. In pre-Christian times manmade stone platforms associated with carved stelae were erected over tombs. In Christian times the kings and nobles were buried in rockcut tombs with a stairway and one or more chambers, sometimes beneath a church. So far, the earliest cemetery at Aksum was discovered on the top of Bieta Giyorgis hill and consists of a coarse man-made stone platform with stelae covering graves cut in the bedrock. These remains date to the so-called Proto-Aksumite Phase (ca. 4th-1st centuries B.C.). A few meters in height, the stelae are of three types: pointed or flat stones, and small pillars. They were associated with simple pit-tombs, about 1 m in diameter and 2 m deep, with tightly contracted burials. Grave goods include pots, personal ornaments, and model axe-heads. Sometimes burials were on the top of the platform and were covered with small stone cairns. Ceramic offering basins were often placed near the stelae. In Early Aksumite times (1st4th centuries A.D.) monumental stelae were erected. Initially, they were rough or round-topped monoliths. Round-topped stelae, dating to the 1st2nd/3rd centuries A.D. were recorded at Bieta Giyorgis, and include a very strange “double stela.” Most likely, at this time round-topped stelae were also erected along the Mai Hedja. Two of them were decorated: a stela in the courtyard of Enda Jesus is decorated with the pagan symbols of the sun disc and moon crescent; another one along the Mai Hedja has columns, with a Greek style capital on which rests a small shrine, carved on both sides. The stelae were extracted from quarries around Aksum. Two quarries were located on the top of Bieta Giyorgis and at Gobedra (ca. 5 km to the west of Aksum). We do not yet know how these monuments were transported and erected. Ethiopian traditions state that the largest ones were carried by elephants. In the 3rd-early 4th centuries A.D. six large hewn stelae were erected in the royal cemetery (Stelae Park) and along the Mai Hedja. The largest one (“Giant Stela”), now collapsed on the ground, is one of the largest monoliths in the world (ca. 33 m long). The standing “obelisk” is 21 m high. These monuments, which are the symbol of Aksum, were carved to represent a palace, with a door, different types of windows, and the so-called “monkey-heads.” They were probably decorated at the top with the pagan symbol of the sun disc and moon crescent in metal. Rock-cut tombs were associated with platforms and stelae. Usually these tombs consisted of one shaft and several burial chambers connected by a corridor. Sometimes the shaft was replaced by a rock-cut stairway, e.g. in monumental tombs such as the so-called “Tomb of Bazen” at the base of Mai Qoho, and Tomb 2 at Bieta Giyorgis.t The latter dates to the 1st -2nd centuries A.D. and is one of the earliest known Aksumite tombs. Particularly impressive Early Aksumite tombs are the socalled “Nefas Mawcha,”

“Tomb of the Brick ,” and the “Mausoleum” in Stelae Park. The Nefas Mawcha ("Source of the Winds") consisted of a burial chamber constructed with huge stone blocks and covered with a stone slab ca. 17 x 7 x 1.5 m. The “Tomb of the Brick Arches” has an entry with an horse-shoe shaped arch made of red bricks. This tomb was particularly rich in grave goods, and contained some beautifully carved ivories and an ivory female figurine in Hellenistic style. The “Mausoleum” is located at the base of the Giant Stela. This tomb was built with stone blocks, and consisted of a central corridor and six rectangular burial chambers on each side. Stelae were not erected after the introduction of Christianity in the 4th century. Masonry tombs were constructed at this time. The Tomb of the False Door in Stelae Park, and the “Tombs of Kaleb and Gabra Maskal” are representative of Christian funerary architecture at Aksum. The Tomb of the False Door had a superstructure symbolic of a house, as is suggested by a stone slab with a carved door. The tomb had a stairway and two underground burial chambers. Two rectangular stone blocks in the burial chambers suggest that burials were no longer in a contracted position typical of pre- Christian times, but in an extended position conforming to Christian traditions. The Tombs of Kaleb and Gabra Maskal had a similar substructure to the Tomb of the False Door. Both tombs had a stairway leading to an ante-chamber, with entries to two burial chambers in the Tomb of Kaleb and three burial chambers in the Tomb of Gabra Maskal. These tombs were constructed beneath two parallel churches with a basilica plan, which formed one architectural complex. The whole complex (churches and tombs) is comparable to tombs of the martyrs, in the Byzantine tradition. The masonry of the stairway and the burial chambers is similar to Syrian masonry of the 6th century A.D.

University "l'Orientale", Naples _ CISA, Naples _ NOVARICERCHE, Naples.

Project by Cinzia Perlingieri