MICHEL ABERSON MARIA CRISTINA BIELLA MASSIMILIANO DI FAZIO MANUELA WULLSCHLEGER (éds) ENTRE ARCHÉOLOGIE ET HISTOIRE : DIALOGUES SUR DIVERS PEUPLES DE L’ITALIE PRÉROMAINE E PLURIBUS UNUM ? L’ITALIE, DE LA DIVERSITÉ PRÉROMAINE À L’UNITÉ AUGUSTÉENNE, VOL. I
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ELENA ISAYEV
The Lucanians: archaeological perspective
A history of the 4th century dynamism through archaeology
The ethné to which those inhabiting pre-Roman military or political episodes alone can explain Italy may have subscribed, were of great interest why the pattern that we witness in this region is WRODWHU*UHHNDQG5RPDQZULWHUV7KHVHDXWKRUV equally prevalent across most of South Italy, and were keen to present a neat historical picture of even Sicily where competing Syracusan and the peninsula that progressed from a multiplicity Carthaginian powers are believed to have pro- of peoples, tongues, and cultures, to a homogene- duced very different historical circumstances to LW\LPSULQWHGZLWKD5RPDQVWDPS 1 GIARDINA 3 ISAYEV 2 For a critique on interdisciplinarity using history and 4 ISLERS archaeology see ISAYEV 332 ELENA ISAYEV side; 3) from the mid-3rd century there is evidence WLRQVL]HDQGSKDVHVRIEXLOGLQJDQGGHVWUXFWLRQ of decline at most sites, with cessation of settle- Its position in an area with little evidence for ment, a diminished occupation of the countryside earlier settlement and at some 15 km distance from DQGDFKDQJHLQWKHPDWHULDOFXOWXUH7KHUHZLOO the nearest substantial site7, differs from other always be exceptions to this pattern, but its over- parts of the region where settlements are distrib- DUFKLQJIRUPVWDQGVFRPSHOOLQJXVWR¿QGVXSUD uted at 2-6 km distance from each other, as for ORFDOIDFWRUVWRH[SODLQFRQYHUJHQFH,WPD\EH example south of the Basento87KHQHDUHVWVHW- that the changes of the mid-3rd century are tlement to Tricarico is the much smaller site at largely attributable to the growing hegemonic $OEDQRVRPHNPDZD\DQGRQO\KDLQVL]H power of Rome, its military campaigns and sys- ZKLFKPD\KDYHEHHQDGHSHQGHQF\ Unlike Tri- WHPVRIUHFUXLWPHQWDQGDOOLDQFH+RZHYHUWKH carico which appeared in a seemingly unoccupied changes of the 5th and 4th centuries can not be so landscape 9, most of the sites that rose in the 4th HDVLO\DVFULEHGWRDORQHVRXUFH%\LVRODWLQJWKH century were built over or near Iron Age and VHFRQGHOHPHQWRIWKHZLGHUSDWWHUQVSHFL¿FDOO\ Archaic settlements, whether impressive sites such the dynamism of the 4th century, the aim of the as Serra di Vaglio or the much smaller Torre di following study is to use the sites in Lucania as a 6DWULDQR'H&D]DQRYHDWWULEXWHVWKHDSSHDUDQFH starting point to show that despite variations in of Tricarico to the spread of Lucanisation into the the modes of change, and specific historical LQWHULRUIURPWKHFRDVW:KHWKHUZHFKRRVHWR events, there were supra-regional dynamics at GH¿QHWKLVSURFHVVDV/XFDQLVDWLRQDVRPHZKDW work that were responsible for the improved living ambiguous term, we still have to account for the conditions, an apparent demographic increase, LQ¿OOLQJRIWHUULWRU\ERWKZLWKLQVHWWOHPHQWVDQG and a re-organisation of land-use and resource WKHLUVXUURXQGLQJFRXQWU\VLGHEH\RQGWKLVUHJLRQ GLVWULEXWLRQ7KHWKUHHVLWHVWKDWZLOOEHWKHPDLQ 6RPHNP:HVWRI7ULFDULFRLVWKHVHWWOHPHQW focus are located at Civita di Tricarico, Torre di at Torre di Satriano, most recently investigated by 6DWULDQRDQG5RFFDJORULRVD )LJ 51RQHDUH 0DVVLPR2VDQQDDQGKLVWHDP107KHVLWHLVDOVR recorded in ancient texts, we know about their positioned at a height of some 1000 metres on a impressive remains thanks to recent in-depth GRUVDOOLNH¿QLQWKH$SHQQLQHVWKHPDLQGLIIHU- archaeological projects, which allow for com- HQFHWR7ULFDULFRLVLWVVL]HDQGHDUO\KLVWRU\7KHUH parisons to be made between these sites and is evidence of settlement at Torre di Satriano from FRQWH[WVEH\RQG/XFDQLD the 8th century with a substantial increase in the number of habitations in the 6-5thFHQWXULHV6RPH are located 200-400 metres from the hill, but most are in its immediate vicinity11$WWKLVHDUO\VWDJH Background and Regional Context rather than a single coherent settlement, habitation consists of clusters spread across the plateaus and At the heart of the southern Apennines, on a high summit of the hill, accompanied by several dis- plateau some 1000 metres in altitude near Civita SHUVHGVPDOOFHPHWHULHV,WPD\EHEHVWGHVFULEHG di Tricarico, Olivier de Cazanove and his team as polycentric in its organisation, with a number have been investigating the remains of a substan- of elite houses occupying individual plateaus12 tial, 47 ha settlement that was created ex novo in Some of these impressive Archaic structures is the mid 4th century BC6,WLVQRWDEOHIRULWVORFD- what the site is best known for, with their display 5 The three settlements will be referred to as Tricarico, 9 DE CAZANOVES 7RUUHGL6DWULDQRDQG5RFFDJORULRVDUHVSHFWLYHO\ 10 OSANNA 2005; OSANNA 2008; OSANNA & SERIO 2009; 6 DE CAZANOVE 2008; DE CAZANOVE OSANNA 2011; OSANNA & CAPOZZOLI 7 DE CAZANOVES 11 OSANNAS 8 DE CAZANOVE S DE GENNAROS 12 OSANNAS The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 333 of wealth and high ‘Hellenistic’ culture, in the :KDWG\QDPLFVPD\KDYHIDFLOLWDWHGWKLVVKLIWZH EURDGHVWVHQVH$UFKLWHFWXUDOWHUUDFRWWDVZLWK will return to at the end, for the moment it is worth knights on horses adorn the outside walls, while SDXVLQJEULHÀ\WRFRQVLGHUWKHSHRSOHZKRFDPH gorgons face out from roof tiles and a bronze grif- WRSRSXODWHWKHVHVLWHV%\WKLV,GRQRWPHDQVR ¿QJUHHWVWKHLQFRPHUDWWKHGRRU130HUFDQWLOH much what cultural or ethnic background they and cultural links, with access to craftsmanship may have subscribed to, although as we will see of the highest quality, whether from Taranto or there are Oscan elements visibly present at levels overseas, are recognisable within the domestic of authority, especially at Roccagloriosa, rather, sphere and in the funerary deposits that, among what interests me is what kind of processes other things, contain signs of sympotic practice EURXJKWWKHPWRWKHVLWHV7KHFUHDWLRQRIWKHVHW- by the remains of banqueting equipment146XFK tlement at Tricarico, de Cazanove ascribes to a 0HGLWHUUDQHDQZLGHHOLWHV\PEROVDQGGHFRUDWLYH process of Lucanisation that may also apply to elements were part of a widely shared cultural 5RFFDJORULRVD7KLVH[SODQDWLRQ¿WVZLWKDQFLHQW language that was equally prominent at other sites narratives of spreading Oscan/Samnite groups in the region such as Serra di Vaglio and Braida from the Apennines, especially to the south, where di Vaglio, which lay mid-way between Torre di they splintered into Lucanians and then Brutti- 6DWULDQRDQG7ULFDULFR This vibrant setting expe- ans17,WLPSOLHVDVFHQDULRRIFRQTXHVWDQGH[SDQ- rienced a substantial change in the 5th century, VLRQE\DGH¿QHGJURXSµWKH/XFDQLDQV¶ZKRWRRN GHPDUFDWHGE\PRVWDVDWLPHRIFULVLV,WLVFKDU- over the settlements and territories of the so-called acterised by a cessation of settlement and the use native inhabitants, the Enotrians, who then disap- of necropoleis, which at Torre di Satriano may SHDUHGIURPKLVWRU\(YHQLIZHDFFHSWWKHULVHRI have been the result of seismic activity, with signs a new source of power, visible linguistically and of an earthquake followed by a landslide on the through the institutional system that operated plateau15%XWDVZHZLOOVHHWKLVGLGQRWUHVXOWLQ XQGHUDQ2VFDQÀDJKRZHYHUWKDWPD\EHGH¿QHG the abandonment of the site but rather a restructur- DQGHYHQLIWKLVULVHZDVDFFRPSDQLHGE\FRQÀLFW LQJDORQJDGLIIHUHQWRUJDQLVDWLRQDOPRGHO scenarios, the conquest model may not be the most 0RYLQJIXUWKHU:HVWDZD\IURPWKHKLQWHUODQG VXLWDEOH2WKHUSDUDGLJPVZKLFKZHZLOOWXUQWR we reach the lower hills on the Cilento peninsula, at the end, incorporate the agency of local opera- on one of which, near Roccagloriosa, rests an tors, some of whom would have engaged with this ancient settlement that has been the focus of in- QHZSRZHUVRXUFHDQGXVHGLWWRWKHLUDGYDQWDJH WHQVHH[FDYDWLRQDQGVXUYH\KHDGHGE\0DXUL]LR The Archaic form of settlement in the region, Gualtieri and Helena Fracchia16,WOLHVMXVWLQODQG consisting primarily of multiple small sites, gave from the Tyrrhenian coast on the Capitenali ridge ZD\WRODUJHUFHQWUDOLVHGIRUWL¿HGVHWWOHPHQWVWKDW about 500 metres in altitude, some 60 kilometres were surrounded by a more densely occupied 6RXWKRIWKHVXEVWDQWLDOFLW\RI3RVHLGRQLD7KH ODQGVFDSH6XFKDFKDQJHLPSOLHVLQVWLWXWLRQDO earliest evidence of habitation at Roccagloriosa restructuring and a reconstitution of the ruling dates from the late 5th century, coinciding with elite’s identities along with their organisational Archaic ‘Enotrian’ material at the nearby coastal FDSDFLW\DQGUHPLW site of Tortora/Polecastro, but it was not until the Evidence in the region for increasing centralisa- 4th century that an organised settlement appeared tion may be compared to the earlier and better on the ridge plateaus, accompanied by a dense known process of the formation of Archaic Rome SRSXODWLQJRIWKHVXUURXQGLQJFRXQWU\VLGH that emerged from a number of clusters or villages 13 SERIOS OSANNAS CAPOZ- 16 GUALTIERI & FRACCHIA 1990; GUALTIERI & FRACCHIA ZOLI 2001; for a summary and additional bibliography see 14 LANZA 2012; OSANNAS ISAYEV 15 SERIOS 17 For a critical analysis of the appearance of these ethnic identities see: ISAYEVDQG(G%LVSKDPWKLVYROXPH 334 ELENA ISAYEV LQWRDVLQJOHHQWLW\FHQWUHGRQWKHIRUXP The gether in the 4thFHQWXU\7KHUHVXOWVRIWKHVH creation of the Roman forum especially, is seen endeavours is what will be outlined in the next by some as a major initiative that led to state for- section, before we return to consider the forces PDWLRQ2WKHUVDUJXHWKDWWKHQHFHVVDU\UHFODPD- WKDWIXHOOHGWKHP tion of the marginal land on which it was posi- tioned in 600 BC, would have required that some form of state already existed to make the decisions for the organisation of resources and substantial The dynamism of the 4th century PDQSRZHUWRGUDLQDQGLQ¿OOWKHDUHD187KHUHLV no suggestion that any conquest scenario had a Throughout the latter half of the 4th century BC role in this transformation, rather, the forces that the inhabited landscape of Lucania was trans- facilitated it are perceived as being internally IRUPHGLQWRDVHULHVRIIRUWL¿HGVHWWOHPHQWVVXU- GULYHQ7KHFUHDWLRQRIDEUDQGQHZVHWWOHPHQWDW rounded by an increasingly occupied countryside, 7ULFDULFRRUWKHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQRIVHWWOHPHQWVWUXF- GRWWHGKHUHDQGWKHUHZLWKODUJHUXUDOVDQFWXDULHV tures at Torre di Satriano and Roccagloriosa, not These did not so much compete with the coastal WRPHQWLRQWKHRWKHUNQRZQIRUWL¿HGVLWHVLQ cities of Velia or Poseidonia, although there were the region, even if comparatively smaller than the opposing conflicts and alliances, rather they undertaking at Rome, would have required a formed part of the same integrated network that centralised form of organisation and decision stretched throughout South Italy and also encom- making197KHTXHVWLRQLVZKHUHZDVWKDWRUJDQ- SDVVHG6LFLO\$PRQJWKHQHZHVWDEOLVKPHQWV ising capacity based and who was part of its remit? 7ULFDULFRZDVWKHODUJHVW)URPWKHRXWVHWLWKDG The difference in our explanatory frameworks is a fortification wall that enclosed an area of that in the Roman case it is presumed that the VRPHKD7KHLQWUDPXUDOVHWWOHPHQWVFORVHVWLQ settlers were there already and chose to pool re- size were Serra di Vaglio at 24 ha, Laos at 20 ha sources which led to a positive forward looking and Roccagloriosa at 15 ha (excluding its extra- development, while in most of the settlements in mural habitation of another 15 ha in the immedi- Lucania the change tends to be attributed to a ate vicinity)207ULFDULFR¶VVL]HDQGLWVSRVLWLRQLQ group of newcomers or conquerors, and the tran- the landscape, at some distance from other nearby VLWLRQLVSHUFHLYHGDVDFULVLV7KLVLVQRWWRQHJDWH sizeable settlements, suggest that it had a socio- the fact that there surely would have been con- political role as an administrative centre for a ÀLFWVOHDGLQJWRGHSOHWLRQRIORFDOSRSXODWLRQVDQG substantial area that may have been hierarchi- their displacement, but we must imagine other FDOO\RUJDQLVHG,WVSRVLWLRQIXUWKHUPRUHLQGLFDWHV VFHQDULRVDVZHOO,QWKHFDVHRI7RUUHGL6DWULDQR that those who founded the site were newcomers, environmental factors may have caused the re- but from how far away and from how many dif- structuring of the settlement, and perhaps the IHUHQWORFDWLRQVLVXQFOHDU2QO\DIHZVLJQVVXFK DPDOJDPDWLRQRIUHVRXUFHVWRFUHDWHDVLQJOHVLWH as the later tiles with Oscan stamps, give any The settlements at Tricarico and Roccagloriosa direct evidence that Oscan speakers were in the too may have been the result of a process not un- area21:HKDYHQRGLUHFWHYLGHQFHIRUWKHµW\SH¶ like a synoecism, that saw the joining of com- RIIRXQGDWLRQDW7ULFDULFR3HUKDSVLWZDVWKHUHVXOW munities, or rather elites in the area or from further of a synoecism, or the outcome of other processes D¿HOGZKRFKRVHWREXLOGQHZVHWWOHPHQWVWR- best described as colonisation, veteran settlement, 18 AMMERMAN 2ndFHQWXU\%&7KHLQVFULSWLRQUHDGV)İȀĮȡ: CRAW- 19 ISAYEV 2007; DE GENNARO FORD Imagines 3RWHQWLD9RO,,,S 20 DE CAZANOVES which includes references to other similar stamps 21 The tiles were recovered from the so called Domus IRXQGLQ/XFDQLD Italica and the nearby temple on the arx dating to the The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 335 or promised land given to mercenaries and their At the much smaller site of Torre di Satriano, fol- IDPLOLHV:KLFKHYHUZD\ZHGH¿QHLWWKHHIIRUW lowing a period of uncertainty at the end of the required centralisation from the outset, as the 5th/early 4th century, a new nucleated settlement settlement appears to have been conceived in its RIVRPHKDVXUURXQGHGE\DIRUWL¿FDWLRQZDOO HQWLUHW\RQDODUJHVFDOHDWWKHPRPHQWRIFUHDWLRQ was built on the summit and the high terraces, The most impressive visible undertaking at Tri- replacing the individual Archaic clusters26:H FDULFRZDVWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWZRIRUWL¿FDWLRQ would expect a different socio-political structure walls in the mid-4th century, one around the set- accompanying the shift from a polycentric settle- tlement plateau, the other around the arx (acropo- ment to one that now had a greater central place OLV 7KHKRXVHVLQVLGHWKHZDOOVZHUHVWHDGLO\ status277KHSHUVLVWLQJTXHVWLRQLVZKHWKHUWKHUH constructed over several generations with increas- is continuity from one phase to the next or wheth- ing wealth evident in the size, architectural style er the newcomers, if that is what they were, arrived and materials, which are most well documented at an already declining and empty site288QIRU- for House E22,WLVWKLVVWHDG\JURZWKWKDWPD\ tunately little is known about the structures of this have been the reason that, despite the holistic SKDVHDVWKH0HGLHYDOVHWWOHPHQWOLHVRQWRSRI conception of the site layout, it was not based it, but what is known suggests that they were around an orthogonal plan, as prevalent at some comparable to the contemporary impressive resi- other sites of the same period, both Greek and GHQWLDOFRPSOH[HVYHUJLQJRQ0DFHGRQLDQSDO- ,WDOLF7KLVSDUWLFXODUXUEDQPRGHOPD\KDYHEHHQ DFHVSUHVHUYHGDWWKHIRUWL¿HGVLWHRI&HUVRVLPR29 unsuitable for Tricarico and we may note that The substantial rise of occupation at Torre di Velia and Hipponion, for example, adopted such Satriano is best documented by the surveys in the urban form only in the 2nd half of the 4th century23 surrounding territory, which have revealed that Tricarico’s layout has more in common with set- QXPHURXVVLWHVZHUHÀRXULVKLQJLQWKHth and 3rd tlements that grow organically24, combined with centuries, some stretching considerable distances evidence of communal planning in the creation from the settlement, and although the distribution RIIRUWL¿FDWLRQZDOOVDFDQDOLVDWLRQV\VWHPDQG pattern would have been affected by the topogra- VWDQGDUGLVDWLRQRIKRXVHW\SHVLQ3KDVH7KH phy, Osanna notes that it is not dissimilar to what earliest houses were a pastas with dimensions of ZH¿QGLQWKH*UHHNchorai 30 some 11 metres, and internal distribution of rooms Equally impressive aristocratic houses were also similar to the three-room houses at Serra di Va- prominent at Roccagloriosa in the middle decades JOLR,Q3KDVHFLUFD%&VRPHRIWKHKRXVHV of the 4th century31, occupying the main plateau such as House E, were expanded and converted ZKLFKDWWKLVWLPHZDVHQFLUFOHGE\DIRUWL¿FDWLRQ into courtyard houses, and later peristyles, a pro- ZDOO3UHFHGLQJWKHVHGHYHORSPHQWVWKHRUJDQLVD- cess also evident at other sites in the region, not tion of streets and town planning that distin- least Serra di Vaglio25 guished between areas reserved for habitation, 22 DE CAZANOVE UROHZLWKWKHFDSDFLW\RIFHQWUDOLVLQJSRZHU:KDW 23 LA TORRE S remains questionable is whether they provided a form 24 DE CAZANOVE S of territorially based identity, as for example that of 25 DE CAZANOVES DE CAZANOVE 2009, city-states, or whether such large rural sanctuaries as S Rossano di Vaglio, may have played an important role 26 OSANNAS (and provided a model), above that of any individual 27 OSANNA S OSANNA & SERIO S settlement in terms of identity and allegiance: ISAYEV 7KHTXHVWLRQVWKDW2VDQQDDVNVLQWKHYROXPH ISAYEV Verso la città, and through his research in the region 28 OSANNA & SERIO S is more interesting than whether or not a particular 29 COSSALTER & DE FAV ER I 2009; OSANNAS VLWHFDQEHFDOOHGXUEDQ+LVDUJXPHQWVDERXWµFHQWUDO place status’ have much convergence with my own 30 OSANNAS work, in that increasingly sites had an administrative 31 GUALTIERI & FRACCHIA 336 ELENA ISAYEV crafts and a necropolis area, already existed a shared the same elite language prevalent in other generation earlier32,QWKHVXUURXQGLQJFRXQWU\- SDUWVRIWKH0HGLWHUUDQHDQ6RPHRIWKHODWHVW side surveys over the last decades show that there Hellenistic trends were picked up by these hinter- was a substantial increase in habitation density land ‘Italic’ sites even before they appeared at from the 4th century337KHYDULHW\RIVLWHVLQ- *UHHNFHQWUHVLQ0DJQD*UDHFLD For example cluded individual isolated farms within a 5 km amenities such as the late 4th century bath, found distance from the centre, as well as village like DWDFRXUW\DUGKRXVHDW0ROWRQHGL7ROYHKDVLWV settlements further away, interspersed with towers nearest example at Gela dating to 280 BC377KH that allowed for better lines of sight and commu- impressive black and white pebble mosaic, with QLFDWLRQ Again it is unclear where the people who OHDSLQJGROSKLQVDW66WHIDQRQHDU%XFFLQRLV came to create Roccagloriosa and populate its one of the earliest examples of a black and white KLQWHUODQGFDPHIURP:DVLWDIRUPRIsynoecism, SHEEOHPRVDLFÀRRUNQRZQIURPWKHSHQLQVXOD38 a decision taken by those who inhabited the In the private sphere there are many parallels VPDOOHUVLWHVLQWKHWHUULWRU\"'LGWKH\FRPHIURP between the settlements in Lucania and other PXFKIXUWKHUD¿HOGRUZDVLWDPL[WXUHRIERWK" centres in Italy and Sicily, whether Greek or in- :KDWZHGRNQRZLVWKDWE\%&WKHVLWHZDV digenous, the main difference lies in the articula- JRYHUQHGE\DQ2VFDQFHQWUHGSRZHU7KLVLVPRVW WLRQRISXEOLFVSDFHVDQGVWUXFWXUHV,Q7ULFDULFR explicitly demonstrated by the recovery of a there is no clear evidence of any substantial bronze tablet, with the fragmentary remains of a SXEOLFVSDFHVIRXQGLQVLGHWKHIRUWL¿FDWLRQV7KHUH lex-law, which was written in Oscan using the is a small sanctuary, Complex P, with a tripartite ,RQLF7DUHQWLQHDOSKDEHW )LJ 34:LWKLQLWDUH WHPSOHVKULQH îP IURQWHGE\DSDYHG noted meddices-magistrates and the touta, desig- courtyard, that was built in the second half of the nating a community, roughly equivalent to the 4th century39$QRWGLVVLPLODUVWUXFWXUHH[LVWVQHDU Latin term civitas35$QRWKHUV\PERORIVWDWHKRRG the settlement at Torre di Satriano, a small struc- found at the site was an object believed to be a WXUHîPHWUHVHQFORVHGE\DSHULPHWHU caduceus, inscribed with the letters '+, the short ZDOORIîPHWUHVZKLFKKDGDURRP form for de(mosion) or de(mosia), indicating that perhaps for banquets constructed in front of it in it was public property36)URPWKHVHIHDWXUHVZH the second phase400RVWRIWKHHYLGHQFHIRUSXE- may conclude that Roccagloriosa had an admin- lic activity in the region appears either outside the istrative role overseeing a touta, which was based walls or in what would otherwise be recognised at the settlement, or which incorporated it along as domestic contexts, which feature large court- ZLWKWKHRXWO\LQJVLWHV7KHLQVWLWXWLRQVH[SOLFLWO\ yard houses and, at Tricarico, a unique banqueting represented at Roccagloriosa, while based on an room complex which was created just before the Oscan model, integrated Hellenistic systems, site had ceased to function at the end of the 3rd symbols and tools, as demonstrated in the choice century41$W5RFFDJORULRVDWKHPRVWLPSUHVVLYH of the alphabet, the written law, and the caduceus buildings have a domestic role alongside any that :KRHYHUZDVOLYLQJDW5RFFDJORULRVDLQWKHth may also include its function in a communal and century, as at Tricarico and Torre Satriano, they SROLWLFDOFDSDFLW\&RPSOH[$ZKLFKKDGDVXE- 32 FRACCHIA & GUALTIERI S PDWHULDOIRU0ROWRQHGL7ROYHLQFOXGHVVWUXFWXUHVIURP 33 GUALTIERI & FRACCHIA 1990; FRACCHIAS 'HORVWKH0DLVRQGHOD&ROOLQHDQG0DLVRQGX7ULGHQW Osanna also notes that Heraclean peristyle houses only 34 GUALTIERI 2000; GUALTIERI & POCCETTI 2001; FRAC- date from the 3rdF%& OSANNAS CHIA & GUALTIERI S 38 JOHANNOWSKY S 35 ISAYEVS 39 DE CAZANOVES DE CAZANOVE 2008, 36 GUALTIERI S FRACCHIA & GUALTIERI S S 40 OSANNA & SERIO S 37 RUSSO TAGLIENTE S+HUFRPSDUDWLYH 41 DE CAZANOVES DE CAZANOVE The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 337 stantial courtyard with a shrine, was at the service All change in the 3rd century BC of more than any single household42$GGLWLRQDO public spaces and a crafts quarter may have been The dynamism of the 4th century, with restructur- created outside the walls, when the site was ex- ing and improvement at most of the settlements tended at the end of the 4th century43 across Lucania, continued at least into the early The most impressive public structures in Lucania GHFDGHVRIWKHQH[WFHQWXU\7KHQIRUFHVWKDW were in the form of rural sanctuaries that lay at seem to affect the whole region led to a decline in VRPHGLVWDQFHIURPDQ\VLQJOHIRUWL¿HGVLWH7KH the quality of life at most sites by the mid-3rd most substantial one, which functioned for some century, with a visible contraction of settlement four centuries, is at Rossano di Vaglio44, possibly LQVLGHDQGRXWVLGHRIWKHIRUWL¿HGDUHDV$WPRVW GHGLFDWHGWR0H¿WLVEXWKRVWLQJRWKHUGHLWLHVDV sites this resulted in complete or near abandon- ZHOO,WZDVFRQFHLYHGRQDPRQXPHQWDOVFDOHLQ ment within a generation, which was the case for the mid-4th century, with a large courtyard sur- ERWK7RUUHGL6DWULDQRDQG&HUVRVLPR6XUYH\V rounded by rooms on three sides and facing a around Torre di Satriano show that of the 69 sites theatre like hillside from which one descended LGHQWL¿HGLQWKHVXUYH\RQO\UHPDLQHGLQWKH LQWRLWWKURXJKDQHQWUDQFHZD\ÀDQNHGE\WZR Roman period, and of these only 2 are continu- IRXQWDLQV7KHUHD PHWUHDOWDUJUHHWHGWKHDXGL- ously occupied from the 4th century into the Re- HQFHDQGKHOGWKHIRFXVRIDWWHQWLRQ,WKDGQR publican period46$W&HUVRVLPRRQWKHUXLQVRI temple but the deities of the site were well looked the peristyles, new houses were constructed in the after, judging by the numerous votives including early 2nd century BC, but these lacked any monu- over 1000 coins45, several statues and statue mentality of their elite predecessors, and had more EDVHVDQGVLJQL¿FDQWO\PRUHLQVFULSWLRQVLQFOXG- in common with villa rustica type dwellings47$W ing ones in Oscan, than all the other sites of the Roccagloriosa eventual abandonment of the site UHJLRQFRPELQHG1RWKLQJRIWKLVVL]HRUPRQX- may have coincided with landslides, which could PHQWDOLW\H[LVWVDWDQ\RIWKHIRUWL¿HGVHWWOHPHQWV have been its cause, or a consequence of the lack In comparison, the size of the sanctuary complex RIXSNHHSDQGLQYHVWPHQWRIUHVRXUFHV$VWKH at Tricarico is miniscule, its size and constrained centre declined so did the number of sites in its space meant that it is unlikely to have been used LPPHGLDWHKLQWHUODQGEXWWKRVHIXUWKHUD¿HOG IRUDQ\ODUJHJDWKHULQJV-XGJLQJE\WKHDYDLODEOH continued at a reduced level into the 2nd and 1st spaces, such as the banquet room in Tricarico or centuries BC487KHPDWHULDOIURPWKHVHFHQWUHV the houses of the elite, any meetings inside the provides a stark picture of a changed environment, VHWWOHPHQWVZRXOGKDYHKDGWREHFRQ¿QHGWRD which can be examined more intricately from the VHOHFWHOLWHJURXS&RPPXQLW\ZLGHDVVHPEOLHV remains at Tricarico, that give some insight into representing the touta for example, would have WKHSOLJKWDQGKRSHVRILWVLQKDELWDQWV had to take place either in non-permanent struc- A century after its creation, Tricarico’s residents tures, possibly on the sides of hills that formed were still keen to rebuild and enhance their living natural auditoria, or at sanctuary sites, such as TXDUWHUVDQGHYLGHQWO\KDGWKHUHVRXUFHVWRGRVR Rossano di Vaglio, or the impressive theatre- House E was extended not long before the most complex of Pietrabbondante in the Central Apen- drastic restructuring of the site took place between QLQHV 240-225 BC497KHGHFLVLRQWREXLOGDQLQWHU 42 FRACCHIA & GUALTIERI S FRACCHIA 45 PARENTE & GUALTIERI S GUALTIERI S 46 OSANNAS 47 OSANNAS 43 FRACCHIA & GUALTIERI S 48 FRACCHIA & ORTOLANI S GUALTIERI & 44 CHIANESE et al. 2010; for summary and earlier biblio- FRACCHIAS graphy: ISAYEV 2009; CRACOLICI & NAVA 49 DE CAZANOVES 338 ELENA ISAYEV PHGLDU\IRUWL¿FDWLRQZDOOWKDWVHYHUHO\UHGXFHG their allies extinguishing remnants of Hannibalic the size of the enclosed area to some 17 ha, could support? not have been taken lightly and may have been a The historical events connected to the different coercive act, as it necessitated the destruction of phases of site construction and decline are large- VRPHRIWKHKRXVHVRQWKHSODWHDX$VDFRQVH- O\DWWULEXWHGWR5RPDQSHQHWUDWLRQRI6RXWK,WDO\ quence, House E now found itself positioned right These include: the foundation of the Latin colony LQIURQWRIWKHJDWHRIWKHQHZIRUWL¿FDWLRQVDQG RI9HQRVDRQWKHFRQ¿QHVRI$SXOLDDQG/XFDQLD it was not long after this that the residence may (291 BC), the Pyrrhic wars (280-275 BC) soon have changed role in the last decades of the followed by the foundation of the Latin colony of 3rdFHQWXU\3DUWRIWKHKRXVHDUHDZDVJLYHQRYHU Paestum at Poseidonia (273 BC), and the takeover to an impressive banquet room complex which of Tarentum (272 BC), with the associated tri- IDFHGWKHIRUWL¿HGJDWH7KLVEDQTXHWURRPDS- XPSKVRYHUWKH/XFDQLDQV %& 7KHUH SHDUVWRKDYHKDGDQRI¿FLDORUSXEOLFIXQFWLRQ is no doubt that these events changed the equili- judging by its positioning, its separation from brium and the network of alliances in the region, other buildings and also by the high quality which was transformed during the Second Punic ¿QHZDUHVWKDWIRUPHGSDUWRIWKHGLQQHUVHWWKDW :DUZKHQWKH6RXWKVHUYHGDVLWVPDLQWKHDWUHRI ZDVIRXQGZLWKLQLW:KLOHWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKHQHZ RSHUDWLRQV7KDWWKHUHZDVGHYDVWDWLRQLVXQGLVSXW- IRUWL¿FDWLRQPD\VLJQDODSHULRGRIXQFHUWDLQW\ able, but how much of it occurred prior to the and fear, the newly built banquet room and the 6HFRQG3XQLF:DULVTXHVWLRQDEOHHVSHFLDOO\LI contemporaneous monumentalisation of the small we take into account that some 30 000 soldiers sanctuary Complex P50UHÀHFWVDSHULRGRIFRQ- and 4000 knights were mobilised from the region ¿GHQFHMXVWEHIRUHDQDOPRVWFRPSOHWHDEDQGRQ- for the Roman cause in 225 BC525HFHQWLQYHV- PHQWRIWKHFHQWUH:KDWOLWWOHDFWLYLW\UHPDLQVRQ tigations at sites such as Tricarico have forced a the site during the 2nd century BC mainly comes reconsideration of the chronology that presumes from the arx, where a new a courtyard house or a cessation of sites before or during the middle domus was built, and an Italic temple, which decades of the 3rdFHQWXU\%&'H&D]DQRYH¶V survived at least into the 1stFHQWXU\%& analysis of the material from Tricarico has ques- It is tempting to link the transformed environment tioned the dating of ceramics from the second half of the 3rdFHQWXU\WRNQRZQKLVWRULFHYHQWV$W of the 3rd century, suggesting that sites that were 7ULFDULFRWKHLQWHUPHGLDU\IRUWL¿FDWLRQZDOOLV believed to have stopped functioning early in the believed to have been constructed 240-225 BC, 3rd century may have continued to be occupied placing it in the period immediately following the VHYHUDOGHFDGHVORQJHUWKDQRULJLQDOO\WKRXJKW,W )LUVW3XQLF:DU1RWORQJDIWHUWKLV+RXVH(ZDV is therefore plausible that more sites in the region UHVWUXFWXUHGSHUKDSVGXULQJWKH+DQQLEDOLF:DU have absolute chronologies that are in line with :KLOHGH&D]DQRYHDFNQRZOHGJHVWKDWLWLVGLI- those proposed for Tricarico53:KDWIROORZHGWKH ¿FXOWWRWHOOZKHWKHUWKHVLWHZDVDOOLHGWR5RPH +DQQLEDOLF:DUZDVOLNHO\DGHPRJUDSKLFGH- and if so, whether it seceded following the Cannae crease, not least because of the number of battle disaster in 216 BC, it may have been in this the dead, to which we need to add those who would short period that the banquet room was con- today be labelled ‘collateral damage’, and those structed51,WVDEDQGRQPHQWLQPLGGLQQHULW affected by the inevitable economic downturn seems, judging by the distribution of the pottery resulting from uncertainty and the devastation or that remained untouched, is doubly poignant, DSSURSULDWLRQRIKDUYHVWV6LWHDEDQGRQPHQWZDV since the destruction of the rest of the city soon also a consequence of population displacement IROORZHG:DVWKLVWKHZRUNRI5RPDQIRUFHVDQG DQGPLJUDWLRQ7KLVZRXOGKDYHWDNHQGLIIHUHQW 50 DE CAZANOVES DE CAZANOVE 52 POL 51 DE CAZANOVES 53 DE CAZANOVES The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 339 forms, forced migration of hostages and prisoners, tryside, attributed in part to the growth of Oscan but also, for example the relocation of thousands LQÀXHQFH56*X]]R¶VFRQWULEXWLRQTXHVWLRQVWKH RI+DQQLEDO¶V,WDOLFWURRSVWR&DUWKDJH2WKHUV image of Bruttians as brigands who overrun may have chosen larger centres in Italy; in the civilised Greek communities577KHWKULYLQJRI region of Lucania the newly established Roman such sites as Hipponion, despite its ‘conquest’ by city of Potentia would have been a draw for the the Bruttii in the mid-4th century, suggests a more dispersed population but possibly not until the 1st FRPSOH[VFHQDULR :HPD\FRPSDUHLWWRWKHµFRQ- century BC, as there are few remains at the site quest’ of Poseidonia by the Lucanians, which SUHGDWLQJWKH6RFLDO:DU54 equally saw building and dynamism at the site rather than suppression or decline587KHSURPL- nent Greek city of Croton too has little sign of FULVLVRQLWVWDNHRYHUE\'LRQ\VLXV,6SDGHD¶V &RQWH[WXDOLVLQJ'\QDPLVP analysis demonstrates how archaeology presents a context of development and continuity through Finding reasons for decline seems straightfor- the 4th-3rd centuries595DWKHUWKHW\UDQQ\VHHPV ward, especially when we have ancient narratives to have had the opposite effect, with evidence of full of on-going warfare that engulfed the South growth and restructuring in the second half of the ,WDOLDQODQGVFDSHIRUDOOEXWWKH¿UVWTXDUWHURIWKH 4thFHQWXU\6SDGHDVXJJHVWVWKDWDFFHVVWRUH- 3rdFHQWXU\%&(YHQLIIRUPRVWRIWKRVHFRP- sources in Bruttium and good connections with munities visible to us through the material evi- 6\UDFXVHHQKDQFHGWKHÀRZHULQJRIWKHFLW\DQG dence, we do not know what role they had in the allowed the funding of impressive projects such campaigns we would expect that their fortunes DVIRUWL¿FDWLRQZDOOVVWUHWFKLQJVRPHNPSX ZHUHWLHGWRWKHJURZLQJKHJHPRQ\RI5RPH,WLV EOLFVSDFHVDQGPRQXPHQWDOVWUXFWXUHV,PSURYHG PRUHGLI¿FXOWWRH[SODLQZKDWIXHOOHGWKHSHULRGV housing shows that the wealth penetrated beyond of dynamism such as the 4th century, especially WKHHOLWHDQGUXOLQJVHFWRUV%\WKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKH when there is no clear single event or powerbase 3rd century there is evidence of decline, and hoard that may have been responsible for it, and when deposition, presumed to be connected to Agatho- it is prevalent across a wide seemingly disparate FOHV¶FDPSDLJQVIROORZHGE\5RPDQFRQTXHVWV ODQGVFDSH7KHDUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHOHDYHVQR By the end of the 3rd century the settlement was doubt that there is a considerable increase in set- RQO\DVKDGRZRILWVIRUPHUVHOI tlement with a substantial rise in the mid-4th ,QWKH6RXWK(DVWFRUQHURIWKHSHQLQVXOD0HV- century followed by further extension and restruc- sapia, a region with different habitation models, WXULQJRYHUWKHQH[WWKUHHJHQHUDWLRQV:HKDYH ZKHUHODUJHH[WHQVLYHVHWWOHPHQWVRQÀDWSODLQV seen how this manifested itself in Lucania, but the SUHGRPLQDWHGVXFKDV9DOHVLRDQG0XUR7HQHQWH pattern is equally prominent in other parts of DOVRVKRZVDFKDQJHLQVRFLHWDORUJDQLVDWLRQ 6RXWK,WDO\DQGLQ6LFLO\7KHUHFHQWVWXGLHVRI There is evidence of centralising tendencies and these regions in the volume Krise und Wandel, also a substantial populating of the countryside, HGLWHGE\51HXGHFNHU55, reveals just how wide- increasing four-fold in some areas, that was fol- VSUHDGLWZDV,Q%UXWWLXPDVLQ/XFDQLDWKHUH lowed by 3rd century decline60)RUWKLVUHJLRQZH ZDVDULVHLQWKHQXPEHURIIRUWL¿HGFHQWUHVZLWK know most about the power-hub and cultural evidence of organised planning and increasing metropolis that was Taranto, a jewel of 4th cen- ZHDOWKDFFRPSDQLHGE\DQLQ¿OOLQJRIWKHFRXQ- WXU\,WDO\/LSSROLV¶UHFHQWVWXG\RIWKHVLWHKLJK- 54 ISAYEVS 58 CRAWFORD 2006a; ISAYEV 55 NEUDECKER 59 SPADEA 56 MOLLO 2009; GUZZO 60 BURGERS 2009; SEMERARO 2009; ATTEMA et al. 57 GUZZO 2010. 340 ELENA ISAYEV lights the multiplicity of socio-cultural pheno- transformation of the hinterland of Himera fol- mena that engendered a period of immense lowing Punic takeover in the late 5thFHQWXU\ ÀRZHULQJLQWKHFLW\61*UHHNDQGORFDOSRSXOD- Vassalo depicts how evidence of decline and site tions were both actors in a transformative process abandonment in the 5th century is followed by of reciprocal integration that is broader than any growth in the 4thDVDW0RQWDJQDGHL&DYDOOL proposed by the simplistic criteria of ethnic dif- ZKHUHIRUWL¿FDWLRQVZHUHEXLOWDQGWKHUHLVHYL- IHUHQWLDWLRQ$VDWPDQ\RWKHUVLWHVDWWKHHQGRI GHQFHRIFHQWUDOSODQQLQJDQGWKHLQÀXHQFHRI the 5th century, there is evidence of decline and Hellenising trends in material culture and archi- change in certain cultural trends, particularly tecture, which were the result of complex inter- YLVLEOHLQWKHIXQHUDU\VSKHUH1RWRQO\LVWKHUHD community relationships and a mixed popula- reduction of luxury display, which may be con- tion620RVWLPSUHVVLYHLVWKHFUHDWLRQRID nected to a prohibition law, but also a reduction mid-size stone theatre, some 52 metres in diam- LQ$WWLFLPSRUWV7KLVLVFRXSOHGZLWKSURJUHVVLYH eter, in the 2nd half of the 4thFHQWXU\'HFOLQH uniformity in the funerary deposits, that continues and abandonment of this vibrant site a century into the 4thFHQWXU\%\WKHPLGGOHGHFDGHVWKHUH ODWHULVFRQQHFWHGWRWKH+DQQLEDOLF:DUDQGWDNH is uncompromising evidence of economic growth RYHUE\5RPH7KHSDWWHUQLVW\SLFDORIRWKHU and social dynamism, that has been attributed to sites in the Punic entroterra and also in the Syra- $UFK\WDVDQGORFDO3\WKDJRUHDQWUDGLWLRQV7KH cusan half of the island63,QWU\LQJWRHVWDEOLVK second half of the 4th century sees a true explosion the nature of the Punic supremacy from the late in material exhibition, with quantitative increase 5thFHQWXU\LQ:HVWHUQ6LFLO\+HODVSRLQWVRXW of material goods, production, and innovation that that it did not result in the occupation by a Punic FHOHEUDWHVRUQDPHQW1HZPRGHOVIURP0DFHGRQ ruler to match the tyrants of Syracuse, meaning and Epirus contribute to renewed prestigious that alliances and treaty arrangements, allowing EXULDOGLVSOD\VZKLOHRWKHULQÀXHQFHVXQGHUSLQ different levels of autonomy, would have been the change in votive culture and the sacred land- key to maintaining their position647RHQDEOHWKH VFDSH7KHFKDQJHVUHÀHFWRSHQQHVVWRQHZPRG- lasting presence of military troops in the Epic- els and a resurgence of the aristocracy, fuelling racy, Helas argues that from the second half of JURZWKRIWKHFUDIWHFRQRP\7KHLQWHJUDWLRQRI the 4thFHQWXU\WKHUHZDVDFRQVLGHUDEOHLQÀX[RI the city into the Roman political system in the 3rd Punic civilian settlers, where in previous decades century seems not to have interfered with this the military presence may have been more in line EXR\DQWSURGXFWLRQ7KHUHDOHQGSRLQWWRWKH with phrouria type contexts, and control by con- Tarentine cultural and economic system coincides WLQJHQWVRI&DUWKDJLQLDQVRUWKHLUPHUFHQDULHV with the Hannibalic wars, which undermined the 'HVSLWHWKHVHYHU\SDUWLFXODUKLVWRULFFLUFXP- FLW\¶VUHJLRQDOUROHDQGLQWHUQDORUJDQLVDWLRQ stances, the transformation of the Archaic Greek 2YHUWKH6WUDLWRI0HVVLQDWKH6\UDFXVDQSRZHU- city of Selinunte into a major Punic outpost, is base in Sicily, had to compete with other formi- still in line with the three shifts we have seen GDEOH0HGLWHUUDQHDQSOD\HUV&DUWKDJHZKLFKVHW HOVHZKHUH,QWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHth century it XSDQ(SLFUDF\WKDWHPEHGGHGLWVHOIRQWKH:HVW was either empty or sparsely populated, but by VLGHRIWKHLVODQG$OWKRXJKWKLVVLWXDWLRQSUHVHQWV WKH¿QDOGHFDGHVRIWKHFHQWXU\WKHUHZDVFOHDUO\ a substantially different historical context, the a substantial population occupying the site, SDWWHUQRIVHWWOHPHQWULVHDQGGHFOLQHVWLOOKROGV whether a military colony or a Punic civilian A text book example of the three shifts outlined RXWSRVW$GRZQWXUQLQWKHHDUO\rd century, at the start of this chapter may be found in the perhaps connected to the Pyrrhic campaigns, was 61 LIPPOLIS shing in the 4th century BC despite its location in the 62 VASSALLOS Punic region during the Epicracy: ISLERS 7KH*UHHNVLWHRI,DWDVIRUH[DPSOHDOVRVKRZVÀRXUL 64 HELAS The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 341 then followed by an archaeological silence from Campania but spanning across much of Central the mid-3rdFHQWXU\%& DQG6RXWK,WDO\7KHLUPHPEHUVHYHQLQFOXGHG Between the Syracusan and Punic operators the such well known gens names as the Claudii69,W Sicilian landscape was home to numerous mixed LVVLJQL¿FDQWWKDWWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHVH,WDOLDQVRU communities hosting populations from origins 2VFDQVDW0HVVHQHSUHFHGHVWKHGDWHJLYHQIRULWV DFURVVWKH0HGLWHUUDQHDQ6RPHVHWWOHPHQWVZHUH WDNHRYHU7KLVLVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\Dth century HYHQJRYHUQHGE\2VFDQSRZHUV7KHPRVWZHOO BC painted inscription, in Greek alphabet, on a NQRZQRIWKHVHLVWKHVLWHRI0HVVHQHZKLFKEH- vase from a tomb at the site, which mentions the FDPHKRPHWRWKH0DPHUWLQHVWKHVRFDOOHG woman Pachia Pomptia70+HUJHQWLOLFLDOQDPH Campanian knights and mercenaries, notorious matches that of the meddix on the 3rd century in ancient narratives for drawing Rome onto a dedication to Apollo from the same city71,QOLJKW FROOLVLRQFRXUVHZLWK&DUWKDJH7KHVHPHUFHQDU- of these enticing fragments of evidence we may LHVRFFXSLHG0HVVHQHLQWKHHDUO\rd century BC, wonder how the touta Mamertina came into being when in the employ of Agathoclese65, they were DQGZKRZDVSDUWRILWVUHPLW:DVLWVFRQVWUXFWLRQ the latest embodiment of the Campanian cavalry and operating capability similar to that of the that had served in Sicily from the 5th century66 touta at Roccagloriosa? Presumably the touta 'XULQJWKHLUVRMRXUQRQWKHLVODQGWKH\LQ¿OWUDWHG Mamertina emerged once the Oscan/Italic mer- Sicilian settlements, and their powerful persistent cenaries gained positions of power, perhaps by presence, not wholly welcome, eventually took on force, and we may assume that the pre-existing WKHIRUPRIDXWRQRPRXVFRPPXQLWLHV7KHDU- SRSXODWLRQRI0HVVHQHZDVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRLW chaeological evidence from the Sicilian towns of DQGJRYHUQHGE\LWVODZV&RXOGLWKDYHEHHQWKDW (QWHOODDQG0HVVHQHUHÀHFWVWKHGHHSSHQHWUDWLRQ different a model to the formation of a Latin of these military incomers, who were in a position colony? WRPLQWWKHLURZQFRLQDJHZLWKOHJHQGV.$0- 3$121DQG0$0(57,121677KH\DOVR intro- GXFHGWKHLURZQVRFLRSROLWLFDOVWUXFWXUHV,Q- $FFRXQWLQJIRU'\QDPLVP scriptions attest to the use of the Oscan language and the application of Italic institutional forms The transformative forces which populated this with references to magistrates as meddices and landscape and shaped its pattern of settlement in the community as touta through the 3rd century the 4th century cannot be attributed solely to local %&2QWKHDUFKLWUDYHRIWKHWHPSOHRI$SROORDW IDFWRUVQRUWRDQ\VLQJOHKLVWRULFDOFLUFXPVWDQFH 0HVVHQHDGHGLFDWLRQXVLQJWKH*UHHNDOSKDEHW :HQHHGWRORRNEH\RQGWKHVHIRUDEHWWHUXQGHU- gives the names of two meddices, Stenius Ca- standing of the processes that brought these peo- OLQLXV6WDWLVDQG0DUDV3RPSWLXV1XPVHGLVRI ple together and fuelled the development of their the touta Mamertina687KHVDPH2VFDQLQVWLWX- FRPPXQLWLHV:KDWHYHUPD\KDYHEHHQWKHLP- tions that appear on the mainland, as at Roccaglo- mediate causes there are a number of features ULRVDDUHDOVRKHUHLQ6LFLO\ From the onomastic shared between all the examples examined above, HYLGHQFHDW0HVVHQHLWLVHYLGHQWWKDWWKH0DPHU- PRVWSURPLQHQWO\LQWKHUHJLRQRI/XFDQLD)RUD tines, whose origins are still disputed, were a ODUJHVHFWRURIWKHSRSXODWLRQWKHUHZDVDVLJQL¿- heterogeneous group, with roots not only in cant improvement in living conditions during the 65 POL S )RUDGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHFXOW COSTABILE 66 DIODNICOLET 1962; FREDERIKSEN 1968, S S 3-31; TAGLIAMONTE 1994 69 CRAWFORD Imagines 2011, Sicilia / 0(66$1$ 67 TAGLIAMONTE 1994; SÄSTRÖM 1940; LEE 2000; CRAW- S TAGLIAMONTE S FORD Imagines 2011, Sicilia / 0(66$1$S 70 TAGLIAMONTE S 68 CRAWFORD 2006b; TAGLIAMONTE S 71 CRAWFORD Imagines 2011, Sicilia / 0(66$1$ CRAWFORD Imagines 6LFLOLD0(66$1$ S 342 ELENA ISAYEV 4thFHQWXU\7KLVLVHYLGHQWIURPWKHLQFUHDVHG :HPD\DOVRORRNWRQHZSROLWLFDOLGHRORJLHVWKDW quantity, and spread, of certain types of material controlled and distributed resources, perhaps in- culture, which implies higher rates of consump- troducing new systems of land use and encourag- tion across different societal sectors, coupled with LQJWKHGLIIXVLRQRIDQ\QHZWHFKQRORJLHV)RU an upsurge in the number of habitations both in- example, the prominence of Pythagoreanism in VLGHDQGRXWVLGHWKHVHWWOHPHQWV2QHSRVVLELOLW\ Taranto76, and notably among Italic communities in explaining the preceding 5th century decline in Lucania77, is believed to have engendered a and then rise of ‘quality of life’ may be a change more equal society, evidenced by the severe reduc- LQWKHFOLPDWLFFRQGLWLRQV,WLVFRQFHLYDEOHWKDW tion of luxurious tombs78, and the rise of what may an increased growing season and levels of pre- EHWHQWDWLYHO\FDOOHGDPLGGOHFODVV7KHLQFUHDV- cipitation could have effected the agricultural ing wealth of this sector in both Taranto and capacity and hence also the demography of Italy SURPLQHQWO\LQ/XFDQLDLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHULVHRI DWWKHWLPH7KLVUHVHDUFKVWUDQGKDV\HWWREH peristyle houses modelled on the latest trends, fully examined, but with new projects that incor- HPDQDWLQJIURPWKH0DFHGRQLDQVSKHUHRILQÀX- porate environmental data, it should be possible HQFH,QSDUWLWPD\KDYHEHHQWKHIDYRXUDEOH to ascertain and preliminary investigations sug- conditions that allowed for certain models of gest that there was a rise of about 1 degree celsius DXWKRULW\DQGJRYHUQDQFHWRSUROLIHUDWH7KH E\F%&LQWKH0HGLWHUUDQHDQ 72$QLPSURYHG VSUHDGRI2VFDQLQÀXHQFHZLWKLWVÀH[LELOLW\DQG economic base, whether due to climatic or other adaptability to different environments, may be reasons, could have encouraged the centralisation ERWKDSURGXFWDQGDIDFLOLWDWRURIVXFKDVHWWLQJ and distribution of resources and enhanced divi- It took root and accommodated itself to extreme- VLRQRIODERXU:HVHHWUDFHVRIWKLVLQWKHKLJK O\GLYHUVHFRQGLWLRQVDWVPDOOLQODQGIRUWL¿HGVLWHV number of communal projects, whether through in the hinterland of Italy, in Greek colonies such central planning of sites and territories, construc- as Poseidonia, and among the Greco-indigenous WLRQRIIRUWL¿FDWLRQZDOOVDQGPRQXPHQWVRUWKH VHWWOHPHQWVLQ6LFLO\7KH2VFDQHQWLW\GUHZLWV RUJDQLVDWLRQRILQVWLWXWLRQDOV\VWHPV&RPPXQDO power from a number of sources without explic- pooling of wealth would have also meant improved itly giving it a unique name, or tying it to any capability to withstand such calamities as food VLQJOHHWKQLFHQWLW\,WFRXOGEHFDUULHGRUWUDQV- VKRUWDJHVDQGZDU7KHGHQVHRFFXSDWLRQRIWKH IHUUHGYLDDÀXLGKXPDQFKDLQWKDWZDVQRWGH- rural landscape is a sign of central rethinking of ¿QHGE\ELUWKSODFHRURWKHUVXFKLGHRORJLHVRI land ownership73,QFRQQHFWLRQZLWKLWZHFDQHQ EHORQJLQJDQGZKLFKKDGQRVLQJOHFHQWUDOEDVH visage an interest in better management and distri- It was not an ethnicity as such, but a socio-polit- EXWLRQRIDJULFXOWXUDOODQG'LIIXVLRQRIQHZWHFK ical culture that incorporated the most useful ele- nologies and agrarian knowledge at the time may ments, whether Greek, Italic or Roman and built be gleaned from such evidence as the translation RQWKHP$SHULRGRIVWDJQDWLRQSHUKDSVIRUFOL- and circulation of agricultural writings, as those matic reasons, combined with a power vacuum RIWKH&DUWKDJLQLDQ0DJRRQ3XQLFODQGKROGLQJ74 left by the decline of Etruscan supremacy in the The lex HieronicaLVSHUFHLYHGDVDUHÀHFWLRQRI 5th century, may have created the ideal context for agrarian concerns in 3rd century BC Sicily, fol- DQ2VFDQSRZHUWRJURZDQGWDNHKROG,WSUR- lowing on from a preceding period of prosperity75 vided an alternative to competing city-states, 72 DE LIGTS 77 Pythagorean writings by an Okellos from Lucania are 73 OSANNA QRWHGE\'/DOVRVHH PLUTDe genio 74 VARRO rust. 1, 1, 10; PLIN nat.>@FI CIC SocratisSDEQRWHVWKDWD3\WKDJRUHDQSDUW\ de orat. 1, 249; COLUM. 1, 1, 13; 12, 4, 2; LANCEL 1992, ÀHGWR/XFDQLDLQ%&IAMB. VP 34, 241, PORPH. S VP 22; STOB :DFKVPXWK 75 CIC Verr. 2, 3; BELL 78 COLVICCHI 76 LIPPOLISS The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 343 DORQJZLWKRWKHUVXFKÀXLGHQWLWLHVDVWKHPRELOH probably an equal number of individual private DUPLHVDQGFRXUWRI$OH[DQGHUWKH*UHDW movements of which we only get a glimpse, for The shifting demographics suggest favourable example from the records of Semitic/Punic names conditions for human mobility at this time, which at such sites as Roccagloriosa and Laos, just down means that we need to think in terms of the cir- the coast from it827KHH[WHQVLYHFLUFXODWLRQRI culation of people (and goods) rather than in terms merchants and entrepreneurs, including pirates, of overpopulation as the driver for movement and is also implicit in the Romano-Carthaginian trea- GLVSODFHPHQW7KH,WDOLDQSHQLQVXODZDVPRVW ties of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC83 likely under-populated not overpopulated and any Returning to the focus of this chapter, the region ‘migration crisis’ would have been likely the result of Lucania and the sites of Tricarico, Torre di of out-migration79$VGLVWLQFWIURPRYHUSRSXOD- Satriano and Roccagloriosa, the above discussion tion, there would have been periods of demo- may not get us very far in ascertaining the exact graphic increase, as appears to be the case in the reasons, nor the historical events that led to the 4th century BC, perhaps as a result of better living FKDQJLQJSDWWHUQZH¿QGLQWKLVUHJLRQEXWLWGRHV conditions, leading to a redistribution of the DOORZIRUDQH[SDQVLRQRISRVVLELOLWLHV7KHFRQWH[W SRSXODWLRQ,WLVHTXDOO\SRVVLEOHWKDWWKHSUHFHG- within which these sites functioned was not dis- ing period, at the end of the 5th century, saw a VLPLODUWRZKDWZH¿QGHOVHZKHUHLWZDVSDUWRI GHPRJUDSKLFGHFOLQH3RSXODWLRQUHGLVWULEXWLRQ the environment of dynamism of the 4th century or mobility, has numerous forms, some of them %&$WWKHWLPHWKDW7LPROHRQDQGRWKHUVZHUH rapid and coercive, others more long term and keen to re/populate Sicilian settlements, this was harmonious, and still others that shift from one not at the expense of sites in South Italy, as they type to another, as for example the creation of a WRRZHUHWKULYLQJDWWKHVDPHWLPH0XOWLSOHIDF- /DWLQFRORQ\$VWKH6LFLOLDQH[DPSOHVGHPRQ- tors that mutually affected the human and natural strate particularly well, ruling powers were keen landscape of Italy and Sicily in the period between to amass populations that served as a support base the 5th and 3rd century, resulted in what may best LQERWKDPLOLWDU\DQGDQDJULFXOWXUDOFDSDFLW\ EHGHVFULEHGDVDKLVWRULFDUF$SHULRGRIFRQWUDF- Both the Syracusan Tyrants and the Carthaginian tion and decline that gave way to a rapid expansion Epicracy depended on tens of thousands of mer- of settlements, new forms of material culture and cenaries who were brought over to the island, not societal organisation, which was then followed by VLPSO\WR¿JKWWKHLUFDXVHEXWDOVRWRSRSXODWH another period of contraction, with occupation of and create a presence that was favourable to each different sites in the landscape, introduction of SRZHUUHVSHFWLYHO\2IWKHVHWKH0DPHUWLQHVZHUH new material culture and societal organisation that MXVWRQHVPDOOJURXS7LPROHRQIRUH[DPSOHLQ VXSHUVHGHGSUHYLRXVWUHQGV7KHVLPLODULW\LQWKLV the mid-4th century BC recruited tens of thousands pattern of change, over a wide area, can only be into Sicily both as mercenaries and then as settlers, understood by considering supra-local and supra- according to Plutarch, some 60 000 came from UHJLRQDOIDFWRUV Intra-state power politics, indi- Corinth, Greece and Italy to revive the cities that YLGXDODPELWLRQVDQGVSHFL¿FFRQÀLFWVDUHQRW were part of his dominion801RWWREHRXWGRQH HQRXJKWRH[SODLQLWVH[WHQW7KHUHZHUHSRVLWLYHDQG the Carthaginian Epicracy would have been QHXWUDOSURFHVVHVDVZHOOWKDWKDGDZLGHUUHPLW equally importing people from North Africa and SRVVLEO\WKHZHVWHUQ0HGLWHUUDQHDQDVZHOOWR Elena Isayev populate such sites as Selinunte81$VLGHIURPWKLV University of Exeter kind of en masse state driven mobility, there was 79 HORDEN & PURCELL 2000S PURCELL S 81 HELASS 80 PLUTTim. 22-24, 23, 6; DIOD WEST- 82 LA TORRE S LAKE 1942, S79-86; ISLERS 83 POL. 3, 22-27. 344 ELENA ISAYEV Bibliography CRAWFORD 2006b CRAWFORD 0 ±³7KH2VFDQ,QVFULSWLRQVRI0HV- sana”, in: Guerra e pace in Sicilia e nel Mediter raneo AMMERMAN 2011 antico (VIII-III sec. a. 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Ellenizzazione e società nella tipologia abi- SULPDHWjHOOHQLVWLFDGL0RQWDJQDGHL&DYDOOL´LQ tativa indigena tra VIII e III secolo a. C., /DYHOOR NEUDECKERS SÄSTRÖM 1940 WESTLAKE 1942 SÄSTRÖM 0 ±A study in the Coinage of the Mamer- WESTLAKE + ' ±³7LPROHRQDQGWKH5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ tines/XQG of Syracuse”, Cambridge Historical Journal, SEMERARO 2009 S SEMERARO * ±³6WUXPHQWLSHUO¶DQDOLVLGHLSDHV- DJJLDUFKHRORJLFL,OFDVRGHOOD0HVVDSLDHOOHQLVWLFD´ in: OSANNA S The Lucanians: archaeological perspective 347 Lavello Melfi Rocca S. Felice Venosa Gravina Ofanto R. Banzi Altamura Torretta di Pietragalla Oppido Lucano Monte Irsi S. Giovanni Cancellara Muro Lucano Ruoti Rossano di Vaglio Matera Serra Timmari Baragiano Serra di Vaglio Tolve S. Chirico ? del Cedro Vietri di Potenza BradanoMontescaglioso R. Nuovo Grottole Buccino Potenza Tricarico Sele R. Garaguso Miglionico Postiglione di Vallo di Satriano Croccia Cognato Castelcivita S. Nicola di Brienza Tempa Cozzo Presepe Albanella Anzi Ferrandina Atena Lucana Di Cortaglia Pomarico Vecchio an Marsico Nuovo Pisticci Sala o Base Heraion del Roscigno Paterno Marsico Vetere Guardia nto R. Consilina Cavone R. Metaponto Sele Poseidonia Armento: Perticara Padula Aliano /Paestum Teggiano Serra Lustrante Tanagro R.Costarelle Montemurro S. Maria Gallicchio d'Anglona Agri R. Alent Calore R di Tramutola . Missanello Alianello Grumentum Sinni R. Heraclea o R Moio della S. Martino S. Brancato Roccanova . Civitella d'Agri Monte Battifarano Coppolo Cugno dei Vagni R. Colle dei Greci Chiaromonte Velino ia Noepoli Policastro Casal Mingardo Nemoli Elea/VelAscea Castelluccio Cersosimo Montegiordano Pisciottanuro i cagloriosa Rivello Pal Roc ao R. Noce R. L IONIAN SEA C TYRRHENIAN Scalea oscile R. SEA Sybaris / Thurii Laos 0 50km i R. Crat Ancient centres 4th-3rd centuries BC Greek colonies Prominent Italic sanctuaries Relief Above 1500m Above 600m )LJ/XFDQLD 348 ELENA ISAYEV )LJLexRQEURQ]HWDEOHWIURP5RFFDJORULRVD $IWHUGUALTIERI & POCCETTIµ)UDPPHQWRGLtabula bronzea con iscrizione osca dal pianoro centrale’, in GUALTIERI & FRACCHIA