University of Alberta
Accuracy and Actuality in the Virtual Reconstruction of an Archaeological Site: A Case Study featuring Roccagloriosa by
Kristin Elizabeth Soucey
A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
Humanities Computing
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••I Canada Abstract
Advances in computer technology coupled with the use of computational methods for dissemination of archaeological data has led to an increase in the number of virtual reconstructions of archaeological sites. There are numerous advantages in the use of these reconstructions; however, accuracy and actuality are often surrendered for the benefit of photorealism and the desire to present a
"complete" virtual reconstruction. The current research addresses the need for accuracy and actuality in the virtual reconstructions of archaeological sites through the use of colour and transparency. The archaeological site of
Roccagloriosa, located in southeastern Italy, was chosen based on the large extent of excavations and the availability of data. The resulting virtual reconstruction differentiates between what is known from the archaeological record, what is inferred based on the archaeological record and what is purely hypothetical. Acknowledgement
The following research would have been impossible without the guidance, patience and support of my supervisor, Dr. Helena Fracchia. Thank you, Helena, for introducing me to Roccagloriosa.
A special thank you to Prof. Maurizio Gualtieri and Hugo, the caretaker of
Roccagloriosa, for taking the time to show me around the site and answer my questions.
To my family, for never questioning my desire to do another degree, and to B.
Ball and T. Head, for respecting my need to balance my work and my studies. Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Chapter 2. Roccagloriosa 7
Geography and Geology 9
The Ancient Site 12
Fortification Wall 12
Cemeteries-La Scala 35
Surrounding Sites 38
Importance of the Ancient Site 39
Chapter 3. Virtual Reality in Archaeology 41
Creating a Virtual World 42
Exploring Virtual Worlds 43
Application of Virtual Reality in Archaeology 44
Chapter 4. Methodology 56
Data Collection 56
Data Analysis and Interpretation 57
Digitization 58
3D Reconstruction 58
Fortification Walls and Gates 60
The Towers 62
Central Plateau 63 Southeast Plateau 68
The Carpineto Area 69
The DB Area 69
Northwest Plateau 70
The Carmine Balbi Plateau 71
LaScala 72
Extra-Mural Tombs 74
The Landscape 74
Rendering the 3D Virtual Reconstruction 75
Features Which Exist in the Archaeological Record 75
Features Which Are Inferred to Exist Based on the Archaeological
Record 76
Hypothetical Structures and Structural Elements 78
Landscape and Lighting 79
Navigating Virtual Roccagloriosa 79
Chapter 5. Results 81
Chapter 6. Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Work 91
Bibliography 95 List of Figures
Page
Figure 1. Location of Roccagloriosa, Campania, Italy 8
Figure 2. Habitation Nuclei (in grey) and fortification walls of Roccagloriosa 9
Figure 3. Location of Roccagloriosa between the Mingardo and Bussento
Rivers 11
Figure 4. Detail of wall width and construction technique, view north 14
Figure 5. Existing portion of the fortification wall, south of the central gate, view
southeast 14
Figure 6. Central Gate, view south 16
Figure 7. Postern gate, view southeast 16
Figure 8. Tower south of the central gate, view north 18
Figure 9. Habitation nuclei, central plateau 20
Figure 10. Complex A, Central Plateau, view southeast 22
Figure 11. Carpineto Area 27
Figure 12. Southeast plateau, 4th century B.C. structure 29
Figure 13. Southeast plateau, view south 29
Figure 14. DB Area, 4th century B.C. structure 31
Figure 15. Northwest plateau, 4th century B.C. structures 33
Figure 16. C. Balbi plateau, 4th century B.C. structures 35
Figure 17. Plan of La Scala 37 Figure 18. View towards the Golfo di Policastro from La Scala, view
southwest 39
Figure 19. Completed solid model of Complex A designed in AutoCad. Note that
no colour differentiation has been applied at this stage 59
Figure 20. Towers flanking either side of the central gate with the central plateau
to the east and the northwest plateau and C. Balbi plateau to the west 61
Figure 21. Complexes A-D, central plateau, view from the southwest 65
Figure 22. Northwest plateau as seen in Blender (on the left) and as rendered
(on the right) showing known walls and hypothetical walls, view northeast. 71
Figure 23. La Scala as seen in Blender, view from the west 73
Figure 24. Tomb 19, view northeast 73
Figure 25. South gate with different construction shown by the use of colour,
view northeast 76
Figure 26. Complex A on the central plateau showing the three levels of colour
and transparency 77 Chapter 1. Introduction
Roccagloriosa is a Lucanian site located in the Parco Nazionale del Cilento e
Vallo di Diano on the southwestern coast of Italy. The site has been extensively, but not fully, excavated with a large number of wall and floor surfaces preserved.
The site consists of a long fortification wall, several habitation nuclei both inside and outside of the wall, and at least one cemetery area. The site is included within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Parco Nazionale del Cilento e
Vallo di Diano which provides a certain amount of protection from modern developments. The site had been adversely impacted in the past, initially by natural landslide activity as it is in an active geological fault zone, as well as by agricultural activities such as ploughing. Roccagloriosa is currently being developed as an "Archaeological Park" with a trail that visitors follow to visit the site and see the excavated portions of the site in addition to the extant fortification walls.
Excavations at Roccagloriosa, and all archaeological sites, results in material culture being moved from a primary or secondary context to a lab, where it is analyzed and catalogued. The spatial relationships between the artifacts and features are recorded in the field as a series of photographs and drawings consisting of plans and elevations.
1 Hypothetical reconstructions of archaeological sites have traditionally been drawn by hand and result in a two dimensional rendering of a site, often as the artist sees it, not necessarily how the archaeologist interprets the site. A number of archaeologists have turned to computer applications for the capturing and dissemination of archaeological data.
One method that has been embraced by professionals and the public alike is the virtual reconstruction of archaeological sites. A problem that is well documented, in regards to virtual reconstruction of archaeology sites, is how to accurately portray the archaeological record to the user. Virtual reconstructions of archaeological sites often show a completed view of the sites with very little to no differentiation between that which has been excavated and that which is hypothetical. There is also minimal accompanying literature explaining the decision making processes involved in reconstructing the site.
Researchers have lamented the appearance of virtual reconstructions for the sake of virtual reconstructions and the preference for photorealism over actuality
(Lock 2003; Addison 2002; Forte 2005). Little to no research has been conducted in the methods for creating a virtual reconstruction that incorporates the archaeological record. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to create a virtual reconstruction of an archaeological site, Roccagloriosa, that clearly differentiates the difference between what is known from the archaeological
2 record, what can be inferred based on the archaeological record, and what is hypothetical^ reconstructed. The resulting virtual reconstruction will show the currently excavated archaeological record while incorporating a hypothetical reconstruction of portions of the site.
The impact of the use of virtual reality in archaeology brings with it questions and concerns that need to be addressed. The virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa not only allows users to explore the site, it also leads to the examination of how the virtual reality affects the way archaeologists interpret and disseminate archaeological data virtually. McLuhan's (1988) laws of media, or tetrads, address questions that can to be asked of technology (what he calls media), new and old. "Tetrads are a means of focusing awareness of hidden or unobserved qualities in our culture and technology" (McLuhan 1988: 128). By applying
McLuhan's laws of media users can assess the cultural implications of the technology. McLuhan's tetrad addresses these issues with four "laws" or questions which are "not a sequential process, but rather four simultaneous ones" (McLuhan 1988: 98). McLuhan's tetrad of laws can be asked of, and answered by, all media and technology. "All four aspects are inherent in each artifact from the start" (McLuhan 1988: 99). The laws are as follows
• What does the artifact [media] enhance or intensify or make possible or accelerate? • If some aspect of a situation is enlarged or enhanced, simultaneously the old condition or unenhanced situation is displaced thereby. What is pushed aside or obsolesced by the new 'organ'? 3 • What recurrence or retrieval of earlier actions and services is brought into play simultaneously by the new form? What older, previously obsolesced ground is brought back and inheres in the new form? • When pushed to the limits of its potential (another complimentary action), the new form will tend to reverse what had been its original characteristics. What is the reversal potential of the new form? (McLuhan 1988: 98-99)
There is no limit to the number of answers for each question. The four laws framed in terms of virtual reality in archaeology are: What does the use of virtual reality in archaeology enhance? What does the use of virtual reality in archaeology reverse? What does the use of virtual reality in archaeology retrieve? What does the use of virtual reality in archaeology obsolesce?
The use of virtual reality enhances accessibility to archaeological data, and a visual portrayal of multiple interpretations of the archaeological data amongst others. Virtual reality facilitates the use of a visual medium that can be altered and changed as new, or old, theories are postulated, proven or disproven.
The use of virtual reality in archaeology makes traditional hand drawn site plans and artifact illustrations obsolete. The use of hand drawn illustrations makes way for three-dimensional objects that can be viewed in three dimensions, and in some cases, the fourth dimension of time. Once an archaeologist or developer has the skills to create such a model, hand drawn illustrations become a vestige of the past.
4 The use of virtual reality in archaeology retrieves the past and brings it to the user. Users then explore the virtual reconstruction and experience the past first hand. Artifacts and features can be presented in their primary context and whole sites can be reconstructed.
Virtual reality in archaeology, when pushed to its limits, reverses into a form of neo-colonialism where one's culture influences one's interpretation of the archaeological record. The resulting model can include the cultural biases and norms of the creator which are not necessarily those of the site's inhabitants.
The inclusion of such items may be unintentional, such as the arrangement of furniture or the type of music playing in the background. Conversely, the use of archaeology as a propaganda tool is not unheard of and the inclusion of specific cultural signifiers may be intentional.
The advantages and disadvantages of the use of virtual reality in archaeology become clear when considered in light of McLuhan's tetrad. The use of virtual reality in archaeology enhances the dissemination of the archaeological data and the visualization of differing hypotheses, it makes traditional illustrations obsolete, it retrieves the past, and it can reverse into a form of neo-colonialism in which the interpretation of the past is influenced by one's own culture. Methods for preventing the reversal may lie in a ratified protocol that clearly outlines the preferred methodology for the creation of virtual reconstructions of archaeology sites. Such a protocol would create a system under which the creators of such models would provide a level of objectivity, a set of guidelines to follow during the creation process and a justification for the decisions made during the modeling process. The creation of such a protocol is beyond the scope of the research presented here. However, a methodology is presented which demonstrates that it is possible to create a virtual reconstruction of an archaeological site that differentiates between the known archaeological record, what can be inferred based on the archaeological record, and hypothetical reconstructions. This method addresses the issue of presenting the archaeological record in an objective manner, which surrenders photorealism and inaccuracy in favor of accuracy and actuality.
6 Chapter 2. Roccagloriosa
The ancient site of Roccagloriosa is northeast of the Commune di Roccagloriosa within the Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano, which is a World
Heritage Site in the southern Italian Province of Salerno, Campania (Figure 1;
United Nations 2008). The site consists of several habitation nuclei within, and outside of, a large fortification wall (Figure 2). The habitants of Roccagloriosa were Lucanian, a native Italic people descended from the Samnites. "The
Lucanians as a separate ethnic entity in Magna Graecia first appear in the historical record at the time of the siege of Thurii in the latter part of the 5th c.
B.C" (Gualtieri 1993b: 21). Also, the Lucanians are "...Oscan speakers who have close contact with the culture of the Greek cities of Magna Graecia and occupied in the course of the fourth century B.C. the inland area between the Ionian and
Tyrrhenian Coast" (Fracchia and Gualtieri 1989: 217).
The first recorded archaeological investigations at Roccagloriosa were undertaken in 1971 by M. Napoli. "Soundings carried out in 1971 at
Roccagloriosa by M. Napoli provided first hand data on the nature and chronology of the massive fortification wall and some of the settlement structures around it" (Napoli 1971 in Gualtieri 1993a: 9). Napoli's work was followed by two excavations under the direction of Professor Maurizio Gualtieri in 1976 through
1978 (Gualtieri 1993a: 10). In 1982, an archaeological field school was
7 Figure 1. Location of Roccagloriosa, Campania, Italy conducted on site under the supervision of Professor Helena Fracchia of the
Classics Department at the University of Alberta. The field school ran for six years (Gualtieri 1993a: 10). Current work at the site is undertaken by Prof.
Fracchia and Prof. Gualtieri. More than three decades worth of fieldwork has uncovered a large Lucanian settlement, several elements of which are unique to this site. The excavated settlement of Roccagloriosa challenges the way in which scholars and researchers think about Lucanian settlement and fortification patterns in the fourth century B.C.
8 DBArea k
North Gate—
Central Gate Carpineto Area
Northwest Plateau/ Area Napoli \ Central Plateau/ *> • / PC86/VA-XA116-17
C.Balbi Plateau Towsr
/ Southeast Plateau
South Gate j
Stritani/Sambuco Area
i Known Walls . La Scala 100 Roccagloriosa Infered Walls • '' •' ' Meters
Figure 2. Habitation Nuclei (in grey) and fortification walls of Roccagloriosa.
Geography and Geology
Roccagloriosa is located on the western slope of the M. Capitenali ridge, in the hinterland of the Gulf of Policastro, set off from the rest of the Cilento (ancient western Lucania) by the limestone massif of Mt. Cervati to the north and Mt. Scuro to the north-west [which] constitutes a well-defined regional landscape of hilly terrain on both sides of the Mingardo and Bussento River valleys (Gualtieri
1993a: 9).
The Mingardo and Bussento Rivers are divided by the M. Capitenali ridge with the Mingardo flowing to the northeast and the Bussento flowing to the southwest
(Figure 3). Both rivers flow into the Gulf of Policastro. Additional water sources are plentiful in the general area of the site with "springs and weeps...on both sides of the M. Capitenali ridge so that availability of water would not have been a serious problem and in fact conditioned both the location and density of sites"
(Fracchia and Ortolani 1993: 232).
Historically the land is tectonically unstable and subject to landslides "triggered, often, by major earthquakes in the Apennines" (Fracchia and Ortolani 1993:
229). Landslide activity has produced a series of terraces on the western slope of the Capitenali ridge; areas upon which the habitations of Roccagloriosa were built.
The structural monocline has favored additionally the evolution of the western slope by great and deep landslides and a consequential surface settling. There is evidence for landslide terraces of vast dimensions from ca. one hectare to more than 10 hectares (Fracchia and Ortolani 1993: 228-229).
The instability of the land is also seen in the archaeological record in the form of terracing walls on the western side of Complex A. Kilometers + Contour interval - 20 m.
Roccagloriosa
M.Opitenali Ridge
,P.V^
Figure 3. Location of Roccagloriosa between the Mingardo and Bussento Rivers
The geology of the Capitenali ridge provided an important resource that was exploited by the inhabitants of Roccagloriosa. The underlying geology consists of
alternating [layers] of calcareous rocks, clay and marls...in addition to the stratigraphic interfaces, of orthogonal fractures of the stratification along the entire lithoid parcel. The rock, then, is easily worked and already naturally subdivided into blocks which could be easily modified for various construction purposes (Fracchia and Ortolani 1993: 229).
The fortification wall and the buildings are constructed with this local rock and a quarry has been identified in the south-east plateau area of the site (Fracchia and Ortolani 1993: 231). The location of the main cemetery appears to have
11 been, at least to a certain degree, determined by the local geology. The cemetery is in "an area which is structurally depressed...and [were] cut into the more easily worked terrain, i.e., into the clays and breccia" (Fracchia and
Ortolani 1993: 229). Finally, the very geological processes that shaped the development of the site also created the conditions that lead to its abandonment.
Fracchia and Ortolani (1993: 231) explain that
the visible geomorphological phenomena in the area indicate that the settlement was partly located on a quiescent landslide terrace (Central plateau) which was re-activated and thus caused the abandonment of the site
The Ancient Site
Occupation at Roccagloriosa begins during the sixth century B.C, and extends through the second century B.C. with the florescence of the site occurring during the mid fourth century B.C. The focus of the current research is the mid-fourth century B.C., therefore earlier and later occupations, while acknowledged, will not be discussed further in great detail.
Fortification Wall
The fortification wall encompasses an area of 15 ha. (Gualtieri 1993c: 50).
Construction of the wall "is dated to the mid-4th century B.C. and has been delineated for its full extent of more than 1,200 m, in spite of a few uncertainties about the actual perimeter of its north end" (Gualtieri 1993c: 49). The wall is 2.50
12 m to 2.75 m wide and survives to a height of four metres in places (Figure 4).
The wall is best preserved west of the central gate and northwest of La Scala
(Figure 5). The northern section of the wall has not been identified through fieldwork, however the course of this portion is projected based on "the topographic considerations and the evidence of large blocks scattered at the bottom of the west slope of the Carpineto area" (Gualtieri 1993c: 51).
Dating evidence for the construction of the wall was in the form of ceramics excavated near the base of the wall (Roccagloriosa 1978: 393 in Gualtieri 1993c:
56). Entry into the fortified area is through the Southern, Central, Northern gates, or through one of the two postern gates located between the Northern and
Central gates. The fortification walls dominate the landscape today, having survived to three or four metres in some areas. The preservation is due, in part, by the quality of craftsmanship. Monumentally is seen in the Wall with a full height of possibly eight metres, the construction technique, the use of large limestone blocks, and the presence of at least one quadrangular tower.
The Gates
The South Gate "links the south east plateau with the route coming from the lower Mingardo valley" (Gualtieri 1993c: 52) and is the best preserved of the five gates. The gate is situated at the point where the wall turns east and the two ends of the wall that make up the gate opening are offset, which creates a sort of
13 Figure 4. Detail of wall width and construction technique, view north
Figure 5. Existing portion of the fortification wall, south of the central gate, view southeast
14 entrance corridor. The eastern wall portion terminates in a bastion for added protection. Evidence for a gate is the form of two sockets, measuring 10 cm x 10 cm, which suggest a prothyron (Gualtieri 1993c: 52).
The Central Gate is located at the halfway point of the fortification wall and
"...provides monumental access into the large habitation area on the central plateau" (Gualtieri 1993c: 52) (Figure 6). The wall on the southern side dog legs at the gate and a corridor is created where the terminal ends of the northern and southern portions run parallel to each other. Excavation of the area immediately outside of the entrance corridor revealed a paved area, which may represent a road surface, linking the habitation nuclei outside of the walls (Gualtieri 199c:
53).
The North Gate occurs after the point where the wall extends north of the Central
Gate and turns west. The entrance corridor of this gate "is limited to the east by the outer face of the walls it comes from the south and to the west by the butt end of the angle of the wall as it continues toward the north" (Gualtieri 1993c:
54).
The postern gates are located north of the Central Gate. The first of the two gates "is 100 m north of the central gate in one of the best preserved stretches of the ancient wall" (Gualtieri 1993c: 54) (Figure 7). The gate was created by
15 Figure 6. Central Gate, view south
"Jlfcr..'-.
'*V UEri*>*^ Figure 7. Postern gate, view southeast 16 leaving a 1 m gap in the wall and access was controlled via a sliding door. The floor of this gate was paved and there are three steps at the threshold. The second postern gate is located halfway between the first postern gate and the north gate and was also created by leaving a gap in the wall during construction. The construction technique shown at this gate includes adapting to the topography of the area by leveling bedrock as well as the placement of an "east-west wall, continuing the line of the south face of the corridor, probably also meant to be a terracing wall..." to ensure safe passage in an area of steep terrain (Gualtieri 1993c: 55). Gualtieri (1993c: 55) suggests this postern gate may have been used by pack animals. The Tower The tower at Roccagloriosa is the only Western Lucanian tower known to date (Fracchia 2004: 74) (Figure 8). The tower is "ca. 75 m south of the central gate" and may have been matched by a second tower of equidistance north of the central gate (Gualtieri 1993c: 55). A recent survey undertaken at the site has revealed an irregular feature within the landscape approximately 75 - 80 m north of the central gate and is the correct size to be a tower (pers. comm. Fracchia 2008). This irregular feature is believed to be a second tower, the presence of which highlights the monumentality of the fortification wall with two large towers flanking the main entrance point into the fortified portion of the site. 17 Figure 8. Tower south of the central gate, view north The height and thickness of the wall, the presence of one known tower and one suspected tower near the central gate, and the easily defendable entrance corridors suggests a defensive role of the wall. Gualtieri (1993b: 26) points to "the fortification 'phenomenon' in 4th century B.C. Lucania is undoubtedly emblematic of major changes in the socio-political organisation of the hinterland." Meanwhile, Bradley (2005: 1026) is more precise in his assertion "that most segments of walling in the area relate to the 5th or 4th century BC, and were a response to increasing Samnite tension with Rome." The walls also acted as a means of unifying the settlement nuclei, particularly the nuclei within the walls. Fracchia (2004: 74) suggests the walls "represent the consolidation of the 18 community and are a mark of collective prestige. Quite clearly they also represent a political and social hierarchy." The walls also exist as a visual reminder to the local inhabitants of the "power of the local leaders to organize the populations under their control. One way that this power could be expressed was visually." (Bradley 2005: 1026). The Habitation Nuclei Habitation nuclei, or areas of residential settlement, of Roccagloriosa spread across the western slope of the Capitenali ridge. Several of the habitation nuclei are located within the fortification wall while others are outside of the wall. Seven habitation nuclei have been excavated with a further two nuclei identified through electro-magnetic detection. Three of the nuclei (on the Central Plateau, in the Carpineto area and the south-eastern plateau) are within the fortification wall while the remaining nuclei (the DB area, north-west plateau, the lower Balbi plateau and the C. Balbi plateau) are outside of the fortification wall. Inside the Fortification The Central Plateau The Central Plateau is located east of the Central Gate, a position which reflects the status of the buildings' habitants (Figure 9). Approximately 2000 sq. m have been excavated in this area, which has exposed a number of houses dating from before the fifth through to the third centuries B.C. (Gualtieri 1993c: 60). The 19 Complex A Complex B Complex C / Complex D VA-XA116-17 20 Central Plateau METERS Figure 9. Habitation nuclei, central plateau Central Plateau was first inhabited in the earlier Iron Age; remains of circular huts have been found beneath the fifth century structure (Gualtieri 1993c: 60). The Iron Age huts were followed by the construction of a house with two rooms "with a major opening on the west side along a paved north-south alley" (Gualtieri 1993c: 60). The building had stone foundations and part of the structure was decorated with a gorgoneion antefix which was found incorporated into a later wall (Gualtieri 1993c: 60). Two phases of building are evident on the Central Plateau dating to the fourth and mid-third centuries. The construction of four buildings, Complex A, Complex 20 B, Complex C, and Complex D, as well as a road, and a second grouping of structures, labeled as PC 86 and VA-XA, "at the south end of the plateau" date to the fourth century and constitute the first phase of building (Gualtieri 1993c: 61- 63). The construction of terracing walls and the restructuring of the interior of Complex A date to the end of the fourth century to the middle of the third century and constitute the second phase of building (Gualtieri 1993c: 61). Complex A Complex A is the largest house excavated to date. Complex A was built on limestone foundations with medium to large blocks and the south-eastern perimeter wall was also "stone built for most of its height" (Gualtieri 1993c: 61) (Figure 10). The remainder of the superstructure was likely mud brick, remains of which have been identified in later walls in Complex B (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). The floors were clay on level bedrock in roofed areas while unroofed areas, such as the courtyard, were paved with limestone slabs (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). The portico area had "a lean-to roof supported on its low side by columns" while the rest of the building was roofed with tiles that were not nailed down, suggesting a low pitched roof (Gualtieri 1993c: 66-7). Evidence for a colonnaded portico comes from one column drum found in-situ, "incorporated into the later tile wall" on the north side of the portico (Gualtieri 1993c: 64). Living quarters of Complex A were located south of the courtyard. One of these rooms has been identified as a bath with a "rounded platform/basin...connected 21 Figure 10. Complex A, Central Plateau, view southeast to a branch of the main drainage canal" (Gualtieri 1993c: 64). Additional rooms are located to the north and south of the porticoed courtyard. A room at the north end has been identified as serving a domestic function with a hearth and loomweights excavated within the room (Gualtieri 1993c: 64-5). Evidence for painted, plastered walls was also uncovered in this room with a "concentration of white and red plaster fragments found along its south side" (Gualtieri 1993c: 65). Complex A is an early example of an atrium-style house with a central courtyard surrounded by a portico to the east, north and south sides. Central courtyards are seen in several of the houses at Roccagloriosa; however one feature sets this courtyard apart from the others. There is a shrine in the northeast corner of 22 the courtyard, the presence of which elevates the status and function of this house beyond the private, domestic context into the public sphere. Constructed using the same techniques as the houses, the shrine has stone walls and a tile roof (Fracchia and Gualtieri 1993: 112-113). The floor is cut into the natural clay which suggests a chthoniccult (Fracchia and Gualtieri 1993: 112-113). Offerings within the shrine consisted of goddess statuettes and miniature ceramic votive offerings, along with the sacrificial remains of sheep and goats. One artifact of importance found in Complex A is an inscribed tablet. The actual text shows a mixture of Greek and Oscan elements...and is most probably pertaining to a defixio or curse formula (Poccetti 1990, Fig 213), a ritual which is to be associated with the ceremonial/religious activity performed in complex A, where the document was found (Gualtieri 1993d: 343). The second phase of Complex A saw the restructuring of the interior of the building. An unmortared tile wall, rare for this time period, was constructed on the east side of the courtyard, essentially cutting off the eastern rooms from the rest of the building (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). The newly divided space was used as a pottery workshop as evidenced by the presence of a pottery kiln (Gualtieri 1993c: 65). The kiln has been dated to 300-250 B.C. using electro-magnetic sampling as well as by the presence of wasters within the kiln's firing chamber (Gualtieri 1993c: 65). 23 Complex B Complex B is located south of Complex A and separated by a paved alley. This structure also has limestone foundations constructed of medium to large blocks and a superstructure of mud brick is assumed based on mud bricks having "been found in some parts of Complex B as they were reused as the bedding of a stone socle for a later wall" (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). Complex B, similarly to Complex A, has a central courtyard with "a round structure of stones and tiles (bothros or eschara) in the north-east corner and an apparently similar one of rectangular shape in the south-east corner" (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). A second courtyard might belong to Complex C, a small portion of which has been excavated (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). Complex C Complex C is separated from Complex B by "a wide, reinforced east-west wall which may have obliterated...a possible interstice or paved alley which existed between the two complexes" (Gualtieri 1993c: 63). Only the eastern exterior wall and several interior walls coming off the eastern wall have been identified. The foundation of this structure is similar to the foundations of the other three complexes on the central plateau. Complex D Complex D is the least excavated of the four complexes on the central plateau. Located directly south of Complex C, it is uncertain if this is a separate structure 24 or an extension of Complex C. As with Complex C, only the eastern exterior wall and small portions of interior walls coming off this wall have been identified. The foundations of this complex are similar to the foundations of the other three complexes. A paved road runs along the western length of Complexes A, B, C and D. A comer of a fifth building has been excavated on the west side of the road, directly across from Complex A. A second cluster of habitation structures are east of the central gate and south of Complexes A through D, and were identified in 1986-87 by soundings "in order to delineate the extent of the habitation area on the central plateau" (Gualtieri 1993c: 63).Two buildings have been identified and are labeled PC 86 and VA-XA 116-17. PC 86 PC 86 consists of a large room with massive walls, "architectural terracottas and excellent black glaze pottery" (Gualtieri 1993c: 63). The massiveness of the walls associated with the black glaze pottery suggests a more public than private function. This structure is very fragmentary and additional work is needed before the overall structure can be determined. 25 VA-XA 116-17 VA-XA is located between PC 86 and the fortification wall. This structure is believed to be a domestic habitation, evidenced by "a saddle quern of volcanic stone, black glaze cups and a quantity of utilitarian coarse wares" (Gualtieri 1993c: 63). No roof tiles were recovered during the excavation and it is possible the roof was either thatched rather than tiled, or that any tiles may have slumped down slope. The location of this building away from Complexes A through D and PC 86 and the presence of average domestic ceramics suggest a more humble habitation than the other structures excavated on the central plateau. Carpineto Area The Carpineto Area is located in the northern area inside the fortification walls (Gualtieri 1993c: 67) (Figure 11). Excavations in this area uncovered "a 5 m long walL.ca. 2 m north of the entrance [of the north gate] and is in line with the east side of the gate, although separated from it by a cobbled area" (Gualtieri 1993c: 67). The artifact assemblage from this area consists of metal objects such as bronze castings and unidentified bronze objects (Gualtieri 1993c: 67). This assemblage points to a metal working area, however, a forge has not been identified. "While pieces of slag and metal are also found sporadically elsewhere on the site, the simultaneous presence of slag and of non-functional scraps of metal in this location near the wall suggests that this might have been a metal processing area (smelter, foundry, forge, etc.)" (Wayman 1993: 308). 26 Carpineto Area Postern Gate N 0 20 + METERS Figure 11. Carpineto Area A second building was uncovered on a small plateau to the north-east of the gate. All that remains of the second building is a double faced wall existing on the modern surface (Gualtieri 1993c: 67). A third building was uncovered on a larger plateau above the second building (Gualtieri 1993c: 67). "The extent of the habitation on the larger higher plateau is much clearer, thanks to the magnetometer survey of an area of 80 x 20 m" which "outlined a distinctive pattern of anomalies, undoubtedly related to the presence of structural remains"(Gualtieri 1993c: 68). The three structures in this area have been minimally excavated and further excavation would allow for a more concise interpretation of the structure plans. 27 The Carpineto area may have also been the site of a small shrine. "A quantity of miniature coarse wares found on the upper slopes of the Carpineto ridge" may indicate the presence of a shrine, however, no buildings or structures have been identified in relation with this assemblage (Gualtieri 1993c: 68). Southeast Plateau A third habitation area, the southeast plateau, is located east of the south gate (Figures 12 and 13). This habitation area is occupied only in the southern most portion of the plateau due to limestone outcrops in the northern area (Gualtieri 1993c: 58). The habitation structure on the south-east plateau consists of a paved courtyard surrounded by 'a roofed portico along two or three sides", evidenced by a limestone column fragment excavated from the collapse in the courtyard (Gualtieri 1993c: 59). Dating evidence for this nucleus is from "the fact that the paved area and the stone built canal at its south-east corner overlie the foundations of an earlier, partially preserved building" (Gualtieri 1993c: 59). Further evidence for dating this habitation plateau was from a pottery dump used as the flooring of a third century building (Gualtieri 1993c: 59). Several additional walls directly east of the corridor have been excavated dating to the same period as the courtyard. The overall structure of the building cannot be determined due to the lack of identified walls dating to the same period to the west and south of the courtyard. 28 'iheass HUIWZOH Figure 12. Southeast plateau, 4th century B.C. structure Figure 13. Southeast plateau, view south Outside the Fortification Walls Four habitation nuclei, the DB area, north-west plateau, the lower Balbi plateau and the C. Balbi plateau, have been identified outside of the fortification walls. All of the areas are to the west of the wall and "occupy extensively but also discontinuously the lower plateaus" and "were naturally defended to the north, south and west by ridges and gullies" (Gualtieri 1993c: 69). DB Area The DB Area is north-west of the north gate and has been subject to a thorough, systematic surface survey (Gualtieri 1993c: 69) (Figure 14). Small scale excavation in the area revealed a paved courtyard similar to the ones in Complexes A, B, and C (Gualtieri 1993c: 69). A second courtyard feature "has been identified through the observation of crop marks" and has not been subject to subsurface investigations (Gualtieri 1993c: 69, footnote 50). The assemblage collected during the systematic surface survey "points to the existence of a substantial settlement area" (Gualtieri 1993c: 69) which may include a second pottery area due to the presence of "...abundant surface evidence for kilns..."(Gualtieri 1993c: 70). There are also Substantial concentrations of lumps of fire-reddened clay, moulds for life- size terracotta heads and fragment of potter's wheel, all from the central-eastern part of the DB area, provide us with a general impression of a sizeable pottery/coroplastic workshop (or workshops) (Gualtieri 1993c: 331). 30 20 DB Area METERS Figure 14. DB Area, 4th century B.C. structure Also recovered during the surface survey is a collection of votive offerings similar to the ones found within the shrine in Complex A, thereby suggesting the presence of a shrine in this area (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 30). Three finds from the upper edge of the DB area suggest the presence of a public building dating to the end of the 4th century B.C. These are an oscillum, a lion's head water spout, and part of a terracotta head (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 26). However convincing the collection of artifacts is, such a structure has not been firmly identified. The artifact assemblage indicates that the DB area was continuously occupied, although less densely in the latter centuries, from the 4th century B.C. through 31 the 5tn and 6th centuries A.D. (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 22). Further subsurface testing is needed to identify the nature and extent of this settlement area. Northwest Plateau The northwest plateau, also known as Area Napoli 1971, is on a plateau west of the Central gate, outside of the fortification wall (Figure 15). A series of buildings were identified on this plateau in 1971 during work under the supervision of M. Napoli (Gualtieri 1993c: 70). Napoli discovered a series of buildings on either side of a road aligned north-south which date to the middle-late fourth century B.C. (Gualtieri 1993c: 70). The extant walls are constructed in a similar manner to the walls of the habitation nuclei on the central plateau. One exception to this is a paved courtyard surrounded by blocks with only the side facing the courtyard being dressed (Gualtieri 1993c: 70). This suggests the blocks were used as supports for a colonnaded portico, similar to the portico seen on the Central plateau within the fortification walls (Gualtieri 1993c: 70). The artifact assemblage recovered from the north-west plateau includes a collection of miniature votive offerings as well as a krater, all of which suggest a sort of shrine or cultic area (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 39, 45-46). The artifact assemblage indicates that the north-west plateau was continuously occupied from the 4th century B.C. through the 1st century B.C. (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 39). N X 20 METERS Northwest Plateau Figure 15. Northwest plateau, 4th century B.C. structures Lower Balbi Plateau The lower Balbi plateau is an eastern extension of the north-west plateau and separates the Central gate from the north-west plateau. The structures identified within this area appear to be similar in size and orientation with the structures on the north-west plateau (Gualtieri 1993c: 71). Also present is "a cobbled east-west alley [which] runs along the north face of the building" (Gualtieri 1993c: 71). Given that this area is considered to be part of the north-west plateau, it shall be included with the north-west plateau in all further discussions. C. Balbi Plateau The C. Balbi plateau is south-west of the central gate and immediately west of 33 the tower south of the central gate (Figure 16). This area is the "largest expanse of relatively flat terrain in proximity to the fortification wall" (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 39). The corner of one structure has been excavated and surface collection of "squared limestone blocks and roof tiles confirm the presence of a large habitation area, contemporary to the rest of the site" (Gualtieri 1993c: 71). While excavation at this area has been limited, it is clear that the walls are more monumental than those excavated elsewhere. Monumentality is seen in the overall size of the walls as well as the type and size of building material used. Further confirming the presence of this habitation nucleus is the electric and magnetic surveys undertaken in 1988-9 which "confirms the existence of a long north-east/south-west road ca. 5 m wide and a fairly dense concentration of houses (?) along the eastern side" (Gualtieri 1993c: 71). Test trenches excavated within the electric and magnetic surveyed areas targeted anomalies that suggested a deposition of ceramic materials (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 49). The test trenches revealed "a massive road surface" and a second section of road with possible sidewalk-type paving on either side (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 50). Two hundred metres south the C. Balbi plateau, in an area called Sambuco/ Lammardo, is a small group of tombs which may represent the cemetery area for the habitation nucleus on the C. Balbi plateau (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 47-48). Datable ceramics recovered in this area suggest "...the same floruit and episodic re-use that the other extra-mural areas...have N C.Balbi Plateau METERS Figure 16. C. Balbi plateau, 4th century B.C. structures presented" (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001: 52). Cemeteries-La Scala The main cemetery of Roccagloriosa's citizens is known as La Scala and is located south of the southern terminus of the fortification wall. Nineteen graves have been excavated, with 11 trench graves, six chamber tombs and two cremations represented (Figure 17). La Scala is "in a saddle of the Capitenali ridge and extends over a 100 m wide plateau gently sloping toward the west and limited to the east by the abrupt drop of the ridge" (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 140). Three chamber tombs (Nos. 19, 20, 24) (Figures 6 and 7), two ustrinum (Nos. 23, 25) and one trench grave (No. 21) are clustered in the north end of La Scala and are separated from the rest of the cemetery by an enclosure wall. Three chamber tombs (Nos. 12, 14,15) and an ustrinum (No. 13) in the south end of the La Scala are also separated from the rest of the cemetery by an enclosure wall. Two trench graves (Nos. 6, 9) occurring within the central area between the northern and southern enclosure walls are surrounded by individual enclosure walls (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 143-144). The remainder of the burials consist of trench graves (Nos. 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18) located between the northern and southern enclosure walls. "A clear distinction and emphasis by groups or social rank, but not wealth, and tomb monumentality is evident" in the separation, by way of the enclosure walls, of the trench burials from the chamber tombs (Fracchia 2004: 79). Grave goods, in brief, range from household items such as a tripod (No. 2) and fibulae (Nos. 3, 16, 17), to a spear head (No. 6), and several red figure ceramics (Nos. 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25) (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 142-153). Of particular note is the gold jewellery from Tomb 9 (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 144-145). In general, the grave goods "leave no doubt that the part of the cemetery so far excavated constitutes an area for elite burials, organised into family clusters" (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 140-141). Gualtieri (1982; 1983 in Gualtieri 1987: 36) continues that La Scala 36 21d* 23 25 O8 04 C^ #1° *r "* Qu ,7 0 20 £ 1 1 & ^> METER5 ^T^/V 14 \r*& La Scala Figure 17. Plan of La Scala point[s] to the existence of a well-structured resident elite, showing a notable degree of material wealth (to judge from the grave goods) and the acquisition of Greek tastes in the display of prestige items such as bronze vessels, jewellery and elaborate specimens of painted pottery. Five additional graves, one trench burial and four chamber tombs, have been identified in an area west of La Scala and may be associated with the habitation on the C. Balbi plateau (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 154). Two of the chamber tombs (Nos. 1, 26) are in an area known as Stritani/ Sambuco, two further chamber tombs are in an area known as Lammardo and the trench burial (No. 5) 37 is on a plateau "ca. 200 m south-east of Tomb 1 (Stritani)" (Gualtieri and Jackes 1993: 154-155). The topographical setting of La Scala is important, as the cemetery enjoys one of the best vantage points of the entire site (Figure 18). Also, Fracchia (2004: 73) points out that "...the La Scala cemetery is about 1 kilometre from the Central Plateau and this distance implies a ceremony associated with the burial". The funeral procession would have climbed approximately 55 m in elevation, crested the ridge and witnessed the view across the Mingardo and Bussento river valleys as well as the vista of the Golfo di Policastro. Surrounding Sites A number of smaller sites have been identified in the areas surrounding the settlement area of Roccagloriosa. The sites are comprised of tombs, farmsteads, fortified sites, towers, votive deposits and isolated finds (Fracchia and Ortolani 1993: 232). In discussing these sites Fracchia and Ortolani (1993: 235) point out that "neither the architecture nor the material wealth...differs in any way from that seen in the fortified settlement or in its necropolis". These sites and their relationship to Roccagloriosa is beyond the scope of this research and will not be discussed further. 38 Figure 18. View towards the Golfo di Policastro from La Scala, view southwest Importance of the Ancient Site The importance of Roccagloriosa within the Lucanian sphere can be seen in a variety of contexts. Roccagloriosa is the largest settlement in the Mingardo basin and the presence of the defixio, the shrine in the courtyard of Complex A and the monumental size of the fortification wall, along with the large tower(s) attests to the significance of the site. While the site is seen to exist within the hinterland of Magna Grecia, it is important to examine the site within the context of pre-Roman, native Italy. By comparing Roccagloriosa to Greek sites within Magna Grecia is to disregard the 39 importance of the site in terms of the settlement and social patterning of Lucania. Gualtieri (1993d: 338) is correct in assessing that "a network of contacts with the major centres of Magna Grecia is indicated by the provenience of the luxury items found in the burials at La Scala"(Gualtieri 1993d: 338). However, it is not the relationship with Magna Grecia that defines the importance of Roccagloriosa but rather the relationship between Roccagloriosa and surrounding Lucanian sites. The massive fortification wall attests to the power of the ruling elite while the documentation for cultic activity in various parts of the building complexes on the central plateau constitutes an important aspect of the evidence found at Roccagloriosa, especially in light of the fact that evidence for cult places within settlements is, generally speaking, fairly scarce in the Italic areas and almost completely lacking in the specific case of Lucania. In a largely pre-urban system of territorial organisation, such as the one found in the 4th century B.C. Lucanian hinterland, collective cult buildings are commonly located in the countryside and in most cases not associated with a specific settlement context (Torelli 1977; Edlund 1987 in Fracchia and Gualtieri 1993:108) The fourth century is seen as a time of change within the settlement patterns of the hinterland of Magna Grecia. This change is well-documented within the archaeological record at Roccagloriosa. "Indeed, it seems evident that fourth- century B.C. Roccagloriosa represents what can be termed an Italic model of settlement evolution and structure, one centered in all ways on the eminent families or gens and their physical structures" (Fracchia 2004: 79). 40 Chapter 3. Virtual Reality in Archaeology Virtual Reality (VR) is a complex blend of graphics, animation, immersion and technology. Barcelo et al (2000:3) define virtual reality "as those environments where the human operator is transported into a new interactive environment by means of devices that display signals to the operator's sense organs and devices that sense various actions of the operator". Fernie and Richards (2002) define virtual reality as "the label given to a range of computer-based approaches to the visualisation of concepts, objects or spaces in three or more dimensions" (2002). Fernie and Richards (2002) then expand their definition to explain that what virtual reality is trying to achieve is to impart, to varying degrees, a level of information to a user. Virtual reality aims to take a collection of otherwise unintelligible data and present it on screen in a way that the user can interpret it, in keeping with the developer's hopes or intentions. The benefits of virtual reality have been explored and exploited by many disciplines, both within the private and public sectors. Virtual reality worlds can take the form of simulators for learning new skills and practicing methods such as driving (British School of Motoring 2007). Other applications of virtual realities include overcoming fears, as well as creating virtual reconstructions for learning and exploring (LearningSites Inc. 2008) in addition to allowing for the creation of fantastical worlds for people to escape to such as Second Life (Linden Research, Inc. 2008). Regardless of the reasoning behind the creation of the virtual world, 41 virtual reality is becoming a common occurrence in daily life from movies and the internet, to research and development. Creating a Virtual World Several considerations need to be made when designing a virtual reality world, starting with the goal of the virtual reconstruction, followed by the amount of immersion required and/or desired within the world, and finally consideration of the method of virtual reconstructing the world. The creation of a virtual world can be based on an actual object existing today, an object that has existed in the past or something that is imaginary. Regardless of the inspiration, there are two methods for creating a virtual object and a larger virtual world: surface modeling and solid modeling. Solid modeling involves the creation of a 3D object that has volume, mass and weight and is a virtual representation of what is real. Surface modeling is in effect a "shell" and has faces and vertices but no volume, mass or weight. The virtual reconstruction undertaken as part of this research will be discussed further in the Methodology. The general methods for data acquisition for the creation of virtual reconstructions are beyond the scope of this research. No fieldwork was undertaken for the purposes of this research. The methods for acquiring data for the Roccagloriosa virtual reconstruction will be discussed in the Methodology. 42 Exploring Virtual Worlds Once a virtual reconstruction has been created, there exist two methods for interacting with it: immersive and non-immersive. Immersive virtual reality fully removes the user from the 'real' physical world and transports them to the 'virtual' world by effectively cutting off the aural, auditory and haptic (and occasionally olfactory) senses from the 'real' world. This is done within a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE) or by using a head mounted display (HMD). CAVE was created by a team of researchers at the Electronic Visualization Lab at the University of Illinois in 1995 (EVL n.d.). A CAVE is a room in which three to six rear-projection screens display the virtual model (Brooks 1999: 17). CAVEs may or may not be used with additional equipment, such as goggles which allow the user to see in three dimensions, and require a fair amount of space and computational power but allows for full sensory immersion. Head mounted displays consist of specially designed goggles for viewing the virtual world and may incorporate gloves which are designed to allow the user to have haptic senses in the virtual world. The application of immersive virtual reality systems is beyond the scope of this thesis and will not be discussed further. 43 Non-immersive virtual reality worlds are accessed and displayed on desktop computers, or screens, and are immersive predominately in the aural sense and occasional auditory if the appropriate speakers are configured. Touch in non- immersive VR is obtained through a computer mouse, touch pad or similar input device while the VR world is navigated through the monitor or screen. The following research applies to a non-immersive virtual reconstruction of a Lucanian settlement. Application of Virtual Reality in Archaeology From early models of Dudley Castle (Exendra n.d.) to a virtual Stonehenge (Pasztor et al 2000) to the Virtual Museum of the Canadian Arctic (Canadian Museum of Civilisation Corporation 2004), the discipline of archaeology has been quick to embrace the technology of virtual reality. Calori et al (2005) observed that "Archaeology, History, Art fields started their first experience in computer-graphics and 3d visualization in the '80s". Barcelo et al (2000: 3) maintain "the concept of virtual archaeology was first proposed by Paul Reilly (1990) to refer to the use of 3D computer models of ancient buildings and artefacts". Rather than simply describing what is found, archaeologists use modern computer techniques to understand the archaeological record. Frischer (2005:9) states that "we generally find that the act of modeling is itself a process of discovery, and not just a passive translation from one medium to another of things we already knew". Moreover, virtual reality allows for researchers to visit sites without actually having to travel to them, it allows for artifacts and features to be examined without fear of damage, loss or violating cultural material export policies. It allows for multiple interpretations of the archaeological record to be presented. Virtual reconstructions also allow researchers to reassemble broken artifacts such as ceramics without having to risk further damage to shards (see Kampel and Sablatnig 2003). Several factors should be considered when creating a virtual model of an archaeological site. First, the goal of the virtual reconstruction and the intended audience should be decided, then the level of immersion, as each degree of immersion has specific requirements. Finally, what degree of realism, or how true to the archaeological record is the virtual reconstruction going to be? A virtual reconstruction for the general public might contain vastly different material than a virtual reconstruction for fellow researchers. Lancaster (2005: 2) expresses concern "that immersion in a virtual world can become an "entrapment" where the viewer is limited to the interpretation of the designers". This is a valid concern as the majority of virtual reconstructions display a single interpretation of a site. There exist sites for which the function of the virtual model can be assumed fairly easily. An example of a useful virtual reconstruction is the reconstruction of a tower along Hadrian's Wall in Northern England (Gillings 2002: 24). The purpose of the virtual reconstruction of the tower was to determine what could be seen from that tower. This same analysis could have been undertaken within Geographic Information Systems (GIS) but the results, while possible in three dimensions using a digital elevation model (DEM) of the landscape, are not the same as the feeling of actually being in that tower and overlooking the landscape. Another issue is the use of virtual reconstructions as propaganda tools. Bricken (1990: 9) discusses that virtual reality "like any media, can be used to disseminate propaganda, advertisement, and misinformation". Archaeological data is susceptible to be used as propaganda for nationalistic or political gain. Archaeology has long been used as a tool to promote nationalism and the data can, and does, get skewed to fit specific agendas. Kohl and Fawcett (1995: 5) are principally concerned with the abuses of the relationship between nationalist politics and archaeology, with the problems that may emerge within the distinctive regional traditions that are associated with concepts of cultural or racial superiority and, particularly, with the questionable agendas of certain political movements and nation states. While not all nationalist agendas in terms of archaeology have a detrimental effect on citizens, it is noted that the abuse of archaeological data is prevalent (Kohl and Fawcett 1995). While the use of archaeology for nationalistic policies is beyond the scope of this research, virtual reconstructions can be used to enforce these agendas, and as mentioned previously, users tend to take what is being shown as factual. Archaeological sites are never perfectly preserved; often a site consists of remains of architecture and a scattering of artifacts. Large, well known sites, such as Stonehenge (Pasztor, E et al 2000) and Avebury (Gillings 2000), have been the subject of virtual reconstruction but to what end? It can be said that the value lies in the viewing of the site in a more natural landscape, such as Stonehenge without the A344 motorway passing through the ditch and bank or Avebury without the modern town situated within the monument. It also allows sites that are currently incomplete - again Stonehenge - to be seen completed. Another issue to highlight with many virtual reconstructions is the lack of documentation regarding the source material, i.e. excavation records, photographs, etc., used to create the models. Pasztor, E et al (2000) do not discuss what basis the models were reconstructed from while Gillings (2000) mentions the use of plans and elevations. The intended audiences for both reconstructions are fellow researchers; people who may want or need to know the basis of the reconstruction. None of the authors address how the placement of additional features was decided upon. This is a glaring omission on the part of the developers as the user does not have any indication of what the model is 47 actually based on and therefore cannot easily form their own interpretation of the data. A variety of methods are available for gaining additional data about the unexcavated portions of a site. Briefly these are: analogies with other sites of similar period and function, making deductions based on the archaeological record, surface survey and geophysical prospecting. Ideally, advanced, non invasive geophysical prospecting, such as ground penetrating radar, should be used for 'seeing' features below the ground surface, where possible. These methods can provide more concrete evidence for features below the ground, including an indication of the type of materials (ceramic and iron amongst others), as well if the feature is built-up, such as a wall, or a depression, such as a grave or a foundation trench. Difficulties associated with this method include cost and having someone available to interpret the output data. If any of these methods are utilized, the developer of the model should make it clear which parts of the model are based on this indirect data. This would allow the user the choice to decide if they want to take the virtual reconstruction as fact, or perhaps create their own interpretation. A further issue to consider is the degree of immersion within a virtually reconstructed archaeological site. Virtual reconstructions rely heavily on the visual sense, however there needs to be consideration of the extent 'other' 48 senses (olfactory, haptic, auditory and gustatory) play a role in our understanding of the world. Archaeologists are becoming more attuned to how our perception of the world is not developed through sight alone. "The burgeoning field of sensory anthropology argues that the relative significance of visual, olfactory, acoustic and haptic (touch) senses varies cross-culturally, and is a function of how human beings interact with their particular environments" (Dawson et al 2007: 17; see also Stoller 1989 in Dawson et al 2007: 20; Rodaway 1994 in Gillings and Goodrick 1996: 1.4; Gillings and Goodrick 1996: 1.4). The other senses play an important role in everyday lives and should be incorporated into virtual worlds in order to experience a more complete sense of the virtual world. This question is beyond the scope of this research, however it should be noted that virtual reality can and does include touch, sound and smell in virtual worlds but only through CAVE systems and HMD. One of the hurdles archaeologists need to surmount is how to create a virtual reconstruction faithful to the archaeological record. The majority of sites are partially excavated due to time and financial constraints as well as to preserve a portion of the site from destruction. A site that has not been fully excavated but that will be reconstructed virtually will likely include data that has not been found in the archaeological record. This can be the height of walls, interior decoration, location of additional features, amongst others. This leads to the issue surrounding the use of VR in archaeology that garners well-deserved attention, 49 that of actuality and realism. Virtual reconstructions that accurately portray the archaeological record may appear to be missing data, and for good reason. Rarely is an archaeological site fully excavated and the archaeological record is never complete due to the nature of taphonomic processes. The problem is how to interpret these partially excavated sites? The plethora of archaeological theories demonstrates that one site can be interpreted in a variety of ways. How much leeway is there for inaccuracy and how does one measure the inaccuracy? More importantly, how does one differentiate between what is existing, what is presumed to have existed and what is there for esthetics. An entirely accurate virtual reconstruction of an iron age round house might be a series of post holes in the ground. Should a virtual reconstruction of a site portray data that is explicitly known, such as the height of surviving walls? How do archaeologists, and more importantly, the audience, ascertain the difference between what is known and what is based on an educated guess and what is purely imaginary? "Just as with certain forms of literature, the reader becomes so immersed in a fictional sphere that all critical consciousness is lost" (Lancaster 2005: 2). How does one address different interpretations of a site? Lock (2003: 15) is hopeful as he addresses this issue when he states "most archaeologists would want to emphasize the uncertainty of knowing the past, that there can be different, and equally valid, views of the past, that we are dealing with the unknowable". 50 Barcelo (2000: 9) states "the purpose of a virtual reconstruction of an entity is to allow people to understand the structure of behaviour of the entity, and to provide a convenient vehicle for "experimentation" with and prediction of the effects of input or changes to the model", thus requiring accurate, detailed virtual reconstructions of what is found within the archaeological record. The decision of what to include in the model and how to portray the accuracy of the data partially lies in who the intended viewer is. A model used for research and not the general public may include less inferred data and be restricted purely to what has been excavated. A model for the general public may include more data in order to help them understand what they are looking at. Forte et al. (2005: 3-4), Barcelo (2000: 28-29) and Addison (2002: 349) argue for less photorealism and more accuracy while Fernie and Richards (2002) and Gutierrez (2004: 72) maintain the opposite. Addison (2002: 349) states many in the archaeological, architectural and heritage world would rather have less of that and more accuracy in terms of truthfulness of the imagery - soft, vaguer imagery rather than sharp photorealism. Many key facts in this field have been lost to the ages and rather than using our well-refined photorealistic, mathematically precise algorithms to portray a visual exactness, perhaps we should focus our skills on accurately recording the few remaining facts at sites and portraying the ambiguity and uncertainty. This is in direct contrast to Fernie and Richards (2002) who maintain VR images, like any other graphical illustrations, are merely vehicles for elucidating, or clarifying, information to the user. It is clarification, not realism and accuracy that is at the centre of any illustration. 51 Photorealism presents unique challenges, namely in the sterility of the images produced. From dirt on the outside walls of houses to leaves on the ground in gardens, these little things, while seemingly unimportant, add an extra dimension of human-ness to a virtual reconstruction. However, Gutierrez (2004: 64) maintains "it is far more difficult to create imperfections with a computer than perfect worlds". The reconstruction of a Muslim suburb project includes mundane everyday elements of life such as "flowers and plants swaying in the wind, curtains swinging slowly and, water in a fountain or smoke coming out of hot soup in the kitchen" which "helped bring the scenes to life." (Gutierrez 2004: 67). However, it is not possible to ascertain if these items would have been present in the scene. The more photorealistic a model is, the more likely it has been coloured by one's own culturally influenced interpretation of the archaeological record. The implication is that one may add items such as window coverings or arrange a series of pots in a certain way as dictated, or expected, in one's culture. The addition of small details which may appear to "complete" a model may detract from the usefulness of the model in terms of accuracy. Archaeologists often do not have the training or the resources, be it time and/or computational power amongst others, to create the virtual reconstruction themselves. Therefore the actual process of modeling is left to trained specialists in the fields of computer graphics, visualization, 3D modeling and virtual reality. The archaeologist acts as medium between the site and the reconstruction of the 52 site but is removed from the actual process of creation. This leaves certain aspects of the reconstruction to someone who may not understand the interpretation of the archaeological record or who has a different interpretation. Within this exists an opportunity for virtual reconstructions to be created that are more fiction than reality. A virtual reconstruction that is visually appealing yet archaeologically inaccurate is not valuable archaeologically and is more a demonstration of the developer's skills than an avenue for research. Archaeological evidence for architecture consists of post holes, foundations of stone, brick, or traces of decayed wood and the existence of standing walls. Further evidence includes roof tiles, mud brick, wattle, daub, wall plaster and architectural remnants such as columns. Superstructures rarely survive. The height of the superstructure can be assumed based on the width of the supporting walls and evidence for stairwells. How does an archaeologist know what a building would look like from this evidence? In terms of Roman archaeology there are well preserved sites such as Pompeii, from which interpretations and inferences can be drawn. Problems with using these sites lie in the assumption that these sources represent a typical style that was widely used. Ideally an archaeologist will have an informed hypothesis and report in the virtual reconstruction in some way that what is being displayed is an interpretation of the archaeological record. There is no way to assess the accuracy of the virtual reconstruction beyond comparison with other virtual reconstructions and other sites that may have been better preserved. The use of virtual reality as an application to disseminate archaeological data has been shown to have distinct advantages and disadvantages. Virtual reconstructions can be used to educate, to share information, to support theories and explore hypotheses. The use of the models within archaeology is not the issue as much as how the models are used and to what end. In the manners listed above, a virtual reconstruction of an archaeology site can be used to present accurate or inaccurate data or a mixture of the two. Nationalist agendas can be presented as can different interpretations of the archaeological record. The above discussion outlines several of the problems facing archaeologists who create virtual models of sites. A method to address some of the issues raised above would be development of an industry ratified protocol that outlines methodologies of the dissemination of archaeological data through virtual reality. Such a protocol may require the model's developer to state the data source and an explanation of the interpretation of the archaeological record as it is presented in the model. A protocol may allow users of protocol-derived models the opportunity to asses the model and the interpretation therein against the available data. The benefits of a protocol lie within a set of recommended guidelines that developers follow which would standardize the dissemination of data through virtual reality. While such a protocol would enable the user to have 54 more faith in such a model, it can be said that a model based on the archaeological record can only be as good as that record. Problems will lie in the recording of the site, the methodology of the excavation and the research goals of the site director. These factors are beyond the control of the developer and will need to be considered and addressed. The purpose of this research is to create a virtual reconstruction for researchers that remains true to the archaeological record and is presented objectively. This will be achieved by disregarding the desire for photorealism and differentiating within the virtual reconstruction what is known from the archaeological record, what is inferred from the archaeological record and what is purely hypothetical. 55 Chapter 4. Methodology The virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa was a multi-stepped process involving data collection, organization, interpretation, digitization and visualization. Data Collection Data collection was undertaken from June 2007 through May 2008. First hand data collection occurred on May 16, 2008 during an on-site visit to Roccagloriosa which included a tour of the site and discussion of the site with the on-site caretaker and one of the principle investigators. Prof. Maurizio Gualtieri. Additional primary data sources included photographs and geophysical results provided by Dr. Helena Fracchia as well as personal communications with Dr. Fracchia. Paper-based primary data sources were not used due to the location of these data sources in Italy, and the expense required accessing the data. Secondary data sources proved to be invaluable resources during this stage; however it would have been ideal to draw the information from the primary data sources. Secondary data sources included books, paper and digital maps, published site reports, journal articles, photographs and personal communications. Plans, photographs, maps and elevations published in books and articles were used in lieu of the original documents, along with photographs and measurements taken during the on-site visit. 56 Data Analysis and Interpretation Data analysis and interpretation combined the published material with the data collected during the site visit. This stage was one of the most critical in terms of the final product, as all decisions made during this time had a direct impact on the finished virtual reconstruction. The plans, elevations, photographs and maps were assessed based on several criteria, including what types of data are shown?, how can this data be used in the virtual reconstruction? and what is the best method for creating a digital copy? The data collected during the site visit was supplemented with the plans of the central plateau included in the volumes Roccagloriosa I (Gualtieri and Fracchia 1993) and Roccagloriosa II (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001) which were instrumental in the reconstruction process. The overall site map in particular was beneficial as it showed the spatial relationship between all excavated structures, the fortification wall and the contour lines. The elevations located within several books, as well as photographs, provided details on the height of the existing walls as well as the dimensions of several structures. All visual data sources were correlated with the text of numerous books and articles to define the chronology of the site as well as dimensions of structures. Once the data was collected and assessed the relevant paper maps, plans and elevations were digitized. 57 Digitization The paper plans, maps and elevations were scanned at the highest resolution using a conventional desktop scanner. The files were saved as .jpeg and imported into AutoCAD 2004, a desktop Computer Aided Drafting and Design program. The maps, plans, and elevations were digitized by tracing the relevant lines. The final digitization product was saved as a .dwg, which is the standard AutoCAD drawing file extension. 3D Reconstruction The most intensive process was translation of the 2D plans into 3D objects. Creating the virtual reconstruction in 3D involved extruding a 2D face to create a 3D shape, as well as occasional solid modeling (Figure 19). The line and location of all of the features were digitized from an overall site plan published with Roccagloriosa II (Gualtieri and Fracchia 2001). The information pertaining to the height of existing walls was taken from published and personal photographs, section/elevation drawings and measurements taken during the on-site visit of May 2008. Information pertaining to the construction techniques used was taken from descriptions in published literature as well as information recorded during the on-site visit of May 2008. Colour and transparency were used to differentiate between what is known 58 Figure 19. Completed solid model of Complex A designed in AutoCad. Note that no colour differentiation has been applied at this stage. based on the archaeological record, what is inferred from the archaeological record and what is purely hypothetical. Structures and structural elements that were identified during the excavations are a solid colour. Colour was used to differentiate between what was perceived to be monumental architecture and normal architecture with normal architecture being white and monumental being brown. Roads and passageways were coloured dark grey and pavements within courtyards were light brown. Structures and structural elements that are inferred are coloured and semi-transparent. Structures and structural elements that are hypothetical are transparent. The use of transparency allows the user to see a hypothetical reconstruction as well as what has been excavated. This is important for the areas inside the habitations. If a solid colour had been used to represent the hypothetical walls, it would have been nearly impossible for the user to see the interior dividing walls and other structural features inside the dwelling. Fortification Walls and Gates The height of the existing fortification walls varies along the length of the wall. The highest elevation recorded is four metres, therefore the known sections of the fortification walls were reconstructed to an inferred height of four metres across the entire known lengths of the wall. The actual height of the wall will never be known, however, it is likely that the wall was higher than four metres as the wall is interpreted to be defensive in nature. A wall with a maximum height would be difficult to defend during an attack. In order to show that the wall was hypothetical^ taller than four metres, the decision was made to double the inferred height of the existing wall for a total wall height of eight metres. In areas where the wall is surviving, the additional four metres Was added to the top of the inferred four metres. In areas where the course of the wall is estimated, the full height is shown as eight metres. The gates were reconstructed at the same height as the walls. The widths of the gate openings are based purely on the archaeological record (Figure 20). The known portions of wall have been coloured brown with the exception of the eastern side of the south gate which was coloured red in order to differentiate between construction techniques. Figure 20. Towers flanking either side of the central gate with the central plateau to the east and the northwest plateau and C. Balbi plateau to the west Initially the surviving portions of the wall were reconstructed using individual blocks. This drastically increased the size of the virtual reconstruction, which in turn increased the time required to render the model. Therefore, the blocks were not added to the model due to the extended rendering time. Solid modeling was used in place of the blocks. The northern and southern terminal ends of the wall have been reconstructed to end abruptly. It is not known if the termini were incorporated into the surrounding landscape in a way that would make the fortification wall appear to be an extension of the M. Capitenali ridge, or if the fortification wall just ended. It is 61 assumed an interface between the ridge and the fortification wall existed, with either a gate or some sort of incorporation of the wall into the exposed rock of the ridge. However, there is no evidence for such a gate within the archaeological record. The Towers The remains of one tower have been identified to the south of the central gate. The presence of a second tower to the north of the central gate is hypothesized based on the visual inspection of the landscape (see Figure 20). An earthwork that is the same size as the previously identified tower, and is in the correct location, i.e. within 100 m north of the gate has been recently identified. The height of the tower south of the central gate varies from one metre to three metres above the modern ground surface. The hypothesized portion of the tower is 10 metres, two meters taller than the hypothetical wall height. This height was chosen to show that the tower was hypothetically taller than the wall and is not based on factual evidence. The second tower, located north of the central gate, is an exact copy of the existing tower with the exception that this second tower appears entirely hypothetical in the virtual reconstruction. The tower is constructed with the same type of masonry as the majority of the wall. There is no indication of a roof, tiled or otherwise, however the possibility exists of a roof structure. In the interests of keeping the reconstruction based on the archaeological record, the towers remain unroofed. The towers do not have any openings in the wall to indicate windows or a door. The possibility exists for there to be windows; however the inclusion of windows may be misleading as it is not possible to confirm their presence. There is no evidence for an entryway in the portion on the southern tower and it is likely that the tower was accessed via a wooden staircase from the eastern side. Again, there is no evidence for such a staircase, so none were included in the virtual reconstruction. As a result of the likelihood that a second tower existed, two towers were reconstructed on either side of the central gate. Central Plateau Complexes A through D The central plateau has been subject to numerous excavations which have uncovered a great deal of information about the size and location of the structures located here. Given the large volume of data and the large scale excavation of the area, the structures on the central plateau have been reconstructed to a greater extent than other areas of the site. Complex A has almost been entirely excavated which has led to the most complete virtual reconstruction. The remaining three complexes have also been reconstructed and are somewhat based on the reconstruction of Complex A in terms of the location of the western walls and the height of the buildings (Figure 21). The eastern walls of Complex A exist to a height of 140 cm and were reconstructed as such. The remainder of the walls within Complex A, and all the walls of Complexes B, C, and D exist to approximately 40 cm and were reconstructed as such. The surviving walls were constructed with medium to large limestone blocks, without a discernable pattern. The walls were hypothetical^ reconstructed to full height for all of the structures in this area. Complex A is portrayed as being two storied on the north and south side of the courtyard. The presence of a second storey may have existed and is indicated in the archaeological record by the thickness, ca. one metre, of the exterior walls in Complex A, as thicker walls are able to bear more load, such as a second storey. The superstructure was likely built with mud brick, which is evidenced by the presence of mud brick incorporated in a later wall in Complex B (Gualtieri 1993c: 62). The back wall of the courtyard in Complex A "was stone built for most of its height" and it is possible that more walls were comprised of stone instead of mud brick (Gualtieri 1993c: 61). There is no clear indication of the material used for 64 Figure 21. Complexes A-D, central plateau, view from the southwest the superstructure; therefore, no material is indicated in the virtual reconstruction. The presence of columns surrounding the courtyard is indicated by a limestone column base found incorporated into a later wall and column drum fragments (Gualtieri 1993c: 111). The lack of additional column fragments may be a result of later re-use, or alternatively the columns may have been constructed from timber, which has not survived. Based on the presence of the column base the need for roof support around the courtyard hypothetical columns were placed around the courtyard of Complex A at regular intervals. The material of the columns cannot be determined; therefore no material type is indicated in the virtual reconstruction. No columns were placed around the courtyard of the remaining three complexes as there was no evidence for such. A support beam was added in Complex C and D in order to support the lean-to roof. No such beam has been excavated; however the presence of the beams can be surmised due to the need to support the roof above the courtyard. The floor of the courtyard in Complex A is paved with limestone blocks, as evidenced by the limestone paving on the eastern side. The pavement has been constructed as such in the virtual reconstruction in the area that pavement was excavated. The remaining area has not been paved as it is unclear how far west the paving extended. Surrounding the courtyard is a low wall constructed with ashlar masonry. Entranceways have not been clearly identified, however the orientation of the courtyards and the presence of a paved road to the west of the structures suggest access may have been from the west. As the structures would have had doors, door openings have been placed on the western side of the building of all four complexes and an additional door, for which there is evidence, has been placed on the eastern side of Complex A. It is possible that the remaining three buildings also had doors on the eastern side, however, this is difficult to determine based on the archaeological record. Window openings have not been 66 included in any of the complexes as the location and number of windows is not known and would lead to a misleading virtual reconstruction. The roofs of the structures were tiled, as evidenced by tile collapse on the floor of the structures. Three types of roofing tiles, tegulae, imbrices, and kalypteres, suggest a typical arrangement of tegula placed side by side with the joins covered by imbrices. The kalypteres are indicative of ridge roofs. The rooms to the north and the south of the courtyard in Complex A have ridge roofs while the remaining Complex A roofs resembles a lean-to roof. The roofs on the west side of the courtyards in Complexes B, C and D were also roofed with a ridge roof. The remaining roofs of these complexes are lean-to roofs. The Shrine in Complex A The small shrine located in the northeastern corner of the courtyard in Complex A is the most complete structure excavated. The walls have survived to 60 cm and were constructed with medium sized limestone blocks. Additional blocks centre of the shrine and likely served as the base for a support column for the roof (Gualtieri and Fracchia 1993:113). The total height of the shrine, based on the height of the tallest statuette, is estimated to be 140 - 150 cm (Gualtieri and Fracchia 1993:113). 67 VA-XA The portion of foundation excavated in this area is of the same style as the foundations in Complexes A through D. The estimated wall height of 1.5 m indicates a single storey structure as the walls were not substantial enough to support a second level. The absence of roof tiles associated with this structure suggests the roof was made of a different material; possibly thatch. Therefore the roof appears as a single, transparent colour along with the inferred walls. PC 86 PC 86 has been minimally excavated and the existing walls are much too fragmentary to be of aid in interpreting the structures plan. Therefore this area has been excluded from the virtual reconstruction. Southeast Plateau The structure(s) on the southeast plateau were covered with a shallow deposition of soil and were negatively impacted by ploughing activity. However, the flatness and stability of the ground has preserved the pavement within the courtyard to a greater extent than the pavement of the central plateau courtyards. The walls and courtyard feature that have been excavated exist to 30 cm and are reconstructed as such. The walls were constructed with medium to large limestone blocks. All of the walls except the one directly adjacent to the courtyard have been hypothetically raised to a height of one metre. A wall constructed with ashlar masonry surrounds the courtyard while a column fragment located in a collapse layer suggests the presence of columns around the courtyard (Gualtieri 1993: 59). The height of the ashlar wall was not hypothetical^ reconstructed as it is not known if the column fragment date to the 4th century B.C. occupation, therefore no columns and no hypothetical height were included in the virtual reconstruction for this structure. The paved courtyard has been fully excavated and the limestone paving is clearly indicated in the virtual reconstruction. The south-east plateau has not been fully excavated; therefore it was difficult to reconstruct a building based on the walls that have not been uncovered. Additional height was not added to the walls due to the lack of additional walls which would delineate the actual structure. The Carpineto Area Structures in the Carpineto area are very fragmentary and have not been excavated to the extent of the rest of the site. The lack of a clear plan and the fragmentary nature of the structural remains lead to the exclusion of this area from the model. The DB Area A paved courtyard and several walls have been excavated in this area. The walls are similar in construction to the structures on the central plateau and the south- 69 east plateau. The walls have been reconstructed to their existing height of 30 centimetres. No additional height was added to these walls as the relationship between the walls and the courtyard is not clearly defined. The courtyard is also similar to the ones found on the central plateau and the south-east plateau and has been reconstructed in a similar manner. The courtyard is surrounded by an ashlar wall and the paving stones are clearly indicated. A second courtyard feature has been inferred by crop marks. Northwest Plateau Area Napoli and the U. Balbi plateau are collectively known as the northwest plateau as they are thought to be part of the same settlement area. The walls in these areas have been reconstructed to their surviving height of 30 cm. The walls were constructed in the same manner as the walls of habitation structures elsewhere on site. Additional height has been added to the walls and identifiable buildings have had additional exterior walls added to make a complete structure (Figure 22). None of the reconstructed buildings have been roofed as there is no evidence for the style of roof or type of roofing material. There is a paved courtyard in the eastern portion of this area that is similar to the other courtyards in terms of paving. The blocks of the wall surrounding the courtyard are larger than the blocks used around the other excavated courtyards. This difference has been indicated in the virtual reconstruction. 70 Figure 22. Northwest plateau as seen in Blender (on the left) and as rendered (on the right) showing known walls and hypothetical walls, view northeast The Carmine Balbi Plateau The Carmine Balbi plateau, located south of the Area Napoli, has been subject to intensive geophysical survey. The few excavation test trenches in this area have confirmed the presence of features identified during the geophysical survey. Several walls have been identified which have not been subject to test excavations. Due to the accuracy shown between the geophysical results and the test trenches, the geophysically identified walls have been included in the reconstruction. No height has been added to the walls beyond 10 cm, which is 71 intended to indicate the presence of the walls and does not represent the actual height of the surviving walls. La Scala La Scala has been subject to large scale excavation and as such appears more complete than other areas in the virtual reconstruction (Figure 23). Burials in this area are comprised of trench/fossa burials, cremation/ustrinum burials and chamber tombs. The chamber tombs have also been reconstructed based on an existing physical reconstruction of Tomb 19 (Figure 24). The tombs were created with individual large blocks for the walls and slabs for the roof. The existing tomb walls are identified separately than the hypothetical height given to the walls, entranceways are clearly indicated as a gap between blocks on what is assumed to be the front of the structure. This assumption is based on the direction the tomb is facing i.e. towards the central area with the trench burials. The trench/fossa burials have been reconstructed, however, these burials are beneath the ground surface. Therefore, these are represented in the virtual reconstruction as mounds of earth over the burials. The cremations proved to be most difficult to represent virtually, with the location of these burials identified within the virtual reconstruction through the use of colour. 72 Figure 23. La Scala as seen in Blender, view from the west Figure 24. Tomb 19, view northeast 7 Extra-Mural Tombs The two tombs and the trench burial located in the Sorgento area to the south of the C. Balbi plateau and east of La Scala have been reconstructed using the same techniques as the tombs in La Scala. The two tombs in the Lammardo area have not been reconstructed due to a lack of information beyond location of the tombs. The Landscape The landscape reconstruction is based on modern contour lines; therefore the landscape is not an entirely accurate representation of the landscape as it was during the 4th century B.C. The landscape was created using a height map derived from digital contour line data with a 10m interval. The contour data was downloaded for free from The CGIAR Consortium for Spatial Information. The height map, with black indicating the lowest elevations and white indicating the highest, was clipped to a mesh and the height extruded using a noise variable. The noise variable extruded the mesh at an even scale with the highest extrusions from the white areas of the height map. Additional 3D meshes were added to the ground in the La Scala area, the central plateau, and the C. Balbi plateau in order to level the ground to accommodate the structures. 74 Rendering the 3D Virtual Reconstruction The completed virtual reconstruction was exported from AutoCAD as a .3ds file which can be read by Blender, a freeware modeling and rendering software. The virtual reconstruction was rendered in such a way as to show the distinction between what exists in the archaeological record, what is inferred based on the archaeological record and what is hypothesized to exist. Features Which Exist in the Archaeological Record The known segments of walls, paved courtyard areas, the shrine, floors, roads and passageways were rendered in full, solid colour. Monumental walls and blocks are coloured brown while the remainder of the walls are white. A portion of the wall on the east side of the south gate is constructed using the header-stretcher masonry technique. This portion of the wall was assigned a different colour from the rest of the known wall in order to illustrate the differences in building technique (Figure 25). The excavated walls of all the habitation structures and the walls in La Scala have been reconstructed with individual blocks making up the walls. The paved courtyard areas were reconstructed using individual paving stones. These paving stones are colored light brown. The floors of the habitations on the 75 Figure 25. South gate with different construction shown by the use of colour, view northeast central plateau have been identified as hard-packed clay and are coloured a reddish-brown. All identified roads and passageways were coloured dark gray (Figure 26). Features Which Are Inferred to Exist Based on the Archaeological Record The estimated portions of the site were rendered as coloured semi-transparent objects. This differentiated the known features from those that can be assumed based on the archaeological record but have not been uncovered in situ. This allowed for the inclusion of these features within the virtual reconstruction and enables a more complete sense of the site while remaining visually distinct from the features that have been excavated. Features which are identified as such in v> Figure 26. Complex A on the central plateau showing the three levels of colour and transparency the virtual reconstruction include the roof tiles, the shrine roof, the columns around the courtyard in Complex A and features identified through geophysical survey (see Figure 24). The roofing material is known from the archaeological record in the form of tile collapse within several buildings, however the actual structure of the roof is not known. Certain aspects of the roofing is known, such as the lack of nails and corresponding nail holes in the tiles indicate that the roofs were at a shallow enough angle for the tiles not to need to be nailed down. The colour, material and type of roof tiles are also known with kalypteres, tegulae and imbrices present. Due to the combination of the known types, material and colour of the roof tiles, and the unknown shape of the roof, the roof tiles were coloured brown and are seen as transparent. The columns surrounding the courtyard in Complex A are known to exist based on a column base and a scattering of column fragments. However, the number, spacing between columns and material used are unknown. The columns are coloured brown and are transparent. The walls identified during the course of geophysical survey on the C. Balbi Plateau and the crop mark in the DB Area have also been rendered using colour and transparency. The features are believed to exist and test trenches have verified the results of the geophysical survey. However, as these features have not been excavated it would be misleading to show them as fully existing. Hypothetical Structures and Structural Elements Features that fall under this category include the hypothetical height given to the habitation and fortification walls and the additional paved area within the courtyard of Complex A. These features are shown as transparent (see Figure 24). 78 Landscape and Lighting The landscape was rendered as green to represent vegetation. No vegetation of any kind was included in the rendering. While the type of vegetation present is know from the archaeological record, the location and density of the vegetation is unknown. Lighting for the virtual reconstruction is provided by two lamps that represent the sun. Other sources of light such as fires and lamps would have likely been used as evidenced by firedogs and ceramic lamps. Navigating Virtual Roccagloriosa The final virtual reconstruction was rendered in Blender and exported as a .VRML file for viewing and navigating as a virtual world. Navigating the site is undertaken in two ways. Cameras were placed around the site in predetermined locations. The user can view the site by choosing between different set views. The cameras are named according to the area or feature being viewed. The other method for navigating the site is through independent navigation. In this mode the user can pan the view with the speed of either walking (slow) or flying (fast) through the site at will and interact with the structures and features. Independent navigation can be started from any one of the cameras views. The user can navigate through all of the doorways, scale the wall, see what can be 79 seen from the towers, and get an overall sense of the site. This mode of navigating is undertaken through user input with a mouse, keyboard shortcuts or the navigation buttons on the VR viewer. The user starts at the south gate by default but can choose to visit different parts of the site by using the cameras or by panning the view. The virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa as undertaken in a series of steps. These included the collection of primary and secondary data, the creation of a wireframe model in AutoCad, the application of colour and transparency in Blender and the rendering of the final model in a virtual reality viewer. The creation process was the most revealing in terms of the decisions that were made regarding how to portray the different levels of information. The final result of the model was more than a virtual reconstruction but also a learning process where the implications of the decision making process became clear. 80 Chapter 5. Results The final product of this research is a fully navigable virtual reconstruction of the ancient Lucanian site of Roccagloriosa. The virtual reconstruction allows the user to explore the site with Oall known structures visible to differing degrees. The central plateau, which is the most completely excavated of all the habitation nuclei, has been presented as fully reconstructed. However, the differences between the known, the inferred and unknown portions of the site reconstruction are clearly identified through the use of colour and transparency. The fortification walls and towers have been reconstructed to the current height of the walls with the hypothetical height presented to eight metres. The reconstruction of the fortification wall in conjunction with the central plateau habitation nuclei emphasizes the importance of the structures there. One enters through the central gate and walks up moderately sloping terrain all the while having the Complex A through D structures visible on a landslide terrace inside the walls. The VA-XA 116-17 structure south of Complexes A through D is not visible unless the user's attention is turned to the south rather than the east. It was observed that the central plateau habitation nuclei is highly visible from ground level west of the fortification walls. The significance of this is not clear, however, it is important to note that is the only area within the fortification walls where this is the case. The reconstruction of all of the roofs of Complexes A 81 through D resulted in poor visibility of the interior of the structures. As the roofs were included to show the inferred roof covering it would have been sufficient to cover only one roof, perhaps the northern most roof of Complex A. This would have increased visibility while maintaining an example of the roofing technique. The habitation areas on the southeast plateau, the Carmine Balbi plateau, the northwest plateau and the DB area have only the existing walls reconstructed as the archaeological record is too fragmentary in these areas to warrant an estimated reconstruction. Any reconstruction of these areas would not be based on the archaeological record, and to represent these areas as fully understood would be misleading. The La Scala cemetery area has been reconstructed to a greater degree than other areas with one chamber tomb, Tomb 19, presented as a known reconstruction. The remainder presented as known lower courses with hypothetical wall and roof reconstructions that are based on the reconstruction of Tomb 19. The final virtual reconstruction can be used in a variety of settings including formulating hypotheses about wall height and the amount and type of building materials needed to construct the walls. The virtual reconstruction also allows researchers to visualize the site in a way that, until now, has been impossible. 82 With the buildings excavated to date on the central plateau having been reconstructed it allows for researchers to see the relationship between the structures in three dimensions and allows for different or additional hypotheses to be formulated. The reconstruction of La Scala highlights the apparent lack of organization of the burials between the two enclosure walls which suggests no formal organization of space. This is contrasted with arrangement of the burials within the enclosure walls which are neatly aligned roughly east-west. While it was apparent prior to the reconstruction that there was a segregation of burials with the chamber tombs inside the enclosure walls, it had been impossible to visualize until seeing it in the reconstruction the way that the chamber tombs are framing La Scala and how they are set back from the rest of the graves but in such a way that suggests a certain monumentality. The difference between the chamber tombs in terms of size and location is very apparent and speaks of the separation of the two social or familial classes present within the cemetery. The reconstruction of the towers has several benefits in terms of research. It is possible to view the surrounding landscape from the top of the tower and make observations which would have been impossible before. One drawback of the current virtual reconstruction is apparent when observing the landscape from the towers and that is the lack of vegetation. Vegetation, especially, would have a 83 large impact on what can be seen and how the site is experienced. Vegetation can be used to demarcate different areas, it can be used to show status and prestige and it allows for a greater understanding of the relationship between the site and the landscape. It is known from the archaeological record that viticulture and olives were maintained. Currently the site is dominated by large oak trees that are suspected to have existed in this area during the time of the Lucanian occupation of the area. A more complete virtual reconstruction would contain these plants, as well as plants which are known to the area. However, it is impossible to determine the density of the forested areas. The location of the viticulture and olives can be hypothesized based on the current conditions these plants are grown. The type of soil and amount of sun and moisture required would have likely remained constant through time. Navigating the virtual world was facilitated through the use of set camera views. Users are also able to navigate the world at their leisure. The different methods of navigation presented different viewing experiences of the site. Using the cameras to navigate the site was useful for examining individual structures and to see an overview of the entire site. Jumping around the site from camera view to camera view resulted in a disjointed feeling and an uncertainty of the relationship between the different structures. There was no sense of exploration 84 using the camera views as the sole method of seeing the site. This method can not accurately be called exploring as there is little discovery involved. Using the cameras as the sole means of seeing the site was like looking at a picture book, being shown what to see and nothing more, which is not the experience that is meant to be had in a virtual world. The other method of navigation was freely wandering around the Site. It was gdvanti.gSOUS to explore the site Without 8 Set Itinerary find Without bsiRQ told where to go. It was possible to explore the relationship between the structures, experiencing the walk from the habitation nuclei to outside of the walls and feeling what it was like to walk through the central gate. The experience of walking from the site up to La Scala allowed the user to appreciate the ceremony of walking uphill and seeing the larger chamber tombs. Physically these experiences are not possible without visiting the site as looking at a map or plan does not provide the same experience. As the model was created solely based on the archaeological record it appears somewhat unfinished. This was done purposefully in order to bring attention to the possibility of disregarding photorealism and creating virtual reconstructions that are true to the archaeological record. The amount of time it took to create the model and the decision making processes involved highlights the lack of standardization in the field. There were no reference materials or protocols to consult as to what would be an acceptable practice. The Archaeology Data Service, a branch of the Arts and Humanities Data Service, has published A Guide to Good Practice (Fernie and Richards 2002) which outlines the history of the VR applications in archaeology, and suggests methods for the archiving of the digital data associated with the creation of VR models. However, it is clearly stated that VR images, like any other graphical illustrations, are merely vehicles for elucidating, or clarifying, information to the user. It is clarification, not realism or accuracy that is at the centre of any illustration (Fernie and Richards 2002) To see a virtual reconstruction as Fernie and Richards suggests, is to disregard the goal of the research as well as ignore the implications of presenting archaeologically data inaccurately for the sake of clarification. The purpose of a virtual reconstruction should be to provide the user with the data needed to form independent interpretations of the archaeological record, not explain to the user that which exists in the archaeological record. A virtual reconstruction, if accurate, will allow the user to form independent opinions and ideas about a site. The development of a protocol would allow users to assess a model against a set of criteria which would clearly outline the expectations and roles that should be followed in terms of creating a virtual reconstruction of an archaeology site. Beyond the actual creation of the virtual reconstruction the creation process provided an environment in which to assess the effects of the use of virtual reality in archaeology. Marshall McLuhan's (1988: 98) laws of media "provide a means of identifying the properties of and actions exerted upon ourselves by our technologies and media and artefacts". The laws of media can be used to assess the implications of using virtual reality to create a reconstruction of an archaeological site. The laws of media consist of four questions which address what the technology, virtual reality, enhances, what it makes obsolete, what it retrieves and what it reverses into (McLuhan 1988: 99). The use of virtual reality enhances collaborative work environments. Virtual reconstructions have the ability to increase the accessibility of archaeological data as well as provide an opportunity for researchers to present differing hypotheses formed from the archaeological record. The virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa presented here is based on one interpretation of the data while the same data can be interpreted differently by other researchers. Future versions of the model could potentially include any number of interpretations. Traditional hand drawn illustrations and site plans are made obsolete through the increased use of virtual reality in archaeology. While no artifacts were included in the virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa the entire model is based on a published site plan. Instead of drawing a plan by hand onto paper, it is possible to enter the same coordinates taken during the planning process and enter them into AutoCad. This would have produced the same site plan in less time while 87 presenting the same results. The digital plan could then be used as a template onto which interpretations about the site could be modeled. Instead of drawing illustrations of artifacts it is possible to take a series of photographs of the artifact and through the use of an automated program combine the photographs into a 3D representation of the artifact. This could then be manipulated in a virtual world without fear of damaging the artifact, measurements can be taken and broken artifacts can be reconstructed without damaging the original artifact. In this way, the use of virtual reconstruction in archaeology makes traditional hand drawn illustrations obsolete. The past is retrieved through the use of virtual reality in archaeology. This is accomplished by presenting archaeological data as an immersive virtual environment which users can navigate and explore. Such methods effectively bring the past to life in such a manner that other technologies (television, radio, books) have not been able to achieve. While the virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa is not fully immersive, there exists technology in which touch can be enabled and the sounds and smell of ancient Roccagloriosa can be brought to the present through a fully immersive virtual reconstruction. Virtual reality is presently the only technology that has the potential to engage the five senses. Finally, the medium of virtual reality can reverse archaeology to a neo-colonial discipline where one's own cultural customs and norms have a direct impact on the interpretation of the archaeological record. The virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa appears incomplete as few hypothetical features have been included in the model. The model could be expanded to include artifacts and the fragmentary remains in the Carpineto and PC 86 areas. However, there are many gaps in the archaeological record that could be filled with hypothetical structures. The inclusion of such could potentially be included based on what is thought to have existed, or what one feels should exist, such as a large public building inside the walls. This might make the model appear more realistic and fit into one's need for sites to have homogeneity in terms of public versus private space and analogies with other sites, although not necessarily sites from the same time period. The desire for realism, discussed at length in Chapter 3, has the potential to be guided by a sense of what is needed to make a model complete. From a Canadian perspective, this could be in the form of solid doors at the threshold between the outside world and the inside of a house which would be used to security, privacy and for protection against the elements. For the virtual reconstruction of Complex A at Roccagloriosa this would be the inclusion of solid doors in the doorways between the central courtyard and the rooms surrounding the courtyard. Given the climate of the area and potential differences in how security and privacy are viewed, it is possible that these thresholds were covered 89 with cloth curtains instead of a solid door which would better facilitate the movement of air and more importantly, let natural light into the room. Unless an in situ door hinge is located, there is no way to determine what was used. This would not necessarily prevent the inclusion of a solid door as culturally solid doors are the norm and make sense to Canadians. In this case, both doors and curtains could be included in the model, but neither would be shown as known or inferred but would be hypothetical. By differentiating between what is known based on the archaeological record, what is inferred from the archaeological record and what is hypothetical, any cultural biases should be presented as hypothetical, thereby ensuring the user is aware that the item or feature shown is not based what has been excavated at the site. The virtual reconstruction of Roccagloriosa provided a platform for showing a methodology that can be used to differentiate between what is known, what is inferred and what is hypothesized. It also provided an opportunity to explore the implications of the use of a technology to explore and research an archaeological site. 90 Chapter 6. Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Work The methodology undertaken for the virtual reconstruction served two functions. First of all it presented an opportunity to understand the impact of virtual reality on archaeology and specifically the dissemination of archaeological data. By applying Marshall McLuhan's laws of media it became apparent that using virtual reality to disseminate archaeological data has implications in terms of how researchers can use the technology. This includes the increase in collaborative work environments, the loss of a traditional method for illustrating sites and artifacts, bringing the past to life in a manner that can engage all five senses and the potential for letting cultural biases determine how a site should look in an attempt to create a realistic model. Assessing virtual reality in terms of the laws of media has brought a new awareness to how virtual reality, like any technology, can be used and misused in archaeology. Secondly, the methodology undertaken successfully demonstrated that is it possible to create a virtual reconstruction of an archaeological site that clearly differentiates between what is known, what is inferred and what is hypothetical in a manner that is not confusing to the user. A virtual reconstruction that is based on the archaeological record can only be as complete as the archaeological record. The completeness of the archaeological record resides in the amount of 91 excavation, the level of preservation and the amount and type of non-destructive survey, such as geophysical survey. The method undertaken as part of this research included using colours and transparency to differentiate between different categories of reconstruction. It has been demonstrated that although the virtual reconstruction appears unfinished, it is possible to experience portions of the site as they may have appeared in the 4th century B.C. In terms of the archaeological record as it is known today, this virtual reconstruction is a complete and accurate representation of what is known, with additional areas reconstructed where there is a substantial amount of evidence that lends to the further interpretation of the archaeological record. To reconstruct the fragmentary areas further than has been done would result in an intentionally misleading virtual reconstruction. The aim of the methodology was not to mislead but to inform in a visual way that which is known, what can be inferred and that which can be hypothesized. Concerns have been raised by Lancaster (2005: 2) regarding avoiding 'entrapment' of the users by presenting data as known has been addressed. Several scholars including Lock (2003: 15), Addison (2002: 349), Forte (2005: 3- 4) and Barcelo (2000: 28-29) have called for a degree of modeling uncertainty but presenting what is known from the archaeological record and perhaps leaving out data which cannot be determined archaeologically. By using 92 transparency, the user is able to avoid entrapment by seeing what actually exists and what has been inferred and will hopefully engage critically with the data presented. The use of transparency also addresses the issue of modeling uncertainty by clearly indicating what is known, what is inferred and what is hypothetical. The clear indication leaves room for others to form their own opinion regarding the site, an opinion that may not resemble the initial interpretation but may be equally plausible. While the methodology presented here can be applied to any virtual reconstruction of an archaeological site, a protocol that is recognized by the professionals and amateurs engaged in the virtual reconstruction of archaeology sites is needed. The purpose of this research was not to create such a protocol; however, it does highlight the need for one. Further work in this area could entail the inclusion of virtual artifacts located by provenience in the nearest room in which they were recovered. This may aid in the interpretation of the domestic space. For example, a number of loom weights were located in the southeastern most room of Complex A. The presence of these loom weights suggests that this room served a domestic function. 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