Cicer Arietinum L.), Its Ecology and Cultivation
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582.738:581.4/.6+581. 9 635.657 MEDEDELINGEN LANDBOUWHOGESCHOOL WAGENINGEN • NEDERLAND • 72-10(1972 ) CICER L., A MONOGRAPH OF THE GENUS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CHICKPEA {CICER ARIETINUM L.), ITS ECOLOGY AND CULTIVATION L. J. G. VAN DER MAESEN Department of Tropical Crops Department ofPlant Taxonomy andPlant Geography (Received22-11-1972) H. VEENMAN &ZONE N N.V. - WAGENINGEN - 1972 Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen 72-10 (1972) (Communications Agricultural University) is also published as a thesis CONTENTS PREFACE 1. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE CHICKPEA 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Prehistoric data 1 1.3. Written sources 2 1.4. Uses and peculiarities 3 1.5. Cultivation in ancient times 5 1.6. Geography 5 1.7. Distribution 6 2. TAXONOMY OF THE GENUS CICER L 9 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Description of the genus Cicer L 10 2.3. Notes 11 2.3.1. Nornenclatural history of the genus 11 2.3.2. Relationship to other genera 12 2.3.3. Habit and growth 13 2.3.4. Flowering seasons 14 2.3.5. The geographical distribution of the genus CicerL 15 2.3.6. Availability of material 15 2.3.7. Uses 17 2.4. Subdivision of the genus 17 2.5. Key to the species of Cicer 20 2.6. Description of the species 24 2.7. Infraspecific classification of Cicer arietinum L 131 2.7.1. Existing classifications 131 2.7.2. Discussion 132 2.7.3. Informal infraspecific classification in Cicer arietinum L 133 3. AREA, PRODUCTION AND TRADE 137 3.1. Area 137 3.2. Production and productivity 140 3.3. Trends in production 142 3.4. Trade 146 3.5. Prices of chickpeas 148 3.6. Grades 149 4. ANATOMY 151 5. CULTIVATION 153 5.1. Introduction 153 5.2. Soil preparation 153 5.3. Sowing 154 5.3.1. Sowing seed 154 5.3.2. Ways of sowing 155 5.3.3. Sowing date 155 5.3.4. Density of sowing 156 5.3.5. Sowing depth 156 5.4. Post-sowing cultivation treatments 158 5.5. Mixed cropping 159 5.6. Crop rotation 161 5.7. Fertilizing and manuring 162 5.8. Control of diseases and pests 164 5.9. Harvesting 164 5.10. Threshing 164 5.11. Grading 164 5.12. Storage 165 6. ECOLOGY 166 6.1. Introduction 166 6.2. General description of material and methods 166 6.2.1. Plant material used in the trials 166 6.2.2. Plant characteristics of the chickpea 166 6.2.3. Methods of growing chickpea plants 167 6.2.4. Influence of sowing depths 170 6.2.5. Maximum sowing depth 171 6.3. Light and photosynthesis 173 6.3.1. Introduction 173 6.3.2. Literature and previous observations 174 6.3.3. Photosynthesis 174 6.3.4. Potential production 181 6.3.5. Influence of light intensity onflowering an d fruit-setting 184 6.4. Photoperiodism 187 6.4.1. Introduction 187 6.4.2. Investigation on daylength 1 188 6.4.3. Investigation on daylength 2 190 6.4.4. Photoperiodic effect of the sowing date 1 193 6.4.5. Photoperiodic effect of the sowing date 2 195 6.4.6. Influence of timing of application of supplementary light in the daily photo periodic regime 196 6.4.7. General conclusions 198 6.5. Temperature 198 6.5.1. Introduction 198 6.5.2. Optimum temperature for germination 201 6.5.3. Influence of daily temperature amplitudes 202 6.5.4. Initial investigation on the effects of temperature 203 6.5.5. Effects of 6 temperature ranges on early growth 204 6.5.6. Effects of 6temperatur erange so n growth and flowering 207 6.6. Relative humidity and other factors affecting flowering 208 6.6.1. Introduction 208 6.6.2. Air humidity 209 6.6.3. Other factors in relation to seed-setting 209 6.6.4. Relative humidity and vegetative growth 210 6.6.5. Relative humidity,flowering an d fruit-setting 1 211 6.6.6. Relative humidity,flowering an d fruit-setting 2 214 6.7. Soils and nutrients 217 6.7.1. Soils 217 6.7.2. Mineral nutrients and fertility 221 6.7.3. Symbiosis, introduction 224 6.7.4. Symbiosis, systematic classification of thespecifi c Rhizobium 226 6.7.5. Symbiosis, own observations 226 6.8. Effects of phytohormones 228 6.9. Regeneration after mutilation 229 6.9.1. Introduction on the practice of topping 229 6.9.2. Topping Trial 1 230 6.9.3. Topping Trial 2 231 6.10. Concluding remarks 234 7. BREEDING 235 7.1. Introduction 235 7.2. Genetics 235 7.2.1. Cytogenetics, polyploidy and aneuploidy 235 7.2.2. Genetic factors 238 7.2.3. Correlations and heritability 238 7.3. Flowering and crossing techniques 243 7.4. Breeding methods 245 7.4.1. Present breeding research 245 7.4.2. Breeding criteria 246 7.4.3. Breeding systems 249 7.4.4. Introduction of new cultivars 249 7.5. Classification of cultivars 251 8. PESTS OF THE CHICKPEA 253 8.1. Introduction 253 8.2. Insect pests 253 8.2.1. Gram caterpillar, gram podborer, old world bollwormet c 253 8.2.2. Red gram plume moth 254 8.2.3. Gram cutworm, greasy cutworm 254 8.2.4. Gram or pea semilooper 255 8.2.5. Chickpea leaf-miner flies 255 8.2.6. Pulse beetles 256 8.2.7. Other insects reported to feed on chickpea 258 8.3. Nematodes 259 8.4. Other animal pests 259 8.5. Plant parasite 259 9. DISEASES OF THE CHICKPEA 260 9.1. Introduction 260 9.2. Wilt disease 260 9.3. Other Fusarium wilt diseases 264 9.4. Blight disease 264 9.5. Stem rot 269 9.6. Foot rot 270 9.7. Rust 270 9.8. Verticillium wilt disease 271 9.9. Rhizoctonia wilt disease 272 9.10. Leaf spot disease 272 9.11. Phytophthora diseases 272 9.12. Other fungal diseases 273 9.13. Bacterial disease 273 9.14. Virus diseases 274 10. USES 275 10.1. Introduction 275 10.2. Human food 275 10.2.1. Acids 277 10.2.2. Fresh shoots 277 10.2.3. Fresh seeds 278 10.2.4. Ripe seeds 279 10.2.5. Split seeds 283 10.2.6. Sprouted seeds 283 10.2.7. Meal and flour 284 10.2.8. Balanced foods 284 10.3. Cattle feed 286 10.3.1. Fresh plants 286 10.3.2. Hay 286 10.3.3. Seeds 287 10.4. Nutritive value 287 10.4.1. Chemical composition 287 10.4.2 Amino acid composition 290 SUMMARY 292 SAMENVATTING 295 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 299 BIBLIOGRAPHY 300 INDEX OF AUTHORS 335 INDEX OF NAMES IN CICER 341 ... Even as from a broad shovel in a great threshing floor, fly theblackskinne d beans and chickpeas,befor e the whistling wind,an d thestres s ofth ewinnower' s shovel,eve ns ofro m the breastplate of renowned Menelaos bounced far away the bitter arrow of Helenus... (after LANG, LEAFan dMEYER S: Th ecomplet eWork s ofHomer ) PREFACE Cicerarietinum L., the chickpea, is the world's third pulse crop. Yet its products play a very small part in world trade. They are, however, very im portant for localconsumption . Cicerarietinum ha sbee ncultivate d sinceantiqui ty, mainly in the semi-arid, temperate to warm regions of the Old World. Be cause of its insignificance to world trade, little fundamental research has been carried out on this crop. Until recently, breeding has only been of local im portance. This thesis is a monograph on Cicer. It includes original work on taxonomy and geography of the genus and on the physiology and ecology of the crop species,carrie d outi nth e Laboratory ofPlan t Taxonomy and Plant Geography and the Department of Tropical Crops of the Agricultural University, Wage ningen. I began to study chickpeas in 1967 as a part of my 'ingenieur' studies, and the work continued in October, 1968, as the subject for mythesis . The taxonomy was revised because many new species have been described in the genus since the last monograph waspublishe d in 1929.Th e experimental workcontribute s to themor efundamenta l ecologicalproblem s ofth echickpea . The other subjects are described from data collected during study-tours to the main producing areas in India, Turkey, Spain and northern Africa, and from literature. The literature has been compiled as a bibliography. 1. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE CHICKPEA 1.1. INTRODUCTION One of the oldest and most widely used grain leguminosae in the Middle and Far East is the chickpea, Cicer arietinum L. Only in rare cases are wild forms or relatives of cultivated plants known, but in the genus Cicer this may be so. In the immediate vicinity of cultivated chickpea, especially in Turkey and Syria, wild relatives occur, although not in abundance. In Iran and Afghanistan the wild relatives are distinguished from the cultivated speciesb ygreate r differences in characteristics and altitude. As we can see with a little imagination, early man collected the most pala table and remunerative plants for his needs. Later these were chosen for cultivation. Cicer arietinum is not known in the wild. Is this because the chickpea that is cultivated now represents taxa selected from wild-growing populations by man, and has survived due to this selection? Mutation will have occurred certainly in these selected taxa. Was hybridization another cause for the origin of new cultivars? Has there been a continuous contact (crossing, additional selections) with wild-growing species? Some references, however, claim that the species has been found in the wild in Greece (PLINY), on Crete (LENZ, 1859) and in Palestine (MEIR cf.