The Arabic Vulgate in Safavid Persia ARABIC PRINTING OF THE GOSPELS, CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES, AND THE RISE OF SHĪʿĪ ANTI-CHRISTIAN POLEMICS zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades (Dr. phil.) eingereicht am Fachbereich Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften der Freien Universität Berlin im Jahr 2016 vorgelegt von Dennis Halft, Dipl. Theol., M.A. (phil.), geboren in Bonn 1. Gutachter: Prof. Walid A. Saleh (University of Toronto) 2. Gutachterin: Prof. Birgit Krawietz Datum der Disputation: 19. Januar 2017 2 CONTENTS Acknowledgments 6 Preface 8 Abbreviations 15 Transliteration and Dates 18 List of Illustrations 19 Introduction: Persian Translations of the Bible in Pre-Safavid Iran 21 PART ONE Chapter 1: From Egypt via Rome to Persia: The Arabic Vulgate at Cultural Crossroads 37 1.1 A Manuscript of Coptic Provenance in Late Sixteenth-Century Rome: The First Publication of the Gospels in Arabic Translation 40 1.2 The Vorlage for the Medici Edition of the Arabic Vulgate 49 1.3 Vatican Censorship and the Production of the Roman Arabic Vulgate 58 Chapter 2: Carmelite Missionaries at Work: The Dissemination of Printed Copies of the Roman Arabic Vulgate in Seventeenth-Century Persia 67 2.1 Catholic-Shīʿī Encounters in Isfahan 78 2.2 The Library of the Discalced Carmelites 90 PART TWO Reading the Gospels in Favor of Imāmī Shīʿism: The Muslim Reception of the Roman Arabic Vulgate 96 Chapter 3: Sayyid Aḥmad ʿAlavī (d. between 1054/1644 and 1060/1650): Philosopher and Polemicist against Christianity in Isfahan 98 3.1 ʿAlavī’s Attitude towards Judaism and Christianity 113 3 3.2 The Anti-Christian Persian Works Lavāmiʿ-i rabbānī and Miṣqal-i ṣafāʾ 126 3.3 ʿAlavī’s Persian Refutations of Christianity in the Vatican 134 Chapter 4: Ẓahīr al-Dīn Tafrishī (d. before 1114/1702): Defender of ‘Truth’ against Melkites and Latin Missionaries 143 4.1 The Arabic and Persian Recensions of Tafrishī’s Nuṣrat al-ḥaqq 146 4.2 Tafrishī’s Reception of Ibn al-Faḍl’s Arabic Version of the Septuagint Psalter 153 4.3 Tafrishī’s Attitude towards the Bible 158 Chapter 5: Sayyid Mīr Muḥammad Bāqir Khātūnābādī (d. 1127/1715): Translator of the Gospels from Arabic into Persian 161 5.1 The Roman Arabic Vulgate in Persian Translation 165 5.2 The Arrival of Printed Copies of the Biblia Sacra Arabica in Iran 172 Conclusion: An Intellectual Network between Egypt, Rome, and Persia 177 Appendices 181 1 Inventory of Manuscripts of ʿAlavī’s Lavāmiʿ-i rabbānī 181 2 Inventory of Manuscripts of ʿAlavī’s Miṣqal-i ṣafāʾ 188 3 Inventory of Manuscripts of Tafrishī’s Nuṣrat al-ḥaqq 202 4 Inventory of Manuscripts of Khātūnābādī’s Persian Translation of the Gospels 206 5 ʿAlavī’s Citations from the Roman Arabic Vulgate in an Unidentified Persian Translation 209 4 6 Tafrishī’s Citations from the Roman Arabic Vulgate in Arabic and in His Own Persian Translation 232 7 Tafrishī’s Citations from the Septuagint Psalms and Odes in Arabic and in His Own Persian Translation 239 Bibliography 241 1 Manuscripts 241 2 Primary Sources 248 3 Secondary Sources 258 Abstract 301 Abstract in German Translation 304 5 Acknowledgments Numerous colleagues and friends have encouraged and supported me in writing this doctoral dissertation over the past years. I wish to thank Prof. Sabine Schmidtke (Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey) who introduced me to the study of Arabic and Persian manuscripts, as well as to the field of Shīʿī studies and the Muslim reception of the Bible. She initially supervised my dissertation project during her years at the Freie Universität in Berlin. I am grateful to Prof. Walid A. Saleh (University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario), who stepped in and became my primary adviser at a crucial stage of the writing of my dissertation. He spent much time reading and criticizing my draft chapters and provided invaluable comments that considerably improved the text. What he did was more than may be expected from an adviser. I also wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Reza Pourjavady (Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt), Prof. Walter Senner (Pontificia Università San Tommaso d’Aquino, Rome), and Prof. Ronny Vollandt (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich), who commented on previous versions of single chapters. My thanks are also due to the members of my dissertation committee, especially Prof. Birgit Krawietz (Freie Universität, Berlin) who agreed to chair the committee. The subject of my dissertation required intensive research in various libraries and manuscript collections in Iran. I wish to thank the staff of the Kitābkhāna-yi Jamʿiyyat-i Nashr-i Farhang/Millī (Rasht); the Kitābkhāna-yi Āyat Allāh al-ʿuẓmā Marʿashī (Qum); the Kitābkhāna-yi Madrasa-yi Murtażā Muṭahharī (Tehran); the Kitābkhāna-yi Majlis-i Shūrā-yi Islāmī (Tehran); the Kitābkhāna-yi Markaz-i Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif-i Buzurg-i Islāmī (Tehran); the Kitābkhāna-yi Markazī-i Āstān-i Quds (Mashhad); the Kitābkhāna-yi Markazī-i 6 Dānishgāh (Tehran); the Kitābkhāna-yi Millī-i Īrān (Tehran); the Kitābkhāna-yi Millī-i Malik (Tehran); the Majmaʿ-i Ẕakhāʾir-i Islāmī (Qum); and the Markaz-i Iḥyāʾ-i Mīrās-i Islāmī (Qum). I am particularly indebted to Mohammad Ebrahim Alizadeh, Alireza Dowlatshahi, Dr. Hamed Naji Esfahani, Heidar Eyvazi, Paul Lawlor, Ahmad Nabavi, Milad Poshtivan, Amirhoushang Rahmannejad, Dr. Sadegh Sajjadi, Mahdi Mohammadi Shojai, Kian Tavakkoli, and Sohrab Yeke Zare for their help in accessing certain manuscripts consulted for this study. This doctoral dissertation would not have been possible without the generous support of the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, the Dominican Institute of Toronto, the Dominican Province of Teutonia, and the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies in Toronto, which financed and facilitated my research in its different stages in Germany and abroad. Furthermore, I am grateful for the warm welcome I received during my stay with the Dominican community at Aquinas House in Toronto, at the Dominican Institute for Oriental Studies in Cairo, at the Henry Martyn Institute in Hyderabad, India, at the Institute M.- Dominique Chenu in Berlin, and at the Saint Abraham’s Dominican House in Tehran. Last, but certainly not least, I thank my parents, Brigitte and Karl-Heinz Halft, and all other members of my family for their constant love and support throughout these years of study, learning, and research. 7 Preface The study of the Arabic translations of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, i.e. the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and the New Testament, has become today a field in its own right. It is characterized by an interdisciplinary linguistic-historical approach, based on a systematic and comprehensive examination of manuscripts, a growing community of researchers, and an increasing number of publications, including research articles, critical editions, monographs, and collective volumes.1 In recent years, research projects such as the Biblia Arabica project, with a book series of the same name, and the project The Arabic Manuscripts of the Letters of Paul of Tarsus have been initiated.2 Recently, a research group dedicated to “The Bible in Arabic in Judaism, Christianity, Islam” was established within the European Association of Biblical Studies.3 As we know, Arabic versions of biblical books circulated widely among Jewish, Samaritan, and Christian communities in the Islamicate world. They were used in liturgy, studied privately, and discussed by scholars and exegetes, often beyond denominational borders. In addition, Muslim authors relied on Arabic translations of the sacred Scriptures of the Jews and the Christians for the purpose of refuting their religious beliefs. The cross- cultural mobility of Arabic versions of biblical books and their transmission and reception throughout the centuries are among the major characteristics of these translations. While previous research has tended to focus primarily on the history of the Arabic Bible in Arabic- speaking lands (and its printing history in early modern Europe), the influence of the Arabic 1 For references, see the Introduction below. 2 See http://biblia-arabica.com and http://wp.unil.ch/nt-arabe (both accessed 26 July 2016). 3 See https://eabs.net/site/the-bible-in-arabic-in-judaism-christianity-islam (accessed 26 July 2016). 8 Bible tradition on interreligious encounters in Persianate societies has so far escaped scholarly attention. This study suggests that Arabic translations of biblical books were an important source for Imāmī (Twelver Shīʿī) scholars in Safavid Iran of the seventeenth century, giving rise to the composition of some of the earliest known refutations of Christianity in ‘Standard (New) Persian’ (hereafter Persian). It represents the result of many years of research and study in a hitherto largely neglected field, namely the history of the Shīʿī Muslim perception of the Bible in the age of Arabic printing and global Christian missionary activity. More precisely, this study examines the intellectual encounters between Catholic and Shīʿī representatives and the cross-cultural effects of a printed edition of an Arabic translation of the Gospels, made by Eastern Christians, on Shīʿī anti-Christian polemics. The aim of my dissertation is to explore the connectivity between Coptic Egypt, Renaissance Rome, and Shīʿī Iran, a triangular connection that has not been studied until now. Naturally, the scope of this study is historical and interdisciplinary, borrowing from a variety of disciplines to uncover what can be interpreted as a polycentric world of religious dialogue and polemical interactions. Amongst these disciplines are Islamic studies, Iranian studies, the history of Christianity and missiology, Renaissance studies, Arabic manuscript studies, and book history. Moreover, my doctoral dissertation is an attempt to bridge the divide between Arabic- and Persian-speaking parts of the pre-modern world of Islam, shared by different Muslim and non-Muslim denominations. It shows that Arabic translations of the Christian Scriptures transcended the cultural-religious boundaries of the Christian communities in the Arab world and became available to Shīʿī Muslims in Persian-speaking lands.