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Home , Book of Jeremiah, Isaiah 35, Isaiah 36, Jehu (prophet), Malachi

EXPLORING THE Volume 4

The

Gordon McConville studied Modern Languages at Cambridge and The- ology at Edinburgh and Belfast. He is Professor of Old Testament Theology in the University of Gloucestershire, having previously taught the Old Testament in Bristol and Oxford. He has written a number of books on Deuteronomy and the Prophets, and most recently on Old Testament political theology. Exploring the Old Testament The Pentateuch by Gordon Wenham The Histories by Philip Satterthwaite and Gordon McConville The and Literature by Ernest Lucas The Prophets by Gordon McConville

Exploring the The and Acts by Wenham and Steve Walton The Letters and by Howard Marshall, Stephen Travis and Ian Paul EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT

Volume 4

The Prophets

Gordon McConville Published in Great Britain in 2002

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge 36 Causton Street London SW1P 4ST www.spckpublishing.co.uk

Copyright © Gordon McConville 2002

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Scripture quotations are taken from the following versions of the : The English Standard Version, Crossway , a division of Good News Publishers, Wheaton, Illinois. The HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, a member of the Hodder Headline Plc Group. The New of , copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved. The Revised English Bible © Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press 1989. The Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1946, 1952 and 1971 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

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ISBN 978-0-281-05432-9

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Produced on paper from sustainable forests Contents

THE PROPHETS

The dates of kings and prophets viii Rhetorical Intention 68 Key to panels ix in the Canon 70 Introduction xi Further Reading 72 Abbreviations xxxi List of maps xxxii 3 Lamentations 75 Date and Destination 75 Critical Interpretation of Lamentations 75 1 1 Date and Destination 1 Structure and Outline 76 Structure 76 Critical Interpretation of Outline 76 Identifying Isaiah of 3 The message of Isaiah of Jerusalem 4 Theological Themes 78 The composition of —39 7 curse and confession of sin 78 Isaiah 1—39 and 40—66 10 Lamentation and bitter suffering 79 Reading Isaiah as a unity 11 ‘The steadfast love of the LORD’ 79 Waiting for God 79 Structure and Outline 12 A comforter 80 Structure 12 Outline 12 Rhetorical Intention 80 Theological Themes 32 Lamentations in the Canon 81 The story behind the book 32 Further Reading 81 , city of God 34 King and Messiah 35 4 83 The Servant and the nations 36 Date and Destination 83 Trust in God 37 Place 83 Time 83 Rhetorical Intention 38 To whom is he speaking? 84 Isaiah in the Canon 40 Critical Interpretation of Ezekiel 85 Further Reading 42 Structure and Outline 86 Structure 86 2 Outline 87 Date and Destination 45 Theological Themes 98 Critical Interpretation of Sovereignty of God and human responsibility 98 as poetry? 47 The presence of God 99 ‘Deuteronomistic’ sermons? 48 Sin, judgement, purification 100 A deuteronomistic edition? 48 Salvation: a radically new beginning; Zion Is Jeremiah from Jeremiah? 49 and Eden 101 Political/formal and spiritual religion: Ezekiel Structure and Outline 51 as and priest 102 Structure 51 Outline 52 Rhetorical Intention 103 Theological Themes 63 Ezekiel in the Canon 105 Sin as falseness 63 Further Reading 106 Judgement and salvation 64 The 65 5 109 The individual 67 Date and Destination 109 The Messiah 68 Critical Interpretation of Daniel 111 v Genre 112 Structure 166 Unity 113 Outline 166 Structure and Outline 113 Theological Themes 172 Structure 113 Justice and righteousness, and the ‘good’ of Outline 115 God’s people 172 Theological Themes 125 Justice and creation 173 The kingdom of God 125 The universal God and the election of 173 Divine and human rule 126 Rhetorical Intention 174 Messiah 127 Rhetorical devices 174 God’s faithfulness, human faithfulness 127 Rhetorical levels 175 Rhetorical Intention 128 in the Canon 176 Daniel in the Canon 130 Further Reading 177 Further Reading 131 9 179 The Book of the Twelve 133 Date and Destination 179 Further Reading 134 Subject matter 179 Vocabulary and ideas 179 6 135 Critical Interpretation of Obadiah 180 Date and Destination 135 Structure and Outline 180 Religion in Hosea’s time 137 Structure 180 Critical Interpretation of Hosea 137 Outline 180 Structure and Outline 139 Theological Themes 181 Structure 139 Rhetorical Intention 182 Outline 139 Obadiah in the Canon 182 Theological Themes 144 Further Reading 183 ‘No other gods’ 144 Faithfulness and steadfast love 144 10 185 Judgement and love: God’s dilemma 146 Date and Destination 185 Rhetorical Intention 147 Dating and genre 185 Hosea in the Canon 149 Critical Interpretation of Jonah 186 Further Reading 150 Structure and Outline 187 Structure 187 7 153 Outline 187 Date and Destination 153 Theological Themes 189 Critical Interpretation of Joel 154 Working out the sovereignty of God 189 Structure and Outline 155 Worship and thanksgiving 189 Structure 155 Retribution? 190 Outline 155 God’s forgiveness extended to all? 190 Theological Themes 157 Can God ‘repent’? 190 All-powerful God 157 ‘God’ and ‘’ 191 The ‘Day of the LORD’ 158 Rhetorical Intention 192 Repentance 158 Jonah in the Canon 192 Nature and history 158 Further Reading 194 The spirit 158 Rhetorical Intention 159 11 195 Joel in the Canon 160 Date and Destination 195 Further Reading 161 Critical Interpretation of Micah 195 Structure and Outline 197 8 Amos 163 Structure 197 Date and Destination 163 Outline 197 Critical Interpretation of Amos 165 Theological Themes 201 Structure and Outline 166 Judgement and salvation 201 vi Exodus and covenant traditions 201 15 229 Prophetic ethics 202 Date and Destination 229 The nations 202 Critical Interpretation of Haggai 230 Rhetorical Intention 202 Structure and Outline 231 Micah in the Canon 203 Structure 232 Further Reading 204 Outline 232 Theological Themes 234 12 205 The temple 234 Date and Destination 205 Future help 235 Critical Interpretation of Nahum 206 Rhetorical Intention 236 Structure and Outline 206 Haggai in the Canon 236 Structure 206 Further Reading 237 Outline 206 Theological Themes 207 16 Zechariah 239 Rhetorical Intention 208 Date and Destination 239 Nahum in the Canon 208 Zechariah 1—8 239 Zechariah 9—14 241 Further Reading 209 Critical Interpretation of Zechariah 243 13 211 Zechariah 1—8 243 Date and Destination 211 Zechariah 1—8 and 9—14 244 Critical Interpretation of Habakkuk 212 Structure and Outline 244 Structure 244 Structure and Outline 213 Outline 245 Structure 213 Outline 213 Theological Themes 251 Between salvation and salvation 251 Theological Themes 215 Messiah 253 How can a just God tolerate evil? 215 The righteous shall live by (whose?) faithfulness 216 Rhetorical Intention 253 Rhetorical Intention 217 Zechariah in the Canon 254 Habakkuk in the Canon 217 Further Reading 256 Further Reading 217 17 259 Date and Destination 259 14 219 Date and Destination 219 Critical Interpretation of Malachi 260 Critical Interpretation of Zephaniah 220 Structure and Outline 260 Zephaniah a ‘drama’? 221 Structure 260 Zephaniah a ‘cult prophet’? 222 Outline 260 Structure and Outline 222 Theological Themes 265 Structure 222 Covenant with Yahweh 265 Outline 222 Particular covenants 266 Form and spirit in worship 266 Theological Themes 224 Eschatology 266 God’s election of Israel, and his kingship in the world 224 Rhetorical Intention 267 More on election: A ‘’ 225 Malachi in the Canon 268 Religion and ethics 225 Further Reading 269 : Judgement and salvation 226 Rhetorical Intention 226 Index 271 Zephaniah in the Canon 227 Further Reading 227

vii THE DATES OF KINGS AND PROPHETS

The dates of the kings of Israel and are account is taken of co-regencies, although disputed. One view of the chronology is given these may be needed to solve some problems in IBD I, pp. 268–77, in which the authors (for example, see Bright, p. 271, n. 8, on the follow the concept of co-regencies proposed by twenty years given to in 2 Kgs 15:27). E. R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965). Not For different versions of the chronology of the all scholars are convinced by this solution, and from to see commentators on the often F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Micah accept that dates can only be approximate. (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2000), p. xviii. The dates adopted in the present volume follow J. Bright, A History of Israel (London: In the table below the prophets are aligned SCM, 1972, second edition) which is largely only approximately with the kings, for ready based in turn on W. F. Albright in BASOR 100 reference. The table should be used with (1945), pp. 20–22. In the table below, no reference to the discussions of the Date and Destination of the individual prophets. (Jonah BEFORE THE EXILE and Daniel are put in brackets for reasons Kings of Israel Kings of Judah Prophets that will become clear in the chapters on those II 786–746 Uzziah 783–742 Amos books.) (Jonah) Zechariah 746–745 EXILE AND AFTER: 745 Hosea KINGS OF AND PERSIA Menahem 745–738 Jotham 742–735 (see also table at Daniel: Date and Destination) Pekahiah 738–737 Kings of Babylon and Persia Prophets Pekah 737–732 735–715 Isaiah, Micah 605–562 Reign of Nebuchadn(r)ezzar (Daniel) Hoshea 732–722 562–560 Reign of Amel-marduk (Evil-Merodach) Hezekiah 715–687 560–556 Reign of Manasseh 687–642 556–539 Reign of Nabonidus Second Isaiah Amon 642–640 549–539 Belshazzar co-regent 640–609 Habakkuk, Nahum 539 Babylon captured by Cyrus the Persian Zephaniah 539–530 Reign of Cyrus after capture of Jehoahaz 609 Jeremiah Babylon 609–597 Obadiah 530–522 Reign of Cambyses Jehoiachin 597 522–486 Reign of Darius I Hystaspes Haggai, 597–587 Ezekiel Zechariah, Joel? Malachi

viii KEY TO PANELS

This key to the panels helps locate the special and Humility and poverty Zephaniah 225 suggested exercises that occur throughout the volume. Idolatry Hosea 145 It should be noted that the panels are not exhaustive Intercession Ezekiel 91 treatments of topics, and are meant to be read and used in their contexts. Panels sometimes cross-refer to as centrepiece other parts of the book. Is there only one point? Jonah 191 Jerusalem as female Ezekiel 91 A number of themes may be picked up by looking Jonah as history? Jonah 187 carefully across the different kinds of boxes (for Justice and righteousness Amos 173 example: Israel, metaphor, prophecy/prophets, Justness of judgement Obadiah 182 rhetoric). Kinds of writing in Hosea Hosea 138 Metaphor of locusts Joel 155 Metaphors and similes Hosea 148 ‘THINK ABOUT’ PANELS ‘Mountain of the LORD’s house’ Micah 199 Between salvation and salvation Zechariah 253 OAN as rhetoric Ezekiel 94 Canon and biblical theology Introduction xxviii Obadiah in relation to Amos Obadiah 183 ‘Circumcision of the heart’ Jeremiah 53 Political planning ‘Covenants’ Malachi 266 Power and weakness Nahum 208 Daniel among the prophets? Daniel 130 Pride of kings Daniel 127 Daniel and Daniel 112 in new settings Daniel and Revelation Daniel 131 Prophecy, Jews and Christians Daniel as intercessor Daniel 130 Prophetic symbolic actions Ezekiel 89 Daniel’s stories as history? Daniel 113 Prophetic words in new contexts Joel 157 Delusions of grandeur Reading Joel before Amos Book of the ‘Deterministic’ view of history? Daniel 129 Twelve 133 ‘Disenchantment’ of the world Hosea 146 Rhetoric and speech-acts Introduction xxvii Echoes of the past Haggai 233 Rome, Babylon and the Election Amos 168 Should Christians tithe? Malachi 264 as ‘rhetoric’ Ezekiel 93 Song of the vineyard as poetry Fall of Babylon Spirit (the) Joel 159 Free will Jeremiah 70 ‘Universalism’ and Jonah 191 God’s call Waiting for God to act Habakkuk 217 God’s presence in Ezekiel’s Waiting for salvation Micah 201 structure Ezekiel 87 What is Jonah like? Jonah 186 Holiness and love Hosea 147 What’s in a (prophet’s) name? Amos 170 Hosea on kings Hosea 144 Why does God judge the nations? Amos 167 ‘House of ’ – different views Wisdom and understanding Daniel 128 in Hosea and Kings? Hosea 139 Zechariah 9—14 in the How can the exiles be ‘Israel’? passion-narratives Zechariah 255 How long is seventy years? Jeremiah 59 as messiah? Haggai 234

ix EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT

‘DIGGING DEEPER’ PANELS OTHER PANELS Book of the Twelve as Book of the Apocalyptic Daniel 114 one book? Twelve 134 Chronology in Ezekiel Ezekiel 83 Comparison Jeremiah 54 ‘Cognitive dissonance’ Haggai 237 ‘Covenant accusation’ Micah 200 ‘Covenant with ’? Malachi 262 Daniel 11 and history Daniel 124 Cultic prophets Zephaniah 222 Daniel and Daniel 129 Deuteronomy and Hosea Hosea 136 Debt-slavery Amos 167 Divorce Malachi 267 Divine initiative and human Editing of Haggai, Zechariah response Ezekiel 92 1—8 and Chronicles Haggai 231 Divine warrior Jeremiah 58 God as author of evil? Ezekiel 98 Finding prophets Introduction xvi Interbiblical quotations Joel 153 God’s affections Malachi 265 Is prophecy predictive? ‘Holiness’ Ezekiel 100 ‘Jealous’ God Zechariah 246 Hosea’s ‘marriage’ Hosea 141 Key dates for the Daniel 110 Israel’s return to its land Jeremiah 66 Knowing God’s will: Did prophecy cease after the exile? Zechariah 252 Jeremiah’s ‘confessions’ Jeremiah 56 Life after in the Old Literary techniques; more Testament on genre Jonah 193 More on ‘Israel’ Introduction xxiv Malachi and Malachi 260 ‘On the third day’ (Hosea 6:2) Hosea 142 Messianic text? Daniel 123 ‘Prayer of Nabonidus’ Daniel 111 Poetry, metaphor and theology Introduction xxvi Prophetic sayings and their Prophecy and Wisdom Introduction xx backgrounds Micah 198 Prophets and Psalms Introduction xxii Prophetic tradition: How oracles Prophetic allusions Daniel 123 got into books Micah 196 Reinterpretation of Prophets as a section of the prophecies Ezekiel 96 Old Testament canon Introduction xiii Temple and security Jeremiah 54 Roles of priests and Ezekiel 97 Two political allegories Ezekiel 92 Was there an Ezekiel ‘school’? Ezekiel 86 Shepherd-messiah Micah 199 ‘Wise (the)’ Daniel 129 Son of Man Daniel 120 What do names tell us about Too much sacrifice Micah 200 the prophets? Amos 170 Yahweh and the temple Haggai 235 Who ‘repented’? Zechariah 245 Zephaniah and Jeremiah Zephaniah 220

x

INTRODUCTION

WHAT THIS BOOK AIMS TO DO while others are more complex, or relate to specific issues. This book aims to help students study the Prophets. Like other volumes in the EOT Above all the book is written in the belief and ENT series, it is intended to give the that the prophets have important things to student a primary resource to enable him or say to modern people. They are sometimes her to study the texts independently. It misunderstood, and, in church life, often provides introductory material on each neglected. That is nothing new for the book, a basic commentary, and pointers to prophets, as it was neglect that they theological interpretation. It is also interactive. themselves typically challenged in their Interspersed in the interpretation are a hearers, rather than offering them ‘some number of panels, which invite the student new thing’. So I hope that this book will to think about what has been learnt (Think make a small contribution to their being about), or to take an aspect of the study heard clearly again. further (Digging deeper). Some of the panels are simply background notes, supplying extra information to clarify difficult issues or STUDYING THE PROPHETIC BOOKS points. Essay titles as such are not supplied, PROPHETS AND BOOKS but can be constructed out of many of the The study of the prophets can be illustrated panels. A key to the panels enables the by two very different passages from the reader to see at a glance what topics are prophetic books, one near the beginning dealt with in them. and the other right at the end. The first is Isa. 6:1–13. In this, Isaiah has his famous The book is intended to open onto a range vision of God as the heavenly king. It is the of critical and interpretative literature on the most dramatic picture of the prophet’s prophets. Each chapter is supplied with lists experience of God. Isaiah is overwhelmed of commentaries and other works, most of by the vision of God’s glory, so that he is which are referred to in the chapter in deeply aware of his own sin. Yet apparently question. Items marked with * are it is this vision that inspires and motivates his considered suitable as first ports of call, whole ministry. The vision leads to xi EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT understanding, and to action. It is no Even so, we will not be wrong to look for the surprise, then, that this passage has become prophet. Isaiah’s vision speaks of the central the classic text for the idea of call itself. (It is idea in the books: that God spoke to one of the passages that are always read at individuals and commissioned them to speak ordination services in the Church of in turn. England.) The relationship between ‘prophet’ and The second passage, much less famous, is ‘book’ could be stated as a kind of problem Mal. 4:4–6. These words close the whole or dilemma. Are we being teased with the collection of the prophetic books. They promise of introductions to real people who exhort the people to remember the laws of finally elude us? Some studies focus so much , and promises the return of ‘’ on the book – in the guise of ‘the tradition’, ‘before the great and terrible day of the or the ‘final form’ – that we lose the prophet LORD comes’. The law and the prophets altogether. Some regard the prophetic stand together in these verses. The prophets figures as the fictitious creations of the stand alongside a ‘book’ (Moses’ law), and writers or communities who created the they have themselves become a book. The books. In my view, the opposite poles of close of the prophetic section of the Old prophet and book need not be treated as a Testament announces the concept of ‘the law problem. They are simply an inevitable part and the prophets’, a canon of Scripture. of the study before us. Both poles must be respected: the book because it is part of the Our study of ‘the prophets’ lies between canonical literature, and the prophet these two moments: the conviction of because his God-given message is the individuals that they had words from God controlling idea in the book. that were urgent, for people then and there; and the collection of the prophets’ words for What, then, are the key elements in studying the benefit of new generations, well beyond the prophetic books? The following topics their own time, right down to us who still correspond to the headings we shall use in read them and are challenged by them. this volume when we come to each of them.

In studying the prophets we cannot avoid THE PROPHET the ‘book’. Indeed, ‘The Prophets’ in the Each chapter that follows will begin with title of this volume refers to a division of the some notes on the Date and Destination of canon of the Old Testament. When we look the prophecy. This will ask questions about for Jeremiah, what we find is a book that who the prophet was, the time in which he tells us about Jeremiah and the things he worked, and whom he spoke to. But what did and said. The book was written (finally may we know about the prophets? We have at least) by someone other than Jeremiah, several lines on this. for a time and place other than his own. And a number of the prophets are much Information in the individual books more elusive than Jeremiah. (How often, A number of the books give information when introducing one or other of the about the prophets in their introductory prophetic books, I have had to say: ‘Very headings, or superscriptions (e.g. :1; little is known about x’!) Jer. 1:1–3) and elsewhere (Amos 7:14; Jer. xii INTRODUCTION

THE PROPHETS AS A SECTION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT CANON

The books that bear the names of prophets form a specific links with certain prophetic books (especially distinct section of the Old Testament. This is true Jeremiah and Ezekiel), it too found its way into the whether we are thinking of the Christian form of the prophets section of the canon as we have it in LXX, Old Testament canon, or the Jewish form (the and so in Christian Bibles. ‘’). The Hebrew Bible is usually divided into three sections: the Law (that is, the Pentateuch, In Exploring the Old Testament we have adopted the or the Five Books of Moses), the Prophets and the divisions of the Christian Old Testament. This means, Writings. In that division, the Prophets section is for example, that the volume on the further divided into the Former Prophets (the includes and Chronicles–Esther, and also that we Historical Books from to Kings, without Ruth), deal with Lamentations and Daniel in the present and the Latter Prophets. These Latter Prophets are volume. This choice has not been made for dogmatic the books that carry the names of particular prophets. reasons. But as we expect most of our readers to be using English Bibles, and the discussions presuppose Christian Bibles broadly follow the order of the Greek no knowledge of Hebrew, it was the natural choice. Old Testament (known as the , or LXX), and put these prophetic books at the end of the Old For the same reason we are using the term ‘Old Testament. They also include two books that are Testament’. Of course this is a loaded term, as is the omitted from the Hebrew form of the canon, namely alternative, the Hebrew Bible. Strictly speaking, each Lamentations and Daniel. In the Hebrew form, these of these names implies a claim to ‘own’ the book in two (along with Ruth, Chronicles, Nehemiah, question, either on the part of the Christian Church or and Esther) belong in the Writings section. However, the Jewish synagogue. It is not our intention in EOT to Lamentations was linked from a very early period enter a debate about this, or to be dogmatic about it. with Jeremiah, and so was attached to that book in And we hope that a Jewish reader could use our the canonical tradition found in LXX. Daniel is volumes for his or her own study. Yet EOT is a different in important ways from the other books in companion series to ENT, and the primary target the prophetic collection. In scholarship it is usually audience of both is students undertaking introductory classified as ‘apocalyptic’ rather than prophecy. (This is courses on the Bible in broadly Christian contexts. In explained in the chapter on Daniel.) However, as it is EOT this will emerge most clearly from those parts of like the prophets in its idea of an individual who our studies that reflect on the relationship between the receives revelations from God, and as it also has Old and New Testaments.

25:1–3; Zech. 1:1, 7; 7:1). These point to from book to book. Some of the headings historical situations, and sometimes give give little away (Joel 1:1; Nah. 1:1; Hab. 1:1; details about the prophet’s family and his Mal. 1:1), and the prophets can remain location in society ( Jeremiah and Ezekiel rather shadowy. Even where much were of priestly families). Some also tell information seems to be given, scholars about things they did (Amos 7:10–14; Isaiah scrutinize it severely to see what it really 7—8). The tells us a good tells. Since the information is patchy, it deal about that prophet, including an probably means that it is not felt to be incident that gives a clue about how his book greatly important in itself. When books do came to be written (). tell us details about a prophet’s life, it is likely that this is not for its own sake, but is However, this kind of information varies part of the message of the book. This is xiii EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT certainly true of Jeremiah 36, for example. has a unified view of ‘the prophets’. See the (See below, The prophets: Did they write? for panel: Digging deeper: Finding prophets.) more on Jeremiah 36. Some scholars used to talk of ‘biographical’ parts of Jeremiah, but Sociology that idea is no longer popular, because it is The biblical picture has been viewed by recognized that the writers did not have the some recent scholarship from a particular same interest in people’s lives for their own angle. If we have only limited knowledge sake as a modern reader might have). about individual prophets, perhaps we can find out something about their ‘social A broad Old Testament picture location’, that is, their place as a group or Apart from details about individual class within society. Fundamental to this prophets, we have some glimpses of ‘the concept is that prophets have ‘support prophets’ as a body. The stories of , for groups’, that is groups that recognize the example, speak of a group of ‘the sons of the prophet as speaking authoritatively. prophets’ (just another way of saying ‘the prophets’), who live and work together To try to discover the prophets’ social (2 Kgs 4:1; 6:1). This suggests they were a location, scholars have observed how recognizable group within society. A story of intermediaries are placed in other societies: King suggests that they engaged in do they, and their support groups, belong ecstatic behaviour, under the influence of within the ‘establishment’ or outside it? Do ‘the spirit of God’ (1 Sam. 10:9–13). King they support or disturb the status quo? expected them to give him guidance Sociological studies have examined the when he was facing a big decision, such as different names used for prophets (‘prophet’, whether to go to war (though Ahab was ‘seer’, ‘’) and the ways in which careful to choose which ones he listened to! they receive messages from God (especially 1 Kgs 22:6–8). in speech and vision). Variations in these respects have led some to find regional The prophets as a body come to be variations in the status and roles of prophets. regarded as the ones who called Israel to Northern prophets, for example, have been repent. This is how they appear in 2 Kgs thought to belong within a particular 17:13, and there are echoes of this in the tradition in which the Mosaic covenant plays prophetic books themselves (Hos. 6:1; Jer. a significant governing role in their thought. 3:1—4:4). They do not always appear in a Southern prophets like Isaiah, in contrast, good light, however. The story of Ahab are said to be influenced by ‘vision’, and this already illustrates this (1 Kgs 22:24). And the is related to a theology in which the temple, prophetic books themselves sometimes and the Davidic covenant, play an important portray ‘the prophets’ as unfaithful time- role. (Wilson 1980, Petersen 1981 and servers (e.g. Hos. 4:5; Amos 7:12–13; Jer. Overholt 1996 are key studies on this topic.) 23:9–40). This raises the question of how people might know the difference between a One gain of this approach is to give a way of ‘true’ prophet and a ‘false’ one. The book of thinking about how a prophet’s words might Jeremiah faces this problem directly. (It originally have been preserved. If prophets raises a quite different point for some had ‘support groups’ they will have wanted scholars, namely whether the Old Testament to preserve the authoritative words. One xiv INTRODUCTION reason for this will have been to measure While some modern studies play down the them against events, and have proof of their connection between the prophet and the authenticity. It is clear that there was a great written word, others are finding evidence concern to know whether prophets’ words that points in the opposite direction. were true or false (Deut. 13; 18:20–22). Referring to Ancient Near Eastern evidence, as well as evidence from writing in pre-exilic The question of how prophets’ words were Israel and Judah, H. Barstad writes: ‘it is preserved comes up differently with probable that prophecies were written down different prophets. See, for example, Isaiah: at a very early stage and later collected’ The composition of Isaiah 1—39. (1996, p. 124). Indeed, it is likely that prophecies, when uttered, would have been The prophets: Did they write? written down straight away. This may have A special question in studying the prophets been because it was regarded as important as individuals concerns how they gave their to record the message from God in the most messages. Did they speak only, or did they accurate way possible, or to ensure it also write? When they spoke, was it only in reached the right hearer (Barstad 1996, rather short poetic oracles, or could they p. 123). (The same point has been made by also give more connected ‘sermonic’ A. R. Millard (1985) who also thinks the speeches? (This last question comes up words would have remained unchanged sharply in Jeremiah.) These questions are when passed down from one generation to obviously related to the broader question of another. See also A. Malamat 1995, how accurate a picture of the prophet we especially pp. 55–56.) R. P. Gordon also are getting from the book. points to the significance of Ancient Near Eastern evidence in encouraging the search This is a fundamental issue in the study of for the forms of prophecy that lie behind the the prophets, but there is surprisingly little books as we have them (1995, p. 602). agreement about it. The classic critical view was that prophets spoke in poetry, and the One passage in our books throws light on prosaic sections of their books were written this question. In Jeremiah 36 we read of only afterwards by less gifted disciples how Jeremiah wrote his oracles on a scroll (proposed by B. Duhm 1901; see L. Stulman and had it read to King Jehoiakim. The 1986 e.g. pp. 8–9). This view has been king, who found Jeremiah’s words greatly contested in Jeremiah studies, where unwelcome, destroyed the scroll. Jeremiah a number of scholars have argued that responded by making another, with yet Jeremiah himself uttered the sermonic more of his words written on it. Does this speeches (e.g. J. Bright; see on Jeremiah: episode tell us anything about how prophets Critical Interpretation). (The debate now usually had their words recorded? Or is this seems to have reached an opposite extreme, a unique incident, caused by the fact that with some saying the prophets were not Jeremiah was banned from going himself to prophets but poets; see Finding prophets.) the king at that time (Jer. 36:5–6)? It is The idea that prophets were really poetic impossible to be sure. What it does show is speakers went hand in hand with the idea that the readers and hearers of Jeremiah that there was a gradual transition from would not have thought it strange that a authentic prophetic speech to written book. prophet should write down his words xv EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT

(Barstad 1996, pp. 125–26). We have one consensus on who the prophets were or other instance of Jeremiah writing, in his what they said or thought. What was the letter to the exiles in Babylon ( Jer. 29:4–28). message of Jeremiah? Well, it depends whom you read. What some think is the As we said a moment ago, the question of message of Jeremiah others will attribute to whether the prophets wrote is related to the later editors. An example of this diversity is question of how accurate a picture we have the question of whether prophets were of them in their books. How much of what essentially preachers of judgement and we read there actually came from them? doom, or whether they also urged Commentators vary greatly on this. Among repentance and held out the hope of those who attribute very little of the books to salvation. (See Isaiah: Is prophecy the prophets are O. Kaiser (see chapter 1), predictable? See also the panel: Prophetic and R. P. Carroll (see chapter 2). At the tradition: How oracles got into books, in other end of the scale are, for example, J. A. Critical Interpretation of Micah.) Motyer, J. H. Hayes and S. A. Irvine (see chapter 1) and J. Bright (see chapter 2). THE BOOK We have spent some time thinking about As commentators disagree over these basic how to find the person behind the book. It is issues, it follows that there is no scholarly now time to think a little about the book. The prophetic books are not just raw collections of disjointed sayings, but carefully Digging deeper: constructed pieces of literature. In each of FINDING PROPHETS them we meet immediately a voice that is not the same as the prophet’s voice. This For further discussion on the search for the voice is heard in the superscriptions, the prophet’s own words, see the debate between opening words of the book. Already here is a A. G. Auld, R. P. Carroll, H. G. M. Williamson, sign of organization, of someone who has set H. Barstad and T. Overholt in The Prophets: a the prophet’s words in context and is Sheffield Reader (P. R. Davies ed.). Auld thinks that writing for an audience that may be even the idea of ‘prophets’ as we find it in the different from the prophet’s original books is late (post-exilic). Carroll supports this, audience. adding that the Old Testament disagrees with itself In addition to superscriptions we also have over whether the ‘prophets’ were a good thing or narratives about the prophets and other a bad thing (pp. 43–44); prophets were really characters (e.g. Hosea 1, 3; —8; ‘poets’, ‘free spirits’, only tamed by an orthodox —44). The narratives and the tradition (pp. 46–48). Williamson, Barstad and sayings have been linked together, according Overholt all make responses to this view. One to a sense of theme. For example, the story response is that prophetic behaviour was well of Jeremiah redeeming the field of his known in contemporary societies (Overholt). And cousin Hanamel is part of the ‘Book of it is also argued that Auld and Carroll have paid Consolation’ (—33), which also too little attention to Ancient Near Eastern contains Jeremiah’s sayings about the New parallels (Barstad, p. 113). Covenant (Jer. 31:31–34). The sayings and the story are on the theme of salvation, xvi INTRODUCTION which is predominant in this part of the present book. Here we will give some book of Jeremiah. Similarly, sayings examples and definitions. themselves have often been organized according to a definite structural plan. This Literary criticism In Old Testament is very clear in Isaiah 1—12, where sayings scholarship until recently, literary criticism of judgement and salvation alternate. All meant noticing such things as inconsistency, these features show that someone has incoherence, and differences of style, in thought about what the message of the order to separate the stages in a book’s prophet adds up to, how it fits, not only into composition, and find its original form. This his own life, but into the life of the method of studying biblical books was at the community in which he ministered. forefront of scholarship in the modern period, that is, from the late nineteenth There are further signs of how sayings have century on. In Pentateuchal studies, Julius been gathered into a book. The two Wellhausen formulated the well-known four- different forms of Jeremiah (Hebrew MT document theory (JEDP; see G. J. Wenham and Greek LXX) show two different in EOT: The Pentateuch). attempts to shape the memory of Jeremiah’s life and work into a book. The overlapping In the prophets, the leading name was of material between books is another , whose commentary on indicator: between prophetic books (Isa. Isaiah in 1892 was ‘the first genuinely 2:2–4; Mic. 4:1–4), and between prophetic modern commentary on a prophetic book’ books and other types of book (— (Blenkinsopp 1984, p. 28). Duhm wanted to 39 and —20; Jeremiah 52 and 2 separate out the genuine words of the Kings 25). This shows a conscious use of prophet from later expansions, which he existing material. (Both Isaiah 36—39 and thought inferior. For Duhm, this was not a Jeremiah 52 present versions of the events purely academic exercise, for he had a real in question that are adapted to the interests religious interest in doing this. He thought of the respective prophetic books.) Finally, that if he could find the true words of the there are editorial comments, additions, and prophet he would also uncover his religious linkages, e.g. Mal. 4:4–6 [3:19–24]; Isa. 2:5; experience, which he believed was a deep Hos.14:9 (with the last of these compare and true experience of God. This Psalm 1 as a ‘wisdom’ superscription to the knowledge of God was bound up, in Duhm’s Book of Psalms). view, with the poetic expression, which he thought marked true prophecy. Literary The formation of the book criticism in its heyday, therefore, had a Can we discover the process by which the profound religious motivation, at least for words of the prophet came to be collected in some of its advocates. (J. Skinner’s study of the book? A good deal of scholarship on the Jeremiah (see chapter 2) is a good example prophets has concerned itself with this of this in English.) question. The same means have been applied to it as to other parts of the Old In our own study, the literary critical interest Testament, especially literary criticism, form comes out most strongly in Jeremiah, where criticism, and redaction criticism. Examples the prose-sermons were attributed to a of these will be given in the course of the different source from the poetic oracles. xvii EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT

Narratives about the prophet were assigned 65–67). This is different from the idea of a to yet another source. (See Jeremiah: Critical ‘threat’, which could imply a chance to avoid Interpretation.) the judgement by repenting.

The problems with literary criticism are, The strength of form criticism in the prophets first, that it made certain assumptions about is in the ‘messenger’-concept, which the form of ‘authentic’ prophecy, which may recognizes the force of the words spoken. not hold true, and second that it devalues Westermann rightly sees that no distinction much of what we find in the prophetic can be made between the word of God and books. the word of the prophet (Westermann 1991, pp. 94–95). We will come back to this under Form criticism Form criticism is a study of ‘Rhetorical Intention’ below. The weakness is forms of speech as used in specific settings. perhaps in its idea that classical forms of the It was applied with great success to the announcements are brief (Westermann Psalms, where a setting could be readily 1991, p. 105), which sets off again on a hunt identified (Israel’s worship), and where a for the ‘original’ and therefore (like literary number of recurring elements suggested criticism) thinks of some of the writing in the that Psalms could be classified into a small prophetic books as secondary and in a sense number of types. a degeneration.

In the prophets, the search for typical forms Redaction criticism Redaction criticism is took the study of prophetic speech much the prevailing type of criticism in modern further than literary criticism had done. The scholarly writing on the prophets. It is pioneer of form criticism, H. Gunkel, different from literary and form criticism thought prophets uttered ‘vision-reports’ because it is interested in principle in the (reports about their experiences of having formation of the books up to their final visions), and spoke words of threat and form. It recognizes that the words of promise (Tucker 1971, pp. 55–56). The most prophets have been recast into new contexts, influential study of prophetic forms has been and so given new meanings. And it assumes C. Westermann’s (1991, pp. 90–98). He finds that these new contexts and meanings are as three types: accounts (including vision important and interesting as any original reports), speeches and prayers. The ones. Redaction criticism has two aspects, speeches are the most important. These therefore: the study of the stages of a book’s divide mainly into announcements of growth, and the study of the finished work judgement or salvation, and the underlying itself, with all the inner relationships idea is of pronouncements by a messenger between its parts that have been produced (Westermann 1991, pp. 93, 98–128). The by the process. effect of this is to claim that the prophetic speeches merely announce something that Most modern studies of prophetic books has already been decided. When the assume that the book has undergone a prophet announces God’s judgement, not complicated process of growth. With a pre- only is the judgement inevitable, but the exilic prophet this may mean that his announcement itself has a certain power to prophecies were first collected together by set it in motion (Westermann 1991, pp. people rather close to him in time, that the xviii INTRODUCTION book was then formed into a shape Redaction criticism leaves certain questions resembling what we now have in the time of unanswered, such as the precise means by King Josiah or the exile, and finally was which smaller units were gradually enlarged filled out by still more expansions (this is the into recognizable blocks and finally books. account of Collins 1993, pp. 15–16). Another We will meet a number of theories about this advocate of redaction criticism is R. E. in our study (such as W. McKane’s ‘rolling Clements, who writes: corpus’ in Jeremiah; and H. G. M. Williamson’s belief that Deutero-Isaiah Even so complex a composition as the shaped the whole block of —55). , which evidently took Some think the cult (the institutions of centuries to reach its final form, shows Israel’s worship life) was the vehicle in which evidence that, through its many stages of the books were carried as they developed growth, intentional connections and (Coggins 1996, p. 81). See also the panel: interrelationships between the parts were Was there an Ezekiel school? in Critical planned (Clements 1996, p. 204). Interpretation of Ezekiel.

The growth of books, then, is not haphazard, THEOLOGICAL THEMES but comes out of careful theological This section looks for the theological reflection. This means that there is an contribution made by the prophetic book in important connection between the process of question. In thinking about prophetic growth and the interpretation of the book in theology, we are faced again with the its final form. Because the process of growth question of prophet or book: are we looking was governed by theological aims, the finished for the theology of the prophet himself, or book offers possibilities for theological the theology of the book? The theological interpretation by the comparison of its themes that we find are, of course, found in various parts together (Clements 1996). We the book, or even in the books as a collection. have already noticed some of the ways in R. E. Clements probably expresses the most which the raw materials of prophecy have common modern view when he says that been formed together into books, for this is where we should look for the example, the careful arrangement of the theological contribution of the ‘prophets’: prophecies in Isaiah 1—12, where sayings of judgement and salvation alternate, making It is our contention, however, that it was us think about how those two kinds of not until a whole corpus of prophetic message might relate to each other. sayings came into being as a written record that it became possible and necessary to Redaction criticism, therefore, is an look for a larger degree of coherence and important attempt to account for the ‘book’- consistency in their implied disclosure of characteristics of prophecy that we noticed at the divine nature and a genuine theology the beginning of this section. If as readers of became possible (Clements 1986, p. 206). the prophetic books we think that they – especially the larger ones – are rambling and However, the books give us a picture of shapeless, redaction criticism encourages us prophets who were themselves theologically to look beyond our first impressions to think motivated. They believed they were about their message as a whole. commissioned by the God of Israel (not xix EXPLORING THE OLD TESTAMENT

‘DIGGING DEEPER’ PANELS OTHER PANELS Book of the Twelve as Book of the Apocalyptic Daniel 114 one book? Twelve 134 Chronology in Ezekiel Ezekiel 83 Comparison Jeremiah 54 ‘Cognitive dissonance’ Haggai 237 ‘Covenant accusation’ Micah 200 ‘Covenant with Levi’? Malachi 262 Daniel 11 and history Daniel 124 Cultic prophets Zephaniah 222 Daniel and 1 Maccabees Daniel 129 Deuteronomy and Hosea Hosea 136 Debt-slavery Amos 167 Divorce Malachi 267 Divine initiative and human Editing of Haggai, Zechariah response Ezekiel 92 1—8 and Chronicles Haggai 231 Divine warrior Jeremiah 58 God as author of evil? Ezekiel 98 Finding prophets Introduction xvi Interbiblical quotations Joel 153 God’s affections Malachi 265 Is prophecy predictive? Isaiah 8 ‘Holiness’ Ezekiel 100 ‘Jealous’ God Zechariah 246 Hosea’s ‘marriage’ Hosea 141 Key dates for the Book of Daniel Daniel 110 Israel’s return to its land Jeremiah 66 Knowing God’s will: Did prophecy cease after the exile? Zechariah 252 Jeremiah’s ‘confessions’ Jeremiah 56 Life after death in the Old Literary techniques; more Testament Isaiah 20 on genre Jonah 193 More on ‘Israel’ Introduction xxiv Malachi and Nehemiah Malachi 260 ‘On the third day’ (Hosea 6:2) Hosea 142 Messianic text? Daniel 123 ‘Prayer of Nabonidus’ Daniel 111 Poetry, metaphor and theology Introduction xxvi Prophetic sayings and their Prophecy and Wisdom Introduction xx backgrounds Micah 198 Prophets and Psalms Introduction xxii Prophetic tradition: How oracles Prophetic allusions Daniel 123 got into books Micah 196 Reinterpretation of Prophets as a section of the prophecies Ezekiel 96 Old Testament canon Introduction xiii Temple and security Jeremiah 54 Roles of priests and Levites Ezekiel 97 Two political allegories Ezekiel 92 Servant Songs Isaiah 26 Was there an Ezekiel ‘school’? Ezekiel 86 Shepherd-messiah Micah 199 ‘Wise (the)’ Daniel 129 Son of Man Daniel 120 What do names tell us about Too much sacrifice Micah 200 the prophets? Amos 170 Yahweh and the temple Haggai 235 Who ‘repented’? Zechariah 245 Zephaniah and Jeremiah Zephaniah 220

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