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À La Conquête D'un Monde Virtuel XXXXXXXXMANIOC : l’améliorer : comment pour sauver réduire la pêche la faim et dans les pêcheurs le monde ?? Septembre 2010 - n° 395 www.pourlascience.fr Édition française de Scientifi c American Les fractales À la conquête d’un monde virtuel 3D Paroles de singes Des cris assemblés en phrases L’Univers qui fuit Où disparaît l’énergie des photons ? Illusions visuelles Voir des couleurs interdites M 02687 - 395 - F: 6,20 E France métro : 6,20 € - DOM : 7,30 € - BEL : 7,20 € - CH : 12 FS - CAN : 9,45 $ - Grèce : 7,20 € € - LUX : 7,20 € 3:HIKMQI=\U[WU^:?a@d@t@f@k; Italie : 7,20 € - PORT : 7,20 € AND : 6,20 € - ALL : 9,30 € - MAR : 57 dh - REU : 9,30 € - TOM surface : 980 XPF - TOM Avion : 1770 XPF couverture_pls_395*****.indd 1 05/08/10 17:20 gmf.xp 3/08/10 16:41 Page 1 PLS395_Édito 9/08/10 17:21 Page 1 ÉDITO POUR L A de Françoise Pétry rédactrice en chef www.pourlascience.fr 8 rue Férou, 75278 PARIS CEDEX 06 Standard: Tel. 01 55 42 84 00 POUR LA SCIENCE Directrice de la rédaction - Rédactrice en chef:Françoise Pétry Pour la Science: Rédacteur en chef adjoint: Maurice Mashaal Rédacteurs: François Savatier, Marie-Neige Cordonnier, Philippe Ribeau-Gésippe, Bénédicte Salthun-Lassalle, Jean-Jacques Perrier Virtuel ou illusoire? Dossiers Pour la Science: Rédacteur en chef adjoint : Loïc Mangin Rédacteur : Guillaume Jacquemont ’actuel est. Au contraire, le virtuel n’est qu’en puissance. Pour- Cerveau & Psycho: tant, aujourd’hui, le virtuel est si présent qu’il semble être Rédacteur : Sébastien Bohler L’Essentiel Cerveau & Psycho: actuel. Tant et si bien que l’on parle de réalité virtuelle. Cet Rédactrice : Émilie Auvrouin oxymoron n’en est plus un : les deux termes ne s’opposent Directrice artistique: Céline Lapert Lplus, car les modèles et les puissances de calcul disponibles brouillent Secrétariat de rédaction/Maquette: Annie Tacquenet, Sylvie Sobelman, Pauline Bilbault, Raphaël Queruel, Ingrid Leroy la frontière entre actuel et virtuel. Les interfaces – casques, lunettes, Site Internet: Philippe Ribeau-Gésippe assisté de Lætitia Pierre capteurs de position, etc. – sont si perfectionnées qu’elles rendent le Marketing: Heidi Chappes possible palpable au sujet immergé dans un environnement virtuel. Le Direction financière: Anne Gusdorf Direction du personnel: Marc Laumet virtuel et le réel ne s’excluent plus, mais dialoguent, interagissent, s’hy- Fabrication : Jérôme Jalabert assisté de Marianne Sigogne Presse et communication: Susan Mackie brident. La simulation permet d’explorer d’autres réalités. Directrice de la publication et Gérante: Sylvie Marcé La réalité virtuelle est le terrain de prédilection des jeux vidéo. Pour Conseillers scientifiques : Philippe Boulanger et Hervé This Ont également participé à ce numéro: Maximilian Bauer, qu’il puisse s’imaginer dans un monde nouveau, le sujet est placé dans Serge Berthier, Arezki Boudaoud, Jean-Pierre Bourassa, des environnements virtuels. Et ceux que livrent les fractales 3D pour- Nadine Cerf-Bensussan, Frédéric Chibon, Sébastien Charnoz, Bettina Debû, Michel Detay, Éric Lécuyer, Roger Le Grand, raient être des mondes galactiques ou intergalactiques qui restent à André Nel, Anne-Lise Paradis, Patrick Peter, Christophe Pichon, Fabien Quéré, Daniel Tacquenet. découvrir (voir Du relief pour les fractales, page 22). PUBLICITÉ France C’est aussi un monde qu’explorent les physiciens. Selon la mécanique Directeur de la Publicité: Jean-François Guillotin ([email protected]), assisté de Nada Mellouk-Raja quantique, le chat de Schrödinger peut être à la fois mort et vivant dans Tél.: 01 55 42 84 28 ou 01 55 42 84 97 • Fax : 01 43 25 18 29 une cage, tant que personne n’ouvre la porte pour vérifier. En revanche, SERVICE ABONNEMENTS Ginette Grémillon. Tél.: 01 55 42 84 04 au moment même où l’on tente de l’observer, il cesse d’être dans cet Espace abonnements : http://tinyurl.com/abonnements-pourlascience Adresse e-mail : [email protected] Les frontières sont ténues. Adresse postale : Service des abonnements - 8 rue Férou - 75278 Paris cedex 06 état superposé, et il est alors soit vivant, soit mort. À la fin des années 1950, Commande de dossiers ou de magazines : le physicien Hugh Everett a formulé l’hypothèse des univers multiples. 02 37 82 06 62 (de l’étranger : 33 2 37 82 06 62) Selon lui, à chaque fois que l’on ouvre la cage, l’univers se dédouble en DIFFUSION DE POUR LA SCIENCE Canada: Edipresse: 945, avenue Beaumont, Montréal, un univers où le chat est vivant et un autre où il est mort. Reproduisons Québec, H3N 1W3 Canada. l’expérience un grand nombre de fois. Le chat restera en vie, car, à chaque Suisse: Servidis: Chemin des châlets, 1979 Chavannes - 2 - Bogis Belgique: La Caravelle: 303, rue du Pré-aux-oies - 1130 Bruxelles. fois que l’on ouvre la cage, il y a un univers où sa vie est préservée (voir Autres pays: Éditions Belin: 8, rue Férou - 75278 Paris Cedex 06. Suicide et immortalité quantiques, page 82). Seriez-vous prêt à prendre SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Editor in chief : Mariette DiChristina. Editors: Ricky la place du chat ? Ou Everett avait raison et vous sortirez vivant de Rusting, Philip Yam, Gary Stix, Davide Castelvecchi, Graham Collins, Mark Fischetti, Steve Mirsky, Michael Moyer, George Musser, Christine Soares, Kate l’expérience, ou il a tort et... vous jouerez à la roulette russe quantique. Wong. President : Steven Inchcoombe. Vice President : Frances Newburg. Dans de telles expériences de pensée, se situe-t-on dans un monde Toutes demandes d’autorisation de reproduire, pour le public français ou francophone, les textes, les photos, les dessins ou les documents conte- virtuel ou illusoire? Les frontières sont ténues, notamment quand il nus dans la revue «Pour la Science», dans la revue «Scientific American», s’agit d’illusions visuelles. L’étude des couleurs interdites – le bleu-jaune dans les livres édités par « Pour la Science » doivent être adressées par écrit à « Pour la Science S.A.R.L. », 8, rue Férou, 75278 Paris Cedex 06. ou le vert-rouge – permet d’explorer les mécanismes de la perception © Pour la Science S.A.R.L. Tous droits de reproduction, de traduction, d’adap- des couleurs. En piégeant le cerveau, les neurobiologistes rendent tation et de représentation réservés pour tous les pays. La marque et le nom commercial «Scientific American» sont la propriété de Scientific Ame- possible la perception de ces couleurs interdites et font naître diverses rican, Inc. Licence accordée à « Pour la Science S.A.R.L. ». illusions visuelles (voir La perception des couleurs interdites, page 58). En application de la loi du 11 mars 1957, il est interdit de reproduire intégralement ou partiellement la présente revue « Aucun possible n’est beau; le réel seul est beau », soutenait le sans autorisation de l’éditeur ou du Centre français de philosophe Alain. Aurait-il changé d’avis, s’il avait connu les prouesses l’exploitation du droit de copie (20, rue des Grands-Augus- tins - 75006 Paris). de la réalité virtuelle et les mondes que les fractales à trois dimen- sions nous livrent? ■ © Pour la Science - n° 395 - Septembre 2010 Édito [1 pls_395_p002_003_sommaire.xp_mm_0608 9/08/10 14:40 Page 2 SOMMAIRE 1 ÉDITO À LA UNE 4 BLOC-NOTES Didier Nordon 22 MATHÉMATIQUES Actualités Du relief pour les fractales Christoph Pöppe 6 Sacrifices d’enfants L’«’«ensemble de Mandelbrot », chez les Mayas une fractale emblématique, est bidimensionnel. En existe-t-il un équivalent tridimensionnel ? Des structures étonnantes récemment créées s’en rapprochent. 8 Des fractales COSMOLOGIE dans le papier froissé 30 L’Univers perd-il de l’énergie? 10 Du venin de cône Tamara Davis contre la douleur L’énergie totale d’un système isolé, 11 Le nucléolin, acteur oublié tel l’Univers, devrait être conservée. de la division cellulaire Or la lumière issue des galaxies lointaines semble perdre de l’énergie en raison ... et bien d’autres sujets. de l’expansion de l’Univers. Y a-t-il un paradoxe? 13 ON EN REPARLE MÉDECINE 38 Un espoir pour le neuroblastome, Opinions cancer de l’enfant? 14 POINT DE VUE Servane Tauszig-Delamasure et Jean Bénard L’ANSES : Les médecins ont des difficultés à traiter une nouvelle agence les formes agressives de neuroblastome. de santé au service Une nouvelle molécule serait peut-être capable de la démocratie sanitaire? de détruire la tumeur et ses métastases. F. Chateauraynaud et J. Debaz 15 ÉCONOMIE ÉTHOLOGIE Dangereuses perversions 46 La parole aux singes Ivar Ekeland Alban Lemasson et Martine Hausberger DÉVELOPPEMENT DURABLE 16 Le langage est-il le propre de l’homme? Les services écologiques Des éthologistes remettent cette idée en cause: des plantations la mone de Campbell, petit singe africain, C. Messier et A. Paquette émet plusieurs messages en combinant six cris. 18 VRAI OU FAUX Sommes-nous égaux face au sommeil? Delphine Oudiette 20 COURRIER DES LECTEURS 2] Sommaire pls_395_p002_003_sommaire.xp_mm_0608 9/08/10 14:40 Page 3 n° 395 - Septembre 2010 52 TÉLÉCOMMUNICATIONS Regards L’essor des réseaux 78 HISTOIRE DES SCIENCES sans fil instantanés L’âge d’or Michelle Effros, Andrea Goldsmith et Muriel Médard des «rayons de santé» Comment assurer des communications Thierry Lefebvre et Cécile Raynal en toutes circonstances, par exemple en cas Durant les années 1920-1930, de séisme majeur? La solution réside dans des réseaux les ultraviolets médicaux connurent sans fil autonomes et dépourvus d’infrastructure fixe. une vogue considérable, quoique éphémère. 82 LOGIQUE & CALCUL Suicide et immortalité quantiques NEUROSCIENCES Jean-Paul Delahaye 58 On pourrait survivre dans des univers La perception parallèles. On pourrait aussi résoudre des couleurs interdites des problèmes difficiles. Est-ce sérieux? Vincent Billock et Brian Tsou 88 ART & SCIENCE En théorie, il est impossible de voir du vert La coupe d’invisibilité rougeâtre et du bleu jaunâtre, mélanges Loïc Mangin de couleurs opposées.
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