Eliminating the Glass Ceiling: Past Initiatives and Suggestions for Future Implementation
Sarah Lamas
Introduction synthesize others‘ work in this area.
The fight for women‘s equality began Examining in chronological order what has during the 19th Century in the United States been done through different types of with the first wave of feminism. This legislation and through the work of movement resulted in women‘s right to vote organizations to eliminate the glass ceiling in 1920. Since this first wave of feminism, allows for conclusions to be drawn from a women have made ―large strides toward collective group of initiatives and to indicate suggestions for further success. equality in higher education, politics, economic contributions, wage parity, and Under-representation of women in upper- management business roles‖ (Elmuti, management positions is a very relevant issue Lehman, Harmon, and Lu 2003). According in today‘s society. The number of women in to the U.S. Census Bureau, the participation the workplace is growing rapidly, but the of women in the workplace rose from 20 number of women advancing to the upper percent to 59 percent between 1900 and 2005 levels of organizations remains in the United States (Barreto, Ryan, and disproportionate. By not allowing women into Schmitt 4). these positions, businesses are not taking full advantage of a changing labor market. While these statistics represent a huge accomplishment for women, the day has still This research will discuss Equal not arrived when women are viewed as equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative to men. Women now fill the workforce, but Action legislation that has been enforced in remain extremely underrepresented in upper the United States in the area of gender management and on boards of directors. This discrimination and the work of an is due to what is called the ―glass ceiling‖, an organization by the name of Catalyst, whose invisible barrier preventing women from goal is to aid in the advancement of women to advancing to upper-management positions. higher positions in companies. The thesis will
What attempts have been made to break also describe and evaluate several Catalyst the glass ceiling and advance equality for Award-winning initiatives which promote women in the United States? Since the non-discriminatory practices in support of number of women in top-management women. The Catalyst Award will be discussed positions is still disproportionate, what more in further detail in the thesis. Although the can be done? issue at hand is in fact a global issue, global legislation will not be addressed. A review of the literature on the topic makes clear that after many attempts to create Equal Employment Opportunity equality, women are still underrepresented in Legislation the higher echelons of organizations. In fact, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Catalyst reports that ―women represent just 9.9 percent of corporate line officer positions, As amended, Title VII of the Civil Rights and 5.2 percent of the top-earning corporate Act of 1964 prohibits employers from officers‖ (Weber). discriminating based on race, color, religion,
This research is significant to the field of sex, and national origin. This act created the Human Resources because it works to Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
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to enforce all EEO laws and to oversee and coordinate all federal EEO regulations, Civil Rights Act of 1991 practices, and policies (EEOC 2004). Title VII granted the EEOC the following powers: The Civil Rights Act of 1991 aided in the
1. to cooperate with and, with their consent, effort of gender-based discrimination in two utilize regional, State, local, and other ways. Primarily, the act provided monetary agencies, both public and private, and damages to victims of intentional employment individuals; discrimination. This Act‘s second 2. 3. to pay witnesses whose depositions are achievement of importance to women was taken or who are summoned before the Title II, the Glass Ceiling Act. Commission or any of its agents the same witness and mileage fees as are The Glass Ceiling Act created the Glass paid to witnesses in the courts of the Ceiling Commission ―to focus attention on, United States; and complete a study relating to, the existence 4. 5. to furnish to persons subject to this of artificial barriers to the advancement of subchapter such technical assistance as women and minorities in the workplace, and they may request to further their to make recommendations for overcoming compliance with this subchapter or an such barriers‖ (EEOC 2004). order issued there under; 6. Overview 7. upon the request of (i) any employer, whose employees or some of them, or (ii) Equal Employment Opportunity any labor organization, whose members Legislation was the first attempt to create or some of them, refuse or threaten to equal opportunities for women and drastically refuse to cooperate in effectuating the increased female representation in the provisions of this subchapter, to assist in workplace. EEO provided women with fair such effectuation by conciliation or such representation in the case of gender other remedial action as it is provided by discrimination, resulting in fewer occurrences this subchapter; 8. of blatant discrimination. Since the passage of 9. to make such technical studies as are EEO laws, though, it seems that employers appropriate to effectuate the purposes have discovered more discrete ways of and policies of this subchapter and to discriminating on the basis of gender, making make the results of such studies available gender discrimination more difficult to spot in to the public; an organization. These tactics create the need 10. to intervene in civil action brought under for a more aggressive means of combating section 2000e-5 of this title [section 706[ discrimination. by an aggrieved party against a respondent other than a government, Affirmative Action Policies governmental agency or political and Practices
subdivision (EEOC 2004). 11. The goal of Affirmative Action (AA) Equal Pay Act of 1973 programs is to ―systematically combat past
The Equal Pay Act of 1973, or EPA, and present discrimination in an organization amended the Equal Pay Act of 1963 to … [and to] implement strategies to improve prohibit gender-based wage discrimination the status of disadvantaged target groups, between men and women in the same such as women‖. AA differs from equal organization who perform jobs for which the opportunity in that it takes a more assertive required skill, effort, and responsibility are approach by requiring the use of measures to comparable (EEOC 2004). scrutinize and transform organizational policies and practices. This is done in order to
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eliminate biases and to increase target groups‘ created in 1967, amended EO 11246 by representation and status (Iyer 258-59). changing the word creed to religion and
Organizations implementing gender-based adding sex discrimination to the other prohibited items (Iyer 260). AA usually use a monitoring program to determine whether or not qualified female As presently administered by the Office of workers have equal opportunities. The Federal Contract Compliance Programs, EO organization starts by assessing the proportion 11246 requires the federal government, as of jobs and promotions given to women. The well as organizations with federal contracts number is then compared with the proportion (in excess of US$50,000) and 50 or more employees, to implement AA to prevent of women the workforce who have the discrimination in their policies and practices necessary experience and qualifications for (Iyer 260). the position in question. If there is an inconsistency between these two numbers, the Failure to comply with AA requirements usually results in monetary fines (Iyer 260). organization must find out which policies are discriminatory and eliminate them. ―It also Organizations that are not covered under introduces proactive strategies to increase the EO 11246 can still be mandated to implement representation of women within its ranks‖ AA under the 1972 Equal Employment (Iyer 259). Opportunity Act. This act gave federal courts
One of these strategies involves the power to require companies found guilty increasing the number of female applicants of discrimination to implement AA strategies (Iyer 260). for jobs and promotions. This is done mainly by making information regarding job It is especially noteworthy that court- openings more widely available. The second ordered programs are the only ones in which strategy gives female employees a chance to it is legal to use quotas to reduce develop the knowledge and skills necessary to discrimination (Iyer 260). One common compete for jobs and promotions. The last misconception of AA is that it means hiring strategy requires organizations to adjust by the use of quotas. This belief is inaccurate. selection criteria for decisions regarding In fact, there have been several cases in which employment and promotions (Iyer 259). the use of quotas has been deemed unconstitutional. Any AA plan that is implemented ―should include hiring goals and timetables to which A classic example of a case in which the contractor must commit its ‗good faith‘ quotas were decided to be unconstitutional is efforts‖. It is illegal, however, to implement Regents of University of California v. Bakke, severe preferential treatment or strict quotas decided in 1978. In this case, the medical (Iyer 260). school of the University of California at Davis Legislation Supporting allowed students who were members of Affirmative Action minority groups into the special admissions
The first Affirmative Action legislation program, even though many did not meet occurred in 1965 with President Johnson‘s certain requirements, such as the 2.5 grade Executive Order (EO) 11246. This executive point average cutoff. The United States order established the policy of the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the University of government as providing equal opportunity in California could use race as only one of many federal employment for all people. EO 11246 qualifications in the application process, and made it illegal to discriminate in federal that the use of quotas in the admission process employment because of race, creed, color, or was unconstitutional (―Regents of the University of California v. Bakke‖). national origin. Executive Order 11375,
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Overview share, and celebrate successful initiatives,
Although Affirmative Action techniques which consequently provides replicable are extremely effective in forcing employers models that help organizations create women- friendly initiatives. to adopt more female- and minority-friendly policies, there are still flaws. The major issue The Catalyst Awards Conference is that arises from the use of Affirmative Action attended by more than 600 people from about is reverse discrimination. Employers often 200 organizations and gives award winners a overlook a qualified candidate in order to fill chance to share their successful initiatives. a position with a member of a protected Award winning initiatives are also celebrated group, even if the member is less qualified for at the Catalyst Awards Dinner, which is the position. Instead of discriminating against described as ―one of the most prestigious and a protected group, the employer consequently broadly attended events in the business discriminates against those not part of a community‖ (Catalyst, ―The Catalyst protected group, defeating the purpose of Award‖). Affirmative Action to gain equal treatment. Companies, professional firms, and other Catalyst organizations can earn the Catalyst Award by
About Catalyst creating initiatives that are successful in developing and advancing the careers of One comprehensive response to the issue women. of gender discrimination that has become a model for companies is an organization by the Prospective award recipients are evaluated on the following key factors: name of Catalyst. Catalyst, founded in 1962, is the leading nonprofit membership 1. Business Rationale: There must be an organization that works with businesses explicit connection between the initiative and the business strategy. around the world and provides consulting and other services in order to create inclusive 2. Senior Leadership Support: Upper workplaces and increase opportunities for management must demonstrate women and businesses. commitment to the initiative.
Catalyst also does a great deal of research 3. Accountability: Formal monitoring studying ―men and women across levels, mechanisms must support the initiative and measure its impact. functions, and geographies to learn about women‘s experiences in business, barriers to 4. Communication: There must be their career advancement, and individual and mechanisms for engaging and informing organizational strategies leading to success‖ employees of the initiative and its business rationale. (Catalyst, ―About Us‖). 5. Replicability: All or parts of the initiative The Catalyst Award must be able to be implemented by other One of the ways in which Catalyst organizations and thus used as a model for supports women is by selecting and change. recognizing firms for successful gender 6. Originality: Initiatives are compared initiatives. Catalyst ―honors innovative against previous winners and must include organizational approaches with proven, elements that are innovative and provide measurable results that address the new knowledge. recruitment, development, and advancement 7. Measurable Results: There must be of all women, including women of color‖ documented evidence to demonstrate the (Catalyst, ―Catalyst Award‖). The Catalyst impact and who improvement since the start Award allows the company to recognize, of the initiative (Catalyst).
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Catalyst Award-Winning Overview Gender Initiatives The work that Catalyst has done in Aleita Johnson of the Society for Human support of women is unprecedented. There Resource Management describes in her article has never before been an organization whose various successful gender initiatives sole purpose is to aid in the advancement of implemented by organizations that won the women to upper-management positions. Catalyst Award for their success. Baxter Catalyst‘s efforts have lead to an increased International Inc., a global health care awareness of the issue of gender company, implemented an initiative it refers discrimination in the workplace and have to as Building Talent Edge. This initiative was published vital research in the area. implemented across the entire Asia-Pacific Although the good that Catalyst has done Ocean. The goal of Building Talent Edge was has not been measured by statistics, Catalyst to ―achieve a 50/50 gender balance across Award-Winners are able to show statistics as management-level and critical positions by to how women were helped by successful 2010‖ (Johnson). The goal was reached gender initiatives. The Catalyst Award creates instead by 2008, two years ahead of schedule an incentive for organizations to create (Johnson). programs that help women to obtain upper CH2M HILL, a global engineering management positions. corporation, increased the number of women Conclusion in senior leadership positions to 18 percent, a sharp increase from its 2003 percentage of Thanks to the decades of supportive 2.9. The initiative introduced by CH2M HILL research of Catalyst, more and more ―utilizes the company‘s long standing, organizational effort is being focused on non- inclusive culture to provide women access to discriminatory programs. As demonstrated in critical positions and key projects which lead this report, much has been done to increase to potential management opportunities‖ the representation of women in the workforce (Johnson). Gibbons P.C., a highly-ranked law in upper-level management positions. Early firm with offices in New York, New Jersey, legislation increased the number of women in Philadelphia, and Delaware, implemented an the workforce substantially, and the numbers initiative entitled The Women’s Initiative: continue to rise. As demonstrated by Catalyst, Driving Success through Diversity many companies have successfully Investment. This initiative ―created a flexible implemented gender initiatives that increased and inclusive workplace by embedding the number of female top managers substantially. diversity as critical to business success and its firm branding‖ (Johnson). Unfortunately, even after all that has been
The last initiative discussed by Aleita done, the total number of women holding top Johnson is KPMG LLP, an audit, tax, and management positions remains advisory firm. The initiative established by disproportionate. According to a study done this company was given the name Great by Catalyst, only 3 percent of Fortune 500 Place to Build a Career and encourages a Corporate Executive Officer positions and workplace culture that is inclusive of both 15.2 percent of Fortune 500 board seats are women and minorities. This culture is held by women. In addition, these percentages supported across all levels of the firm. This have remained rather steady over the past initiative reduced the turnover of women by couple of years (Catalyst, ―Women in U.S. 36.3 percent. Management‖). These statistics show that many companies still fail to embrace an
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inclusive workplace culture. Further research men not involved in any such efforts by is urgently needed to determine what more surveying members from both groups (Prime can be done to further alleviate the issue. and Moss-Rascusin 24).
A very recent example of such research The research revealed that individuals suggests that the role men play in achieving must recognize that inequality exists before gender equality is more important than has they will support any efforts to correct an been recognized through past initiatives. One inequality. ―Men who were more aware of reason that so many programs have been gender bias were more likely to say that it was unsuccessful, as stated in an article released important to them to achieve gender equality‖ by Catalyst in May of 2008, is ―that too many (Prime and Moss-Rascusin 24). It was also gender initiatives focus solely on changing found that there are three important predictors women—from the way they network to the of men‘s awareness of gender bias: 1) way they lead‖ (Prime and Moss-Racusin 2). defiance of certain masculine norms, 2) the Another cited reason is that too many presence or absence of women mentors, and organizations rely on women alone to make 3) a sense of fair play, with fair play being the the changes necessary to change the status largest indicator. Lastly, three key barriers quo. Men are ―arguably the most powerful were revealed that ―could undermine men‘s stakeholder group in most large corporations‖ support for initiatives to end gender bias: and by focusing solely on women while apathy, fear, and ignorance about gender attempting gender initiatives, men are issues‖ (Prime and Moss-Rascusin 24). alienated and thus don‘t support the cause The research by Catalyst involving men in (Prime and Moss-Racusin 2). gender initiatives indicates that men must be The study was conducted first through the made aware that the status quo is flawed. use of in-depth interviews. The interviews Until men choose to recognize that gender were done first in order to ―develop in-depth discrimination exists, and is wrong, they will insights or hypotheses about the factors that continue to show a lack of interest in predict men‘s awareness of gender bias and improving the current situation. their advocacy for gender equality‖ (Prime As a female researcher studying in the and Moss-Racusin 24). The interviews were fields of Business Administration and Human followed by an online survey, which was Resources, I am discouraged to see how distributed to 178 businessmen in order ―to underrepresented women really are in top- develop the hypotheses that were developed management positions. More research on the based on the interviews‖ (Prime and Moss- topic may make the difference in informing Rascusin 24). Catalyst was able to study organizations in regards to enforcing attitudes and experiences that set apart men successful gender initiatives. involved in fighting for gender equality and
Works Cited
Barreto, Manuela, Michelle K. Ryan, and Michael T. Schmitt, eds. The Glass Ceiling in the 21st Century. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2009. Catalyst. ―About Us.‖ Catalyst.org. 2 Dec. 2009
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Catalyst. ―Catalyst Award.‖ Catalyst.org. 21 Dec. 2009
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Orazco mural (Baker Library, Dartmouth College)
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