Energy Clusters in Poland – a Theoretical Approach

192 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK,ANNALS ANNA of M. the KLEPACKA Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists received: 30.11.2020 Annals PAAAE • 2020 • Vol. XXII • No. (4) acceptance: 11.12.2020 published: 22.12.2020 JEL codes: Q29, Q49 DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.5767

ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA

Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Poland

ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH

Key words: energy cluster, prosumer, renewable energy sources, voivodship, Poland

ABSTRACT. The article attempts to theoretically analyze the concept of clusters, in particular energy clusters. The paper presents the economic evolution of the cluster theory and the current Polish approach to energy clusters. Cluster structures in Poland have been presented against a background of European experiences. It was found that the current progression of globalization prompts for saving measures, especially in the energy sector, which drives the operation of economies. The way to meet EU requirements regarding the increased share of renewable energy sources and consumption limitation of conventional resources may be distributed energy based on the actions of prosumers, which is undoubtedly manifested in energy clusters. An incentive to create energy clusters are competitions for projects supporting cluster initiatives announced by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management as the Implementing Institution under the Infrastructure and Environment 2014-2020 Operational Programme. Among 66 entities awarded the Pilot Energy Cluster Certificate, the largest number of energy clusters is located in the Mazowieckie Voivodship (10), and the least in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodship (1). Barriers to the creation of energy clusters most often result from a lack of financing and poorly defined central regulations concerning the energy and renewable energy sector in Poland.

INTRODUCTION

In shaping the contemporary world economy, apart from the continuing globalization process, the location of economic activity is becoming increasingly important. There has been a reconstruction of the concept of traditional economic theory while maintaining the new paradigm of sustainable and integrated economic, environmental and socio-cultural order [Cieślukowski 2014]. Modern paradigms of economic development emphasize the transition from an economy of competition to an economy of “cooperation” [Rzewuski 2007]. The concept of clusters is a manifestation of the interest of economic entities in the phenomenon of mutual cooperation and competition as an effective strategy leading to the achievement of economically justified profits. Cluster structures have existed in the economy for thousands of years, despite Porter’s concept of clusters originating in the 1980s and 1990s [Kowalski 2013]. ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH 193

In economic sciences, the origins of the concept of clusters go back to neoclassical economics. They first appeared in the work of Alfred Marshall, in the study “Principles of economics” from 1890 [Jankowska 2012]. Alfred Marshall was the first to describe the operation of industrial districts in Great Britain. In his opinion, clusters of companies were distinguished by “a constant exchange of ideas between the creators and users of machines” [Skawińska, Zalewski 2009, p. 21]. Alfred Marshall also noted that small businesses located in industrial districts achieved results comparable to large companies. He attributed these benefits to regional externalities, which included: diffusion of knowledge, highly qualified staff and a network of supplier-recipient relations. Marshall’s concept of externalities has become the starting point of many contemporary theories of regional development. Among the economists emphasizing the role of cluster locations are also: Arthur C. Pigou, François Perroux, Giacomo Becattini and Paul Krugman [Sokołowicz 2015]. An extension of the theory of industrial districts described by Alfred Marshall is the concept of Italian industrial districts formulated by Giacomo Becattini. According to Becattini et al. [2009], a distinguishing feature of the region is the existence of specific areas of growth, which he called enclaves. These enclaves are specialized in a specific field of production, among which there are small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), mainly family businesses. Giacomo Becattini and co-authors [2009] presented the view that cooperation based on trust in a similar culture and tradition enables the exchange and circulation of new ideas and a smooth flow of innovation. In this approach, social capital becomes the main factor leading to the development of clusters [Becattini 2002]. Another economist who also shared the views of Alfred Marshall was François Perroux, who created the concept of growth poles. The main assumption of the French economist’s theory was the positive influence of growth poles for the development of the local economy and the generation of development innovations in them [Kowalski 2010]. Paul Krugman [1991], in turn, perceived the benefits of location as a result of the interaction between economies of scale, generating increasing revenues, transport costs and the potential of a given region [Gorynia, Jankowska 2008]. Identifying the concept of clusters contributed to the development of knowledge, while the breakthrough in research on their phenomenon was the work of Michael E. Porter: “The Competitive Advantage of Nations”. Michael E. Porter, like his predecessors, argued that the motive for creating clusters is the search for economies of scale and location benefits and the resulting positive externalities. In addition, in the cluster, it is possible to reduce costs related to supply, transport, administrative services, but above all, the costs of acquiring knowledge. A further benefit which is specific to clusters is also the fact that knowledge is easier to obtain thanks to the proximity of entities participating in the cluster. This results in greater benefits from the knowledge acquired in the cluster, which leads to further investments [Cooke 2003]. Michael E. Porter claims that the innovative abilities of an enterprise increase as a result of cooperation with other enterprises present in a given area [Grycuk 2003, Budner 2013]. The concept of clusters has also been widely adopted and used in the work of representatives of the new institutional economy (Ronald Coase, Oliver Williamson and Douglass North), as well as economists related to the new theory of growth (including Kenneth Arrow and Paul Romer) [Anna Lis, Adam Lis 2011, Zmysłowski 2011]. 194 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA

Taking the analyzed economic theories concerning the phenomenon of clusters into account, the conclusion can be drawn that each of them, in a very suitable way, fits into contemporary economic reality. Due to the wide spectrum of impact on the area of occurrence, clusters have become the object of interest of scientists, and also entered the sphere of economic and political life on the Polish market. Cluster initiatives started to significantly influence the development of prosumer energy. Their role was also noticed by entities responsible for creating energy policy, which ultimately led to the regulation of the concept of energy clusters under the RES Act in force in Poland [Jabłońska 2015, Piwowar, Dzikuc 2015]. The concept of an energy cluster was introduced into the Polish legal order relatively recently, on July 1, 2016, under the Act of June 22, 2016, on the amendment to the act on renewable energy sources and certain other acts [Journal of Laws, 2015, item 925]. Formally, we define an energy cluster as a civil law contract, which may include natural persons, legal persons, scientific units, research institutes or local government units, concerning the production and balancing of demand, distribution or trade of energy from renewable energy sources or from other sources or fuels, with a distribution network with a rated voltage lower than 110 kV, in the area of the cluster operation not exceeding the borders of one district or 5 communes. Energy clusters are to serve as a tool supporting the development of the distributed energy concept, which, in turn, aims to protect the energy security of small areas, and thus contribute to the development of local economies by investing in renewable energy [Gronkowska 2017, Wiktor-Sułkowska 2018]. The aim of the article is to present the idea of creating energy clusters compared to other cluster structures in Poland and the EU. The spatial scope of the study covers all voivodships depending on the location of the energy cluster. The article uses the descriptive method, which was used to review the literature on the subject and the functioning of energy clusters.

ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND AGAINST A BACKGROUND OF SELECTED EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND OTHER CLUSTER STRUCTURES

In Poland, clusters are young in comparison to clusters in Europe. According to the results of benchmarking carried out in Europe under the NGP project Excellence, clusters were established between 1997-2010 (in Finland, between 1997 and 2007, in Germany between 1998-2006, in Austria – 1999-2003, in Denmark – 2003-2010, in Norway – 2003- 2007, Sweden after 2004, France after 2005 and Spain after 2006, and most recently in Iceland – after 2007 [Lammer-Gamp et al. 2012]. In turn, from the study of global clusters, the Global Cluster Initiative Survey shows that the beginning of clustering dates back to the mid-1980s – 32 clusters were created in the mid-1990s [Lindgvist et al. 2012]. A parallel organizational form similar to cluster initiatives is energy cooperatives. According to data from the European umbrella organization RES coop, energy cooperatives, and civic groups, the number of energy cooperatives, in 2014, in selected European countries was as follows: in Germany – 942, in Denmark – 657, Austria – 390, the Netherlands – 110, Sweden – 108, Finland – 79, Italy – 74 and France – 60. In 2018, there were 12 energy cooperatives operating in Poland [Błażejowska, Gostomczyk 2018]. ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH 195

Clusters are perceived as “levers” of the economic development of regions [Dzierżanowski 2012], therefore it is constantly necessary to deepen and update knowledge regarding them. Being aware of these needs, the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP), in 2015, conducted, inter alia, an inventory of clusters in Poland. As a result of the inventory, 134 clusters operating in Poland were identified. These clusters, established between 2003-2015, were then analyzed. The oldest clusters existed for 12 years, and the average age of a cluster operating in Poland is over 4 years. The PARP study confirmed that clusters in Poland are relatively young structures [Buczyńska et al. 2016]. The report presented by PARP indicated that the most clusters were identified in the following sectors: ICT, energy and renewable energy and construction [Buczyńska et al. 2016]. One of the key branches of the economy that is constantly developing is the energy sector. The energy system plays the role of an internal “bloodstream” that, alongside other systems, determines the efficient functioning of the entire national economy [Fraś, Ivaschuk 2017]. Given the current state of the environment and the simultaneous phenomenon of globalization, there exists a justifiable need to take austerity measures. The fastest growing sector in the global energy sector has become the sector of renewable energy sources (RES), which apart from energy production, is an important factor in the development of the equipment manufacturing industry and supply of green technologies [IEO 2010]. Rural areas cover over 93% of Poland’s territory, where nearly 40% of the country’s population lives. Increase in demand for energy in these areas forces the inhabitants of the countryside to use it more efficiently, and the government to develop an energy security strategy for the Polish countryside [Gawryszewski 2005, Jabłońska-Urbaniak 2009, Woźniak 2018]. In recent years, the importance of local communities, including local government, in the development of the renewable energy market has increased significantly. The European Union has published a variety of documents, including legislation on the production of renewable energy by decentralized entities: belonging to the sphere of public administration and owned by private entities such as individuals, cooperatives or other forms of association. Moreover, we can now observe the widespread emergence of the phenomenon called energy democracy [Szyrski 2018]. Current forecasts included in industry reports on the energy market show that, in order to achieve the goals set out in the Paris Agreement on climate change, electricity from renewable sources would have to consist of at least 40-60% of electricity supply by 2040 [EA 2017]. Some people believe [Diesendorf, Elliston 2018], that 100% renewable energy is a desirable and achievable goal and is compatible with a more democratically organized energy system [Burke, Stephens 2017]. However, existing grid technologies can only cover 20-40% of energy supplied from RES [Bruckner et al. 2014, Martinot 2016]. To achieve a greater share of renewable electricity, new projects are needed which will ensure better coordination between the elements of generation, demand and distribution [Palensky, Kupzog 2013]. The answer to these problems may be energy clusters. According to Izabela Wielewska et al. [2014], one of the visible global economic trends, which enables the effective management of resources and local energy potential, is the development of distributed energy, which assumes the construction of local energy clusters [Wiktor-Sułkowska 2018]. The concept of energy clusters fits well into a formula for the development of distributed energy based on savings resulting from the local location 196 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA of energy generation in the vicinity of a recipient. The efficiency of energy clusters depends on the rational and effective use of potential: locally available energy resources, renewable energy sources, innovation, entrepreneurship in the area of generation, transmission, distribution, as well as energy reception management [Jankowska, Pietrzykowski 2013, Wiktor-Sułkowska 2018]. We see the economic aspect of the cluster in the new hierarchy of the energy system, indicating that the local management of the system area significantly reduces energy costs for its users, by up to as much as 20%. The energy cluster should be considered in the perspective of creating a new local system model, and thus the electricity market, based on microgrids, and a local energy community. It is essential to ensure energy clusters provide an adequate standard in the local area, mainly in terms of technical, economic and environmental aspects [Mataczyńska 2017]. Taking the role and importance of clusters based on RES into account, it is impossible not to emphasize their merit not only in promoting the so-called green economy and green technologies, but also in stimulating the efficient implementation of sustainable energy systems [McCauley, Stephens 2012]. Currently, clusters representing the energy and renewable energy industries are present in Poland in 16 voivodships. The Ministry of Energy on May 9, 2018, announced the results of the 1st Competition for Energy Clusters, awarding the first Pilot Energy Cluster Certificates [ME 2018]. On November 6, 2018, it was resolved and the results of the 2nd Competition for energy clusters were announced by awarding new Certificates of the Pilot Energy Cluster. Among the 66 awarded, the largest number of energy clusters received the title of Pilot Energy Clusters located in the Mazowieckie Voivodship (10), while the lowest was in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodship (1) (Figure 1) [MAP 2018, Klaster Energii 2020].

POMORSKIE 5 certificates WARMIŃSKO- ZACHODNIO- 1 distinction MAZURSKIE POMORSKIE 4 certificates 3 certificates 1 distinction 1 distinction PODLASKIE KUJAWSKO- 4 certificates POMORSKIE 2 distinctions 2 certificates MAZOWIECKIE WIELKOPOLSKIE 10 certificates 44 certificates certificates LUBUKIE 11 distinction distinction 3 certificates

ŁÓDZKIE 2 certificates LUBELSKIE DOLNOŚLĄSKIE 4 certificates 7 certificates 2 distinctions 4 distinctions ŚWIĘTOKRZYSKIE OPOLSKIE ŚLĄSKIE 1 certificate 6 certificates 1 distinction PODKARPACKIE MAŁOPOLSKIE 3 certificates 8 certificates 2 distinctions

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of energy clusters in Poland in 2017 and 2018 Source: [Energy Cluster 2020] ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH 197

The analysis of the research conducted by the AGH University of Science and Technology in cooperation with the Ministry of Energy show that the main initiators of the creation of the energy cluster were local government units (46%). According to the respondents, the greatest motivation to establish an energy cluster was the willingness to obtain financing from external funds (60%) and environmental reasons – improvement of the local environment (46%). About 30% of the votes were also given such justifications as: the desire to stimulate the activity of the local community, the need to ensure the security of energy supplies and the desire to become independent from energy distributors. Over 60% of respondents indicated the benefits of introducing an energy cluster as lower costs of energy consumption and security of supply. Difficulties that participants of the energy cluster noticed during its creation were: lack of financial support (68%) and illegible rules (50%) [Hanzelka 2019]. Table 1 presents a list of 66 pilot energy clusters with their coordinator and the main RES they use. As noted by Marcin Feltynowski and Agnieszka Rzeńca [2012], clusters are highly diversified in relation to the number of entities that create them. In general, the basis for the functioning of clusters in this also includes energy clusters, regardless of their size, in most cases they constitute business entities, but their activities must be supported by related institutions with an R&D sphere and business-related institutions. In a group of over 600 entities enterprises that contribute to energy clusters, over 61% are enterprises and 13% are institutions. R&D units, on the other hand, account for 11%. In the case of energy clusters, local governments are important participants that care for the energy security of areas (mainly rural), meet environmental standards, and support and promote initiatives in the field of renewable energy. The activity of public sector entities is extremely important, including local governments, in implementing energy conservation programmes and in the application of innovative technical solutions [Feltynowski, Rrzeńca 2012]. Choice of strategy elimination of low emissions depends on local economic conditions, technical (including the availability of an energy source or energy resources) and social. Proper and consistent implementation of the idea of energy clusters is an opportunity for the effective and stable improvement of air quality by reducing pollutant emissions from low-power combustion installations [IEO 2012, Popczyk 2016]. Emerging consortia of entities offering services in the field of production, distribution, storage and supply in energy and fuels in the local area face many challenges, not only economic, financial and socially acceptable profitability, but also before fulfilling increasingly stringent requirements for environmental protection [Mirowski, Kubica 2016]. 198 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA

Table 1. Clusters related to the energy sector in Poland (as of May 2020)

No. Cluster name Coordinator Main RES* Autonomiczny Region 1 Miasto Duszniki-Zdrój hydropower, biomass Energetyczny Sudety ARES Wodociągi i Kanalizacja Sp. z 2 Dzierżoniowski Klaster Energii solar energy o.o. w Dzierżoniowie Energetyczny Klaster Oławski solar energy, wind 3 Promet-Plast s.c. EKO energy 4 Karkonoski Klaster Energetyczny Związek Gmin Karkonoskich lack of data Południowo-Zachodni Klaster 5 MegaSerwis Sp. z o. o. solar energy, biogas Energii biomass, biogas, solar 6 Wałbrzyski Klaster Energetyczny Gmina Wałbrzych energy Zgorzelecki Klaster Rozwoju Stowarzyszenie Rozwoju solar energy, wind 7 Odnawialnych Źródeł Energii i Innowacyjności Energetycznej energy, biogas Efektywności Energetycznej w Zgorzelcu Klaster OZE Grudziądz Obszar Towarzystwo Rozwoju Małych solar energy, 8 Zrównoważony Energetycznie Elektrowni Wodnych hydropower, biogas Toruński Klaster Energii Energia biogas, solar energy, 9 Patryk Zabłocki Gotyku geothermal energy 10 Klaster Energia Dolina Zielawy Gmina Wisznice solar energy, biomass Klaster Energii Południowe 11 BIO-POWER Sp. z o.o. lack of data Podlasie biomass, solar energy, 12 Tomaszowski Klaster Energii TermoSystemy Sp. z o.o. wind energy Włodawski Klaster Stowarzyszenie Inicjatyw 13 solar energy Zrównoważonej Energetyki i OZE Samorządowych 14 energyREGION Rzepin Gmina Rzepin lack of data 15 energyREGION Słońsk Gmina Słońsk lack of data solar energy, biomass 16 Gorzowski Klaster Energii Inneko Sp. z o.o. (waste gasification) Zakład Gospodarki Wodno- solar energy, geothermal 17 Klaster Energii Tomaszów Kanalizacyjnej w Tomaszowie energy, biogas Mazowieckim Sp. z o.o. Warciański Klaster Energii 18 Gmina i Miasto Warta lack of data („WKE”) Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Brzeski Klaster Energii 19 Energetyki Cieplnej Nowy Targ lack of data Odnawialnej sp. z o.o. Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo geothermal energy, solar 20 Klaster Energii Serce Podhala Energetyki Cieplnej w Brzesku energy Sp. z o.o. Klaster Energii Zbiornika hydropower, solar 21 Gmina Szaflary Czorsztyńskiego energy ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH 199

Table 1. Cont. 1 No. Cluster name Coordinator Main RES* Klaster Energii Zielony Pierścień Zespół Elektrowni Wodnych 22 solar energy, biogas Tarnowa Niedzica S.A. Ryterski Mikroklaster Energii Stowarzyszenie- Zielony 23 solar energy Odnawialnej Pierścień Tarnowa Eco Energia Breskid Spółka z 24 Tarnowski Klaster Energii biogas ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Wirtualna Zielona Elektrownia solar energy, geothermal 25 Energetyki Cieplnej S.A. w Ochotnica energy Tarnowie 26 Zielona Generacja Nowy Targ Gmina Ochotnica Dolna biogas, solar energy Bezpieczna i czysta energia dla 27 PUIK Sp. z o.o. solar energy, biogas Sokołowa 28 Gminy Zeroemisyjne Mazowsza Miasto i Gmina Mszczonów lack of data Klaster Energii Powiatu Starostwo Powiatowe w 29 lack of data Przysuskiego Przysusze wind energy, solar 30 Klaster Energii Ziemi Siedleckiej Gmina Zbuczyn energy Przedsiębiorstwo Energetyki 31 Legionowski Klaster Energii lack of data Cieplnej „Legionowo” Sp. z o.o. 32 Płoński Klaster Energii Miasto Płońsk solar energy Siedlecki Klaster Energii – Lider 33 Gmina Kotuń lack of data Gmina Kotuń Siedlecki Klaster Energii Lider 34 Miasto Siedlce lack of data Miasto Siedlce 35 Sochaczewski Klaster Energii Urząd Miejski w Sochaczewie geothermal energy Wieniawski Klaster Energii 36 Gmina Wieniawa lack of data Odnawialnej Baligrodzki Klaster Energii solar energy, wind 37 Gmina Baligród Odnawialnej energy, biogas Rzeszowski Klaster Rozwoju 38 Stowarzyszenie Green Energy solar energy, biogas Odnawialnych Źródeł Energii 39 Soliński Klaster Energii Gmina Solina solar energy, biomass 40 Energetyczne Grajewo Gmina Miejska Grajewo solar energy, biomass Zielona Energia Michałowo 41 energyREGION Michałowo biogas Sp. z o.o. 42 Podlaski Klaster Energii CHP Energia Sp. z o.o. biogas, solar energy biomass, biogas, solar 43 Siemiatycki Klaster Energii Urząd Miasta Siemiatycze energy Ośrodek Hodowli Zarodowej 44 EnergyREGION Gajewo lack of data „Gajewo” Sp. z o.o. Gniewińskie Przedsiębiorstwo 45 Gniewiński Klaster Energii wind energy, biomass Komunalne Sp. z o.o. 200 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA

Table 1. Cont. 2 No. Cluster name Coordinator Main RES* Kwidzyński Park Przemysłowo- 46 Kwidzyński Klaster Energii lack of data Technologiczny Sp. z o.o. 47 Przechlewski Klaster Energii Kombia Sp. z o.o solar energy biogas (waste 48 Słupski Klaster Bioenergetyczny „Wodociągi Słupsk” Sp. z o.o. gasification) Brenergia – Klaster Lokalnego 49 Systemu Energetycznego w ENEO Systems Sp. z o.o. solar energy, biomass Brennej Energetyka Cieszyńska sewage sludge and 50 Cieszyński Klaster Energii Sp. z o.o. others Klaster Energii Górniczo- 51 Gmina Gierałtowice solar energy, biogas Rolniczej Gminy Gierałtowice Klaster Energii Przyjazna Energia Koordynator Klastra Energii geothermal energy, solar 52 w Powiecie Gliwickim Sp. z o.o. energy, biogas Klaster Energii Żywiecka Energia Związek Międzygminny ds. solar energy, 53 Przyszłości Ekologii w Żywcu hydropower Tarnogórski Klaster Energii 54 Veolia Południe Sp. z o.o. lack of data Cieplnej Przedsiębiorstwo Energetyki 55 Konecki Klaster Energetyczny solar energy Cieplnej w Końskich Sp. z o.o. Olecki Klaster odnawialnej energii 56 elektrycznej i cieplnej „Zielone Sylweriusz Chojnowski biogas, solar energy Olecko” Klaster Energii Razem z Dobrą Mazurska Fundacja Wspierania 56 lack of data Energią Energetyki Regionalnej Przedsiębiorstwo Energetyki 58 Klaster Mazurska Energia lack of data Cieplnej w Olecku Sp. z o.o. Warmińsko-Mazurski Klaster 59 Fundacja Nasza Warmia biogas Energetyczny 60 Klaster Energia Jarocin Energia Jarocin Sp. z o.o. solar energy Leszczyński Klaster Energii Nowa 61 Enea Serwis Sp. z o.o. biomass, solar energy Energia dla Leszna 62 Ostrowski Rynek Energetyczny CRK Energia Sp. z o.o. solar energy Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i 63 Zielona Energia Konin biogas, solar energy Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. w Koninie Zakład Energetyki Cieplnej w 64 Białogardzki Klaster Energii biogas Białogardzie Sp. z o.o. Bio Energia Strzykocin wind energy, solar 65 Gryficki Klaster Energii Sp. z o.o. energy, biogas New Energy Trading Idea biogas, solar energy, 66 Tuczyński Klaster Energii Sp. z o.o. wind energy * Renewable Energy Sources Source: own study based on [MAP 2018] and websites of individual energy clusters ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH 201

SUMMARY

Assuming the number of 134 clusters and cluster initiatives in Poland, it can be concluded that clusters represent the interests of a large group of enterprises, most of which lead their activity in key industry specializations for the development of the Polish economy, such as the energy sector. Rural regions have all the technical tools to become energy autonomous. Progress in the use of renewable energy technologies observed in the world will make clusters self-sufficient communities and, in the horizon of the next decade, energy clusters will be technically and economically justified initiatives. Currently, there are 66 Pilot Energy Clusters in Poland, the dominant of which is the use of solar energy and biomass / biogas as RES. Basic investment dams represent the initial launch costs and high costs associated with the risk. This risk is rooted in an unstable legal situation, the renewable energy industry and the electricity sector in Poland. Still, common support for the idea of clusters in science, business and local communities allows us to believe that the identified difficulties and challenges will gradually be overcome.

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*** KLASTRY ENERGII W POLSCE – UJĘCIE TEORETYCZNE

Słowa kluczowe: klastry energii, prosument, odnawialne źródła energii (OZE), województwa, Polska

ABSTRAKT W artykule podjęto próbę teoretycznej analizy pojęcia klastrów, a w szczególności klastrów energii. Przedstawiono ekonomiczną ewolucję teorii klastrów oraz obecnie obowiązujące w Polsce ujęcie klastrów energii. Struktury klastrowe w Polsce przedstawiono na tle doświadczeń europejskich. Stwierdzono iż obecnie postępująca globalizacja skłania do działań oszczędnościowych zwłaszcza w sektorze energetyki, który napędza działanie gospodarek. Sposobem na sprostanie wymogom UE, dotyczących zwiększonego udziału OZE i ograniczeniem zużycia zasobów konwencjonalnych, może być energetyka rozproszona oparta na działaniach prosumentów, czego przejawem niewątpliwie są klastry energii. Zachętą do tworzenia klastrów energii są konkursy ogłaszane przez Narodowy Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej (NFOŚiGW), jako instytucji wdrażającej w ramach Programu Operacyjnego Infrastruktura i Środowisko 2014-2020. Wśród 66 podmiotów nagrodzonych Certyfikatem Pilotażowego Klastra Energii najwięcej klastrów energii zlokalizowano w województwie mazowieckim (10), natomiast najmniej w województwie świętokrzyskim (1). Bariery w tworzeniu klastrów energii najczęściej wynikają z braku możliwości finansowania oraz częstych zmian przepisów dotyczących sektora energetyki i OZE w Polsce.

AUTHORS

ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK MSC ORCID: 0000-0003-3903-1990 Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Institute of Economics and Finance Department of Economics and Organisation of Enterprises 166 Nowoursynowska St., 02-787 Warsaw, Poland

ANNA M. KLEPACKA DR HAB. ORCID: 0000-0002-2828-5429 Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Institute of Economics and Finance Department of Economics and Organisation of Enterprises 166 Nowoursynowska St., 02-787 Warsaw, Poland