192 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK,ANNALS ANNA OF M. THE KLEPACKA POLISH ASSOCIATION OF AGRICULTURAL AND AGRIBUSINESS ECONOMISTS received: 30.11.2020 Annals PAAAE • 2020 • Vol. XXII • No. (4) acceptance: 11.12.2020 published: 22.12.2020 JEL codes: Q29, Q49 DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0014.5767 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Poland ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH Key words: energy cluster, prosumer, renewable energy sources, voivodship, Poland ABSTRACT. The article attempts to theoretically analyze the concept of clusters, in particular energy clusters. The paper presents the economic evolution of the cluster theory and the current Polish approach to energy clusters. Cluster structures in Poland have been presented against a background of European experiences. It was found that the current progression of globalization prompts for saving measures, especially in the energy sector, which drives the operation of eco- nomies. The way to meet EU requirements regarding the increased share of renewable energy sources and consumption limitation of conventional resources may be distributed energy based on the actions of prosumers, which is undoubtedly manifested in energy clusters. An incentive to create energy clusters are competitions for projects supporting cluster initiatives announced by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management as the Implementing Institution under the Infrastructure and Environment 2014-2020 Operational Programme. Among 66 entities awarded the Pilot Energy Cluster Certificate, the largest number of energy clusters is located in the Mazowieckie Voivodship (10), and the least in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodship (1). Barriers to the creation of energy clusters most often result from a lack of financing and poorly defined central regulations concerning the energy and renewable energy sector in Poland. INTRODUCTION In shaping the contemporary world economy, apart from the continuing globalization process, the location of economic activity is becoming increasingly important. There has been a reconstruction of the concept of traditional economic theory while maintaining the new paradigm of sustainable and integrated economic, environmental and socio-cultural order [Cieślukowski 2014]. Modern paradigms of economic development emphasize the transition from an economy of competition to an economy of “cooperation” [Rzewuski 2007]. The concept of clusters is a manifestation of the interest of economic entities in the phenomenon of mutual cooperation and competition as an effective strategy leading to the achievement of economically justified profits. Cluster structures have existed in the economy for thousands of years, despite Porter’s concept of clusters originating in the 1980s and 1990s [Kowalski 2013]. ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND – A THEORETICAL APPROACH 193 In economic sciences, the origins of the concept of clusters go back to neoclassical economics. They first appeared in the work of Alfred Marshall, in the study “Principles of economics” from 1890 [Jankowska 2012]. Alfred Marshall was the first to describe the operation of industrial districts in Great Britain. In his opinion, clusters of companies were distinguished by “a constant exchange of ideas between the creators and users of machines” [Skawińska, Zalewski 2009, p. 21]. Alfred Marshall also noted that small businesses located in industrial districts achieved results comparable to large companies. He attributed these benefits to regional externalities, which included: diffusion of knowledge, highly qualified staff and a network of supplier-recipient relations. Marshall’s concept of externalities has become the starting point of many contemporary theories of regional development. Among the economists emphasizing the role of cluster locations are also: Arthur C. Pigou, François Perroux, Giacomo Becattini and Paul Krugman [Sokołowicz 2015]. An extension of the theory of industrial districts described by Alfred Marshall is the concept of Italian industrial districts formulated by Giacomo Becattini. According to Becattini et al. [2009], a distinguishing feature of the region is the existence of specific areas of growth, which he called enclaves. These enclaves are specialized in a specific field of production, among which there are small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), mainly family businesses. Giacomo Becattini and co-authors [2009] presented the view that cooperation based on trust in a similar culture and tradition enables the exchange and circulation of new ideas and a smooth flow of innovation. In this approach, social capital becomes the main factor leading to the development of clusters [Becattini 2002]. Another economist who also shared the views of Alfred Marshall was François Perroux, who created the concept of growth poles. The main assumption of the French economist’s theory was the positive influence of growth poles for the development of the local economy and the generation of development innovations in them [Kowalski 2010]. Paul Krugman [1991], in turn, perceived the benefits of location as a result of the interaction between economies of scale, generating increasing revenues, transport costs and the potential of a given region [Gorynia, Jankowska 2008]. Identifying the concept of clusters contributed to the development of knowledge, while the breakthrough in research on their phenomenon was the work of Michael E. Porter: “The Competitive Advantage of Nations”. Michael E. Porter, like his predecessors, argued that the motive for creating clusters is the search for economies of scale and location benefits and the resulting positive externalities. In addition, in the cluster, it is possible to reduce costs related to supply, transport, administrative services, but above all, the costs of acquiring knowledge. A further benefit which is specific to clusters is also the fact that knowledge is easier to obtain thanks to the proximity of entities participating in the cluster. This results in greater benefits from the knowledge acquired in the cluster, which leads to further investments [Cooke 2003]. Michael E. Porter claims that the innovative abilities of an enterprise increase as a result of cooperation with other enterprises present in a given area [Grycuk 2003, Budner 2013]. The concept of clusters has also been widely adopted and used in the work of representatives of the new institutional economy (Ronald Coase, Oliver Williamson and Douglass North), as well as economists related to the new theory of growth (including Kenneth Arrow and Paul Romer) [Anna Lis, Adam Lis 2011, Zmysłowski 2011]. 194 ALEKSANDRA SIUDEK, ANNA M. KLEPACKA Taking the analyzed economic theories concerning the phenomenon of clusters into account, the conclusion can be drawn that each of them, in a very suitable way, fits into contemporary economic reality. Due to the wide spectrum of impact on the area of ​​ occurrence, clusters have become the object of interest of scientists, and also entered the sphere of economic and political life on the Polish market. Cluster initiatives started to significantly influence the development of prosumer energy. Their role was also noticed by entities responsible for creating energy policy, which ultimately led to the regulation of the concept of energy clusters under the RES Act in force in Poland [Jabłońska 2015, Piwowar, Dzikuc 2015]. The concept of an energy cluster was introduced into the Polish legal order relatively recently, on July 1, 2016, under the Act of June 22, 2016, on the amendment to the act on renewable energy sources and certain other acts [Journal of Laws, 2015, item 925]. Formally, we define an energy cluster as a civil law contract, which may include natural persons, legal persons, scientific units, research institutes or local government units, concerning the production and balancing of demand, distribution or trade of energy from renewable energy sources or from other sources or fuels, with a distribution network with a rated voltage lower than 110 kV, in the area of the cluster operation not exceeding the borders of one district or 5 communes. Energy clusters are to serve as a tool supporting the development of the distributed energy concept, which, in turn, aims to protect the energy security of small areas, and thus contribute to the development of local economies by investing in renewable energy [Gronkowska 2017, Wiktor-Sułkowska 2018]. The aim of the article is to present the idea of creating energy clusters compared to other cluster structures in Poland and the EU. The spatial scope of the study covers all voivodships depending on the location of the energy cluster. The article uses the descriptive method, which was used to review the literature on the subject and the functioning of energy clusters. ENERGY CLUSTERS IN POLAND AGAINST A BACKGROUND OF SELECTED EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND OTHER CLUSTER STRUCTURES In Poland, clusters are young in comparison to clusters in Europe. According to the results of benchmarking carried out in Europe under the NGP project Excellence, clusters were established between 1997-2010 (in Finland, between 1997 and 2007, in Germany between 1998-2006, in Austria – 1999-2003, in Denmark – 2003-2010, in Norway – 2003- 2007, Sweden after 2004, France after 2005 and Spain after 2006, and most recently in Iceland – after 2007 [Lammer-Gamp et al. 2012]. In turn, from the study of global clusters, the Global Cluster Initiative Survey shows that the beginning of clustering dates back to the mid-1980s – 32 clusters were created