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Solicitor General Canada ici Ministry Secretariat
USER
REPORT
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS:
LITERATURE REVIEW
No. 1994-16
Responding
to Violence
and Abuse
LB 3013.3 W3 19941
Police Policy and Research Division L
Sandra Gail Walker 30t3.3 EDUCON Marketing and Research Systems L) ?) r Lt L.
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS:
LITERATURE REVIEW
No. 1994-16
rektUrrn, . . hrege.reeere---r-una 1, LIBRARY seuerron GENERAL CANADA
AUG 2 AOUT 2 1995
BIBLIOTHMUE SOLLICITEUR Gp.qtR,m_ cAm OTTAWA Brighter 1, MA 08 . 1 Futures The views expressed in this working paper are those of the authors and are not necessarily those of the Ministry of the Solicitor General of Canada.
Ce document de travail est disponible en français. © Minister of Supply and Services (1995) Cat. No. JS4-1/1994-5-1 ISBN 0-662-22771-9 7.ontro1 number : SGL-95-00000138 ritle link : Weapons use in Canadian schools = Les armes dans Les coles au Canada, 1994 _leader : *Record status: n *Record type : a *Bibl. 1 a *Encod. level : *Des.cat. form: a *Link. record : )ate-time latest transn. : 19950726151412.4 IFixed Length ElementsY *Date entered : 950713 *Type of date : s *Starting date: 1994 Ending 1111 *Publ. place : onc *Illustration : 1111 *Target aud. : *Nat. contents: 1111 *Govt. publ. : f *Conf. publ. : 1 *Index . *Fiction : . eng *Modified rec.: 1 *Cat. source 1 niAdditional Material CharacteristicsY 4Physical DescriptionY Wariable Data FieldsY A 020 a0-6-6-2.6--1-3-Cr4-X- 0GA 2 - 7- 2 11 IÎ 040 a0OSGbeng 041 0 aengfre 086 aJS4-1/1994-5 -e Mi 090 aLB 3013.3 W3 1994t, 100 1 aWalker, Sandra Gaii.v 'Or 245 10aWeapons use in Canadian schools= Les armes dans les coles au Canada 4 /cSandra Gail Walker. 260 a[Ottawa} :bSolicitor General Canada, Ministry Secretariat . Solliciteur Agnral Canada, Secrtariat du Ministre, c1994. 300 a, 26, iv, v,3C1 ttp. ;c28 cm. 440 0aUser report (Canada. Ministry of the Solicitor General) ;vno. 1944-9- (, 440 OaRapport pour spcialistes (Canada. Ministre du Solliciteur gnral ;vno. 1944-04&/4 500 aFunded by Police Policy and Research Division. 1--- 500 aFonds par Division de la politique et de la recherche en matire de police. 500 aText in English and French with French title on inverted pages.- 500 aTextes franais et anglais disposs tte-bche r,, - I 650 OaSchool violencezCanada.t--- Soo- 0 tA Ccve-4 650 6aViolence dans les coleszCanada. L7 , f«.. ékkec_ 650 6a ) 0. e41,..oe,r1-t,,,,.., Pow 650 6a et-,‘ X Mo, (.100,A, . 710 10aCanada.bMinistry of the Solicitor General.bPolice Policy and Research Division. t- 710 10aCanada.bMinistre du Solliciteur gnral.bDivision de la politique et de la recherche en matire de police , Yee Le-n_ c 740 41aLes armes dans les coles au Canada aw\o.kr 00.(Q-c
Catalogued : 07/13/95 -7(4 0 em. t d è v, ce Updated : 07/26/95 7Q0/ Powi 4 VIE. te- e— "1-e- : tf; Ck,%A, PAC( t-UrcK:( s -6:- TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1 Responses 1 Influencing factors 2
NATURE AND EXTENT OF WEAPONS USE 3 The Canadian Experience . 3 The U.S. Experience 4 Report of the National Institute of Education to U.S. Congress 5 Summary of the findings 5 Recommendations 6 Other trends 7
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO WEAPONS USE 8 Movies, television and videos 8 Advertising 9 Other influences 9 Youth gangs 10 Ethnic factors 11
RESPONSES TO SUPPRESS WEAPONS USE 12 Police School Liaison Officer 1 2 Zero Tolerance 1 2 The Manitoba Summit on Youth Violence and Crime 17 Finding weapons 17 Counselling and conflict 1 8
REFERENCES 20
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW i INTRODUCTION
This comprehensive search of national and Violent crimes and weapons use do exist in international books, journals and newspaper many large Canadian cities. In most cases, articles covers three topics: research and intervention programs assume that offenders, victims and persons who • the nature and extent of weapons use fear crime in schools are three mutually in the schools exclusive groups. Evidence suggests that • the factors contributing to weapons use this is probably not true. Some individuals • the responses to suppress weapons use affected belong to more than one group. (Caputo, 1993; 1991; Caputo & Ryan, As anticipated, there was little Canadian 1991; Fattah, 1993; Mathews, 1994; information specifically addressing McDermott, 1985; Wilson, 1977) weapons use in schools. This study and its findings are therefore a benchmark of the Responses Canadian experience. Solutions to the problem of weapons use in the schools must be formulated and applied There is considerable American research on in the broad school-community context. violence in schools; however, it is not Crime in the schools does happen in generally applicable to the Canadian isolation from crime in the rest of society. experience. U.S. sources have been Any myopic tendency to address it as such included where appropriate. has two unfortunate consequences:
Because there is so little research, the First, the blame tends to be placed solely nature and extent of weapons use and on the schools and the police. violence in Canadian schools, and responses to these issues are not well Second, solutions are almost always understood. This results in many varying school-related. Some examples include: definitions and responses to the problem — some conflicting. • better teachers • smaller classes Weapons use in the schools is dealt with in • fair and equal treatment of students such various legal instruments as the • relevant subject matter in courses Young Offenders Act (Y.O.A.), the Charter • tighter discipline and stricter rule of Rights and Freedoms, the Criminal Code, enforcement involving suspensions and provincial educational acts and regulations, expulsions and provincial legislation dealing with child • security welfare and mental health. Each reflects its • fortress-like alterations to the schools own particular philosophical underpinnings. This makes the job of applying such It has not been proven that school-related regulations in the real world of schools, solutions significantly lower levels of school communities and cities a difficult one. crime. Many such approaches do not take effect until after the violent act has Making sense of the legal and social occurred, while others only displace the ramifications is also complicated by the problem to the community. lack of standardized repo rting, data collection, analysis and evaluation. Nor is The social and psychological problems of valuable information not always shared by weapons use and the violent tenor of our the different jurisdictions and youth society will not go away by themselves. agencies. Though tempting, we must resist the lure of relying wholly on simplistic solutions. Some jurisdictions are doing that. Several
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 1 promising programs in classroom sympathetic primary prevention programs. management, problem-solving skills While there is no quick fix to end weapons training, violence prevention and safer use and violence, collaboration between violence-free environments for school schools and such community agencies as children and youth have been developed, local police department offers the most but few have been evaluated. promise.
Influencing factors This study reviews factors that encourage and support weapons use among youth. It discovered a wide range of findings that show how social and cultural contexts both promote and buffer violence.
Media: Though most Canadians abhor violence, heroes and media images often glorify interpersonal violence. Violent films are widely attended, and the news media present images reflecting violence in society, sometimes exploiting or contributing to it.
The violent influence of the media may be reduced by teaching critical viewing skills. There is also evidence that television is an pervasive and persuasive teacher of children and youth. It has the potential to educate and inform, and to make a major contribution to solving violence rather than contributing to it.
School peers: On the one hand, schools provide opportunities for bullying, harassment, intimidation, fights, thefts, and other forms of violence to occur. Students who feel that their personal safety is threatened may bring weapons to school. Students who are not doing well academically and who do not get along with others are more likely to get involved in violence, weapons, drug use and gangs.
On the other hand, schools also provide youth with opportunities to follow sound principles of personal safety, strengthen academic and social skills, develop sound peer relationships and learn effective nonviolent solutions to social conflict.
School system: The school system presents a new frontier for creating effective and
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 2 NATURE AND EXTENT OF WEAPONS USE
The Canadian Experience One Metro Toronto School Board suspended more than 2700 students last A 1 991 Ontario Teachers Federation survey year — about 80 per cent were males; half cited an increase in physical and verbal were suspended for verbal and physical assaults in schools over the previous two abuse. Weapons use accounted for 4 per years. More than 440 "major" incidents cent of suspensions, mostly for knives and were reported, ranging from biting to some guns. Metro Toronto police stated kicking to the use of guns and knives. that 80 per cent of violent crimes in Toronto schools go unreported. The possession of weapons is a serious A 1993 Montreal school principals study problem in many schools, and incidences of revealed that violence in their schools is trespassing on school property have often hidden, because publicity would give recently increased. The relationship schools a bad name and provoke parents to between school administrators and law send their children elsewhere. Many times, enforcement authorities was seen as principals wouldn't support the teachers or extremely important. Some school boards deal with the violence. have policies and procedures defining this relationship. Many others do not have Many of the 20 secondary schools in guidelines directing when and how school Montreal's French-language Catholic personnel or victims should advise the system perceive they have not yet been police when violence or weapons use do affected by the problem of violence, ()CCU!". however, one quarter have installed electronic security systems and surveillance Police chiefs attending the 1993 cameras. Some have security guards and International Association of Chiefs of Police most require students to show conference heard that school violence in identification cards. the 1990s is a major problem that school administrators are not equipped to handle. Montreal schools report that conflicts In some Toronto schools, weapons — between youth of different ethnic including semi-automatic handguns — have backgrounds begin in the schools and then been found. Lack of discipline and lack of spill into the streets and transit system. inservice training for educators about when Some school principals and Montreal Urban to call police contributed to the escalating Community (MUC) police officers state that weapons use in some schools. Police some students are so frightened of gangs school liaison/resource programs were seen in specific regions of the city that they as important to suppress violence. refuse to attend classes, while others carry Consideration should be given to cost- weapons for protection. sharing if local police services cannot keep officers in schools. "It's time the police fit The B.C. Teachers' Federation (BCTF) Final into the school board budgets." (Millar, Report (1994) said that weapons are 1993, p. A17) becoming more common, with knives or razors being the weapon of choice. While The 1994 Ottawa Board of Education not necessarily criminal, a report from the Interim Report noted 96 weapon-related Manitoba Teacher's Society suggests that incidents and 55 other incidents (primarily in many cases, verbal abuse is a forerunner including serious physical confrontations) in of other forms of abuse and therefore their schools in 1992-93. The Ottawa should not be downplayed. Roman Catholic School Board reported that its teachers estimated five per cent of Any interpretation of these reports requires students were involved in school violence. caution, as terms, definitions and collection
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 3 methods vary. Many agencies do not infiltrated by hard-to-control criminal record violent incidents, at least not elements ... officially. Despite these caveats, it is possible to say with some certainty that It is an illusion to believe that violence weapons use and violence by youth is is caused only by outside groups increasing. (Bala et al., 1994; Burke, 1989; intruding on school territory. Recent Hamilton, 1993; Harting, 1994; Lefebvre, incidents have involved students from 1993; MacDougall, 1993; Mathews, the schools where they occurred. Banner & Ryan, 1992; Montgomery, 1993; Intervention strategies which go beyond Ouimet, 1993; Palmer, 1993; Roher & the school itself must be developed, in Elliot, 1993; Roy, 1994; Shahin, 1993; contrast to the previous tendency to
Wallace, 1993; West, 1993) promote the application of discipline inside the school. This rekindles the Once again, it must be remembered that debate regarding the role of the police the background incidence of violence is in the school system. (ADEM, 1993, also increasing. Neighbourhoods affected p.97) by drugs, gangs, crime and poverty spawn schools with similar problems. The U.S. experience Several major reports on crime and violence Statistics Canada (1994) reported that, of in American public schools were most the 135,348 youth (ages 12 to 17 years) enlightening, some reaching as far back as charged in Criminal Code incidents in 1992, 1974 (Boothe et al., 1993; McDermott, 15 per cent were charged with violent 1985; Nolte, 1985; Sawyer, 1985; Toby, crimes. The rate of youths charged with 1980; U.S. Senate hearings, Subcommittee violent crimes increased twice as fast as on Juvenile Justice, 1984). Many parallels the rate for adults. can be drawn from these reports and applied to the Canadian experience. In 1992, police charged 900 youths in violent incidents for every 100,000 young The National U.S. Crime Survey (1993) people aged 12 to 17 years, up from 415 showed that almost three million crimes in 1986. Violent offenders are much more occurred in or near U.S. schools every year likely to be males than females, though the — 1 every 10 seconds. There is portion of female violence seems to be considerable evidence that the alarming rise increasing (Bala et al., 1994; Statistics in youth homicides in the U.S. is related to Canada, 1992-1993). the availability of firearms. One student in five carries a weapon of some kind and According to a report by l'Association des about one student in twenty carries a gun. directions d'écôle de Montréal on violence The American Psychological Association in educational institutions, it is difficult to (1993) reported that students carry an separate 'inside' and 'outside' violence: estimated 270,000 guns to school every day. the inability to counteract violence outside the school will inevitably Between 1979 and 1989, there was a 61 lead to contamination of the school per cent increase in homicides by shootings environment, either by an increase committed by 15- to 19- year-old White in inside violence or through the and African-American youth. During the development of a climate of fear same period, the rate of homicides by and insecurity. The weaknesses objects other than guns declined 29 per common in school security systems cent. thus enables schools to be
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 4 Some report that guns have become a codes, banning gang clothing and insignia, fetish of manhood and power, in a world and closing campuses to visitors rather that has given the young neither self- than electing extreme methods such as discipline or much to hope for. If children metal detectors or video surveillance. In have trouble expressing themselves, guns addition, many preferred to use in-school are definitely a rticulate. In a study of suspensions rather than out-of-school eleventh-grade students in Seattle high suspensions or expulsions. The majority of schools, six per cent reported owning the respondents said that their districts handguns, and a disproportionately high were not training teachers how to deal with number of these handgun owners admitted violence and weapons use. Special training having been expelled or suspended from was more likely in the larger urban centres school, having sold drugs, or having (Boothe et al., 1993). engaged in assault and battery. Report of the National Institute of Some American schools have developed a Education to U.S. Congress fortress mentality. For example, a California Two reports addressed this elaborate 350 school built a 10-foot wall to separate the page 1978 study, which surveyed rear boundary from a housing project and principals in over 4000 schools from urban, its gang gunfights. New York schools have suburban and rural cities, plus over 31,000 increased security. There are more police students and 23,000 teachers from junior officers in schools; most schools have and senior high schools. Over 6000 locked doors; some have metal detectors; students were also randomly selected for and others allow entry only with individual interviews. Though this was a computerized ID cards. The cost of all this scientific report, it inevitably had political security in New York schools was $60 overtones. million annually (A.P.A., 1993; Morrow, 1992; U.S. National Crime Survey, 1993; Summary of the findings Ostling, 1989). • crime and violence tended to be located in the larger cities . A recent American national survey of 1 21 6 • relationships existed between high elementary and high school principals, and crime rates, low academic achievement, superintendents from mainly rural districts and a high proportion of minority (only 11 per cent worked in districts with students 25,000 or more students) revealed that one • parents with middle-class values were in five elementary school principals and one enrolling their children in private or in four middle school principals reported: parochial schools out of fear of crime, as well as out of a desire for better • an increase in gun-related incidents . academic instruction • a general increase in school violence • crime was worse in junior high schools compared to five years ago than in high schools • low-achieving students were the most • urban teachers were likely to be likely perpetrators of violence victimized more than suburban or rural • a lack of parental involvement teachers contributed strongly to school violence • the notion that intruders were • more violence was infiltrating to the responsible for a great deal of school elementary schools crime was a myth • there was an upsurge in fights between • younger students were female students disproportionately victimized, however, most of those who attacked or robbed Many school executives dealt with the them were roughly the same age and problem by enforcing school disciplinary
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 5 not older students preying on younger • paddling students • transfer to a special school • that a small percentage of students (10 • assignment to a special day-long class per cent) in each school were for disruptive students responsible for all the violence and they • student I.D. cards were easily identifiable and generally • expulsion known both to staff and students (for example, violence was described as Except for paddling, a measure more interactive with a small group of popular in rural areas, visitor checks and students frequently causing problems suspensions were favoured by large and and often setting off a chain reaction small city, and suburban principals. among other students) • violence occurred mainly in hallways, In addition, the report commented on the stairs, cafeterias, locker rooms, growing separation of the school from vvashrooms and other areas where students' families and neighbourhood. The teacher supervision was weak larger the school; the more likely that • a strong relationship existed between teachers and administrators would operate laxness in enforcing school rules and according to professional standards instead the rate of violent crime, especially in of in response to local sensitivities. urban schools The advantages of autonomy were obvious. Recommendations The disadvantages, however, took longer Principals, teachers and students were to reveal themselves. For example: asked to recommend measures to create a safer environment. Eight categories were • students developed distinctive identified: subcultures unrelated to education • students were doing their own thing • security devices • principals did not call the police, • security personnel preferring to organize their own • discipline and supervision disciplinary procedures • curriculum and counselling • teachers were used to monitor • training and organizational change behaviour in the halls and lunch-rooms • physical-plant improvement • order was chronically problematic when • parental involvement and community hundreds of students came together for relations congregate education • improvement in school climate • school architects were uninformed about 'defensible space concepts', Discipline and supervision was the most resulting in schools with too many popular category. The report also entrances, rooms and corridors where described, based on questionnaire surveillance was difficult responses from principals, efforts made to • lost control over potential student cope with student violence and crime. The misbehaviour when parents were kept follovving 10 procedures were identified: away
• visitors must check in at the office In short, isolation of the school from • suspension the local community always means • students must carry hall passes if out of that if a large enough proportion of class students misbehave, teachers and • student referral to a mental-health principals cannot maintain order. (p. agency 28) • transfer to another regular school
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 6 Other trends • designing more intriguing curricula • continuing pressure to keep children in • selecting more stimulating teachers school longer, which raised education • more discipline levels for some students who were now • credible rewards and punishments compelled to remain in school when • more home instruction and alternative they didn't wish to be there schools for those students when their is • increased sensitivity to the rights of no recourse but expulsion children made it very difficult for • a systematic national effort to reduce schools to deal with students guilty of school crime intractable and violent behaviour • decreased ability of schools to get help To fail to utilize informal controls is with discipline problems from the to throw the entire burden of juvenile courts preventing school violence on formal • an erosion of the authority of the agencies ... . Part of the reason that classroom teacher school violence has been handled • a decline in homework in secondary gingerly is the American tradition of schools local control over education ... The • a reduced teacher and student development of a nation-wide commitment to the educational process. school resource network dedicated to systematic advocacy, reform, and The report also cited that arbitrary a safer environment on behalf of expulsions and suspensions incite students students and teachers is needed to to violence: provide overall direction and coordination of existing and new At first glance it might appear that school resources. The promotion of the expulsion, push out ... due process, fairness and phenomenon, ... might at least consistency in school security, and create a somewhat more orderly disciplinary policies and practices is atmosphere for those remaining in important in assisting schools to school as a result of the absence of develop and operate crime youngsters evidently experiencing prevention and control programs. (p. problems adjusting to the school 36-41) environment. The opposite, however, appears to be the case. ... the vast majority of students who are ... excluded from schools do, in time, return to those schools. In many instances the frustration and inadequacies which caused their absence in the first place have only been heightened by their exclusion and the school community will likely find itself a convenient and meaningful object of revenge. (p. 35)
Long-term strategies were identified as necessary to reduce school crime, such as:
• greater parental and neighbourhood involvement
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 7 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO WEAPONS USE
Movies, television and videos Television and movies are for many the The 1993 Spears and Seydegart 20-year 'window on the vvorld'. The average analysis of violence on the three major U.S. television viewing in 1988 per week by commercial networks established that Canadian children aged 2 to 11 years was levels are remarkably stable. In prime-time 20.3 hours. The average teen spends about drama, the 20-year average is 15.4 violent eight hours a day with some form of mass acts per hour (e.g., in which someone is media. (Fine, et al., 1990; Manley-Casimir, hurt or killed). In children's cartoons, by 1992; Statistics Canada, 1991) contrast, an average of 21 violent acts an hour occur. Being exposed to a steady stream of media violence can incite aggression in some Over the last 20 years many studies have vulnerable children. Though images of attempted to discover the strength and violence occur far more frequently in the direction of the relationship between media than in real life, some people tend to viewing electronic media violence mistake this illusion for reality. Some (television, movies, videos) and the researchers argue this produces the so- subsequent levels of aggression manifested called 'world syndrome' or 'cultivation by the viewer. (Bandura, 1973; Doob & paradigm '. This states that while Wood, 1972; Eron, 1987, 1963; Feshbach aggression may be an occasional & Singer, 1971; Gerbner, 1988, 1972; consequence of television violence, there is Provenzo, 1992) a pervasive lingering sense of insecurity, fear and mistrust that desensitizes the Other researchers have sought a more viewers to violence, whether children or comprehensive and contextual account of adults. why and how children view programs, and what is learned from the experience. Youth become very aware of the disparity (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Bronfenbrenner & between their situations and what they Crouter, 1983; Lewin, 1936; Luke, 1985; view. Yet those who view more television Manley-Casimir, 1992; Rubinstein & express greater interpersonal mistrust and Comstock, 1982; Spears & Seydegart, perceive the world as a 'mean' place. They 1993) are more likely to endorse statements that reflect alienation and gloom. Some will be Overall, researchers seem unable to resolve fearful of venturing out among others, these issues and the debate continues. which has an obvious impact on their Whether aggressive children prefer violent ability to build a sense of community. programs is difficult to determine. The (Buerkel-Rothfuss et al, 1982; Campbell, relationship is not straightforward and 1993; Murray & Kippax, 1979; Premiers impact is best predicted •by taking into Council in Support of Alberta Families, account the viewer's: 1993; Rubinstein & Comstock, 1982; Signorielli, 1990; Theilheimer, 1993) • pre-existing aggression skills • aggression restraints Regardless of which theories of aggression • proportion of reinforcements provided and learning we ascribe to, it has been for aggressive conduct suggested that our media are our • contextual variables encountered during metaphors, and that these metaphors their daily interactions create the content of our culture. • perception of the program (e.g., the (Postman, 1986) Changes in the symbolic way they make sense of it, the way environment are like changes in the natural they treat the medium, how they select, environment. They are both gradual and integrate and reject information) additive at first. Then a critical mass is
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 8 achieved; not unlike a river that has been Advertising slowly polluted and suddenly becomes Advertising is yet another dominant force in toxic. For example, by the time children the relationship between electronic media leave elementary school, some will have and aggression. Very few studies have witnessed 8000 murders. Videos are a big examined the broader social and cultural contributor: Die Hard 2 depicted 264 contexts in which this medium has violent deaths, Robocop 81 violent deaths developed. (Gerbner, 1976; Postman, and Total Recall 74 violent deaths. 1986; Postman & Powers, 1992) Electronic media is concerned, among other things, Has the electronic media decisively and with the making of consumers. It is irreversibly changed the character of our possible that the presentation of material symbolic environment? The Canadian goods through advertising increases Association of Broadcasters (CAB) hopes expectations unrealistically, thereby not. It is attempting to strike a balance aggravating existing problems, garnering between free speech, informing the public frustration and consequently contributing to and protecting children from violence. Its aggression, violence and weapons use. tougher October 1993 Television Violence Code includes such key provisions as an Other influences outright ban on 'gratuitous' violence, Electronic media violence and advertising confinement of scenes of violence intended are not the only factors encouraging for adults to after 9 p.m. and viewer violence and weapons use in society. Other advisories to help in program selection. powerful candidates include:
The Code lays down stiff, specific rules for • discrimination, racism and bigotry children's programming, and violence in • a loss of 'community' (e.g., that society news, sports and public affairs values independence, autonomy and programming. CAB also stresses the consumption and those values do not importance of similar strong standards build tight-knit communities) applying to all sectors of broadcasting. The • unstable environments (e.g., recent CAB code will not apply to American changes in family life by high divorce networks piped in on cable, or border cities and separation rates, transient that pick up American signals; video rental relationships, two-job families, stores located in most neighbourhoods or uncertain out-of-school care, lack of video arcades. (Boone, 1993; Canadian quality of child care and shift-work can Association of Broadcasters, 1993; combine to reduce the amount of MacKay, 1994; Spears & Seydegart, 1993) parenting available • violence in the home (e.g., living with To further extend these standards, parents violence normalizes violent behaviour can be more discriminating in what they and inhibits the development of healthy allow children to watch. Children can be self-image and relationships) taught 'critical viewing skills' by parents • tight economics and unemployment and in schools to better interpret what they create stress for family relationships see. For example, children can learn to • lack of self-esteem distinguish between fact and fiction. In • alienation addition, children can be taught to • gang involvement recognize how violence is portrayed • aspects of the legal system (e.g., unrealistically, and to think about frustration with sentencing, ineffective alternatives to the violence portrayed. bail conditions, retribution) • the educational system itself (e.g., lack of discipline and control over student conduct, reduced teacher and student
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 9 commitment to education, over- Internal provocations include: populated schools, and administrators downplaying violence) • leader power needs • compensation for inadequate self- (BCTF, 1994; Billings, 1992; Cook, 1993; esteem Corbett, 1993; Craig, 1992; Demers, • acting-out to convince oneself of 1993; Drummie, 1993; Fulmer, 1991; potency, to obtain group affection, or to Jaffe, 1992; Lefebvre, 1993; Manitoba retaliate against real or imagined Justice, 1993; Shamsie, 1985; Shalliday, aggression 1991; Stainsby, 1993; Theilheimer, 1993; Toby, 1980) (A.P.A., 1993; Bala et al., 1994; Bandura, 1973, 1986; Banner, Ryan & Mathews, Youth gangs 1993; Brannigan & Caputo, 1993; Caputo, Extensive research on youth gangs has Ryan & Proulx, 1991; Copple, 1993; been conducted in the United States. There Horowitz, 1990; Mathews, 1993; 1992; is comparatively little Canadian research, National Youth Gang Information Center, especially on the relationship between 1993; Taylor, 1988; Thornberry et al., weapons use, gangs and schools. Social 1993; Vold & Bernard, 1986; Westons, perceptions of youth gangs complicate their 1993) study. Some describe groups of youth who 'hang out' on street corners or malls and Fasiolo and Leckie (1993) say that the become involved in anti-social, and perhaps media's characterization of gangs portrays criminal behaviour as gangs or 'wannabe' them as a modern phenomenon, gangs. Others define gangs as those widespread and a threat to society. They involved in hard-core, organized criminal tended to focus on polarization along ethnic behaviour. lines, dwelt on severity, and, offered little analysis on causes or solutions. Increased There are however, at least three features media attention to each gang incident was common to the concept of youth gangs: viewed as fuelling public paranoia about the influence of gangs, although gang- • gang activity is dynamic and it changes motivated crime may account for a fraction over time depending on location and of violent crime. opportunity • gang violence is not exclusive to any In 1987, one youth shot and killed another one ethnic group in front of 50 onlookers at a high school in • there is diversity in the behaviour and Portland, Oregon. The police suspected characteristics of gangs gang involvement. Prophet (1990) describes the importance of finding a It seems that gang violence results from a balance between responsible attention to variety of internal and external real gang behaviour vvhile avoiding the provocations, and that gang members are fuelling of public hysteria or feeding news- vigilant in their attention to possible slights. media-exploitation of youth activities that Among the external factors most likely to had nothing to do with gangs. provoke violent behaviour are: The Montreal Gazette (Arpin, 1993) cited • disputes over girlfriends or boyfriends that gangs were actively involved in the • territorial boundaries schools. A spokesman for the Montreal • rumours Urban Community police was quoted as • bad looks' saying that many school principals bury • ethnic tensions their heads in the sand, refusing to • drinking or drug use acknowledge the existence of teen violence • out-of-neighbourhood parties. in their own school yards.
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 10 Ethnic factors Four provinces received most of the The effects of ethnic culture on individuals newcomers: can be distinguished from the general effects of society on an individual. Culture Ontario 53.1% serves to bind groups together, to provide Quebec 17.5% a set of norms that guide behaviour, and to British Columbia 17.5% help shape the identity of the group. Alberta 7.3 %
According to the American Psychological The distribution of immigrants by major Association Commission on Violence and metropolitan areas was: Youth, 1993, some ethnic minorities must negotiate several cultural realms. For Toronto 28.8% example: Ottawa 2.2% Hamilton 1.2% • the realm of the indigenous ethnic Montreal 15.1% culture, which embodies the cultural Vancouver 14.2% values of the homeland Calgary 3.3% • the elements of minority status Edmonton 3% • the mainstream culture Winnipeg 1.7% Halifax 1% The "interrelations among these realms are complex, and they often come into (Immigration Canada, 1994) conflict." (p.36)
Clearly, both schools and our communities must promote cultural acceptance, understanding and diversity among ethnic minority youth. If we do not, the psychological violence of racism will probably result in physically violent incidents among different ethnic minority groups.
Youth who are barred from full participation in the economic and social opportunities of the mainstream may be at risk for involvement in violence, particularly when ethnic minority cultures are devalued by the mainstream culture. (A. P.A. , 1993, p. 37)
This duty can present many challenges, especially when many ethnic youth are also first- and second-generation immigrant students, often from war-torn countries with considerably different cultural backgrounds, values and belief systems from the mainstream Canadian experience, and who are 'visible' minorities.
Between January and October 1993, 218,296 immigrants arrived in Canada.
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 11 RESPONSES TO SUPPRESS WEAPONS USE
Police School Liaison Officer because the victims are too frightened to talk. They add that the problem seems to As many police depa rtments gradually be getting worse as students gain more restructure police priorities to include more access to vveapons, especially knives and proactive and preventive strategies, police in some areas, guns. (Fennell, 1993; managers are learning valuable lessons. Mathews, 1993; Shahin, 1993; Every aspect of policing can benefit from Summerhays and Lindbloom, 1989) more collaboration with the community. Other studies show that many school It is a myth that the police are expert districts and police departments still have technicians who know best how to deal problems cooperating to solve young with crime. When the community people's problems. There is an urgent need participates in and supports the process, for some police departments to renew police work is made easier. (Chacko & outreach efforts to local school Nancoo, 1993; R.C.M.P. Commissioner administrators. Inkster's Directional Statement, 1991; Normandeau & Leighton, 1990; Ryan et al., Many educators and parents appear 1994; Shabin, 1993; Trojanowicz & unrealistic or naïve when dealing with the Bucqueroux, 1990; Walker et al., 1992; police and crime. Principals may decline to Weston; 1993) act publicly because they are worried about the image of their schools. Ryan et al. This shift in attitude will not happen (1994) reported in their excellent study on overnight; it will evolve over time. Within developing a police and school partnership the school context this is especially true, as model that some parents believed that the some school officials do not feel the police presence of a police officer meant the belong in the schools. Differing professional school was unsafe. philosophies and false beliefs about each other's agendas can make collaborative Regardless of the length taken to partnerships between educators and police educate parents and the community very challenging. about the project ..., some refused to believe that a project involving a As many communities grapple with the police officer was designed to emergence of violence in schools, the develop a safe and positive learning police school liaison officer (SLO) is environment. (p.2) emerging as an effective way to promote positive relationships with students and Zero Tolerance cope proactively with crime. Grant (1993) Many educational institutions across discusses the importance of balancing Canada are promoting 'zero tolerance' enforcement, investigation of complaints, policies to suppress weapons use and crime prevention education and informal violence in schools. This concept takes positive contacts to help SLOs develop many forms: automatic suspension and effective relationships with students. possible expulsion, peer mediation and conflict resolution strategies, and schools Grant, who is a R.C.M.P. officer, said that working with other professionals to develop victim disclosures are the best criterion to alternative options from the justice system. measure the success of SLO programs. After a year of operation, his SLO program Ryan et al. (1994) suggest that zero had a 74 per cent clearance rate for all tolerance does not mean 'automatic violent or personal victimization offences, expulsion' but it confronts the violent act, and a 54 per cent clearance rate for provides demonstrated consequences for property offences. violent behaviours, and seeks solutions that support, not simply punish, the perpetrator. Some police estimate that fewer than 1 in 50 cases involving violence are reported
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 12 Selective sanction must accompany a zero student's records when the student is tolerance policy. This is the process of suspended for violent acts." (p. Al) Other deciding how to respond to the incident. It reports said that Cooke had suggested involves gathering information such as school boards also develop alternative mitigating circumstances, victim impact programs for violent students who were and previous involvement in violence, and expelled (e.g., home schooling or special considers all possible solutions. The Ryan programs that put expelled students project identified three essential strategies together); that boards must notify police in dealing with violence: immediately when violence occurs on school property; and that a task force • acknowledge that a problem exists would develop special programs for • undertake a comprehensive suspended and expelled students. (Crone, identification of the problem 1994; Liaken, 1993; Tobin, 1993; • work toward building partnerships Warburton, 1994) between the school and the community and police Approximately 18 Community Summits for Violence-Free Schools are being held Ottawa defence lawyer Rob Lewis (1994) throughout the province (at the time of this stated that zero tolerance has become a writing — those conclusions are "buzzword of the day ... We're seeing that forthcoming in June 1994) to look at long- very minor incidents result in very serious term solutions to creating safe schools. charges ... . I see a disturbing trend among the schools to hand over all their social The following highlights the Ministry's draft problems to the police' (p. Al). In the policies on violence: same article, Dave Cooke (Ontario's education minister) was quoted as saying that all school boards need a zero tolerance policy to deter violence in schools. In November 1993 the Ontario Minister announced strategies to address violence in schools. The underpinning of these strategies were:
• violent behaviour will not be accepted • effective partnerships are needed • students need opportunities to acquire skills to be responsible citizens
Under this policy, students who commit violent acts could be permanently expelled. Lash (1994) reported that zero tolerance was drawing strong criticism from Ontario educators and social workers, who viewed the policy as a short-sighted approach to dealing with teens who often are the victims of violence themselves. He stated, " ... the Ministry of [Ontario] Education has decided to drop the term zero tolerance and replace it with zero violence [violence-free schools]." (p. A7)
Tobin (1993) reported Cooke's requirement that "every school must begin to note on
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 13 By June 30, 1995 all school boards must develop a policy for reporting violent incidents to the police and recording information about them.
Policies must include:
• Violence prevention must be incorporated into all aspects of the curriculum from junior kindergarten to secondary school. • The school ... must be a safe environment so that learning can happen. • School boards must ensure a code of behaviour exists. • School boards will develop a set of procedures for dealing with violent incidents. • School boards will develop short- and long-term strategies to deal with the aftermath of a violent occurrence. • School boards must ensure that all teachers and staff have knowledge, skills, and values to develop and maintain a safe school environment. • Policies must identify ways of making students, teachers, staff, parents and guardians, and the larger community aware of their responsibilities for a violence-free environment.
Ref: Ontario Ministry of Education and Training (April 22, 1994, Summit, Ottawa).
Challinger, (1987) offered some insightful from being singled out for the views from seminars held by the Australian apparently ultimate form of Institute of Criminology on 'Crime at punishment. The students' peer School'. The seminars were prompted by a group may elevate him/her into a growing conflict between school hero who easily manages to administrators and Education Ministry accommodate the :worst that the personnel over transfer arrangements and school can do ... . suspension policies for disruptive students. Classroom disruption was viewed as a It would appear, then, that where major impediment to learning, and suspension is used as a punishment disciplined education was imperative. it is not fulfilling its carefully However, to recognize the problems that expressed function as per the arise when 'deviant' pupils are punished Education Department Regulations after the fact, discipline was defined nor is it an effective deterrent. The differently than punishment. major advantage would seem to be in its effect of isolating the deviant The report succinctly stated: student from the teaching body rather than the student body. Its If the suspension is being used as a greatest effect, therefore, is likely to punishment for the purpose of be an increase in teacher, rather deterring extremely deviant than student, morale. (p. 89) behaviour, then it should be realized that it is likely to be relatively The report suggested we consider the ineffective. The students most likely broader questions and design strategies to to incur the punishment are the improve discipline, not just suspend students who dislike it least. For students. These questions include: these students, suspension may even, inadvertently, become a reward. Gratification may come
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 14 • why do students become disruptive? Small group discussions at this forum • why is suspension a more frequent focused on: occurrence in some schools than in others? • school climate • why is the rate of suspension • societal attitudes toward violence continuing to increase while enrolments • values and attitudes about violence are declining? • community resources and support • why are students more prone to • power of peer culture suspension at particular junctures in • rights and responsibilities their school life? • improved service delivery • role of the media Many agencies and departments across • early intervention and prevention Canada prefer policies that deal with • integration of immigrant families violence prevention to promote safer environments (e.g., Alberta Ministry of The Québec Mouvement pour une écôle Education; Burnaby School District #41, moderne et ouverte (MEMO) denounces British Columbia; Centrale des enseignants repressive measures, including expulsion du Quebec (CEQ), Coquitlam School (Cadotte & Decourcy, 1994). In 1991, the District #43, British Columbia; Greater Centrale des enseignants du Québec stated Victoria School District #61, British in its campaign against violence in school: Columbia; Guelph, Wellington County Board of Education; and Ottawa-Carleton Board of Everything must be done to avoid Education; Quebec Department of using repressive measures. Most of Education; and the Quebec Department of the time, prevention works. An Health and Social Services, to name a few). action plan in which everyone is involved is essential. (p.74) A background document prepared for the Alberta Ministry of Education, 'Invitational This campaign favoured prevention Forum on Student Conduct and Violence in through: School', November 1993 stated: • keeping the premises clean and well- The school has a responsibility to maintained keep weapons out of the school and • coordinating group movements to respond firmly and immediately to • establishing reasonable and acceptable any violent incident ... educators, rules of conduct psychologists, ... and others who • initiating intelligent supervision work with young people have • promoting desirable values learned from practical experience • organizing sports activities that most youth who behave in • consideration to concentrating all these ways are in need of help. aggressive children in the same school Expelling those vvho commit violent actions maintains a certain level of The B.C. Teachers' Federation Final Report safety in the school -- and this is (1994) revealed a preference for violence extremely important. However, prevention. there should be some way of placing the offending student in While vve recognize the importance another environment for a period of of strong interventions for dealing time, such as work experience, with violent incidents, we believe living skills, management behaviour that a focus on violence prevention, programs, or in other alternative particularly vvith young children, programs for troubled youth. (p.13). through a variety of means, holds greater promise for addressing the problem. (p.4)
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 15 Schools are not isolated — solutions must • school policies and protocols need to involve the broader community. The respond to violence in a way that necessity of collaborative strategies, in doesn't blame the victims and holds which teachers work with others in the perpetrators accountable for their education community and beyond, are behaviour necessary to respond to this issue. • violence is related to power and control • ensure teachers are trained to deal with The Burnaby School District #41 (1992) witnesses and victims of violence initiative called the 'Youth Violence encountered at home or at school Resource Information Project' was funded • provide victim assistance programs by the Ministry of the Attorney General of • involve parents as part of the solution British Columbia. It collected effective youth violence prevention materials from At the American National School Safety Canada and the United States to inform Center, superintendents from 15 large administrators, counsellors, teachers and urban school districts identified six key police officers about how to implement strategies to make schools safer: their own successful programs. • get the public more involved in school Campbell (1993) suggested the following activities ways to create a school culture of non- • improve school leadership skills violence: • keep guns and other weapons off campuses • a recognition of the pro-social skills • make schools and surrounding children need to learn neighbourhoods drug-free • the importance of school rules and • halt negative gang activity regulations against violence, with • improve discipline of youth in school clearly defined consequences that are and at home enforced • initiatives that provide playground (Department of Justice, School Safety, support and activities for children 1988) • a process for conflict resolution and mediation models In 1989, the American National School • promotion of sports and recreation that Safety Center task force report included promotes being active and play, not just extensive strategies and recommendations highly specialized competitive skills to help educators lessen crime's impact and • strategies that promote critical thinking reduce the number of victims in the school. about the media These included developing guidelines for statistical tracking and prompt reporting of Jaffe (1993) outlined several strategies and violent crimes, and developing clear school insights that schools can use as part of the policies, training seminars, close solution against violence: partnerships with law enforcement and media contacts. • violence is a learned behaviour that is condoned and even glorified through Bala et al. (1994) in the Youth and the media — teachers and students Violence: A Police Reference Manual should discuss and examine violence in establish that the media are often a variety of forums (e.g., assemblies, presented with information from schools, theatre, films, testimonies of survivors), police agencies, and parents that either as it is important to break the silence distorts • resolving violent behaviour requires collaboration between educators, police the specific circumstances, or officers, justice officials, health presents a distorted picture of the providers and victims of violence overall nature and extent of violence
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 16 in schools ... . As a result, media making parents more responsible for attention may create unnecessary their children's actions anxiety and concern, and can lead • designate a school violence prevention to inappropriate responses. (p. 92) coordinator to help school divisions and teachers find ways to prevent or deal They suggest the following actions for with school violence dealing with the media: • provide opportunities for youth to participate in the solutions • develop a clear policy that clarifies who • develop boot camps for convicted is responsible for collecting and Sfoung offenders disseminating information, and speaking • develop local anti-violence action plans to the press and community-based prevention • keep the media informed efforts • don't downplay the situation but • develop a resource council on youth present it in context crime to assist neighbourhood-based and community groups or organizations The Manitoba Summit on Youth Violence and Crime Finding weapons The Manitoba Summit on Youth Violence Symons (1993) stressed the importance of and Crime (1993) concluded that the media developing an early warning system for (print, television and ente rtainment) were schools to discover if students or intruders critical to the cause and prevention of have brought weapons into a school youth violence. The media must be part of building. the solution to youth crime. According to statistics (Harrington-Lueker, The Manitoba Summit identified strategies 1992) from the American National School to address these issues: Safety Center, one quarter of the U.S. big- city school systems currently use metal • media should be partners in preventing detectors to stem the flow of weapons into youth crime the schools. With a price tag of up to • encourage balanced reporting and less US$10,000 each, metal detectors are sensationalism among the costliest items a school system • report success stories can purchase for its security arsenal. Are • media and justice should work together the devices an effective way to curb (e.g., publishing information on those in weapons use? The jury is still out! A few conflict with the law, and the Canadian schools have already installed consequences for their involvement) metal detectors — will others follow? • networks and parents should monitor (Donahue, 1989; Montgomery, 1993; violence in programming Robinson, 1993)
The Manitoba Summit also identified nine Canadian schools address student locker initiatives to suppress violence including: searches in different ways (e.g., not at all, only with a police warrant, school principal • a school anti-violence program in which checking specific lockers with 'reasonable youth service workers are trained to cause'). According to Sussel (1992) when prevent school-based violence considering school 'search and seizure' • increased police surveillance of gang policies and practices, Canadian courts members follow the U.S. Supreme Court 'T.L.O. • institute a youth gang and violence call- decision' and the leading Canadian case of in phone line 'R. v. J.M.G.'. These suggest that as long • pressure for significant improvements as school officials have 'reasonable' to the Young Offenders Act, including grounds and do not violate student privacy interests, the search is proper.
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 17 Anderson (1992) provided the following • School officials have personally guidance for the B.C. School Trustees observed the student in incidents which Association: raise suspicion of misconduct. • A student has identified another student The police standard of 'probable cause' as involved in an illegal activity or to ascertain the law has been violated breach of school rules. does not apply in the school setting. • The suspicious conduct must suggest a (p.A1 09) specific breach of a particular rule. (pp. A109-A118) To assist in locker searches, Anderson discussed the following two areas: Counselling and conflict A steadily growing number of elementary 1. Schools may take the following steps to and secondary schools across Canada are reduce student expectations of privacy: reaping the results of conflict resolution and peer mediation to suppress violence • The school could require students to and possible weapons use. Some schools enter into a locker rental agreement that use peer mediators, others incorporate includes i.e., "The student agrees that these concepts into the curriculum and the principal or designate may search many encompass both approaches. (Nyp, the locker at any time without notice to 1994) the student." (p. A112) • School handbooks could outline the Some school districts in Canada are circumstances under which student involved in developing response teams to lockers will be searched and any special assist the victim and other witnesses in restrictions on what students may store dealing with violent situations. These in their lockers. programs include: defusing, debriefing, • The lock for the locker could be rented ongoing counselling, and reducing exposure to the student on the understanding of the victim to further incidents. (Greater that the locker itself remains in the Victoria School District #61, 1993) possession of the school and the school administrator. There are numerous court-identified • The school could institute a uniform students, and those responsible for policy or consistent practice regarding educating them must try to provide help for random or periodic inspection or search their school-based problems. of all lockers. Roth (1991) identified one method for 2. Circumstances for searches: conducting counselling groups with violent and pugnacious students who have school To justify a search there must be adjustment problems. Educators reasoned reasonable individual suspicion. Where that acting arrogant, tough, or there is no reasonable individual suspicion, contemptuous at school is a necessary the student's legitimate expectation of defence for many violent students against privacy will prevail. Therefore, blanket and being overpowered. In this context, random searches could pose legal intimidators are often verbally or physically difficulties. aggressive because they fear that any sign of weakness will mark them as inadequate. Searches on individual suspicion are generally justified. To determine whether Their immediate goal is not so much there is individual suspicion, the following personal vindictiveness as it is protecting guidelines were suggested: themselves against submission. This fear of submission is then camouflaged behind a flurry of hostile aggression. Intimidators routinely challenge their teachers' right to
WEAPONS USE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS: LITERATURE REVIEW 18 tell them what to do. The program explores needed or especially likely to make a major patterns of student behaviours, and difference. how they organize and give meaning to • Introduce primary prevention programs their school experiences. of the type that promote social and cognitive skills, such as those that aid The A.P.A. Commission on Violence (1993) in learning alternatives to violence, self- reported that Americans' urgent need to esteem enhancement, peer negotiation prevent violence has led to a proliferation skills, problem-solving training and of anti-violence interventions. Their anger management. conclusions were that many of these • Programs that attempt to work with interventions were created primarily for and help the families of high-risk service delivery, concentrating on assessing children showed the greatest potential the program's effects on risk factors or for preventing aggression and violent mediators of violence. For example, those behaviour. interventions targeted at: • Include 'diversion programs' to keep high-risk or predelinquent youth out of • the perpetrators of violence, others at the juvenile justice system. the victims, and others the bystanders Interventions may include behavioural who may play a pivotal role in contracting, child advocacy and condoning or preventing violence involvement in the community. • prevention, and others seek to • Partnerships between police and the ameliorate the damage already done community play a pivotal role in • changing individuals, and others seek to reducing youth violence. change the systems and settings that influence, such as the family, peers, In conclusion, violence involving youth schools, and the community is generally not random, uncontrollable, or inevitable. Many factors, both Few programs, hovvever, were designed individual and social, contribute to an with plans for outcome evaluation, or individual's propensity to use violence. evaluated the direct short-term and long- Many of these factors are within our term effects of intervention on rates of power, collectively and collaboratively, violence. to change.
The following key criteria described the most promising intervention approaches:
• Begin as early as possible to interrupt the trajectory toward violence'. • Address aggression as part of a constellation of antisocial behaviours in the youth. For example, the cluster of behaviour often includes academic difficulties, poor interpersonal relations and cognitive deficits. • Include multiple components that reinforce each other across the everyday social contexts, as aggressive behaviour tends to be consistent across social domains such as family, school, peers, media and community. • Take advantage of developmental 'windows of opportunity', points at which interventions are especially
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