PESTICIDE APPLICATION TRAINING

General Manual

Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service Table of Contents Certification Procedures 3 Pests and Pest Control 5 Pest Control Methods Insects Plant Disease Agents Weeds Mollusks Wildlife Damage Control Pesticide Formulations 29 Types of Formulations Adjuvants Compatibility Labels and Labeling 36 Parts of the Label Label Terminology Reading the Label Protecting the Environment 59 Potential Hazards Potential Benefits Application Equipment 66 Sprayers Nozzles Tips Dusters and Granular Applicators Calibration 75 Laws and Regulations 85 FIFRA Registration Residues and Tolerances Other Regulations Pesticide Safety 93 Protecting Your Body Handling Pesticides Safely First Aid and Pesticide Poisoning Recognition Other Terms Used in Pest Control 110 Directions for Using this Manual This is a self-teaching manual. At the end of each major section is a list of study questions to check your understanding of the subject matter. By each question in parenthesis is the page number on which the answer to that question can be found. This will help you in checking your answers. These study questions are representative of the type which are on the certification examination. By reading this manual and answering the study questions, you should be able to gain sufficient knowledge to pass the Kansas Commercial Pesti- cide Applicators Certification and Recertification examination. 2 Certification controlling ornamental shrubbery or turf pests on property owned or Procedure This manual has been written to rented by the individual and such assist those persons who are prepar- property is used as the individual’s ing themselves for an examination residence. Commercial over the General Standards portion of certification may not be the commercial pesticide applicator necessary if restricted use pesticides certification exam. State and Fed- are used: eral regulations specify that certain a. within the authority granted standards of competency relating to by a private applicator certifica- both general and specific topics must tion be met by an individual before they b. under the supervision of a are allowed to apply or supervise the certified commercial applicator. (This does not apply to aerial application of Restricted Use Pesti- applicators or where supervision cides. The General Standards portion is prohibited by label direction or of the examination must be success- fully completed by all categories of other legal authority.) c. by veterinarians or physi- applicators. Therefore, this manual cians, as part of their professional may contain information over top- services ics that do not directly relate to your d. by laboratory personnel in specific categories or types of applica- pest­icide research tion work. In order to qualify for certification By law a pesticide is defined as you must: follows: “Pesticide” means, but is a. be at least 18 years old, not limited to, (1) any substance or b. submit a completed applica- mixture of substances used to pre- tion for certification, vent, destroy, control, repel, attract or c. pass the “General Exam” mitigate any pest (including weeds) (cov­ered by this manual) plus an and (2) any substance or mixture of exam in at least one category/ substances intended to be used as a subcategory of application, plant regulator, defoliant or desiccant. d. Pay the required fees. There Pesticides are classified by the EPA is a separate application fee and as either Restricted Use or General exam fee. Applicants who fail Use (not restricted). A certified ap- a specific category exam may plicator is required when a restricted take another exam upon paying use pesticide is being used. Under an additional exam fee. No fee the Kansas Pesticide Law, a “certified is required to take the “General commercial applicator” means a certi- Exam.” fied applicator, whether or not he/she Upon meeting the qualifications for is a private applicator with respect to certification, a certificate and a pocket some uses, who uses or supervises the card will be issued by the Kansas use of any pesticide which is classi- Department of Agriculture. Your cer- fied for restricted use for any purpose tification will expire on December 31 or on any property other than that of the second calendar year following provided for in the definition of “cer- the year it was issued. For example, if tified private applicator.” A “certified you are issued your certificate on June private applicator” is one who uses 1, 1995, it will expire on December 31, or supervises restricted use pesticides 1997. for purposes of: (a) Producing any ag- Recertification can be obtained by ricultural commodity, (1) on property either of two options: owned or rented by the individual or 1. Passing an examination over such individual’s employer, or (2) on the general manual and your the property of another for no com- specific category manual, similar pensation than trading of personal to your initial certification, or services between producers; or (b) 2. Attending a pesticide appli- 3 Certification cator training meeting approved Business License Procedure by the secretary (no examination A “Kansas Pesticide Business required). License” is required before any com- In order to qualify for recertifica- mercial pest control efforts, including tion, you must submit a new applica- advertising, are attempted. Obtaining tion and pay the applicable fees. Note this business license has different pro- that if the required training is not cedures and requirements from those attended during your effective period for becoming a certified commercial of certification, then to be certified pesticide applicator. In brief, there are again you must retake and pass a four requirements to obtain the busi- “current examination.” ness license: Certification in another state does 1. complete the application; not replace the requirement for an 2. pay the fee (calendar year applicator to have Kansas commercial basis); applicator certification. Kansas has 3. furnish proof of financial entered into reciprocal agreements responsibility; and with a few states, whereby commer- 4. have at least one person certi- cial certification in any of those states fied in the categories/subcatego- may be used in lieu of passing Kansas ries of business. commercial certification exams. Additional information on the However, the applicator is required Kansas Pesticide Business License to complete the other requirements can be found in the chapter on Laws for Kansas certification, including and Regulations in this manual. Also, submitting an application and paying for an informational packet, write the fees. Further details on reciprocal cer- Kansas Department of Agriculture, tification are available from the Plant Plant Health Division, Certification Health Division of the Kansas Depart- Record Center, 901 So. Kansas Ave., ment of Agriculture. Topeka, KS 66612–1280, or phone 785/296-2263.

4 Pests and Even though a pest is present, it may not do very much harm. It could Pest Control A pest is anything that: cost more to control the pest than ■ competes with humans, domes- would be lost because of the pest’s tic animals, or crops for food, damage. feed, or water, The three main objectives of pest ■ injures humans, animals, crops, control are: ■ prevention—keeping a pest structures, or possessions, ■ spreads disease to humans, from becoming a problem, ■ suppression—reducing pest domestic animals, or crops, ■ annoys humans or domestic numbers of damage to an ac- animals. ceptable level, ■ eradication—destroying an Pests can be placed in five main categories: entire pest population from a ■ insects (and related animals), limited defined area. ■ plant disease agents, ■ weeds, Pest Control Methods The use of a combination of meth- ■ mollusks, and ods to control pests is basic to all pest ■ vertebrates. control. Successful pest control is As a certified applicator, you must based on the ability to: be familiar with the pests likely to be ■ keep pest damage to a minimum encountered in the area covered by by choosing an appropriate your certification category. To be able combination of control methods, to identify and control the pests, you ■ recognize when direct action, need to know about some aspects of: such as a pesticide application, ■ the common features of pest is necessary, and organisms, ■ endanger the environment as ■ characteristics of the damage little as possible. they cause, and The combination of methods you ■ pest development and biology. choose will depend on the kind and You can get identification aids, amount of control you need. publications, and pictures from your Cooperative Extension Service agent Natural Forces or ask other experts for advice. Some natural forces/controls act To solve pest problems, the appli- on pests, causing the populations to cator must: rise and fall. These natural forces act ■ identify the pest, independently of humans and may ■ know what control methods are either help or hinder pest control. available, You usually cannot alter the action ■ evaluate the benefits and risks of of natural forces on a pest popula- each method or combination of tion, but you should be aware of their methods, influence and take advantage of them ■ choose the methods that are whenever possible. Some forces which most effective and will cause affect the pest population include the least harm to people and the climate, natural enemies, topography, environment, and food and water supply. ■ use each method correctly, Climate ■ observe local, state, and federal Weather conditions, especially tem- regulations that apply to the perature, day length, and humidity, situation. affect pests’ activity and their rate of The most important principle of reproduction. Pests may be killed or pest control is this: Use a pesticide supressed by rain, frost, freezing tem- only when necessary and at the low- peratures, drought, or other adverse est labeled rate which will prevent the weather. pest from causing more damage than is reasonable to accept. 5 Pests and Climate also affects pests indirectly­ Host Resistance Pest Control by influencing the growth and develop- Some crops, animals, and struc- ment of their hosts. The population of tures resist pests better than others. plant-eating pests is related to growth Some varieties of crops, wood, and of the host plants. Unusual weather animals are immune to certain pests. conditions can change normal patterns Use of resistant types helps keep pest so that increased or decreased damage populations below harmful levels by results. making the environment less favor- Natural Enemies able for the pests. Host resistance Birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, works in two main ways: ■ mammals, and predatory and parasit- chemicals in the host prevent ic insects feed on some pests and help the pest from completing its life control their numbers. More than half cycle, ■ of all insect and insect-like species the host is more vigorous or feed on other insects, some of which tolerant than other varieties and are pests. Disease organisms often thus less likely to be seriously suppress pest populations. damaged by pest attacks. Topography Biological Control Features, such as mountains and Biological control involves the use large bodies of water restrict the of naturally occurring enemies—para- spread of many pests. Other features sites, predators, and disease agents of the landscape can have similar (pathogens). It also includes meth- effects. Soil type is a prime factor ods by which the pest is biologically affecting wireworms, grubs, nema- altered, as in the production of sterile todes, and other soil organisms. Some males and the use of pheromones or pests live in heavy, poorly drained juvenile hormones. Most kinds of bio- soil, others in light, sandy soils. Soil logical control agents occur naturally. type also affects the distribution of Releasing more of a pest’s enemies plants (including weeds), which in into the target area can supplement turn affects the population of insects this natural control. and other plant pests. Biological control is never com- plete. The degree of control fluctuates. Food and Water Supply There is always a time lag between Pest populations can thrive only as pest population increase and the cor- long as their food and water supply responding increase in natural con- lasts. Once the food source—plant or trols. But, under proper conditions, animal—is exhausted, the pests die sufficient control can be achieved to or become inactive. The life cycle of eliminate the threat to the crop or many pests depends on the availabil- animal to be protected. Biological con- ity of water. trol can be a low-cost control method Agricultural Forces particularly suited to low-value crops Unfortunately, natural controls/ (pastureland, clover, and hay crops) forces often do not control pests or in areas where some injury can be quickly enough to prevent unaccept- tolerated (golf course fairways, forest able injury or damage—other pest areas). control methods must be initiated. Cultural Control Those available include: Cultural practices are agricultural ■ host resistance, practices used to alter the environ- ■ biological control, ment, the condition of the host, or ■ cultural control, the behavior of the pest to prevent ■ mechanical control, or suppress an infestation. Planting, ■ sanitation, and growing, harvesting, and tillage prac- ■ chemical control. tices sometimes can be manipulated

6 Pests and to reduce pest populations. Other stand its effects. Pests that are not practices such as crop or pasture rota- destroyed may pass along to their Pest Control tion, varying the time of planting, and offspring the trait that allowed them use of trap crops also affect pests. to survive. Mechanical Control When we use one pesticide repeat- Devices and machines used to edly in the same place, against the control pests or alter their environ- same pest, the surviving pest popula- ment are called mechanical controls. tion may show greater resistance to Traps, screens, barriers, radiation, and the pesticide than did the original electricity can sometimes be used to population. Some pests have become prevent the spread of pests or reduce partially immune to poisoning by an infestation. Lights, heat, and re- certain pesticides. frigeration can alter the environment Not every pesticide failure is sufficiently to suppress or eradicate caused by pest resistance, however. some pest populations. Make sure that you have used the cor- rect pesticide and the correct dosage, Sanitation and that you have applied the pes- Sanitation practices help to sup- ticide correctly. Also remember, the press some pests by removing sources pests that are present may be part of a of food and shelter. Other forms of new infestation that occurred after the sanitation which help prevent pest chemical was applied. spread include using pest-free seeds or plants and decontaminating equip­ Factors Affecting ment, livestock, and other possible Pesticide Use Outdoors carriers before allowing them to enter Soil Factors—Organic matter in a pest-free area. soils may “tie up” pesticides, limiting their activity. Soils with high organic Chemical Control matter content may need higher rates Pesticides are chemicals used to of some pesticides for best control. destroy pests, control their activity, or Soil texture also affects the way prevent them from causing damage. pesticides work. Soils with fine par- Some pesticides either attract or repel ticles (silts and clays) have the most pests. Chemicals which regulate plant surface area. They may need higher growth or remove foliage may also be rates for total coverage. Coarser soils classified as pesticides. (sands) have less surface area. Use Pesticides are generally the fast- lower rates on them. est way to control pests. In many Surface Moisture—Pesticides ­instances, they are the only weapon work best with moderate surface available. Choosing the best chemical moisture. Wetness may keep the for the job is important. pesticide from adequately contacting By selecting pesticides wisely and the protected surface. Dryness may applying them correctly, the respon- prevent the pesticide from spreading sible pesticide applicator can use evenly over the surface and contact- these chemicals for the benefit of the ing the target pest. environment. Rain may interfere with pest con- Pest Resistance to Pesticides trol by causing pesticides to run off or The ability of pests to resist poi- to leach down through the soil. Rain soning is called pesticide resistance. during or soon after over-the-top or Consider this when planning pest foliar applications may wash pesti- control programs that rely on the use cides off the plant. However, some of pesticides. protectant fungicides are sometimes Rarely does any pesticide kill all purposely applied just before periods the target pests. Each time a pesticide of expected high humidity and light is used, it selectively kills the most rain. When pre-emergence pesticides susceptible pests. Some pests avoid are applied to the surface, moderate the pesticide. Others are able to with­­- rainfall aids in carrying them down

7 Pests and through the soil to the pests. Rain The challenge lies in our ability to Pest Control may also release pesticide action after control pests so that injury caused by some granular applications. them is held to a minimum, and to Humidity and Temperature—Hu- recognize when direct action, such as midity also affects the way pesticides a pesticide application, is necessary. work. Herbicides often work best when weeds are growing fast—usu- Integrated Pest ally in high humidity and optimum Management (IPM) temperature. However, these same Integrated Pest Management (IPM) conditions may make the protected is the planned manipulation of pest plant more susceptible to pesticide populations in an attempt to achieve injuries. a balance between costs and returns, High temperature and sunlight and between farm production and the will cause some pesticides to break overall environment. Integrated Pest down when they are left exposed on management practices include use top of the soil or on other surfaces. of: cultivation, changes in cropping Low temperatures may slow down or sequence, barriers, pest resistant or stop the activity of some pesticides. tolerant varieties, sanitation, traps, Wind—Wind speed and direction beneficial insects, timely planting can greatly alter the effectiveness of a and harvesting, and judicious use of pesticide application. Excessive wind chemical pesticides. IPM is accom- can blow the pesticide off target and plished by growers who consider all result in inadequate control. Even alternative pest control practices that moderate winds can greatly alter are available on their farms, then use the coverage of Ultra Low Volume one or more cost-effective pest control Concentrate Solutions (ULV) and mist practices that are least harmful to the blower applications. Sometimes the environment. applicator can compensate for minor Use of effective IPM practices winds by applying the pesticides must be based on current informa- at an angle where the winds blow tion about the pest problem, such as the chemical towards the area to be the numbers and kinds of pests in protected. the specific crop or herd. Inadequate knowledge or improper diagnosis of Principles of Pest Control the pest problem results in wasteful We often talk about the “war” use of time and money and disap- against insects, plant diseases, weeds, pointing control of the pest(s). and rats. In a war between countries, Management Tests would a national leader use only the IPM must be practical and tailored Army? Wouldn’t he/she also use to each pest problem on your farm. other tools—Navy, Air Force, and Three tests of practicality are: propaganda? 1. Is it available (to this farm, Yet, in our struggle against pests, when needed)? how often do we use the handiest or 2. Does it fit the entire crop least expensive pesticide? How often or herd management program do we forget to consider other meth- (or can present management be ods or combinations of methods? feasibly changed to accommodate How often do we forget about effects the pest management practice(s) on the environment? It may being considered)? be too often. 3. Cost effectiveness. The “bot- The use of a combination of meth- tom line” when one’s livelihood ods to control pests is basic to all pest is involved must always be: “Will control. Modern pest control uses it pay?” all available methods to keep pests The third factor is the basis of the below economically harmful levels, two concepts, economic injury level and damages the environment as little and economic threshold. Economic as possible in the process. injury level is the lowest number of 8 Pests and pests that will cause an amount of from some insects are made injury equal to the cost of applied into dyes and paints. Silk comes Pest Control control practices. Economic threshold,­ from the cocoons of silkworms. sometimes called the “action thresh- ■ destructive insects—Although old” is the pest number or density this is the category which usual- at which remedial control practices ly comes to mind when insects should be taken to prevent the pests are mentioned, it includes the from exceeding the economic injury fewest number of species. These level. The economic threshold is are the insects that feed on, necessarily lower than the economic cause injury to, or transmit dis- injury level to allow time to apply ease to humans, animals, plants, control practices and to permit time food, fiber, and structures. In for those control practices to control this category are, for example, the pests. aphids, beetles, fleas, mosqui- Integrated pest management toes, caterpillars, and termites. consists of selection of specific control practices which work well together Physical Characteristics to best solve a specific set of pest All insects in the adult stage problems under the conditions which have two physical characteristics in prevail at that time and place. common. They have three pairs of jointed legs, and they have three body Insects regions—the head, thorax, and abdo- There are more kinds of insects on men. earth than all other living animals Head combined. They are found in soil, hot The head supports antennae, eyes, Grasshopper springs, water, snow, air, and inside and mouthparts. The antennae vary plants and animals. They eat the in size and shape and can be a help in choicest foods from our table. They identifying some pest insects. Insects can even eat the table. have compound eyes, made up of The large number of insects can be many individual eyes. These com- divided into three categories accord- pound eyes enable insects to discern ing to their importance to man: motion, but probably not clear im- ■ species of minor importance— ages. About 99 percent of all species The four general types of mouth- are in this category. They are parts are: food for birds, fish, mammals, ■ chewing, reptiles, amphibians, and other ■ piercing–sucking, insects. Some have aesthetic ■ sponging, and value. ■ siphoning. ■ beneficial insects—In this small Chewing mouthparts contain but important group are the toothed jaws that bite and tear the predators and parasites that food. Cockroaches, ants, beetles, feed on destructive insects, caterpillars, and grasshoppers are in mites, and weeds. Examples are this group. Piercing–sucking mouth- ladybird beetles, some bugs, parts consist of a long slender tube ground beetles, tachinid flies, which is forced into plant or animal praying mantids, many tiny tissue to suck out fluids or blood. parasitic wasps, and predaceous Insects with these mouthparts are mites. Also in this category are stable flies, sucking lice, bed bugs, the pollinating insects, such as mosquitoes, true bugs, and aphids. bumblebees and honeybees, Sponging mouthparts have a tubular some moths, butterflies, and tongue-like structure with a spongy beetles. Without pollinators, tip to suck up liquids or soluble food. many kinds of plants could not This type of mouthpart is found in the grow. Honey from honeybees flesh flies, blow flies, and house flies. is food for humans. Secretions

9 Pests and Siphoning mouthparts are formed young grows to a point where the Pest Control into a long tube for sucking nectar. skin cannot stretch further; the young Butterflies and moths have this type. molts and new skin is formed. The Thorax number of these stages (called instars) The thorax supports the three pairs varies with different insect species of legs and (if present) the wings. The and, in some cases, may vary with the various sizes, shapes, and textures of temperature, humidity, and availabil- wings and the pattern of the veins can ity and kinds of food. The heaviest be used to identify insect species. feeding generally occurs during the The forewings take many forms. In final two instars. the beetles, they are hard and shell- No Metamorphosis like; in the grasshoppers, they are Some insects do not change except leathery. The forewings of flies are in size between hatching and reach- membranous; those of true bugs are ing the adult stage. The insect grows part membranous and part hard- larger with each successive instar un- ened. Most insects have membranous til it reaches maturity. Examples are hindwings. The wings of moths and silverfish, firebrats, and springtails. butterflies are membranous but are The food and habitats of the young covered with scales. (called nymphs) are similar to those Abdomen of the adult. The abdomen is usually composed Gradual Metamorphosis Insect eggs of 11 segments. Along each side of Insects in this group pass through most of the segments are openings three quite different stages of devel- (called spiracles) through which the opment before reaching maturity: insect breathes. In some insects, the egg, nymph, and adult. The nymphs tip end of the abdomen carries tail- resemble the adult in form, eat the like appendages. same food, and live in the same envi- ronment. The change of the body is Insect Development gradual, and the wings (when pres- Most insect reproduction results ent) become fully developed only in from the males fertilizing the females. the adult stage. Examples are cock- The females of some aphids and roaches, lice, termites, aphids, and parasitic wasps produce eggs with- scales. out mating. In some of these insect species, males are unknown. A few in- Incomplete Metamorphosis sects give birth to living young; how- The insects with incomplete meta- Gradual Metamorphosis ever, life for most insects begins as an morphosis also pass through three egg. Temperature, humidity, and light stages of development: egg, naiad, are some of the major factors influenc- and adult. The adult is similar to the ing the time of hatching. Eggs come in young, but the naiads are aquatic. various sizes and shapes—elongate, Examples: dragonflies, mayflies, and round, oval, and flat. Eggs of cock- stoneflies. roaches, grasshoppers, and praying Complete Metamorphosis mantids are laid in capsules. Eggs The insects with complete meta- may be deposited singly or in masses morphosis pass through four stages on or near the host—in soil or on of development: egg, larva, pupa, plants, animals, or structures. and adult. The young, which may be Metamorphosis called larvae, caterpillars, maggots, or The series of changes through grubs, are entirely different from the which an insect passes in its adults. They usually live in different growth from egg to adult is called situations and in many cases feed on ­metamorphosis. different foods than adults. Examples When the young first hatches from are beetles, butterflies, flies, mosqui- Complete Metamorphosis an egg, it is either a larva, nymph, or toes, fleas, bees, and ants. naiad. After feeding for a time, the Larvae hatch from the egg. They grow larger by molting and passing 10 Pests and through one to several instars. Moth ment bears two pairs of legs. The and butterfly larvae are called cater- antennae are short and mouthparts Pest Control pillars; some beetle larvae are called are comblike. Millipedes feed on grubs; most fly larvae are called decaying organic matter, seeds, bulbs, maggots. Caterpillars often have legs; and roots. maggots are legless. Weevil grubs are There is no metamorphosis; centi- legless; other kinds of beetle larvae pedes and millipedes do not change usually have three pairs of legs. except in size between hatching and The pupa is a resting stage during reaching the adult stage. which the larva changes into an adult with legs, wings, antennae, and func- Controlling Insects tional reproductive organs. Control of insects and their rela- tives may involve any of the three Insect-Like Pests basic pest control objectives. Control Mites, ticks, spiders, sowbugs, is usually aimed at suppression of pillbugs, centipedes, and millipedes pests to a point where the presence or resemble insects in size, shape, life damage level is acceptable. Preven- cycle, and habits. Pest species usually tion and eradication are useful only in can be controlled with the same tech- relatively small, confined areas such niques and materials used to control as indoors or in programs designed to Arachnid insects. keep foreign pests out of a new area. Arachnids The key to successful control of Ticks, scorpions, spiders, and insect and insect-like pests is knowl- mites have eight legs and only two edge of the stage(s) of their life cycle body regions. They are wingless and in which they are most vulnerable. It lack antennae. The metamorphosis is generally difficult to control insects is gradual and includes both larval in either the egg or pupal stage, nymphal stages. Eggs hatch into because these stages are inactive: not larvae (six legs) which become nymphs feeding, immobile, and often in inac- (eight legs) and then adults. Ticks and cessible areas such as underground, mites have modified piercing–sucking in cocoons or cases, and in cracks or mouthparts: spiders and scorpions crevices. Crustacean have chewing mouthparts. Controlling insects in the late instar and adult stages is moderately Crustaceans successful. The insects, because of Sowbugs and pillbugs, water fleas, their size, are most visible in these and wood lice have 14 legs. They stages and usually are causing the are wingless and contain only one most destruction. Therefore, control segmented body region. They have attempts are often begun at these two pairs of antennae and chewing times. However, the larger insects are mouthparts. Sowbugs and pillbugs often more resistant to pesticides, and have a hard, protective shell-like adults already may have laid eggs for covering and are related to the aquatic another generation. lobsters, crabs, and crayfish. The The best control usually is achieved Centipede metamorphosis is gradual, and there during the early larval or nymphal may be up to 20 instars before adult- stages when the insects are small and hood is reached. vulnerable. Control during these stag- Centipedes and Millipedes es requires careful monitoring of pest Centipedes are made up of populations and thorough knowledge 30 seg­ments, each containing one pair of the pest’s life cycle, habitats, and of legs. They have chewing mouth- feeding patterns. parts. Some species can inflict painful Environmental conditions, such as bites on humans. humidity, temperature, and availabili- Millipedes contain 30 segments ty of food, can alter the rate of growth and are cylindrical like an earthworm. of insects and thus affect the length of Millipede The body is wingless and each seg- the life cycle. Optimum environments

11 Pests and (usually warm and humid) can de- control program for Japanese beetles. Pest Control crease the time of development from Japanese beetles are subject to attack egg to adult. by two naturally occurring species of bacteria which cause the fatal milky Insect Control Strategy disease. Preparations containing Control methods used for insects spores of the contagious bacteria are include: host resistance, biological produced commercially and released control, cultural control, mechani- in infested areas. Another example cal control, sanitation, and chemical is Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt, used to control. control European cornborer, cabbage Host Resistance looper and many other caterpillars. Some crops, animals, and struc- Sterile Males—Males of some tures resist insects and their relatives pest insect species may be reared and better than others. Some varieties of sterilized in laboratories and released crops and wood are nearly immune to in large numbers into infested areas certain insects. Use of resistant types to mate with native females. These helps keep pest populations below matings produce infertile eggs or harmful levels by making the envi- sterile offspring and help reduce the ronment less favorable for the pests. pest population. This technique has Biological Control been used successfully in only a few Biological control of insects in- species and is still being developed. cludes: The screw worm, which attacks cattle, ■ predators and parasites, is one insect on which this technique ■ pathogens, has been effective. ■ sterile males, Pheromones—Some insects (and ■ pheromones, and insect-like organisms) produce natu- ■ juvenile hormones. ral chemicals, called pheromones, Predators and Parasites— which cause responses in other ­Organisms known to attack insect insects of the same or very closely (and insect-like) pests in their native related species. Once a particular in- environment can be imported or sect pheromone is identified and the reared in laboratories and released in chemical is synthetically produced, it infested areas. This is done only after can be used to disrupt the behavior of the parasites or predators are deter- that insect species. Synthetic phero- mined to be harmless to man, animals, mones may be used to disrupt normal plants, and other beneficial organ- reproduction, or they may be used to isms. For example, several kinds of attract the pests into a trap. parasites and predators of the alfalfa Because each pheromone affects weevil have been imported from only one specific group of insects, Europe and Asia and released in the their use poses no risk of harm to infested areas in this country. Several other organisms, including man. species have become established and Unfortunately, only a few have been are helping to reduce pest numbers. discovered and produced syntheti- However, they do not always prevent cally, and the use of pheromones is serious outbreaks and the resultant still in the experimental stages. It is damage. very costly to discover, produce, and Pathogens—Parasitic bacteria, market a chemical which will be use­- viruses, and fungi may be introduced ful in controlling only one pest species. into an infested area to control insects Juvenile Hormones—Another by subjecting them to disease. These type of species-specific chemical is disease agents, like predators, are of- also being developed. Juvenile hor- ten found in the pest’s native environ- mones interrupt the metamorphosis ment. They can be imported or they of insects (and insect-like organisms). can be reared in laboratories. These chemicals prevent reproduction For example, the use of patho- by keeping immature insects from gens is an important part of the pest maturing into adults. Each chemical 12 Pests and acts against a single pest species and Mechanical Control has the same advantages and disad- Mechanical controls used on insects Pest Control vantages as pheromones. The few are: juvenile hormones available are usually ■ screens and other barriers, applied as a broadcast spray to reach ■ traps, as many target pests as possible. ■ light, ■ Cultural Control heat and cold, and ■ Cultural control methods for insects radiation and electrocution. include: Screens and Other Barriers—A ■ crop rotation, major aspect of insect control indoors ■ trap crops, is the use of screens and other barri- ■ delay of planting, and ers to keep insects out. Flying insects, ■ harvest timing. such as mosquitoes, wasps, and flies, Crop Rotation—Taking infested are kept outside by blocking any fields out of production and leaving openings with screening. The effec- them fallow or planting an alternate tive mesh size depends on the size of crop may deprive pests of host plants the smallest flying insect pests in that on which to feed and reproduce. environment. Crawling insects are Rotations are most effective against also kept outside by screens or other insects which have long life cycles barriers, such as tightly sealed doors and infest the crop during all stages and windows. Barriers made of sticky of growth. Many of the traditional substances sometimes can stop crawl- rotational schemes were developed ing insects from entering an area. to reduce pest problems such as corn Traps—Traps are sometimes used rootworm. to control the target pest. More often, Trap Crops—Other crops attractive however, they are used to survey for to the pests may be planted early or the presence of insect pests and to de- nearby to draw pests away from the termine when the pest population has main crop. Destruction of such crops increased to the point where control is at the proper time breaks the repro- needed. ductive cycle of the pest before the Light—Many insect pests may be desired crops are infested. To control attracted to artificial light at night. the pickle worm in cucumbers, for However, since not all the pests are example, the grower might also plant killed, the light attractant may actu- yellow squash, to which the pest is ally help create infestations around more attracted. The squash crop can swimming pools and other limited be sprayed or destroyed before the size areas. pest can complete its development. Heat and Cold—It is sometimes Delay of Planting—Delaying possible to expose insect pests to the the date of planting may reduce the killing effects of the heat of summer popu­lation of certain pests by elimi- or cold of winter. Insects that feed on nating the host plant needed for food stored grain and flour, for example, and reproduction when the pest can sometimes be controlled by venti- population is at its peak. For example, lating grain elevators in winter. prevention of Hessian fly damage in Radiation and Electrocution—Ra- wheat can be avoided by delaying diation and electrocution are some- planting until fly reproduction has times used to kill pests in a limited ended for the year. area. The electric screens in such Harvest Timing—Crops should places as outdoor restaurants and not be left in the field after maturity if amusement parks are used to attract they are susceptible to pest attack. For and electrocute a variety of noctur- example, wireworm damage to mature nal insect pests. Ionizing radiation is potatoes causes a serious quality re- used to sterilize pests by destroying duction. Damage increases if the crop reproductive tissues, and ultrasonic is left in the ground even for a very radiation is used to kill pests in some short time after maturity. products. 13 Pests and Sanitation A few insecticides interfere mech­ Pest Control Cultivation, moldboard plowing, anically with the insect’s functions. and burning of crop residues soon For example, mineral oils suffocate after harvest greatly aid in the control insects; silica dusts destroy their body of some insect pests on agricultural water balance by damaging their crops. Pink bollworm infestations in protective wax covering. cotton, for example, can be greatly Outdoors—With few exceptions, reduced by plowing the field immedi- insecticides labeled for outdoor use ately after harvest. are designed to be used for full cover- Removing litter from around build- age of an area. The objective is to cover ings helps control pests which use it the entire surface to be protected with for breeding or shelter. Ants, termites, a residue of active insecticide. Insects and some other indoor pests may be which then eat or otherwise contact suppressed by using this technique. the treated surface are killed. Sanitation is important in the con- Thorough knowledge of the target trol of animal parasites and filth flies. insects helps determine the frequency Fly control in and around barns and of application and the choice of livestock pens, for example, is greatly chemicals. One well-timed applica- aided by proper manure manage- tion of an effective pesticide may pro- ment. A major aspect of fly control in vide the desired control. Sometimes residential areas and cities is weekly repeated insecticide applications will or biweekly garbage removal. This be necessary as the insect infesta- scheduling prevents fly eggs and tion continues and pesticide residues maggots in the garbage from reaching break down. adult fly stage, since the fly’s life cycle The pesticide label, Cooperative is 10 to 14 days, even in very warm Extension Service recommendations, weather. and other sources usually indicate Indoors, sanitation is a major meth- a range of treatment intervals and od of preventing insect pest problems. dosages. By carefully observing the Keeping surfaces in rest-rooms and pest problem and applying chemi- food preparation areas immaculately cals when the pests are most vulner- clean and dry is an important factor able, you often will be able to use in suppressing or eliminating ant, fly, lower doses of pesticides and apply and cockroach infestations. them less often. Over a long growing Chemical Control period, this can mean considerable Chemicals used to control insects savings in time, money, and total and insect-like pests include insecti- pesticide chemicals applied. cides, miticides, and acaricides. Most Most control strategies take advan- chemicals used to control insects act tage of the natural controls provided in one of two ways: by the pest’s natural enemies. When ■ repellents—These products you choose a pesticide, consider what keep pests away from an area affect it will have on these beneficial or from a specific host. Products organisms. Ask your pesticide dealer, designed to keep mosquitoes, your agricultural Extension agent, or chiggers, and ticks off humans other experts for advice. are an example. Indoors—Most indoor insect ■ direct poisons—Common insec- control is aimed at prevention or ticides include chemicals that eradication of the pest problem while poison one or more life systems minimizing the exposure of humans in the pest. Some will poison an and animals to chemicals. The most insect if they are eaten (stomach common application techniques are poisons); others require only crack and crevice treatments, spot contact with the insect’s body treatments, and fumigation of entire (contact poisons). structures, commodities, or individual pieces of equipment.

14 Pests and Plant Disease Agents on dead host tissue so they are called facultative saprophytes. Pathogens Pest Control Importance of Plant Diseases that cannot live as facultative sapro- All plants are subject to plant phytes are called obligate parasites. diseases. Diseases have plagued Since pathogens are able to spread agricultural plants since the dawn of from plant to plant, they are consid- history. The Romans were particularly ered infectious. troubled by cereal rusts and went so All pathogens except viruses have far as to invent a festival to appease standardized Latin scientific names Robigo, the god of rust. The famous consisting of a genus and species Irish potato famine of name (for example, Fusarium gra- 1845 and 1846 was caused by a dis- minearum). The purpose of scientific ease called late blight. It resulted in names is to allow scientists to specify the starvation of hundreds of thou- exactly the name of a pathogen to sands of people and the emigration avoid confusion. Unfortunately, these of more than 1.5 million to the United scientific names are often difficult to States. Today, plant diseases remain remember and are sometimes subject a major limiting factor in the produc- to revision as we learn more about the tion of agricultural and horticultural organisms. For most practical purpos- crops and the maintenance of land- es, the common name of the disease is scapes. used rather than the scientific name of What Is a Plant Disease? the pathogen. A plant disease is any harmful Particular pathogens can infect condition that makes a plant different only certain species or varieties of from a normal plant in its structure plants. This group of plants is called (appearance) or function (ability to the host range of the pathogen. Some grow and yield). The study of plant pathogens have a broad host range, diseases is called plant pathology. while others have a very narrow Plant diseases are usually manifested host range. When a plant cannot be by visible symptoms. Yellowing, leaf para­-sitized by a pathogen, it is called spots, root rot, mottling or mosaics, resistant. If it is easily parasitized, it galls, wilting, or stunting are examples is fully susceptible. Some plants are of plant disease symptoms. parasitized to a lesser extent and are called moderately susceptible. Causes of Plant Disease In order for a biotic disease to Plant diseases can be divided into develop, there must be three compo- two main groups based on their cause. nents present: (1) a pathogen, (2) a Abiotic (nonliving) causal agents susceptible host, and (3) a favorable include temperature extremes, mois- environment. Certain pathogens, ture extremes, air pollutants, nutrient such as viruses that require a vector deficiencies, mineral toxicities, pesti- (carrier) have a fourth component. cide toxicity, etc. Abiotic causal agents If any of the components is missing, cannot spread from plant to plant and disease will not occur. The initial so are nonparasitic and noninfectious. population of the pathogen is called Biotic (living) causal agents include the inoculum. Many control strategies fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma-like aim to destroy or reduce the inoculum organisms (MLO’s), viruses, and so that disease will be prevented or nematodes. Biotic causal agents are delayed. Crop susceptibility may be also called pathogens. Some plant affected by temperature, fertility, and pathologists also include parasitic stage of crop growth. Important envi- plants like dodder or mistletoe as ronmental factors for disease devel- pathogens. Pathogens gain nutrients opment include temperature, rainfall at the expense of the living host plant duration and frequency, wind speed, so they are generally parasitic. Some humidity, and soil moisture. also have the ability (faculty) of living

15 Pests and Major Groups of Pathogens of plants in the absence of disease symptoms. Bacteria can be identified Pest Control Fungi by their ability to grow on different The fungi are the most important types of agar media or with serologi- group of plant pathogens. However, cal techniques. Fire­blight of apple, fungi also include many important or- halo blight of beans, alfalfa bacterial ganisms that are used in the making of wilt, potato soft rot, and bacterial leaf bread, some cheeses, or beer. They are spot of peaches are caused by bacteria. also critical in the decay and cycling of organic debris. Fungi are usually Mycoplasma-Like Organisms composed of multi-celled, thread-like (MLO’s) filaments called hyphae. Hyphae ab- MLO’s are actually a type of bacte- sorb the water and nutrients needed ria which lack a cell wall. They have for growth of the fungus. Most fungi become highly specialized obligate are microscopic, but some, such as parasites that inhabit the food con- mushrooms may become quite large. ducting vessels (phloem) of the plant Most fungi reproduce by spores circulatory system. They are trans- which function like tiny seeds. Spores ferred from plant to plant by leafhop- of different species vary greatly in pers or by grafting. MLO diseases color, size, and shape. Some types of often involve yellowing, stunting, or Fungi spores remain viable for years, and excessive proliferation shoots. These others last only hours. Spores may symptoms are similar to those caused be borne on the hyphae or within by some viruses. However, unlike specialized structures called fruiting viruses, MLO’s are sensitive to antibi- bodies. Fruiting bodies are usually otics, particularly tetracycline. Aster barely visible with the naked eye and yellows and elm phloem necrosis are vary from flask-shaped structures to two examples of MLO diseases. disk-shaped or cushion-shaped struc- Viruses tures. Plant pathologists can usually Viruses are much smaller than identify a fungus by careful examina- bacteria and are composed simply of tion of the spores and fruiting bodies. some genetic material (DNA or RNA) Fungi may attack the fruits, flowers, in a protein coat. Since viruses lack leaves, stems, or roots of a plant. They the ability to live freely, they must may be airborne, soilborne, waterborne, take over a host cell and direct it to seedborne, or insect­borne. Water or reproduce the virus. Viruses come in high humidity is nearly always essen- a variety of shapes and sizes, but they Bacteria reproducing by division tial for spore germination and growth can only be seen with a high-powered of hyphae. Most pathogenic fungi can electron microscope. complete a generation in a week or Characteristic symptoms are often less. Fungus diseases include apple used for preliminary virus identifi- scab, corn smut, powdery mildew of cation. Confirmation of identity is blue­-grass, rose black spot, wheat leaf usually done with a technique called rust, and corn ear rot. ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Bacteria Assay) that uses specific antibodies. Bacteria are single-celled organ- Many viruses that cause plant disease isms which are much smaller than are carried by insects or mites. Aphids fungi. They usually reproduce by and leafhoppers are the two most simply dividing in half. Each half common vectors (carriers). becomes a fully developed bacterium. Viruses may also be transmitted Different kinds of viruses Bacteria can build up fast under ideal on contaminated shears, on hands, conditions. Some can divide every 30 by grafting, in infected bulbs or cut- minutes. As with fungi, most bac- tings, and in seeds. A few viruses are teria are favored by water and high trans-mitted by pollen, nematodes, or humidity. Plant path­ogenic bacteria soilborne fungi. Wheat streak mosaic, are facultative saprophytes and some tomato spotted wilt, and maize dwarf are commonly found on the surface mosaic are examples of virus diseases.

16 Pests and Nematodes history of the field? Have there been Nematodes are small (usu- any chemicals sprayed? What is the Pest Control ally microscopic), colorless, slender variety? roundworms. Most nematodes are Often an examination for symptoms harmless, but some are parasites of will reveal the pathogen itself. When animals and others have adapted to the pathogen is large enough to see feeding on plants. Plant pathogenic without the aid of a microscope, it nematodes have a specialized hol- is called a sign. This is in contrast low feeding spear that they use like to a symptom which is a change in a straw to suck the contents from the structure or function of the host. plant cells. Nematodes may attack the Finding a sign often leads to a prompt aboveground portion of the plant but diagnosis. normally feed on roots. They feed on Be aware of the major diseases in the outside of a root or enter inside your area. When you arrive at a tenta- and feed within the root cortex. Root tive diagnosis, make sure it is consis- lesions, galls, or stubby roots are tent with all the facts. Often diagnosis all possible symptoms of nematode is challenging and may require the feeding. Feeding causes stunting of help of your county Extension agent. the root system which often leads Help is also available from the KSU to symptoms of drought or nutrient Plant Diagnostic Clinic. stress. The life cycle of nematodes includes­ Principles of Plant Disease an egg, four larval stages, and an Management adult. Most larvae look like adults, For some plant diseases, it is pos- but are smaller. Many nematodes mi- sible to achieve complete control. Nematode with feeding spear extended grate from root to root. The females of An example would be wheat Karnal some, such as the root knot and cyst bunt. It is completely controlled in the nematodes, become fixed in the plant USA by quarantine regulations that tissue. The root knot nematode­ de- prevent its introduction. However, posits its eggs in a mass outside of its for many diseases, complete control is body. The cyst nematode keeps part impossible or too expensive. Disease of its eggs inside its body after death. management attempts to maximize They may survive there for many profits by reducing disease severity to years. Root knot, soybean cyst, pine the economic threshold.­ The economic wilt, and stubby root are examples of threshold is the point where the cost nematode ­diseases. of disease management and the eco- nomic bene-fits of disease reduction Diagnosis of Plant Diseases are balanced. Attempting to control plant dis- Plant disease management attempts eases without sufficient information to alter one of the three components usually results in failure. For maxi- necessary for disease development. mum effectiveness, it is important to Control measures may be directed at: diagnose the problem correctly. The (1) reducing or eliminating the patho- first step is to evaluate the visible gen, (2) reducing susceptibility of the symptoms. Look at the whole plant, host plant, or (3) reducing the favor­ including the roots. What plant parts ability of the environment for disease are affected? Is the symptom a wilt, development. The ease of control of a leaf spot, gall, root rot, etc.? Is it disease often depends on the stage in worse on the upper or lower leaves? the life cycle of the pathogen. Disease Is the stem vascular tissue discolored? control measures are usually directed When did symptoms first appear? at the most vulnerable stage of the Is the disease pattern related to soil pathogen life cycle. The principles of type, topography or edges of the disease control include the following. field? Are healthy and diseased plants Genetic Resistance interspersed? Additional information Plant breeders attempt to improve is often useful. What is the cropping the yield and quality of important 17 Pests and plants by incorporating high levels practical control measure. In addi- Pest Control of genetic disease resistance. tion, resistance is usually long-lasting. Exclusion There are some notable exceptions, Exclusion is the prevention of however. For example, wheat leaf rust establishment of a pathogen in a pre-­­ resistance can be short-lived if the leaf viously uninvaded area. Many plant rust fungus mutates and adapts to the pathogens are controlled by quaran- host resistance. tines which regulate the move­ment of There are different levels of genetic plants into this country. The principle resistance ranging from highly suscep- of exclusion can also be applied to tible, moderately susceptible, mod- greenhouse crops where it is impor- erately resistant, to highly resistant. tant to prevent the introduction of Plants which get diseased, yet still infected stock plants. manage to yield well are called toler- ant to infection. Protection Protection involves some type Crop Rotation of barrier between the host and the Many pathogens survive between path-ogen. Nonsystemic chemical crops in the soil or on crop debris. fungicides are considered protec- However, the majority of pathogens tants because they form a chemical do not cross over between different barrier over the surface of the plant crop species. Therefore, crop rotation that protects against fungal invasion. can break the life cycle of the patho- Protectant fungicides must be ­applied gens and reduce the inoculum. prior to infection in order to prevent Sanitation invasion since they have no effect on Since many pathogens survive on established infections. crop debris, destruction or removal Eradication of debris can be an effective control Eradication is the practice of measure. Removal of infected volun- removing or destroying a pathogen teer plants, destruction of weed hosts, after it has become established in an fumigating or steaming of soil, and area. rogueing of diseased plants are all examples of sanitation. Avoidance Avoidance is the practice of growing Planting Date plants in places or at times when the Planting date can have a large ef- pathogen is inactive, rare or absent. fect on many pests including diseases, insects, and weeds. Therapy Therapy is the curing of disease or Field Selection lessening of disease severity of a plant Certain plant disease are more that is already infected. Systemic prevalent in certain types of fields. fungicides can be used for therapy be- For example, Phytophthora root rot cause they can stop the development of alfalfa is more common in poorly of fungi that have already infected. drained bottomland fields. It is often Another example is heat therapy of best to avoid putting susceptible crops infected wheat seed to rid it of inter- in fields that are predisposed to cer- nal loose smut infections. Therapy is tain disease problems. often impractical or more costly than Disease-free Seed or other control measures. Propagation Materials Many diseases are carried in the Methods of Plant Disease seed or in infected stock. Certified, Management clean seed should be free of most Disease Resistant Varieties seedborne pathogens. Many horti- Plant disease resistant varieties are cultural crops are subject to diseases one of the most effective and economi- that are spread by propagation. New cal ways to control plant diseases. For plants should be carefully inspected many diseases, resistance is the only for symptoms of disease. Suspicious

18 Pests and shipments should be refused or held cal control options. Pesticide use is in isolation while being checked for regulated by the EPA. Always consult Pest Control pathogens. Diagnostic tests may be pesticide labels for directions and necessary to verify that stock is disease- restrictions on use. free. These are available through the Chemical control is most likely Cooperative Extension Service. to be used when: (1) the crop has a Changing the Environment to be high value, (2) resistant varieties are Less Favorable not available, (3) there is a lack of Certain horticultural practices tend ­adequate cultural control practices, or to favor diseases by making the envi- (4) when crop quality is paramount ronment more conducive. For example, (as with apples). watering plants in the greenhouse in the evening can result in long periods Weeds Any plant can be considered a of leaf wetness compared to water- weed when it is growing where it ing in the morning. Good greenhouse is not wanted. Weeds are a problem ventilation can reduce humidity because they reduce crop yields, in- levels and suppress many diseases. crease costs of production, and reduce Growing plants above or below their the quality of crop and live­-stock optimum temperature can cause products. In addition, some weeds stress and make plants more suscep- cause skin irritation and hay fever, tible to root rots. and some are poisonous to man and For field crops, excessive overhead livestock. Weeds also can spoil the irrigation can promote foliar diseases. beauty of turf and landscape plants. High nitrogen fertilization can promote Weeds interfere with crop produc- overly lush foliage which creates a tion by: humid microenvironment which fa- ■ competing for water, nutrients, vors diseases like powdery mildew. light, and space, Quarantines ■ contaminating the product at The transport of important patho- harvest, gens to new locations can sometimes ■ harboring pest insects, mites, be prevented by quarantine regula- vertebrates, or plant disease tions. Quarantines tend to be costly to agents, and enforce. ■ releasing toxins in the soil which Chemical Control inhibit growth of desirable Fungicides, bactericides, and plants. nematicides have been developed for Weeds may become pests in water plant disease control. There are no by: chemicals to control viruses. Fungi- ■ hindering fish growth and re- cides can be divided into nonsystemic, production, protectant types, and systemic types. ■ promoting mosquito production, Protectant fungicides must be ap- ■ hindering boating, fishing, and plied before infection, while systemic swimming, and fung-icides can sometimes be applied ■ clogging irrigation ditches, after infection as a therapeutic agent. drainage ditches, and channels. Protectant fungicides tend to have Weeds can harm grazing animals by: very broad activity against many ■ poisoning, and fungi. Certain systemic fungicides ■ causing an “off-flavor” in milk have fairly narrow activity. and meat. Chemical control efficacy is vari- Weeds are undesirable in rights-of- able. It is most effective on fungal way because they: diseases of aboveground plant parts. ■ obscure vision, signs, guideposts, Chemical control tends to be expen- crossroads, etc., sive and sometimes multiple appli- ■ increase mowing costs, cations are required. Unfortunately, ■ hinder travel, many diseases have no labelled chemi- ■ provide cover for rodents and 19 Pests and other pest animals, and mature, produce seed, and die. Ex- Pest Control ■ clog drainage areas. amples: mullein, burdock, and The type of weed problems en- bull thistle. countered depends on: Perennials ■ current crop or vegetation, Plants which live more than two ■ cropping history, years and may live indefinitely are ■ tillage practices, perennials. Perennial plants may ■ frequency of mowing, mature and reproduce in the first ■ herbicide used, and year and then repeat the vegetative, ■ management practices. seed production, and maturity stages Development Stages for several following years. In other All plants have four stages of de- perennials, the seed maturity and velopment: production stages may be delayed for ■ seedling—young plant recently several years. Some perennial plants established from a germinating die back each winter; others, such seed. as trees, may lose their leaves, but ■ vegetative—rapid growth; do not die back to the ground. Most production of stems, roots, and perennials grow from seed; many foliage. also produce tubers, bulbs, rhizomes ■ seed production—energy direct- (below-ground root-like stems), or ed toward production of seed. stolons (above-ground stems that pro- Uptake of water and nutrients duce roots). Examples of perennials­ Annuals is slow and is directed mainly are johnsongrass, field bindweed, to flower, fruit, and seed struc- dandelion, and plantain. tures. Simple perennials normally repro- ■ maturity—little or no energy duce by seeds. However, root pieces production or movement of which may be left by cultivation can water and nutrients. produce new plants. Examples: dandeli- ons, plantain, trees, and shrubs. Life Cycles of Plants Bulbous perennials may repro- Annuals duce by seed, bulblets, or bulbs. Wild Plants with a one-year life cycle garlic, for example, produces seed are annuals. They grow from seed, and bulblets above ground and bulbs mature, and produce seed for the next below ground. generation in one year or less. They Creeping perennials produce seeds include grasses and broadleaf plants. but also produce rhizomes (below- There are two types: ground stems), or stolons (above- Summer annuals are plants that ground stems that produce roots). Biennials grow from seeds which sprout in the Examples: johnsongrass, field bind- spring. They grow, mature, produce weed, and Bermudagrass. seed, and die before winter. Examples: crabgrass, foxtail, cocklebur, pigweed, Weed Classification and lambsquarters. Land Plants Winter annuals are plants that Most pest plants on land are grow from seeds which sprout in grasses, sedges, or broadleaves. the fall. They grow, mature, produce Grasses seed, and die before summer. Examples: Grass seedlings have only one downy brome, cheat, henbit, mus- leaf as they emerge from the seed. tards and pennycress. Their leaves are generally narrow Biennials and upright with parallel veins. Most Plants with a two-year life cycle are grasses have fibrous root systems. The biennials. They grow from seed and growing point on seedling grasses is develop a large tap root and compact sheathed and located below the soil cluster of leaves (called a rosette) the surface. Some grass species are annu- Perennials first year. In the second year, they als; others are perennials.

20 Pests and Sedges ■ submergent (submersed)—all Sedges are similar to grasses except of the plant grows beneath the Pest Control that they have triangular stems and water surface. Example are three rows of leaves. They are often watermilfoil, elodea, naiads, listed under grasses on the pesticide pondweeds (Potamogeton), and label. Most sedges are found in wet coontails. places, but principal pest species are Emergent and floating plants, like found in fertile, well-drained soils. some land plants, have a thick outer Yellow and purple nutsedge are pe- layer on their leaves and stems which rennial weed species which produce hinders herbicide absorption. Submer-­ rhizomes and tubers. gent plants have a very thin outer Broadleaves layer on their leaves and stems and Broadleaf seedlings have two are very susceptible to herbicide injury. “seed leaves” as they emerge from the Algae cotyledons or soil. Their leaves are Algae are aquatic plants without generally broad with netlike veins. true stems, leaves, or vascular systems. Broadleaves usually have a taproot For control purposes, they may be and a relatively coarse root system. classified as: All actively growing broadleaf plants ■ plankton algae—microscopic have exposed growing points at the plants floating in the water. They end of each stem and in each leaf axil. sometimes multiply very rapidly Perennial broadleaf plants may also and cause “blooms” in which have growing points on roots and the surface water appears soupy stems above and below the surface of green, brown, or reddish brown, the soil. Broadleaves contain species depending on the algal type. with annual, biennial, and perennial ■ fila­mentous algae—long, thin Grasses life cycles. strands of plant growth which Aquatic Plants form floating mats or long strings extending from rocks, Vascular Plants bottom sediment, or other un- Many aquatic plants are similar to derwater surfaces. Examples are land plants and have stems, leaves, cladophora and spirogyra. flowers, and roots. Most act as peren- ■ macroscopic freshwater al- nial plants—dying back and becom- gae—these larger algae look like ing dormant in the fall and beginning vascular aquatic plants. The two new growth in the spring. They are should not be confused, because classified as: their control is different. Many ■ emergent (emersed)—plants are attached to the bottom and rooted in the bottom and pro- grow up to 2 feet tall; however, duce most of their leaves and they have no true roots, stems, flowers at or above the water or leaves. Examples are chara surface. Examples are watersh- and nitella. ield arrowhead and water prim- rose. Parasitic Seed Plants ■ floating—all or part of the plant Dodder and witchweed are impor- floats on the surface. Examples tant weeds on some agricultural, or- are waterlilies, duckweeds, wa- namental, and forest plants. They live ter meal and American lotus. on and get their food from the host Sedges ■ marginal—emersed weeds that plants. They can severely stunt and can and frequently do grow on even kill the host plants by using the saturated soil above the water host plant’s water, food, and miner- surface. Examples are sedge, als. These plants reproduce by seeds. bulrush, rush, cattails and Some can also spread from plant to smartweeds. plant in close stands by vining and twining.

21 Pests and Controlling Weeds Cultural Control Pest Control Weed control is nearly always Tillage—This is an effective and designed to suppress a weed infesta- often-used method to kill or control tion. Prevention and eradication are weeds in row crops, nurseries, and usually only attempted in regulatory forest plantings. However, tillage weed programs. may bring buried seeds to the surface To control weeds which are grow- where they can either germinate and ing among or close to desirable compete with the newly planted crop plants, you must take advantage of or be spread to nearby fields. Tillage the differences between the weeds also may increase soil erosion and and the desired species. Be sure that may help to spread established the plants you are trying to protect plant diseases to uninfected areas are not susceptible to the weed control of the field. method that you choose. Generally, Time of Planting—Crops can the more similar the desirable plant be planted early to give the crops and the weed species are to one an- a competitive advantage over later other, the more difficult weed control emerging weeds, or the planting date becomes. For example, broad-leaf­ can be delayed until after weeds have weeds are most difficult to control in germinated and been destroyed by broadleaved crops, and grass weeds cultivation or herbicides. are often difficult to control in grass Nurse Crops—Plant species crops. (usually annuals) which germinate quickly and grow rapidly are some- Weed Control Strategy times planted with a perennial crop to A plan to control weeds may provide competition with weeds and include: allow the crop to become established. ■ biological control, The nurse crop is then harvested or ■ cultural control, removed to allow the perennial crop ■ sanitation, and to take over. For example, oats are ■ chemical control. sometimes used as a nurse crop to Biological Control help establish alfalfa or clover. An- Biological weed control usu- nual ryegrass is sometimes used in ally involves the use of insects and mixtures to provide a nurse crop for disease-causing agents which attack perennial rye, fescue, or bluegrass. certain weed species. An example Burning—Fire may be used to is the control of St. Johnswort by control limited infestations of annual the Chrysolina beetle in the western or biennial weeds. Fire destroys only United States. To be effective, biologi- the aboveground parts of plants and cal control requires two things: is usually not effective against many ■ the insect or disease must be herbaceous perennial weeds. specific to the weed to be con- Mulching—Mulching is used to trolled: otherwise, it may spread prevent light from reaching weed to other species, such as crops seeds, thus preventing weed growth and ornamentals, and become a between rows, around trees and pest itself. shrubs, or in other areas where no ■ the insects must have no natural plants are desired. enemies that interfere with their Mowing—Mowing may be used activity. to reduce competition between weeds Grazing is another form of biologi- and crops and to prevent seed pro- cal control sometimes used to control duction of annual or biennial weeds. plant growth along ditches, fencerows, Mowing is often used in orchards to and roadsides. Sheep and goats are control weeds and prevent soil ero- used most often, but geese are used sion. To be most effective, mowing for weeding some crops. height must be adequate to ensure

22 Pests and control of weed plants and encour- Herbicide activity is either selec- age desired vegetation. Mowing is an tive or nonselective. Selective herbi- Pest Control important aspect of turfgrass weed cides are used to kill weeds without control. significant damage to nearby plants. Mowing and harvesting is good for They are used to reduce weed compe- both short-term and long-term control tition in crops, lawns, and ornamental of aquatic weeds. It depletes the plantings. Nonselective herbicides are nutrients, removes seeds, and reduces chemicals that kill all plants present vegetative spread. if applied at an adequate rate. They Flooding—Flooding has long been are used where no plant growth is used for weed control in rice. The wanted, such as fencerows, ditch water covers the entire weed, killing banks, driveways, roadsides, parking it by suffocation. lots, and recreation areas. Reduced Tillage—This method Herbicide selectivity may vary ac- has been used successfully to reduce cording to the application rate. High weed growth and to reduce soil ero- rates of selective herbicides usually sion. With limited tillage, weed seeds will injure all plants at the application are not turned up and those that do site. Some nonselective herbicides can germinate do not have as much light be used selectively by applying them or space to get started. However, the at a lower rate. Other factors that af- remaining debris may harbor insects fect selectivity include the time and and plant disease agents. method of application, environmental Shading—Aquatic weeds are conditions, and the stage of plant sometimes controlled by shading them growth. with floats of black plastic, adding Several factors affect a plant’s sus- dye to the water, or using similar ceptibility to herbicides: methods for shading out the sunlight. Growing Points—Those that are Land weeds can be shaded by plant- sheathed or located below the soil ing crops so closely together that they surface are not reached by contact block the light from emerging weeds. herbicide sprays. Sanitation Leaf Shape—Herbicides tend to The use of crop seed with few bounce or run off narrow, upright weed-seed contaminants is important leaves. Broad, flat leaves tend to hold in reducing weed problems. the herbicide longer. Wax and Cuticle—Foliar sprays Chemical Control may be prevented from entering the Chemicals used to control weeds leaf by a thick wax and cuticle layer. are called herbicides. They kill plants The waxy surface also tends to cause by contact or systemic action. Contact a spray solution to form droplets and herbicides kill only the plant parts run off the leaves. which the chemical touches. Systemic Leaf Hairs—A dense layer of leaf herbicides are absorbed by roots or hairs holds the herbicide droplets foliage and carried throughout the away from the leaf surface, allow- plant. Systemic herbicides are particu- ing less chemical to be absorbed into larly effective against perennial weeds the plant. A thin layer of leaf hairs because the chemical reaches all parts causes the chemical to stay on the leaf of the plant—even deep roots and surface longer than normal, allowing woody stems—which are relatively more chemical to be absorbed into the inaccessible. Contact herbicides are plant. usually used to control annuals and Size and Age—Young, rapidly biennials and are characterized by the growing plants are more susceptible quick die-back they cause. Systemics to herbicides than are larger, more may take a longer time to provide the mature plants. desired result, up to 2 or 3 weeks, or Metabolism—Certain plants can even longer for woody perennials. detoxify herbicides and are less sus-

23 Pests and ceptible to injury from these chemi- and snails. They have soft, unseg- Pest Control cals. Such plants may become domi- mented bodies and often are protect- nant over a period of time if similar ed by a hard shell. herbicides are used repeatedly. Plant Growth Stage—Seedlings Snails and Slugs are very susceptible to herbicides and Land snails and slugs are soft-bod- to most other weed control practices. ied and have two pairs of ­antennae- Plants in the vegetative and early bud like structures. Their bodies are stages are susceptible to trans­located smooth and elongated. Snails have a herbicides. Plants with seeds or in the spiral-shaped shell into which they maturity stage are the least suscep- can completely withdraw for protec- tible to weed control practices. tion when disturbed or when weather Stages in the Life Cycle—Plants conditions are unfavorable. Slugs do that germinate and develop at differ- not have a shell and must seek protec- ent times than the crop species may be tion in damp places. susceptible to carefully timed cultiva- Snails and slugs feed on plants tion or herbicide applications. at night. They tear holes in foliage, fruits, and soft stems, using a rasp- Chemicals Which Change like tongue. They may eat entire Plant Processes seedlings. As they move, snails and Plant growth regulators, defoli- slugs leave a slime-like mucous trail Snail ants, and desiccants are classified which dries into silvery streaks. These as pesticides in federal laws. These streaks are undesirable on floral and chemicals are used on plants to alter ornamental crops and on those por- normal plant processes in some way. tions of crops to be sold for human They must be measured carefully, food. because they usually are effective in Snails and slugs deposit eggs in very small amounts. Overdosing will moist, dark places. The young mature kill or seriously damage the plants. in a year or more, depending on the A plant growth regulator will species. Adults may live for several speed up, stop, retard, prolong, years. They overwinter in sheltered promote, start, or in some other way areas, and are active all year in warm influence vegetative or reproductive regions and in greenhouses. growth of a plant. These chemical are Controlling Mollusks sometimes called growth regulators Mollusks pests on land (snails and or plant regulators. They are used, slugs) can be controlled by many of Pigeon for example, to thin apples, control the same techniques that are used to suckers on tobacco, control the height control insects outdoors. Effective of some floral potted plants, promote techniques include: dense growth of ornamentals, and ■ cultural practices—especially stimulate rooting. cultivation and trap crops, A defoliant causes the leaves to ■ mechanical controls—especially drop from plants without killing the traps and barriers, plants. A desiccant speeds up the dry- ■ sanitation—especially eliminat- ing of plant leaves, stems, or vines. ing crop debris and other sources Desiccants and defoliants are often of moisture, and called “harvest-aid” chemicals. They ■ chemicals—many insecticide usually are used to make harvest- formulations also control mol- ing of a crop easier or to advance the lusks and may be used if mol- time of harvest. They are often used lusks are listed as target pests on cotton, soybeans, tomatoes, and on the label. In addition, specific potatoes. molluscicides are available, usu- Rodents Mollusks ally as baits. Mollusks are a large group of land and water animals including slugs

24 Pests and Wildlife Damage Control Local and state laws may pro- All vertebrate animals have a joint- hibit the killing or trapping of some Pest Control ed backbone. They include mammals, animals, such as birds, muskrats, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. and beavers without special permits. Native vertebrate animals are usually Always check with local authorities not pests. They are a necessary and before beginning a control program. enjoyable part of our environment. Vertebrate Damage Control Strategy A few native vertebrate animals Methods of vertebrate damage can be pests in some situations. Some, control include: such as blackbirds, woodchucks, ■ prevention of damage, raccoons, or deer may eat or injure ■ mechanical control, agricultural and ornamental crops. ■ sanitation, and Pheasants and ground squirrels may ■ chemical control. eat newly planted seed. Housespar- Prevention of Damage rows and Norway rats consume Prevention of damage should stored food and often contaminate always be an alternative. Planting al- and ruin even more than they eat. ternate crops, harvesting date chang- Coyotes and wild domestic dogs may es, penning livestock, protection of prey on livestock and poultry. Large young livestock, lambing in sheds, numbers of roosting blackbirds and use of guardian dogs, lighting and crows can soil populated areas. biological control methods are only a Sometimes rodents, other mam- few ways that should be considered Snake mals, and some non-native birds are to prevent future damage. potential reservoirs of diseases of humans and domestic animals. Non- Mechanical Control native rodents are an annoyance and Mechanical control methods for a health hazard when they inhabit vertebrate pests include traps, barri- homes, restaurants, offices, and ware- ers, gunning, attractants, and repel- houses. lents. Burrowing and gnawing mammals Traps—Traps are sometimes may damage dams, drainage and desirable in vertebrate pest control. irrigation tunnels, turf, and outdoor Leg-hold traps have been used tradi- wood products. tionally. Such traps are often a good Beavers may cause flooding in low- choice in remote rural areas for large lying land by building dams. predators such as coyotes. Body grip- Undesirable fish species may ping traps are more desirable in some crowd out desirable food and sport situations for some animals such as species. The few species of poisonous beavers, muskrats and smaller mice Mousetrap snakes become a problem. and rats. Traps should be checked daily to maintain their effectiveness. Controlling Vertebrates Barriers—Barriers are designed to As in insect pest control, techniques prevent pests from passing through. for control of vertebrate pests depend These include fences, screens, and on proper pest identification. other barriers which cover openings, Indoor vertebrate pest control usual- stop tunneling, and prevent gnawing. ly is aimed at preventing pest entrance Materials used include sheet metal, and eradicating non-native pest infesta- hardware cloth, concrete, and similar tions. Nearly all indoor vertebrate pests materials. This kind of approach is es- are non-native rodents or birds, but pecially effective in control of rodents, others, such as bats and raccoons, also bats, and birds in structures. may require control. Shooting—Shooting, though Outdoors, the strategy usually is to highly selective, is expensive and remove individual animals to a level time-consuming. It works best in where the damage or injury is eco- combination with other methods. nomically acceptable.

25 Pests and Attractants—Many techniques, Chemical Control Pest Control such as scents and sound, are used to The chemicals used to control attract pests to a trap. Predator calling vertebrate pests include rodenticides, can increase the efficiency of shooting piscicides (fish), avicides (birds), and efforts on larger predators. predacides (predators). Repellents—Repellents include a Pesticides for vertebrate pest con- variety of devices aimed at keeping trol usually are formulated in baits. pets from doing damage. Automatic The chemicals may be highly toxic to exploders, noisemakers, recordings of humans, livestock, and other animals. scare calls, moving objects, and lights Therefore, correct bait placement is are some of the repellents used. The important in order to control the pest efficacy of some of these devices is while protecting non-pest species. variable and may be highly depen- Thorough knowledge of the pest’s dent on placement and frequency of habits is necessary. movement to a new location. Few pesticides are available for na- Sanitation tive vertebrate pest control, and most Removing sources of food and require special local permits for use. shelter helps to suppress most verte- The chemicals which are registered brate pests. Sanitation techniques are are usually bait applications. used widely to control rodents in and around homes, institutions, restau- rants, food-processing facilities, and other related areas.

26 Pests and Study Questions 6. (10) The insect thorax: a) is where the insect antennae Pest Control 1. (5) Natural forces are important are located because: b) supports the legs and wings a) you cannot do anything about (if present) of the adult insect them c) is always a very small orange b) they can cause pest popula- spot on right side of the head tions to rise and fall d) is difficult to distinguish from c) you can never spray anywhere the legs. in the winter time d) the rain and wind always 7. (11) An example of an Arachnid makes it necessary to respray is: the area. a) a butterfly b) an insect 2. (6) Biological control: c) a spider a) is always 100% effective d) a pigweed. b) is never complete c) never occurs naturally 8. (12) The use of host resistance: d) always interferes with com- a) helps keep pest populations mercial chemical control below harmful levels operations. b) means that any pesticide use will not result in killing the 3. (7) Resistance to pesticides devel- host ops in pests species: c) involves treating the host with a) because some applicators use insecticides repeatedly at low the least expensive chemicals rates so as not to kill it b) the chemical companies plan d) should always be discouraged it to happen because it is never effective. c) the pesticides are not poison enough 9. (13) Screens and other barriers: d) rarely does any pesticide kill a) are no longer effective because­ all the pests and those that insects have learned to avoid survive pass this ability on to them their offspring. b) are too ”old fashioned“ to work 4. (8) Integrated Pest Management c) can be a major way of control- practices include the use of: ling pests in some situations a) chemical pesticides d) should always be painted red b) cultivation and barriers or yellow to help repel the c) sanitation and traps pest. d) all the above. 10. (14) The major objective in out- 5. (9) In the case of insects: door chemical pest control is: a) they are only important be- a) to cover the entire surface to cause they give entomologists be protected with a residue something to talk about b) rely on drift to reach the ”hard b) they must all be killed as soon to get“ areas as possible c) use the most toxic chemical c) about 99% of all species are of possible to reduce the number minor importance of applications d) they all feed on plants which d) spray every other day to stay could be eaten by people. ahead of pest buildup.

27 Pests and Study Questions 17. (21) An aquatic plant without Pest Control a true stem, leaves or vascular 11. (15) For most biotic plant dis- system is called: eases to develop, there must be a) broadleaf weed ______present: b) annual grass a) a pathogen c) algae b) a susceptible host d) fungi. c) a favorable environment d) all the above. 18. (22) Controlling weeds usually involves: 12. (16) Micoplasmas are actually a a) visiting with a neighbor type of ______which lacks a cell b) the use of livestock to pack the wall. soil so the seedlings can not a) fungus emerge b) bacteria c) taking advantage of the differ- c) virus ences between the weeds and d) nematode. desired species d) burning the soil surface with a 13. (17) Root knot, soybean cyst, and combination of chemicals. pine wilt are examples of ______diseases. 19. (23) Chemicals used to control a) nematode weeds are pesticides called: b) fungus a) rodenticides c) bacteria b) miticides d) virus. c) insecticides d) herbicides. 14. (18) Quarantines that regulate the movement of plants into this 20. (24) Snails and slugs are in a country are a form of disease group of animals called: control called: a) herbivores a) avoidance b) carnivores b) protection c) mollusks c) exclusion d) phagaphores. d) eradication. 21. (25) Vertebrate pest control is 15. (19) Weeds interfere with crop similar to insect control in that it production by: depends on: a) competing for water a) seeing each pest before spray- b) harboring pest insects, mites, ing etc. b) spraying only in the day time c) releasing toxins into the soil c) proper pest identification d) all the above. d) the use of a registered ­insecticide. 16. (20) All plants, including weeds, have how many stages of growth? 22. (26) The most common chemical a) 1 formulation of vertebrate poisons b) 2 is: c) 3 a) baits d) 4 b) wettable powders c) emulsifiable concentrates d) dusts.

28 Pesticide Formulations The active ingredients in a pesti- ingredient, one or more petroleum cide are the chemicals that control the solvents, and an emulsifier which target pest. The pesticide product you allows the formulation to be mixed purchase is rarely made up only of ac- with water. Each gallon of EC usu- tive ingredients. Usually, the pesticide ally contains 2 to 9 pounds of active is diluted in water or a petroleum ingredient. EC’s are among the most solvent, and other chemicals are versatile formulations. They are used added before the product is offered against agricultural, ornamental and for sale. These other chemicals may turf, forestry, structural, food pro- include wetting agents, spreaders, cessing, livestock, and public health stickers, extenders, or diluents. They pests. They are adaptable to many usually make the product safer, easier types of application equipment, from to apply, more convenient to handle, small, portable sprayers to hydraulic and more accurate to measure. This sprayers, low-volume ground spray- mixture of active and inert (inac- ers, mist blowers, and low-volume tive) ingredients is called a pesticide aircraft sprayers. formulation. Some formulations are Advantages: ready for use. Others must be fur- ■ high concentration means price ther diluted with water, a petroleum per pound of active ingredient solvent, or air by the user before they is relatively low and product is are applied. easy to handle, transport, and store, Types of Formulations ■ little agitation required; not Any particular active ingredient abrasive; will not settle out or often is sold in several different kinds separate when equipment is of formulations. You must choose the running, formulation that will be best for each ■ little visible residue on fresh use. In making your choice, consider: fruits and vegetables and on ■ the plant, animal, or surface finished surfaces. to be protected (phytotoxicity, Disadvantages: animal absorption, pitting or ■ high concentration requires marring surface), extra care when mixing and ■ application equipment available loading equipment, and best suited for the job, ■ high concentration makes it ■ hazard of drift and runoff (near­- easy to overdose or underdose ness to sensitive areas, likelihood through mixing or calibration of wind or rain), errors, ■ safety to applicator, helpers, and ■ phytotoxicity hazard usually other humans and pets likely to greater, be exposed, ■ easily absorbed through skin of ■ habits or growth patterns of the humans or animals, pest (bait versus broadcast spray, ■ solvents may cause rubber or granular versus foliar spray), plastic hoses, gaskets, and pump ■ cost, parts and surfaces to deteriorate, ■ type of environment in which ■ may cause pitting or discolor- the application must be made ation of painted finishes, (agricultural, aquatic, forest, ■ may be corrosive. urban, etc.) Solutions (S) Liquid Formulations A few pesticide active ingredients dissolve readily in water. Formula- Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E) tions of these pesticides contain the An emulsifiable concentrate for- active ingredient and one or more ad- mulation usually contains the active ditives. When mixed with water, they

29 Pesticide form a solution which will not settle active ingredients are mixed with a Formulations out or separate. Solutions may be liquid, along with inert ingredients, used in any type of sprayer indoors or to form a suspension. Flowables are outdoors. mixed with water for application and Advantages: are similar to EC formulations in ease ■ no agitation necessary. of handling and use. They are used in Disadvantages: the same types of pest control opera- ■ very few formulations of this tions for which EC’s are used. type available, Advantages: ■ may move off target because of ■ seldom clog nozzles, their high water solubility. ■ easy to handle and apply. Ultra Low Volume Concentrate Disadvantages: ■ Solutions (ULV) require moderate agitation, ■ ULV concentrate solutions contain may leave a visible residue. 8 or more pounds of active ingredient Aerosols per gallon. They may approach These formulations contain one or 100 percent active ingredient. ULV more active ingredients and a solvent. con­­centrate is designed to be used Most aerosols contain a low percent- as is or to be diluted with only small age of active ingredient. There are two quantities of specified solvents. These types of aerosol formulations—the special-purpose formulations must ready-to-use type, and those made for be applied with highly specialized use in smoke or fog generators. spray equipment. They are mostly Ready-to-use aerosols are usually used in outdoor applications such small, self-contained units which as in agricultural, forestry, ornamen- release the pesticide when the nozzle tal, and mosquito control programs. valve is triggered. The pesticide is The advantages and disadvantages driven through a fine opening by an are similar to those for emulsifiable inert gas under pressure, creating fine concentrates. droplets. These products are used in Low Concentrate Solutions (S) greenhouses, in small areas inside These formulations, usually solu- buildings, or in localized outdoor tions in petroleum solvents, contain areas. Commercial models hold 5 to small amounts (usually 1 percent or 10 pounds of pesticide, and these are less) of active ingredient per gallon. usually refillable. They are designed to be used without Advantages: ■ further dilution. Low concentrate ready to use, ■ solutions are used for: easily stored, ■ ■ structural and institutional pests, convenient way of buying small ■ clothes moths, amount of a pesticide, ■ ■ livestock and poultry pests, retain their potency over fairly ■ space sprays in barns and ware- long time. houses, Disadvantages: ■ ■ mosquito control. expensive, ■ Advantages: practical for very limited uses, ■ ■ no mixing necessary, risk of inhalation injury, ■ ■ household formulations have hazardous if punctured, over- no unpleasant odor; do not stain heated, or used near an open fabric. flame, ■ Disadvantages: difficult to confine to target site ■ expensive, or pest. ■ limited number of uses. Formulations for smoke or fog gen- erators are not under pressure. They Flowables (F or L) are used in machines which break the Some active ingredients are insoluble liquid formulation into a fine mist or solids. These may be formulated as fog (aerosol) using a rapidly whirling flowables in which the finely ground 30 Pesticide disk or heated surface. These formula- ■ can penetrate cracks, crevices, tions are used mainly for insect con- wood, and tightly packed areas, Formulations trol in structures, such as greenhouses such as soil or grains, and warehouses and for mosquito ■ single treatment will usually kill and biting fly control outdoors. most pests in treated area. Advantages: Disadvantages: ■ easy method of filling entire ■ the target area must be enclosed space with pesticide. or covered to prevent the gas Disadvantages: from escaping, ■ highly specialized use, ■ highly toxic to humans—spe- ■ fairly expensive for pounds of cialized protective equipment, active ingredient per gallon, including respirators, must be ■ difficult to confine to target site used with fumigants, or pest, ■ no residual activity. ■ risk of inhalation injury. Dry Formulations Invert Emulsions This unusual mixture contains a Dusts (D) water-soluble pesticide dispersed in Most dust formulations are ready an oil carrier. Invert emulsions require to use and contain a low percentage a special kind of emulsifier that al- of active ingredient (usually 1 to lows the pesticide to be mixed with 10 percent), plus a very fine dry inert a large volume of petroleum carrier, carrier made from talc, chalk, clay, nut usually fuel oil. When applied, invert hulls, or volcanic ash. The size of indi- emulsions form large droplets which vidual dust particles is variable. do not drift easily. Invert emulsions Dust concentrates contain a greater are most commonly used in veg- percentage of active ingredient. These etation control along rights-of-way must be mixed with dry inert carriers where drift to susceptible nontarget before they can be applied. plants is a problem. Dusts are always used dry and easily drift into nontarget areas. Fumigants They sometimes are used for agricul- Fumigants are pesticides which tural applications. In structures, dust form poisonous gases when applied. formulations are used in cracks and Sometimes the active ingredients are crevices and for spot treatments. They gases which become liquids when are widely used in seed treatment. packaged under high pressure. These Dusts are also used to control lice, formulations become gases when fleas, and other parasites on pets and released during application. Other domestic animals and poultry. active ingredients are volatile liq- Advantages: uids when enclosed in an ordinary ■ usually ready to use, with no container and so are not formulated mixing, under pressure. They become gases ■ effective where moisture from a during application. Others are solids spray might cause damage, that release gases when applied under ■ require simple equipment, conditions of high humidity or in the ■ effective in hard-to-reach indoor presence of water vapor. areas. Fumigants are used for structural Disadvantages: pest control, in food and grain stor- ■ drift hazard high, age facilities, and in regulatory pest ■ expensive because of low per- control at ports of entry and at state centage of active ingredient, and national borders. In agricultural ■ leave an obvious surface resi- pest control, fumigants are used in due, soil and in greenhouses, granaries, and grain bins. Baits (B) Advantages: A bait formulation is an active ■ toxic to a wide range of pests, ingredient mixed with food or another

31 Pesticide attractive substance. The bait attracts turf, aquatic, right-of-way, and public Formulations the pests, which are then killed by health (biting insect) pest control eating the pesticide it contains. The operations. amount of active ingredient in most Advantages: bait formulations is quite low, usu- ■ ready to use; no mixing, ally less than 5 percent. Baits are ■ drift hazard is low—particles used inside buildings to control ants, settle quickly, roaches, flies, and other insects and ■ low hazard to applicator—no for rodent control. Outdoors they are spray, little dust, sometimes used to control slugs and ■ weight carries the formulation some insects, but their main use is through foliage to soil target for control of vertebrate pests such as (except for woody vegetation), birds, rodents, and other mammals. ■ simple application equipment— Advantages: often seeders or fertilizer ■ ready to use, spreaders, ■ entire area need not be covered, ■ may be more persistent than since pest goes to bait, WP’s or EC’s. ■ controls pests which move in Disadvantages: and out of an area. ■ more expensive than WP’s or Disadvantages: EC’s, ■ often attractive to children and pets, ■ may need to be incorporated ■ may kill domestic animals and into soil, nontarget wildlife outdoors, ■ may need moisture to activate ■ pest may prefer the crop or oth- pesticidal action. er food to the bait, Pellets (P or PS) ■ dead pests may cause odor problem, Pelleted formulations are uniform ■ other animals feeding on the sized particles, usually of clay or simi- poisoned pests may also be poi- lar material, created by extruding or soned, molding under pressure. The result ■ application costs are high. are particles of uniform size and Granules (G) specific weight. The active ingredient Granular formulations are similar is usually absorbed into the pellet and to dust formulations except that gran- released by water into the soil. The ular particles are larger and heavier. amount of active ingredient ranges The coarse particles are made from from 1 to over 40 percent. an absorptive material, such as clay, Pelleted formulations are most of- corn cobs, or walnut shells. The active ten used to apply pesticides to the soil ingredient either coats the outside of to control weeds, brush and nema- the granules or is absorbed into them. todes. They are applied by air­-craft, The amount of active ingredient is ground applicators and spot treat- relatively low, usually ranging from 1 ment methods. Uses include agricul- to 15 percent. ture, ornamental, turf, rights-of-way Granular pesticides are most often and non-cropland operations. used to apply chemicals to the soil to Advantages: control weeds, nematodes, and insects ■ ready to use: no mixing, living in the soil. They also may be ■ drift hazard is low—pellets used as systemics—formulations that settle quickly, are applied to the soil, then absorbed ■ low hazard to operator—no into the plant through the roots and spray, some dust, carried throughout the plant. They ■ excellent distribution due to uni- are applied by aircraft and ground form size, equipment. Granular formulations ■ generally more persistent than are also used to control larval mosqui- WP’s or EC’s, toes and other aquatic pests. Granules ■ some pesticides can be applied are used in agricultural, ornamental, in off season period by commer- cial applicators. 32 Pesticide Disadvantages: ■ residues may be visible. ■ more expensive than WP’s or Soluble Powders (SP) Formulations EC’s, Soluble powder formulations Look ■ moisture needed to activate or like wettable powders. However, when move active ingredient into soil, mixed with water, soluble powders ■ precision application equipment dissolve readily and form a true solu- needed for broadcast applica- tion. After they are thoroughly mixed, tion, no additional agitation is necessary. ■ storage requirements may be The active ingredient in soluble pow- greater than liquid or fine parti- ders ranges from 15 to 95 percent— usu- cle formulations, ally over 50 percent. ■ in woody vegetation, aerial Soluble powders have all the ad- app­li­cation must be made vantages of the wettable powders and during dormant season for best none of the disadvantages except the ­distribution. inhalation hazard during mixing. Few Wettable Powders (WP or W) pesticides are available in this formu- Wettable powders are dry, finely lation, because few active ingredients ground formulations which look like are soluble in water. dusts. They usually must be mixed Microencapsulation with water for application as a spray. Microencapsulated formulations A few products, however, may be are microscopic particles of pesticides applied either as a dust or as a wet- (either liquid or dry) surrounded by a table powder—the choice is left to the very thin plastic coating. The formu- applicator. Wettable powders contain lated product is mixed with water 5 to 95 percent active ingredient, and applied as a spray. Once applied, usually 50 percent or more. Wettable the capsule slowly releases the pesti- powder particles do not dissolve in cide. The encapsulation process can water. They settle out quickly unless prolong the active life of the pesticide constant agitation is used to keep by providing a timed release of the them suspended. active ingredient. Wettable powders are one of the Advantages: most widely used pesticide formula- ■ increased safety to applicator, tions. They can be used for most pest ■ easy to mix, handle, and apply. problems and in most types of spray Disadvantages: machinery where agitation is possible. ■ constant agitation necessary in Advantages: tank, ■ low cost, ■ some bees may pick up the cap- ■ easy to store, transport, and sules and carry them back to the handle, hives where the released pesti- ■ lower phytotoxicity hazard than cide may poison entire hives. EC’s and other liquid formulations, ■ easily measured and mixed, Water-Dispersible Granules ■ less skin and eye absorption (Dry Flowables) than EC’s and other liquid formu- Water-dispersible granular formu- lations. lations are like wettable power form- Disadvantages: ulations, except the active ingredient ■ inhalation hazard to applicator is prepared as granule-sized particles. while pouring and mixing the Water-dispersible granules must be concentrated powder, mixed with water to be applied. The ■ require good and constant agita- formulation requires constant agita- tion (usually mechanical) in the tion to keep it suspended in water. spray tank, Water-dispersible granules share the ■ abrasive to many pumps and advantages and disadvantages of nozzles, causing them to wear wettable powders except: ■ out quickly, they are more easily measured and mixed, 33 Pesticide ■ they cause less inhalation hazard Compatibility agents—aid in com- Formulations to the applicator during measur- bining pesticides effectively. ing and mixing. Buffers—allow mixing of pesti- cides of different acidity or alkalinity. Adjuvants Antifoaming agents—reduce An adjuvant is an inert material foaming of spray mixtures that re- added to a pesticide formulation or quire vigorous agitation. tank mix to increase the effectiveness of the active ingredient. Most pesti- Compatibility cide formulations contain at least a Two or more pesticides which can small percentage of additives. Some be mixed together to control a wider applicators add additional adjuvants range of pests with a single applica- while mixing for special applications. tion are said to be compatible with Some product labels may caution the each other. Sometimes, the pesticides user against adding adjuvants. Com- are formulated together by the manu- mon adjuvants are: facturer, but the applicator often must Wetting agents—allow wettable mix separate formulations in the tank. powders to mix with water and stick It is important to remember that not on plant or animal surfaces. all pesticides work well in combina- Emulsifiers—allow petroleum- tion. Pesticides which are not compat- based pesticides (EC’s) to mix with ible can cause: water. ■ loss of effectiveness against the Invert emulsifiers—allow water- target pests, based pesticides to mix with petro- ■ injury to the treated surface leum carrier. (phytotoxicity in plants, toxici- Spreaders—allow pesticide to ty in treated animals, stains or form a uniform coating layer over the corrosion on treated surfaces), treated surface. ■ separation of ingredients into Stickers—allow pesticide to stay layers or settling out of solids. on the treated surface. Some pesticide labels list other Penetrants—allow the pesticide to pesticides with which the product is get through the outer surface to the compatible. Pesticide publications, inside of the treated area. land grant universities, and indepen- Foaming agent—may reduce drift dent experts can supply information by decreasing fines. based on local experience. Be careful Drift Suppressants—may reduce with do-it-yourself mixes; they could drift by increasing droplet size. cost time and money. Safeners—reduce phytotoxicity of pesticide to protected crop.

34 Pesticide Study Questions 4. (32) An advantage of pelleted formulations is: Formulations 1. (29) The pesticide formulation a) drift hazard is low includes: b) no mixing—ready to use a) only the active ingredients c) excellent distribution due to b) only the inert ingredients the uniform size c) both active and inert d) all the above. ­ingredients d) none of the above. 5. (33) A finely ground formulation which looks like a dust, is mixed 2. (30) Low concentrate solutions in water but does not dissolve in usually contain: the water is called: a) 1% or less active ingredient a) sprayable concentrate b) 2 to 5% active ingredient b) emulsifiable concentrate c) 6 to 10% active ingredient c) soluble powder d) 11 to 15% active ingredient. d) wettable powder.

3. (31) Pesticide formulations which 6. (34) Pesticides which are not form a gas when applied are compatible can: called: a) cause loss of effectiveness if a) aerosols mixed b) fumigants b) cause injury to treated sur- c) fungicides faces, animals, plants, etc. d) flowables. c) cause separation of ingredi- ents into layers or settling out d) all the above.

35 Labels and name with only minor variations to Labeling designate entirely different pesticide Each pesticide you buy has a label products. For example: that gives instructions on how to Tersan LSR = zinc and maneb use the product. The manufacturer Tersan SP = chloroneb may also provide additional forms of Tersan 1991 = benomyl labeling. Tersan = thiram Labeling is all information that Ingredient Statement you receive from the manufacturer Each pesticide label must list what about the product. Labeling includes is in the product. The list is written so not only the label on the product you can quickly see what the active container, but also any supplemental ingredients are and the amount (in information accompanying the prod- percentage) of each ingredient listed. uct. This may include such things as The ingredient statement must list the brochures, leaflets, and information official chemical names and/or com- handed out by your dealer. mon names for the active ingredients. The label is the information printed Inert ingredients need not be named, on or attached to the container of but the label must show what percent pesticides. of the total contents they comprise. ■ to the manufacturer, the label is a “license to sell,” Chemical Name ■ to the state or federal govern- The chemical name is a complex ment, the label is a way to control name which identifies the chemi- the distribution, storage, sale, cal components and structure of the use, and disposal of the product, pesticide. This name is almost always ■ to the buyer or user, the label is listed in the ingredient statement on a source of facts on how to use the label. For example, the chemical the product correctly and legally, name of atrazine is 2-chloro-4-ethyl- ■ to physicians, the label is a amino-6-isopropylamino-1, source of information on proper 3, 5-triazine. treatment for poisoning cases. Common Name Some labels are easy to understand. Because pesticides have complex Others are complicated. All labels chemical names, many are given will tell you how to use the product a shorter “common” name. Only correctly. This section will explain the common names which are officially items that must be on a label. accepted by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency may be used in the Parts of the Label ingredient statement on the pesticide label. The official common name may Brand, Trade, or Product Names be followed by the chemical name Each manufacturer has a brand in the list of active ingredients. For name for its products. Different example, a label with the brand name manufacturers may use different Sevin 50% WP would read: brand names for the same pesticide Active ingredient: active ingredient. Most companies carbaryl (1-naphthy register each brand name as a trade- N methyl carbamate)...... 50% mark and will not allow any other Inert ingredients...... 50% company to use that name. The brand By purchasing pesticides accord- or trade name is the one used in ads ing to the common or chemical names, and by company salespersons. The you will always be certain of getting brand name shows up plainly on the the right active ingredient. front panel of the label. Applicators must beware of choosing a pesti- Type of Pesticide cide product by brand name alone. The type of pesticide usually is list- Many companies use the same basic ed on the front panel of the pesticide

36 Labels and label. This short statement usually container. It identifies the facility that indicates in general terms what the produced the product. In case some- Labeling product will control. Examples: thing goes wrong, the facility that ■ insecticide for control of certain made the product can be traced. insects on fruits, nuts, and orna- mentals, Signal Words and Symbols ■ soil fungicide, Every label contains a signal word ■ herbicide for the control of trees, giving you a clue to how dangerous brush, and weeds, the product is to humans. Know- ■ algicide. ing the product’s hazard helps you choose the proper precautionary Net Contents measures for yourself, your workers, The front panel of the pesticide and other persons (or animals) which label tells you how much is in the may be exposed. container. This can be expressed as The signal word must appear in pounds or ounces for dry formula- large letters on the front panel of the tions and as gallons, quarts, or pints pesticide label. It immediately follows for liquids. Liquid formulations may the statement, “Keep Out of Reach also list the pounds of active ingredi- of Children,” which must appear on ent per gallon of product. every pesticide label. DANGER—This word signals you Name and Address that the pesticide is highly toxic. A of Manufacturer taste to a teaspoon taken by mouth The law requires the maker or distrib- could kill an average-sized adult. Any utor of a product to put the name and product which is highly toxic orally, address of the company on the label. dermally, or through inhalation or This is so you will know who made or causes severe eye and skin burning sold the product. will be labeled “DANGER.” All pesticides which are highly Registration and toxic orally, dermally, or through Establishment Numbers inhalation will also carry the word These numbers are needed by the POISON printed in red and the skull pesticide applicator in case of acci- and crossbones symbol. dental poisoning, claims of misuse, or WARNING—This word signals liability claims. They are also used by you that the product is moderately regulatory agencies in cases of mis- toxic. As little as a teaspoon to a branding, adulterated products and tablespoon by mouth could kill the other regulatory actions. average-sized adult. Any product Registration Numbers which is moderately toxic orally, der- An EPA registration number must mally, or through inhalation or causes appear on pesticide labels (for ex- moderate eye and skin irritation will ample, EPA Reg. No. 3120-280). This be labeled WARNING. indicates that the pesticide label has CAUTION—This word signals been approved by the federal govern- you that the product is slightly toxic. ment. In cases of special local needs, An ounce to more than a pint taken pesticide products may be approved by mouth could kill the average adult. by a state. These registrations are des- Any product which is slightly toxic ignated, for example, as EPA SLN No. orally, dermally, or through inhalation KS-960001. In this case, SLN indicates or causes slight eye and skin irritation “special local need” and KS means will be labeled CAUTION. that the product is registered for use in Kansas. Worker Protection Standard The U.S. Environmental Protection Establishment Numbers Agency’s Worker Protection Standard The establishment number (for (as revised in l992) must be com- example, EPA Est: No. 5840-AZ-1) ap- plied with when pesticide products pears on either the pesticide label or are used on agricultural establish- 37 Labels and ments (farms, forests, nurseries, and who enter pesticide-treated Labeling greenhouses) for the commercial or areas before expiration of the research production of agricultural restricted-entry interval (in the plants. The Worker Protection Stan- few very limited circumstances dard (WPS) requires employers to permitted by the WPS). provide agricultural­ workers and ■ Protecting pesticide handlers by pesticide handlers with protections giving them safety instruction against possible harm from pesticides. about the correct use of person- Persons who must comply with these al protective equipment and instructions include owners/opera- mixing loading, and applica- tors of the agricultural establishment tion equipment; inspecting and and owners/operators of commercial maintaining equipment they businesses that are hired to apply will be using; and monitoring pesticides on the agricultural estab- them in hazardous situations. lishment or to perform crop-advising For detailed information about tasks on such establishments. You and your responsibilities under the WPS, any family members who work on get a copy of EPA’s manual, Worker your agricultural or commercial pes- Protection Standard for Agricultural ticide establishment are considered Pesticides—How To Comply. It will “employees” in many situations and tell you what you need to do to be in must receive some of the required­ compliance with the Federal worker Field Warning Sign protections. Some of the basic require- protection requirements. The manual ments the WPS establishes for em- may be available from EPA regional ployers include: offices, State or Tribal pesticide agen- ■ Displaying information about cies, Extension Services, pesticide pesticide safety, emergency dealers, the Government Printing Of- procedures, and recent pesticide fice, and other commercial sources. applications on an agricultural establishment. Precautionary Statements ■ Training workers and handlers All pesticide labels contain addi- about pesticide safety. tional statements to help you decide ■ Helping employees get medical the proper precautions to take to assistance in case of a work-re- protect yourself, your helpers, and lated pesticide emergency. other persons (or domestic animals) ■ Setting up decontamination sites which may be exposed. Sometimes for washing pesticide residues these statements are listed under the off hands and body. heading, “Hazards to Humans and ■ Compliance with restricted-en- Domestic Animals.” They are com- try intervals posed of several sections. ■ the time immediately after a Route of Entry Statements How to Comply pesticide application when The statements which immediately workers may not enter the treat- follow the signal word, either on the ed area. front or side of the pesticide label, ■ Notifying workers (through indicate which route or routes of posted and/or oral warnings) entry (mouth, skin, lungs) you must about areas where applications particularly protect. Many pesticide are taking place and areas where products are hazardous by more than restricted-entry intervals are in one route, so study these statements effect. carefully. A “Danger” signal word fol- ■ Allowing only trained and lowed by “May be fatal if swallowed equipped pesticide handlers to or inhaled” gives you a far different be present during a pesticide warning than, “Danger: Corrosive— application. Causes eye damage and severe skin ■ Providing personal protec- burns.” tive equipment for pesticide Typical DANGER label statements handlers and also for workers include: 38 Labels and ■ Fatal if swallowed, are directly related to the toxicity of ■ Poisonous if inhaled, the pesticide product (signal word) Labeling ■ Extremely hazardous by skin and the route or routes of entry which contact—rapidly absorbed must particularly be protected. through skin, DANGER labels typically contain ■ Corrosive—causes eye damage statements such as: and severe skin burns. ■ Do not breathe vapors or spray These statements are not uniform mist, on all labels, so many variations may ■ Do not get on skin or clothing, be found. More than one or even all ■ Do not get in eyes. four precautions may be stated on the (You would not deliberately swallow same label. the pesticide, so the “Do not swallow” Typical WARNING label state- statement is omitted.) ments include: These statements correspond to ■ Harmful or fatal if swallowed, the strongest statements in the “route ■ Harmful or fatal if absorbed of entry” section. For example, if the through the skin: only reason a product has a DANGER ■ Harmful or fatal if inhaled, label is because it can cause corrosive ■ Causes skin and eye irritation. eye damage, the specific action state­- Statements on a WARNING label ment might read: “Do not get in eyes. may be exactly like those found on a Avoid contact with skin and breath- DANGER label or a CAUTION label. ing vapors, dusts, or spray mists.” Or they may be a combination of the Most DANGER label products, how- two; for example, “harmful or fatal.” ever, are highly toxic through most or Many WARNING label precaution- all of the entry routes, so several “Do ary statements simply drop the words not” statements will appear. “may” or “may be” from the caution Typical WARNING labels com- statements. This leaves a stronger bine specific action statements from signal, which is in keeping with the DANGER and CAUTION labels. moderate toxicity of products pos- Depending on which route or routes sessing a WARNING label. are most likely to cause poisoning, the Typical CAUTION label statements label might list “do not get on skin or include: in eyes,” but “avoid breathing vapors ■ Harmful if swallowed, and spray mist.” This indicates that ■ May be harmful if absorbed poisoning by inhalation of the pesti- through the skin, cide is less likely than receiving skin ■ May be harmful if inhaled, or eye injury. ■ May irritate eyes, nose, throat, CAUTION labels generally contain and skin. specific action statements which are These statements may vary con- much milder than those on the DAN- siderably. They usually are more GER label: moderate than the statements found ■ Avoid contact with skin or cloth- on a DANGER label, using “harm- ing, ful” instead of “fatal” or “poisonous;” ■ Avoid breathing dust, vapors, or “irritant” instead of “corrosive;” and spray mists, qualifying the warnings with “may” ■ Avoid getting in eyes. or “may be.” This is in keeping with These statements indicate that the the much lower toxicity of products toxicity hazard is not as great. possessing a CAUTION label. The specific action statements help Specific Action Statements you prevent pesticide poisoning by These statements usually follow taking the necessary precautions and immediately after the route of entry wearing the correct protective cloth- statements. They recommend the spe- ing and equipment. cific action you should take to prevent poisoning accidents. These statements

39 Labels and Protective Clothing and Statement of Practical Treatment Labeling Equipment Statements These statements tell you the first Pesticide labels that fall under the aid treatments recommended in case Worker Protection Standards have of poisoning. Typical statements very specific statements regard- include: ing personal protective equipment. ■ In case of contact with skin, However, many other labels carry no wash immediately with plenty statement at all. You should follow of soap and water, all advice on protective clothing or ■ In case of contact with eyes, equipment which appears on the flush with water for 15 minutes label. However, the lack of any state- and get medical attention, ment or the mention of only one piece ■ In case of inhalation exposure, of equipment does not rule out the move from contaminated area need for additional protection. and give artificial respiration, if A label, for example, might carry necessary, the statements: “Causes skin and ■ If swallowed, drink large eye irritation. Do not get in eyes, on quantities of milk, egg white, or skin or clothing. Wear goggles while water—do not induce vomiting, handling.” Even though the label ■ If swallowed, induce vomiting. does not specifically require them, All DANGER labels and some you should wear a long-sleeved shirt, WARNING and CAUTION labels long-legged trousers, and gloves. You contain a note to physicians describ- should consider wearing rubberized ing the appropriate medical proce- or waterproof clothing if you will be dures for poisoning emergencies and in prolonged contact or wet by an may identify an antidote. overhead spray application. Some pesticide labels fully describe Environmental Hazards appropriate protective clothing and Pesticides may be harmful to the equipment. A few list the kinds of res- environment. Some products are clas- pirators which should be worn when sified RESTRICTED USE because of handling and applying the product. environmental hazards alone. Watch Others require the use of a respirator for special warning statements on but do not specify type or model to be the label concerning hazards to the used. environment. Other Precautionary Statements Endangered Species Labels often list other precautions In order to protect specific endan- to take while handling the product. gered species from adverse effects of These are self-explanatory: pesticides, many product labels will ■ Do not contaminate food or feed, change. They will include a statement ■ Remove and wash contaminated directing users to obtain and abide clothing before reuse, by a special bulletin which identifies ■ Wash thoroughly after handling specific geographical areas where the and before eating or smoking, pesticide may NOT be used. These ■ Wear clean clothes daily, actions are required by the Endan- ■ Not for use or storage in and gered Species Act. EPA will make the around a house, Endangered Species Bulletins avail- ■ Do not allow children or domes- able to users through county Exten- tic animals into the treated area. sion agents, pesticide dealers, and at These statements represent actions other outlets. which a competent applicator will The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services always follow. The absence of any or (FWS) is the final authority for the all of them from the label DOES interpretation of the Endangered NOT indicate that they need not be Species Act, particularly for geographic performed. areas where certain pesticides may be used with certain safeguards or are

40 Labels and prohibited. Implementation of the en- ■ Flammable—Do not use, pour, dangered species labeling project will spill, or store near heat or open Labeling be phased in over several years. flame. Do not cut or weld container. At the time this manual went to ■ Corrosive—Store only in a cor- press, EPA was still developing the rosion-resistant tank. details of this program. Any bulletins NOTE: Hazard statements (hazards appearing prior to reference on the to humans and domestic animals, label will contain voluntary provisions. environmental hazards, and physical- Special Toxicity Statements chemical hazards) are not located in If a particular pesticide is especial- the same place on all pesticide labels. ly hazardous to wildlife, that will be Some newer labels group them in a stated on the label. For example: box under the headings listed above. ■ This product is highly toxic to bees, Other labels may list them on the ■ This product is toxic to fish, front panel beneath the signal word. ■ This product is toxic to birds Still other labels list the hazards in and other wildlife. paragraph form somewhere else on These statements alert you to the the label under headings such as special hazards that the use of the “Note” or “Important.” You should product may pose. They should help search the label for statements which you choose the safest product for a will help you apply the pesticide particular job and remind you to take more safely and knowledgeably. extra precautions. Classification Statement General Environmental Statements Every pesticide will sooner or later Some of these statements appear be classified by the U. S. Environ- on nearly every pesticide label. They mental Protection Agency as either are reminders of common sense ac- “general” or “restricted.” tions to follow to avoid contaminat- Any pesticide product which has ing the environment. The absence of been restricted must carry this state- any or all of these statements DOES ment in a prominent place at the top NOT indicate that you do not have to of the front panel of the pesticide label: take adequate precautions. RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE Sometimes these statements follow a “specific toxicity statement” and For retail sale to and use provide practical steps to avoid harm only by certified applicators to wildlife. Examples of general envi- or persons under their direct ronmental statements include: supervision and only for those ■ Do not apply when runoff is uses covered by the certified likely to occur, applicator’s certification. ■ Do not apply when weather NOTE: At this printing, EPA has conditions favor drift from treat- not completed the classification of ed areas, all pesticide products on the market. ■ Do not contaminate water by Therefore, the absence of a RESTRICTED cleaning of equipment or dis- USE statement does not necessarily posal of wastes, indicate that the product has a low ■ Keep out of any body of water, hazard level. Use the signal word and ■ Do not allow drift on desirable the precautionary statements to judge plants or trees, the toxicity hazard of all pesticide ■ Do not apply when bees are products. likely to be in the area. Reentry Statement Physical or Chemical Hazards Some pesticide labels do not come This section of the label will tell under the Worker Protection Stan- you of any special fire, explosion, or dards requirements (see above). This chemical hazards the product may statement tells you how much time pose. For example: must pass before people can reenter

41 Labels and a treated area. These reentry intervals ■ Do not reuse bag. Burn or bury Labeling are set by both EPA and some states. in a safe place. Reentry intervals set by states are not One or more of these statements always listed on the label; it is your may appear on a pesticide label. responsibility to determine if one has You should try to determine the best been set. It is illegal to ignore reentry storage and disposal procedures for intervals. your operation and location. These The minimum legal protective statements may appear in a special clothing for reentry following agricul- section of the label titled “Storage and tural and other outdoor treatments is: Disposal” or under headings such ■ long-sleeved shirt, as “Important,” “Note,” or “General ■ long-legged trousers or coveralls, Instructions.” ■ hat, Bulk Storage ■ sturdy shoes with socks. Bulk storage of pesticides is becom- Gloves are suggested. For early ing a more common practice. There reentry in enclosed areas, a respirator are special concerns with storing large may be necessary. volumes of pesticides in individual The reentry statement may be containers such as: printed in a box under the heading ■ fire and explosion hazards, Danger-Poison Symbol “Reentry” or it may be in a section ■ spills-ruptured/leaking tanks, with a title such as “Important,” ■ runoff environmental “Note,” or “General Information.” ­contamination, If no reentry statement appears on ■ security. the label or is set by your state, then The l985 Kansas Legislature passed you must wait at least until sprays are regulations to assure safe and proper dried or dusts have settled before re- bulk storage of pesticides. Following entering or allowing others to reenter are some key points of the regula- a treated area. That is the minimum tions. reentry interval. ■ Controlled are facilities for stor- Storage and Disposal age of pesticides in non-mobile All pesticide labels contain gen- containers of undivided quanti- eral instructions for the appropriate ties greater than storage and disposal of the pesticide 50 gallons liquid or 100 pounds dry weight. and its container. State and local laws ■ vary considerably, so specific instruc- Non-mobile bulk pesticide tions usually are not included. Typical storage tanks must be equipped statements include: with an effective means of sec- ■ ondary containment. Not for use or storage in or ■ around the home, The capacity of the secondary ■ Store away from fertilizers, in- containment must be at least secticides, fungicides, and seeds, 10 percent greater than the ca- ■ Store at temperatures above pacity of the largest tank within the secondary ­containment. 32°F (O°C), ■ ■ Do not reuse container, Bulk pesticide storage facilities ■ Do not contaminate water, food, must be kept under lock and or feed by storage and disposal, the power supply must have a ■ Open dumping is prohibited, master switch which is also kept ■ under lock. Triple rinse and offer this con- ■ tainer for recycling or recondi- Any facility constructed after tioning, or dispose in an ap- May 1, 1985 must be in compli- proved landfill or bury in a safe ance with this law before it can be used. place, ■ ■ Use excess or dispose in an ap- Additional storage, mixing/ proved landfill or bury in a safe loading, and wash facility place, regulations have been proposed

42 Labels and by EPA. These new regulations other agencies. Your understanding of may be enacted in the near these terms will help you get the best Labeling future. For information on the results from pesticides. status of regulations, contact the Terms that tell you when to use the Plant Health Division, Kansas pesticide product include: Department of Agriculture at Preplant—used before the crop is 913-296-2263. planted. Preemergence—used before crop Directions For Use or pests emerge. May also refer to use The instructions on how to use the after crops emerge or are established, pesticide are an important part of the but before pests emerge. label for you. This is the best way you Postemergence—used after the can find out the right way to apply crop or pests have emerged. the product. Terms that tell you how to use the The use instructions will tell you: pesticide product include: ■ the pests which the manufac- Band—application to a strip over turer claims the product will or along a crop row or on or around a control, structure. ■ the crop, animal, or site the Basal—application to stems or product is intended to protect, trunks at or just above the ground line. ■ in what form the product should Broadcast—uniform application to be applied, an entire, specific area. ■ how much to use, Crack and crevice—application ■ how often to apply, in structures to cracks and crevices ■ mixing directions, where pests may live. ■ compatibility with other of- Dip—complete or partial immer- ten-used products, sion of a plant, animal, or object in a ■ phytotoxicity and other possible pesticide. injury or staining problems, Directed—aiming the pesticide at a ■ how the material works, portion of a plant, animal, or struc- ■ where the material should be ture. applied, Drench—saturating the soil with ■ when it should be applied, a pesticide; also, the oral treatment of ■ other special information. an animal with a liquid. Labels for agricultural pesticides Foliar—application to the leaves of often list the least number of days plants. which must pass between the last In-furrow—application to the fur- pesticide application and harvest row in which a plant is planted. of crops, or slaughter, or grazing of Over-the-top—application over the livestock. These are intervals set by top of the growing crop. EPA to allow time for the pesticide Pour-on—pouring the pesticide to break down in the environment. along the mid-line of the back of This prevents illegal residues on food, livestock. feed, or animal products and possible Sidedress—application along the poisoning of grazing animals. This side of a crop row. information may appear as a chart Soil application—application to or it may be listed after application di- the soil rather than to vegetation. rections for the target crop or animal. Soil incorporation—use of tillage implements to mix the pesticide with Label Terminology the soil. Many terms are used on the label Soil injection—application beneath to describe when and how to use the soil surface. pesticides. They also are found in Spot treatment—application to a leaflets and bulletins that you may get small area. from your local Cooperative Exten- sion agent, land-grant university, or

43 Labels and Reading the Label ■ when to apply the pesticide Labeling Before you buy a pesticide, read (includ­ing the waiting period the label to determine: for crops and animals), ■ ■ whether it is the pesticide you how to apply the pesticide, ■ need for the job, whether there are any restric- ■ whether the pesticide can be tions for use of the pesticide. used safely under the applica- Before you store or dispose of the tion conditions. pesticide or pesticide container, read Before you mix the pesticide, read the label to determine: ■ the label to determine: where and how to store the pes- ■ what safety equipment is re- ticide, ■ quired for WPS, how to decontaminate and dis- ■ what protective equipment you pose of the pesticide container,­ ■ should use, where to dispose of surplus ■ what the pesticide can be mixed pesticides. with (compatibility), Pesticide Label Examples ■ how much pesticide to use, Examples of three kinds of pesti- ■ the mixing procedure. cide labels are shown on the follow- Before you apply the pesticide, ing pages. These are: read the label to determine: ■ A herbicide label—Sinbar, ■ what safety measures you ■ An insecticide label—Capture: should follow, (Restricted label), and ■ where the pesticide can be used ■ A fungicide label—Daconil Ul- (livestock, crops, structures, trex etc.),

44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 Labels and Study Questions 5. (40) Statement of practical treat- Labeling ment: 1. (36) The ingredient statement on a) tells you how to use the prod- the label must list: uct a) what the package is made out b) tells how roughly to handle of the package b) each active pesticide ingredi- c) tells you the first aid treat- ent and its percentage ments recommended in case c) the percentage of the total that of poisoning is made up by the inert ingre- d) all of the above. dients d) b and c above. 6. (41) Every pesticide will eventu- ally be classified: 2. (37) An establishment number is a) as ”general“ or ”restricted“ needed: use a) so you will know where to b) as a herbicide order more product next year c) as safe or dangerous b) in case something goes wrong, d) for use in the home or use in the facility which made it can the garden. be traced c) to identify the truckers who 7. (42) Which of the following are haul the chemicals special concerns with bulk stor- d) so you can send any you do age of pesticides? not use back to the company. a) fire and explosion b) spills—ruptured/leaking 3. (38) Route of entry statements on tanks the label refers to: c) runoff and environmental a) how the chemical was routed contamination from the manufacturer to the d) all the above. dealer b) the routes you must take 8. (43) How is the best way to find when you take the product to out how to apply a pesticide the point of application product correctly? c) how the pesticide may en- a) talk to a neighbor ter your body (mouth, skin, b) talk to the manufacturer lungs) c) talk to a Cooperative Exten- d) none of the above. sion Service person d) read the label. 4. (39) Typical CAUTION label statements include: a) harmful if swallowed b) may be harmful if inhaled c) may be harmful to eyes, nose, throat and skin d) all the above.

58 Protecting the soning nontarget plants and animals in the area. Environment The environment is our surround- Ask for help in choosing the safest ings and its many forms of life, water, pesticide for the job. Injury or death air, soil, plants, and wildlife are to nontarget plants and animals can important parts. Because pesticides lead to lawsuits, fines, and loss of can be pollutants, you must use them your applicator certification. correctly to prevent harm to the envi- Long-Term Effects ronment. You should be aware of how Pesticides can be harmful in the en- pesticide contamination can affect our vironment even if they do not cause natural resources. By knowing and direct kills of nontarget plants and following good application practices, animals. Some pesticides can build you can protect the environment and up in the bodies of animals (including yourself and be a responsible pesti- humans). These are called accumula- cide applicator. tive pesticides. The chemicals may be stored in an animal’s body until they Potential Hazards are harmful to it or to the meat-eater When pesticides are used in a way which feeds on it. Long-term effects other than as directed on the label, may include eggs that will not hatch they can: ■ and young that will not develop injure nontarget plants and ani- normally. Most accumulative pesti- mals, cides are chlorinated hydrocarbons ■ leave harmful residues, and ■ and have had VERY limited uses in move from the application the United States for over the last 20 site into the surrounding years. ­environment, ■ Some pesticides stay in the en- move into the groundwater and vironment without change for long surface waters. periods of time. These are persistent Direct Kill of Nontarget pesticides. Persistent pesticides which Plants and Animals are not stored by animal tissues are often harmless to the environment. Pesticides which are improperly They may stay on or in the soil and applied can kill nontarget organisms. give long-term pest control without Drift from the target area may injure repeated applications. Sometimes, fish, birds, other wildlife, and sensi- these pesticides injure sensitive plants tive plants. Drift of herbicides can planted in the treated soil. damage nearby crops, forests, or land- Pesticides which break down scape plantings. Poorly timed appli- quickly in the environment to form cations can kill bees and other polli- harmless materials are called non- nators which are working in the area. persistent. These pesticides are often Or you may kill beneficial parasites broken down easily by microorgan- and predators that help control pests. isms or sunlight. Most organophos- Runoff from treated areas can kill phate and carbamate insecticides are fish and other aquatic animals and nonpersistent. plants in nearby ponds, streams, and lakes. Aquatic life also can be killed Pesticide Movement by careless tank filling or draining Pesticides which move away from and by rinsing or discarding used the target area are problems in the containers along or in waterways. environment. Highly volatile pesti- Pesticides can harm other wildlife, cides such as 2,4-D esters can move too. Even tiny amounts of pesticide great distances as invisible vapor in may kill them or destroy their source the air and injure nontarget plants. of food. Pesticides applied over large Dusts, aerosols, and fogs can easily areas, such as in mosquito, biting fly, drift away from the target area with and forestry pest control, must be air currents. Any application that chosen with great care to avoid poi- 59 Protecting the produces fine dust or spray particles 2. Apply pesticides close to the floor Environment may result in drift. whenever possible to decrease the Pesticides move off target in other chances of drift in air currents. ways also. They may be carried off 3. Ventilate dwellings or animal target by rain and runoff water. They structures after application may leach through the soil to areas even if there is no odor. Provide nearby or to ground water below. adequate ventilation for crawl Whenever you are applying a pes- spaces when applicable. ticide, select the pesticide, the formu- lation, and the application equipment Contamination which will most likely result in an of Surface Water application which stays on target. Water is necessary for all life. Hu- mans and animals need clean water Contamination of Soils for drinking and bathing. Most fish Pesticides which move off target and other aquatic animals and plants onto soil or which persist in soil may can survive only slight ­contamination limit the use of that soil. Agricultural, of their water ­environment. ornamental, turf, and forestry crops Farmers, ranchers, horticulturists, may be killed or contaminated if foresters, and turf growers need un- planted on the site. Residential, graz- contaminated water for their livestock ing, and recreational uses of the soil and for irrigation. Polluted water can may be impossible if the soil contains injure the plants or animals directly pesticide residues. The pesticide label or cause illegal residues in the food, will list crop rotation limits and other feed, poultry, or livestock products. growing restrictions. Pesticides get into water in many Contamination of Air ways. Sometimes they are applied directly to the water to control aquatic The movement of pesticides in the pests. Pesticide contamination of wa- air cannot be controlled. The polluted ter occurs most often when pesticides air creates a hazard for people, animals, reach the water through carelessness or plants that come into contact with or misuse of pesticides. it. Pesticides in the air may settle onto water, crops, livestock, trees, parks, or Contamination houses. Provide adequate spacing or of Groundwater a buffer zone when applying pesti- Groundwater is by far the largest cides near sensitive areas. Keep in water resource in Kansas. Pumped mind that the wind can carry pesti- from thousands of wells, it is used by cide particles or droplets many miles virtually every person in Kansas ev- off target. ery day. A few of the uses of ground- Prevention of contamination water include drinking, cooking, ir- of air within a structure rigation (including lawns), municipal, Outside Applications industrial, recreational (e.g. swim- 1. Request the consumer to close all ming pools) and many other uses. windows and shut off air condi- In general, the sources of ground- tioning when treating the yard water include water from rain (and or around the perimeter of the other precipitation), lakes, streams, house. ponds, etc., which slowly leaches 2. Make sure applications do not through the surface soil and accu- enter air ducts or plenums. mulates in the underlying sand and gravel layers. Such layers may be only Inside Applications a few feet from the soil surface and 1. Be aware of how easily some others are several hundred feet below. pesticides move offsite in the air These groundwater collection layers currents created by ventilation are called aquifers and can be thought systems and by forced-air heating of as underground lakes. and cooling systems.

60 Protecting the There are many potential sources are not adequately sealed which of groundwater contamination. Some increases the risk of contamination Environment of these include industrial and muni- in the event of a spill. Mix pesticides cipal wastes, livestock and human at least 200 feet from a well. Using a waste septic systems, pesticide use, nurse-tank as a water source helps and various microbes. Fortunately, avoid these problems. Prevent back- as the water slowly leaches through siphoning into the well. Keep the end the soil, most (if not all) of these of the filler hose above the water level contaminants are removed through of the tank at all times. Anti-backflow chemical and microbiological actions devices for hoses can be purchased in the soil. However, aquifers which from irrigation and spray equipment are only a few feet below the soil suppliers. Clean up spills, especially surface are being found contaminated near wells and other water supplies. with a variety of chemicals—includ- Additional practices which help ing pesticides. Studies are presently prevent point source contamination intensifying to determine the extent include triple-rinsing and the proper of groundwater contamination. disposal of pesticide containers and Pesticides are essential chemical excess pesticides. tools used in the production, trans- Non-point Source Contamination portation, and storage of food, feed, Contamination which occurs from and fiber. They are also vital in pest non-point sources cannot be traced control related to food preparation back to a specific location or event. and serving, and in health and recre- Examples of non-point source con- ation related situations. It is extremely tamination would include the leach- important that pesticide users recog-­ ing of pesticides through the normal nize the importance of properly course of pesticide use, or pesticides handling pesticides to avoid surface carried in surface runoff as a result of water and soil contamination with soil erosion. The extent of non-point these chemicals. source contamination is dependent Minimizing Groundwater upon pesticide (herbicide, insecticide, Contamination fungicide), soil type, geological fac- Pesticide contamination of ground- tors, production management, and water is a public concern. Contamina- weather factors. tion results from two types of sourc- There are several practices which es—point and non-point. minimize non-point source contami- Point Source Contamination nation. Apply the proper amount of Point source contamination results pesticide for the crop, pest and site. from localized spills or accidents, Read the label to determine what the which is to say, the contamination can minimum use rate is. Proper sprayer be traced back to an identifiable area. calibration assures application uni- Point source contamination accounts formity and more effective control. for large doses being introduced into The amount of product can also be groundwater and, as a result, poses reduced by using band applications the greatest risk of rendering the wa- instead of broadcast treatments. These ter unfit for drinking. practices not only reduce the poten- Spills and other mishaps which oc- tial for groundwater contamination cur during the handling and mixing but also decrease the chance of crop of pesticides are a major contributing injury, residual problems and make factor. There are several steps we can control more economical. take to minimize contamination. In choosing a herbicide, less mo- Wells are a direct conduit to the bile, short residual products are less groundwater and extra care should likely to leach to the water table. Crop be taken at these sites when handling and herbicide rotation also reduces pesticides. In addition, many wells risk as a result of using different her- bicides each year.

61 Groundwater and Land Use in the Water Cycle Direction of Groundwater Movement

Human Indeed Impacts on Groundwater

Natural Process

Precipation

Soil Erosion Evaporation Runoff Runoff Runoff Transpiration

Transpiration Evaporation Transpiration Slurry Tank Municipal sewage InfiltratioInfiltrationn Crop Dusting treatment plant Tailings Pile River

Leacher City Manure Spreading Wetland Groundwater Table Runoff Underground storage tank Irrigation Construction Landfill Evaporation Road Salt Infiltration Abandoned mine shaft Livestock waste Infiltration storage pit Ground Table Lake Sand & Gravel Septic system Aquifer Municipal Well Private Well Zone of Saturation Sand & Gravel Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Creviced Limestone Aquifer Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

62 GroundwaterGroundwater and and Land Land Use Use in inthe the W aterWater Cycle Cycle DirectionDirection of Groundwater of Groundwater Movement Movement

Human IndeedHuman Impacts Indeed Impactson Groundwater on Groundwater

Natural ProcessNatural Process

PrecipationPrecipation

Soil ErosionSoil Erosion EvaporationEvaporation Runoff Runoff Runoff Runoff Runoff Runoff TranspirationTranspiration

TranspirationTranspirationEvaporationEvaporation TranspirationTranspiration Slurry TaSlurrynk Tank MunicipalMunicipal sewage sewage InfiltratioInfiltrationInfiltratioInfiltrationn n Crop DustingCrop Dusting treatmenttreatment plant plant TailingsT Pileailings Pile River River

LeacherLeacher City City Manure SpreadingManure Spreading WetlandWetland GroundwaterGroundwater Table Table Runoff Runoff UndergroundUnderground Irrigation storage storagetank tank Irrigation ConstructionConstruction Landfill Landfill EvaporationEvaporation Road SaltRoad Salt InfiltrationInfiltration AbandonedAbandoned mine shaf minet shaft LivestockLivestock waste waste InfiltrationInfiltration storage pitstorage pit Ground GroundTable Table Lake Lake Sand & SandGravel & Gravel Septic systemSeptic system Aquifer Aquifer MunicipalMunicipal Well Well Private WPrivateell Well Zone of ZoneSaturation of Saturation Sand & GravelSand & Aquife Gravelr Aquifer

DirectionDirection of Groundwater of Groundwater CrevicedCreviced Limestone Limestone Aquifer Aquifer CrevicedCreviced Limestone Limestone Aquifer Aquifer

DirectionDirection of Groundwater of Groundwater Movement Movement Porous PorousSandstone Sandstone Aquifer Aquifer

Porous SandstonePorous Sandstone Aquifer Aquifer

63 Protecting the It is also helpful to identify high Potential Benefits Environment risk areas. The greatest risk for con­- Pesticides can help the environ- tamination exists where the ground- ment when they are used carefully water table is close to the soil surface. and wisely. For years they have been In addition, herbicides are more likely used to control pests which are to contaminate groundwater when harmful to humans. With the help of applications are made to coarse pesticides, we produce food, feed, textured soils low in organic matter. and fiber. Forests, ornamentals, build- High pH soils also present concerns ings, and turfgrass plantings can be because some herbicides leach more protected. Diseases, insects, and other readily under these conditions. Extra plant pests can be greatly reduced. care should be taken when any of There can be higher yields and better these situations exist. crop quality using less land to pro- Prevention of water contamination duce more food products. in wells, cisterns, and other water Pesticides can be used to enhance sources. outdoor activities in parks and camp- When filling a tank with water be ing areas. Fly and mosquito control sure to keep the water pipe or hose programs give relief from the an- above the level of the pesticide mixture. noying pests. Aquatic pest control This prevents contamination of the programs help keep lakes and water- hose and keeps pesticides from back- ways usable for swimming, boating, siphoning into the water source. You and fishing. are required by the Kansas Depart- Pesticides protect livestock and ment of Health and Environment domestic animals from harmful and (KDHE) to use an anti-back flow de- annoying pests. The quantity and vice when filling from a public water quality of livestock products—milk, supply. This may be a fixed air gap eggs, meat, wool, and leather—are or an anti-back flow device. Contact improved when pests are controlled. KDHE for a copy of the requirements Herbicides help keep rights-of-way and approved devices. clear of weeds. Highways, runways, Avoid mixing, loading or storing train tracks, and utility rights-of-way pesticides in areas where a spill, leak must be weed-free to allow safe, or overflow could allow pesticide to unobstructed traffic flow. Barnyards, get into water sources. Locate mix- warehouses, utility lines, and other load sites and equipment cleaning similar areas are safer when herbi- sites at least 200 feet from surface cides are used to keep weeds out. water or from direct links to ground- By selecting pesticides wisely and water. Use containment pads or install applying them correctly, the respon- dikes or other barriers, or grade soil sible pesticide applicator can use to divert any potential spills. these chemicals for the benefit of the Locate pesticide storage facilities environment. at least 100 feet from wells, springs, sinkholes, and other sites that directly link to groundwater to prevent their contamination from runoff or fire- fighting water.

64 Protecting the Study Questions 3. (61) When minimizing ground- water contamination, the two Environment 1. (59) A pesticide which breaks major sources are: down quickly in the environment a) rain and snow-melt sources is called: b) leaching and sink-hole sources a) persistent c) point and non-point sources b) non-persistent d) train and truck accidents. c) a fumigant d) an avicide. 4. (64) Pesticides: a) should never be used in the 2. (60) Contaminated or polluted environment water by pesticides: b) can help the environment a) can injure plants and animals when they are used carefully directly and wisely b) is of no concern to pesticide c) can not harm the environment applicators d) are so toxic there is no way to c) will clear up without anyone use them carefully or wisely. knowing d) none of the above.

65 Application High Pressure Sprayers Equipment These are designed to deliver me- The pesticide application equip- dium volumes at high pressure. They ment you use is important to the are used to spray fruits, vegetables, success of your pest control job. You trees, landscape plants, and livestock. must first select the right kind of ap- When fitted with the correct pressure plication equipment. Then, you must regulators, they can also be used at use it correctly to suit your needs low pressures. Applications usually and take good care of it. These things are made at high gallonages (100 are true whether you use hand-car- gallons or more per acre above 100 ried, tractor-drawn, self-propelled or psi). Even though very large tanks are aircraft-mounted equipment. Here are used, they may need to be filled often. some things you should know about Advantages: ■ choosing, using, and caring for equip- well built, ■ ment. usually have mechanical agita- tion, and Sprayers ■ last a long time even when us- Your sprayer should be designed to ing abrasive solutions. do the job you want to do. It should be Limitations: durable and convenient to fill, oper- ■ high cost, ate, and clean. ■ large amounts of water, power, and fuel needed, Portable Sprayer Hand Sprayers ■ high tire loads, and Hand sprayers are used for small ■ high pressure capability which jobs. Use them in restricted areas makes a spray that drifts easily. where a power unit would not work. Advantages : Air Blast Sprayers ■ economical, These units use a high-speed, fan- ■ simple, and driven air stream to break the nozzle ■ easy to use, clean, and store. output into fine drops which move Limitation : with the air stream to the target. The ■ air is directed to either one or both Low Pressure Sprayer frequent lack of good agitation and screening for wettable pow- sides as the sprayer moves forward. ders. Keep WP’s in suspension These sprayers are used in applying by shaking the sprayer. pesticides to landscape plants, fruits, and vegetables, and for biting fly Low Pressure Hydraulic control. Most air blast sprayers can Sprayers be adapted to apply either high or These sprayers deliver low to low volumes of spray. These sprayers moderate volume at 15 to 50 psi. Most should not normally be used to apply are used for treating field and forage herbicides or for field broadcast ap- crops, pastures, fencerows, and struc- plications. High Pressure Sprayer tures. They also may apply fertilizer- Advantages: pesticide mixtures. ■ good coverage and penetration, Advantages : ■ low pump pressures, and ■ medium to large tanks, ■ mechanical agitation. ■ low cost, and Limitations: ■ light weight. ■ drift hazards, Limitations: ■ chance of overdosages, ■ low-gallonage output may limit ■ difficult to use in small areas, their use when high volume is and required, for example, liquid ■ hard to confine discharge to fertilizer applications, limited target areas. ■ low pressure limits versatility, and ■ agitation system may be of lim- ited capacity. 66 Application Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) ■ When is the chemical used: pre- Sprayers plant incorporated, preemerge, Equipment ULV's deliver undiluted pesticides postemerge? ■ from the air, on the ground, or in Is spray drift a problem? ■ buildings. What will carry the chemical: Advantages: water, liquid fertilizer? ■ ■ no water is normally needed, and Will two or more chemicals be ■ equal control with less gal- used in combination? ■ lonage. What kind of sprayer will be Limitations: used in the application: air- ■ does not provide for thorough plane, ground sprayer, floater, wetting, kit attached to some other farm ■ hazards of using high implement? ■ ­concentrates, What pressure range is desired? ■ ■ chance of overdosage, and What speed will sprayer operate? ■ ■ small number of pesticides What is nozzle spacing on labeled for use in this manner. boom? Air Blast Sprayer Nozzles Nozzle Selection Procedure Agricultural chemical spraying is Refer to Table 1, Nozzle Styles, to becoming increasingly sophisticated determine the proper nozzle pattern and precise. Chemicals used by farm- for the intended use and particular ers today are designed for specific sprayer. Then you can select the cor- needs and require different nozzles to rect size of nozzle to ensure proper be applied properly. chemical distribution. The difference in nozzle styles is Step 1. important because it is the nozzle Determine the sprayer application that actually dispenses thousands of volume in gallons per acre (gpa) from chemical and fertilizer dollars. Labels the pesticide label or printed recom- on these products may or may not mendations. The application volume contain information about the kind of is the gallons of carrier (water, fertil- spray nozzle that should be used. izer) plus the amount of chemical Kansas applicators use five basic formulation applied per treated acre. Step 2. types of spray nozzles: the flat fan, Hollow Cone Spray even flat fan, hollow cone, solid cone, Select an appropriate ground speed and flooding spray. in miles per hour (mph) according to Each has a specific use, distinctive existing field conditions. The actual spray distribution, and operating speed should be measured as part of requirement. Nozzle styles are sum- the calibration procedure. marized according to recommended Step 3. uses, distinctive spray distributions, Determine the spray width per and operating requirements in Table nozzle (w) in inches. 1, “Nozzle Styles,” and in Table 2, For boom spraying, w = the nozzle “Nozzle Operations.” spacing. For band spraying, w = band width. Questions to Consider For foliar applications, such as It is not easy to make specific noz- row-crop spraying from drop zle recommendations because many pipes or direct spraying. questions must be considered. row spacing ■ What kind of chemical will be w = sprayed: herbicide, insecticide, number of nozzles per row Solid Cone Spray fungicide? Step 4. ■ What is the chemical’s formula- Determine the output required for tion: wettable powder, flowable, each nozzle by using a manufacturer’s emulsifiable concentrate? catalog or this equation:

67 Application Equipment

Table 1. Nozzle Styles Recommened Pressure Single Nozzle Style Suggested Use (psi) Comments Distribution Pattern Flat Spray Weed and brush 10–30; never Reasonably coarse spray in Bell Shaped control exceed 40 a fan-type pattern that will overlap along a spray boom. Wider operating pressure ranges may be used with certain ”wide range“ flat fan nozzle tips. Even Spray Band application of 15–30; never Fan-type pattern that gives Rectangular Shaped preemergence and exceed 40 a uniform volume of spray postemergence Cone Insecticides and 60 and above Circular fan-type pattern Hollow Cone fungicides (foliar giving good penetration of applications). sprayed surfaces. Solid Cone

Flooding Spray Preemergence and 8–20 for maximum Coarse fan-type pattern. Flooding Spray postemergence drift control; never Sprays wide surface yet can herbicides where exceed 40 be sprayed close to surface. drift is hazardous Nozzle spacing should be 60 inches or less for herbicide applications. Raindrop Preemergence and 20–60 psi Produces very large drops in Hollow Cone postemergence a hollow cone pattern. herbicides were drift control is needed. (Aerial and ground applications.) Whirl Jet Herbicide 5–20 psi Produces medium size drops Hollow Cone incorporation kits in a hollow cone pattern with typical fan angles up to 140°. Raindrop Weed and brush control 10–40 psi Special drift reduction Bell Shaped Flat Fan fan-type nozzle. Drift-guard Weed and brush control 10–40 psi Special drift reduction Bell Shaped Flat Fan fan-type nozzle. Turbo-flood Preemergence and 10–40 psi Special drift reduction Wide Angle Bell Shaped postemergence flooding-type nozzle herbicides where with improved distribution drift is a factor. uniformity.

68 Application Equipment

Table 2. Nozzle Operation Recommended Boom Recom- mended Spray Pressure Spacing Height Spray Type Angle (psi) (inches) (inches) Orientation Overlap Flat Spray, 60° 10–30 20 21–23 Vertical 30–50% Raindrop Flat 73° 10–30 20 20–22 Fan, Drift-guard 80° 10–30 20 17–19 Flat Fan 110° 10–30 30 13–15 Even Spray 80° 15–30 5"= 8" band Vertical Never Row Spacing 6"= 10" band 7"= 12" band 8"= 14" band Cone 40°–110° 60 and above As required for adequate foliar application. Flooding Spray, 100°–145° 8–20 40 12–15 100% Turbo-flood 100°–145‚ 8–20 60 18–22 Spray discharged 100°–145° 8–20 120 36–45 30°–45° from horizontal Raindrop 80°–140° 20–60 20 15–30 Spray discharged 50–100% 80°–140° 20–60 30 16–31 30°–45° from horizontal Whirl Jet 120°–140° 5–20 30 10–11 Spray discharged 80–160% 120°–140° 5–20 40 14–15 30°–45° from horizontal gpa × mph × w gpm = Stainless steel: 5940* ■ will not corrode, gpm = individual nozzle output in ■ resists abrasion, especially if it is gallons per minute hardened. gpa = label requirements in gallons Nylon : per acre ■ resists corrosion and abrasion, mph = speed of applicator in miles ■ some solvents may cause swell- per hour ing of older nylon compounds, w = width in inches sprayed per ■ available in color coding for nozzle as determined in step 3 easy identification. *Using 6,000 instead of 5,940 makes New combination nozzles featur- the calculation easier and results in an ing stainless steel orfice inserts in error of only 1 percent. injection molded nylon bodies offer Step 5. the advantages of both stainless steel Select a nozzle size from the and nylon at a reasonable price. manufacturer’s catalog that will give The formulation of the pesticide the gpm output when operating at the being sprayed determines the mate- desired pressure. rial of which the nozzle can be made. You can purchase nozzles in many Brass nozzle tips should not be used materials. Here are the main features with wettable powder or other abra- of each kind. sive formulations. The relative costs Brass: of materials are summarized in the ■ inexpensive, following figure: ■ wear quickly from abrasion, 69 Application Nozzle Material Equipment (Delavan LF-3-80° with Wettable Powder) Initial Actual Life Cost Cost/Hr. Material (hrs) Factor Factor Brass 100 1.0 1.0 Nylon 400 1.0 0.25 Stainless Steel 500 3.1 0.62 Hardened Stainless Steel 1500 3.5 0.23

Check Nozzles Often Be alert for nozzle clogging and Keep nozzles in good working changes in nozzle patterns. If nozzles condition. For most boom applica- clog or other trouble occurs in the tions, select nozzles of uniform type field, be careful not to contaminate and size. yourself while correcting the problem. Nozzle caps should not be over- Shut off the sprayer and move it to tightened. Adjust nozzle height and the edge of the field before dismount- spacing to suit the target. Follow the ing. Wear protective clothing while nozzle manufacturer’s instructions making repairs. Even Spray and the pesticide label. Allow for crop Clean the sprayer thoroughly or weed height if necessary. Check when changing chemicals or before each nozzle for uniform flow using storing. Contamination from the water and a jar marked in ounces. previous chemical can injure your With the sprayer running, hold crop or react with the new chemical a jar under each nozzle and time to decrease its effectiveness. Refer to how long it takes to fill the jar. There Table 3 for recommended cleaning should be no more than 10 percent solutions and methods. variation among all the nozzles. The following steps are suggested Replace any nozzle tips that discharge for a thorough cleaning. Spray and more than + or - 5 percent specified mix/load equipment should have by the nozzle manufacturer when been thoroughly rinsed with clean new. water and the rinsate applied to a Flat Spray Replace any nozzles having faulty field area prior to the cleaning pro- spray patterns. A good check is to cess. Additional precautions may be spray on asphalt pavement or bare necessary for certain chemicals. ground moving slow enough to get 1. Choose a cleaning area so that the the area thoroughly wet. Watch for discharge will not contaminate streaks as you increase speed or as streams or water supplies. Keep spray dries. children, pets, and livestock away Clean nozzles with a toothbrush from puddles. or wooden toothpick only. A nail or 2. Hose down the inside of the tank pocket knife can damage the nozzle and fill it about half full. Then tip and ruin the spray pattern. flush the cleaning water out Operation and Maintenance through the nozzles by operating Flooding Spray Always read and follow the the sprayer. operator’s manuals for all your spray 3. Repeat step 2. equipment. They will tell you ex- 4. Select the proper cleaning solu- actly how to use and care for it. After tion and follow instructions from each use, rinse out the entire system. those in Table 3. Remove and clean nozzles, nozzle 5. Flush the sprayer one final time screens, and strainers, and complete with clean water. any maintenance required. Check for 6. Remove the nozzle tips and leaks in lines, valves, seals, and tank screens and clean them with both after filling with water and dur- kerosene or a detergent solution. ing running. Nozzle tips should be dried and

70 Application Equipment

Table 3. Cleaning Solutions and Methods for Cleaning Sprayers 25 Gallon 2.5 Gallon Pesticide Used Cleaning Solution Cleaning Solution Instructions 1 Hormone herbicides, 1 qt. household ⁄2 cup household Thoroughly agitate, flush small amine formulations (2,4-D, ammonia ammonia amount through system, and let dicamba, MCPA) remainder stand in sprayer over night. Flush and rinse. or or 1 lb. washing soda 3 Tbsp washing soda Same as above, except let stand for (sal soda) (sal soda) at least 2 hours. or or 1 2 lbs. trisodium ⁄4 lb. trisodium phosphate phosphate or or 1 ⁄2 lb. fine activated 2 Tbsp fine activated Agitate, operate sprayer for 1 charcoal and ⁄2 cup charcoal and 1–2 oz 2 minutes, let remainder stand for powder detergent powder detergent 10 minutes, then flush through sprayer. Rinse. Hormone herbicides, 1 lb. washing soda 4 oz. washing soda Rinse inside of tank and flush small 1 ester formulations + 1 gal kerosene + 1 ⁄2 cups kerosene amount through sprayer. Let stand 1 (2,4-D, brush killers, + ⁄4 lb powder + 1 Tbsp powder for 2 hrs. Flush and Rinse. [MCPA]) detergent1 detergent 1 Other herbicides ⁄4 lb powder 1 Tbsp powder Rinse with clean water before and (atrazine, simazine, detergent1 detergent1 after using sudsy solutions. alachlor) 2 1 Insecticides and/or ⁄4 lb powder 1 Tbsp powder Agitate, flush, and rinse. fungicides detergent1 detergent1 1 Liquid detergent may be substituted for powder detergent; mix at a rate to make a sudsy solution. 2 Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides may be detoxified by adding household ammonia to the cleaning solu- 1 tion (1 qt./25 gallons or ⁄2 cup/2.5 gallons.)

stored in a dry place or may be stored in light oil or diesel fuel. 7. If the sprayer is to be stored, fill tank almost full with clean water. Add a small amount of new light oil to the tank. Coat the system by pumping tank contents out through nozzles or handgun. Drain the pump and plug its openings or fill the pump with light oil or antifreeze. Remove nozzles and nozzle screens and store in light oil or diesel fuel.

71 Application Dusters and Granular Advantages : Equipment ■ eliminates mixing, Applicators ■ minimizes drift, and ■ Hand Dusters is less hazardous to applicator. Like hand sprayers, hand dusters Limitations : ■ high cost for pesticide, can be used around homes and in gar- ■ dens. They may consist of a squeeze limited use against some pests bulb, bellows, tube, or shaker, a because granules won’t stick to most plants, sliding tube, or a fan powdered by a ■ hand crack. need to calibrate for each granu- Advantages: lar formulation,and ■ ■ the pesticide is ready to apply, poor lateral distribution, espe- and cially on side slope. ■ good penetration in confined Selecting a Granular Applicator spaces. Choose a granular applicator that Limitations: is easy to clean and fill. It should have ■ high cost for pesticide, mechanical agitation over the outlet ■ hard to get good foliar coverage, holes. This will prevent bridging and and keep flow rate constant. Application ■ dust is subject to drifting. should stop when drive stops even if outlets are still open. Power Dusters Power dusters use a powered fan Use and Maintenance or blower to propel the dust to the Both dusters and granular applica- target. They range from knapsack or tors are speed-sensitive, so maintain backpack types to those mounted on uniform speed. Do not travel too or pulled by tractors. Their capacity fast for ground conditions. Bouncing in area treated per hour compares equipment will cause the applica- favorably with some sprayers. tion rate to vary. Stay out of any dust Advantages: cloud that may form. Watch banders ■ simply built, to see that band width stays the same. ■ easy to maintain, and Small height changes due to changing ■ low in cost. soil conditions may cause rapid changes Limitations: in band width. ■ drift hazards, Clean equipment as directed by the ■ high cost of pesticide, and operator’s manual. ■ application may be less uniform than with sprays. Controlling Drift Drift is one of the major problems Selecting a Duster facing the application of agricultural Look for a power duster that is chemicals. ln addition to the poten- easy to clean. It should give a uniform tial damage to non-target areas, drift application rate as the hopper is emp- tends to reduce the effectiveness of tied. Look for both hand and power chemicals and waste money. Drift is dusters that keep the dust cloud well generally inconsistent with pesticide away from the user. labeling and is a violation of state and Granular Applicators federal laws. There are two different These include hand-carried knap- types of drift. sack and spinning disk types for Vapor Drift broadcast coverage, mounted equip- Vapor drift occurs when a chemi- ment for applying bands over the cal vaporizes after being applied to row in row crops, and mounted or the target area. The vapors are then tractor-drawn machines for broadcast carried to another area where damage coverage. may occur. The amount of vapor-iza- tion that occurs depends largely on the temperature and formulation 72 Application of the chemical being used. Volatile flooding nozzle tips, operate within ester formulations vaporize rapidly in the 8 to 20 psi pressure range (see Equipment temperatures as low as 65°F, while the Table 1). “low volatile” esters resist vaporization Use a flooding or drift reduction up to 85 to 100°F. The amine formula- nozzle where practical. They produce tions are referred to as “non-volatile.” larger droplets and operate at lower Thus, by choosing the correct herbi- pressure than the equivalent tapered cide formulations, the dangers of va- fan nozzle. Special low drift hollow por drift can be reduced substantially. cone, flat fan, and flooding nozzles Physical Drift are claimed to greatly reduce the Physical drift is the actual move- number of fine particles. ment of spray particles away from the Numerous drift-reducing spray ad- target area. Many factors affect physi- ditives are available today, ­although cal drift, but one of the most impor- their effectiveness generally has not tant is droplet size. Small droplets fall been thoroughly tested. Foams and through the air much more slowly, so invert emulsions also have potential, they are carried farther by air move- although special equipment is usually ment. The particle may be trapped in required. a temperature inversion and carried for a great distance if weather condi- Extreme care should be exercised tions are unfavorable. In addition, to avoid drift away from the target evaporation has a greater effect on the area. Either physical drift or vapor smaller droplet, which in turn slows drift can cause damage and expose the settling rate and creates still more the applicator to civil liability and opportunity for drift. The end result is possible criminal charges. Variables that the carrier in some of the smaller and their effect on physical drift are particles evaporates completely be- summarized in Table 4. fore reaching the ground. Table 4. Effects of Variables on Physical Drift All nozzles produce a wide range Helps Reduce Drift Variable Causes More Drift of droplet sizes and the very small, drift-prone particles cannot be elim- Lower Boom Height Higher inated completely. However, there Lower Wind Speed Higher are several things that can be done to Larger Droplet Size Smaller minimize unwanted physical drift. Lower Pressure Higher First of all, use adequate amounts Larger Orifice Size Smaller of carrier, usually 15 to 20 gallons Low Pressure Flat Fan Nozzle Type Flat Fan or Cone per acre. This has several benefits Flooding Nozzle Type Flat Fan or Cone from the standpoint of drift control. Raindrop Nozzle Type Flat Fan or Cone With lower concentrations, more drift Higher Relative Humidity Lower droplets will be necessary to produce Higher Viscosity Lower ill effects. In addition, more carrier Lower Volatility Higher means larger nozzles, which in turn usually produce larger droplets. Although this will increase the number of refills, the added carrier may also improve coverage and increase the effectiveness of the chemicals. Avoid high pressures. A higher pressure creates a finer spray, which is more subject to drift. Forty psi should be considered maximum pressure for flat fan, even fan, and flooding nozzle tips. For maximum drift control with

73 Application Study Questions 5. (72) Advantages of a power Equipment duster are: 1. (66) What must you do in terms a) no drift hazard of the dust of application equipment? b) pesticides are inexpensive to a) see your banker buy b) make a purchase before the c) simply built, easy to maintain price goes up and low in cost c) select the right kind of equip- d) always provide complete cov- ment erage. d) talk with a neighbor. 6. (73) To help reduce physical drift, 2. (67) The letters, ”ULV“ stand for: use adequate amounts of carrier, a) unusually large volume ______gallons per acre. b) ultimate land value a) 5 to 10 c) ultra low volume b) 15 to 20 d) unlimited livestock ­versatility. c) 25 to 30 d) 35 to 40 3. (69) Spray nozzles are made out of: a) brass b) stainless steel c) nylon d) all the above.

4. (70) When you change chemicals in your sprayer, you should: a) clean the sprayer thoroughly b) just fill the tank with the new chemical and continue to spray c) put the new chemical in before the tank is empty to avoid get- ting air in the lines d) let the sprayer sit for two days to let it dry out.

74 Calibration ease. When spraying, either hold the nozzle at a steady, constant height Equipment Calibration is simply a process to and spray back and forth in swaths or adjust application equipment to ap- swing the nozzle back and forth at a ply the desired rate of pesticide. This uniform speed in a sweeping, over- process is needed to ensure that each lapping motion. A uniform walking pesticide is applied as directed on the speed must be maintained during label. Too much pesticide is danger- application. ous; too little will not do a good job. This calibration procedure is only Accurate calibration is the only for spraying ground areas. When way to know how much chemical is spraying trees, shrubs, bushes, etc., being applied. use the recommended concentra- Failure to calibrate a sprayer can tion (i.e., tablespoons per gallon) and injure crops, create hazardous situa- spray until foliage is wetted. tions, and cost money in wasted 1. Measure and mark an area of chemical. In addition to calibrating known size on a concrete or × the sprayer at the start of the season, asphalt surface (i.e., 10 ft 10 ft 2 or 20 ft × 25 ft = 500 ft2). it should be recalibrated every few days = 100 ft Using water, practice spraying of use. Tests have shown that wettable the area. Observe the evaporat- powders can wear nozzle tips enough ing water. Areas of excessive or to increase the discharge rate by deficient application rates will be 20 percent after spraying for only apparent. By adjusting the spray- 10 hours. Also, some brand new ing technique, one should be able nozzles show a tendency to “wear to obtain a uniform distribution in” and increase discharge by a few over the marked area. percent during the first hour or two. 2. Fill the sprayer with water to a Before calibrating, check the sprayer marked level, spray the area us- carefully. Be sure nozzle tips are clean. ing the refined technique from 1, Is pressure holding constant? and measure the amount of water When the sprayer is operating that has to be added to return the properly, proceed to calibrate. There water to the marked level. The are many techniques for calibrating application rate can then be easily a sprayer, but they are all based on computed. determining the volume of chemi- cal applied to a measured area. The Example: choice between calibration methods measure area = 20 ft × 25 ft = 500 ft2 will depend on the type of equipment water sprayed = 0.75 gallon to be calibrated as well as personal application rate = 0.75 gallon/500 ft2 preference. Use these or any other or 1.5 gallon/1000 ft2 method, but CALIBRATE. 3. Recommendations on the label are sometimes given only in Calibrating Lawn and pounds (or quarts) of product per acre rather than in ounces per Garden Equipment 2 Before applying a pesticide, com- 1000 ft , so the following conver- sions may be useful: pletely read the label on the pesticide 2 container and follow its recommenda- dry products - oz/1000 ft = recom- mended lb/A × 0.37 tions and safety precautions. Check 2 the mechanical condition of the ap- liquid products - oz/1000 ft = recom- × plication equipment for tight connec- mended qt/A 0.73 tions and cleanliness. 4. Determine the proper amount of Calibration of liquid hand ­sprayers pesticide and add it to the water may be accomplished with relative in the tank by:

75 Calibration GT × OP 2. Fill the hopper with the pesticide oz pest./tank = Equipment G/1000 ft2 to an easily determined level des- where: ignated by a mark drawn across GT = Galllons per tankful the tank with a rule and marking OP = oz pesticde per 1000 ft2 pen. G/1000 ft2 = Gallons applied per 3. Apply to a known area within the 1000 ft2 total acreage to be treated. The oz pesticide/tank represents 4. Refill the hopper to the mark, the amount of pesticide formulation weighing container before and to mix with a full sprayer tank. after filling to determine the amount used. Example: 5. The application rate can now be For a 3 gallon tank capacity, appli- easily calculated. cation rate from 2 above of 1.5 gallons 1000 ft2 and a recommended rate of Example: × 4 lbs dry material per acre. swath area = 5 ft wide 100 ft long = 500 ft2 First: 2 × amount applied = 1 lb oz/1000 ft = 1b/A 0.37 2 = 4 × 0.37 = 1.5 oz/1000 ft2 application rate = 1 lb/500 ft or 2 lbs/1000 ft2 Then: or if the recommendation is given in GT × OP oz pest./tank = pounds per acre: G/1000 ft2 Example: 2 (3 gal) (1.05 oz/1000 ft ) swath area = 5 ft wide × 2 = (1.5 gal/1000 ft2) 100 ft long = 500 ft amount applied = 1 lb = 3 oz/tank 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 Avoid spraying near sensitive plants. Check weather conditions and First: spray when wind speed is low to pre- distance traveled (ft) × vent drift. Do not use a higher pres- swath width (ft) sure than needed. If for any reason 43,560 ft2/A you have a surplus pesticide, dispose 5 ft × 100 ft of it according to label directions. = 43,560 After application, clean the sprayer = 0.011 A thoroughly. Calibration of granular applicators Then: is also possible, but is less safe as we application amount used (pounds) must use the chemical to be applied = acres covered in the calibration process. Except for = 1 lb/0.011 A the orifice or metering gate setting, = 87 lbs/A ground speed is the most significant 6. If the application rate determined factor affecting the application rate. in 5 is not the desired rate, read- To obtain the most uniform applica- just the applicator setting and tion, cover the area twice with the repeat 2 to 5 until the desired rate second application at right angles to is obtained. the first. Granular formulations may differ 1. Read the pesticide label to deter- in density, granule size, carrier used, mine the application rate, and etc. Be sure that you calibrate for each set the machine as recommended different formulation and be alert to by the operator’s manual for a changes in application rate. A good starting setting. Set gate openings practice is to mark off the hoppers from one direction only, such as in a specific measure, such as quarts, from “closed” to ”open,“ to elimi- and check the amount used at each nate variation in setting. filling against the area covered.

76 Calibration Field Sprayers Calibration Jar To apply a pesticide evenly and 1. With the unit stationary, operate Equipment accurately, the sprayer must move the sprayer at the same pressure at a constant speed and operate at a that will be used in the field. Use constant pressure. Each nozzle must clean water for calibration unless be clean and at the right height. All you are using a chemical that nozzles must be of the correct type changes the viscosity of the water. and size for the job. Each nozzle in the Hold a 1-quart jar under each system must deliver its rated amount. nozzle and measure the number of seconds needed to fill the jar. Measured Course and Banding 2. Calculate the flow rate of each 1 1. Measure off a distance of ⁄8 mile nozzle by the formula: (660 feet or 40 rods). It is best to 15 run the test in the field that will G.P.M. = S be sprayed, since sinkage in a soft Where : field can change travel speed. G.P.M. = Gallons per minute delivered 2. Start with a full spray tank, and by nozzle be sure to eliminate air pockets in S = Number of seconds needed to fill the pump, lines, and tank. Water quart jar (or the usual carrier) will usually Large nozzle tips with high flow do for calibration, but if you are rates may require use of a 5-gallon using a chemical that changes Check Fill-time bucket in place of the quart jar. If us- the viscosity of the carrier, you ing a 5-gallon bucket, the formula in should use the chemical as it will setup 2 becomes: be sprayed. 1 300 3. Spray the ⁄ -mile strip, using 8 G.P.M. = S the gear and throttle setting that you will use while spraying. You Where : should run the engine well into G.P.M. = Gallons per minute the governed rpm range so that S = Number of seconds needed to fill the governor can hold the speed 5-gallon bucket constant. 3. Average the nozzle flow rates as 4. Measure carefully the amount of determined in Step 2. Compare water needed to refill the tank. the flow rate of each individual Again, be careful to eliminate air nozzle tip with the average. Any pockets in the tank. tip that has flow rate more than 5. Calculate the application rate as ±5% different than the average follows: should be replaced. If the average Broadcast— flow rate differs from the factory × specifications for new tips by Gallons Used 66 = Gallons per treated acre more than ±5%, then the entire set Swath width in ft. of nozzle tips should be replaced. Banding— 4. Measure a distance of 176 feet and × Gallons Used 66 = Gallons per time the tractor over that distance Band width in ft. treated acre while operating at the same gear × Number of bands and rpm that will be used in the 6. Divide tank capacity by gallons field. If possible, do this in the per acre determined in Step 5. actual field to be sprayed so the This gives the number of acres sinkage will be constant. covered by one tankful of spray. 5. Determine the speed of the unit in 7. To determine the amount of miles per hour from the formula: chemical to add to each tank, multiply the recommended rate of application by the number of acres covered per tankful.

77 Calibration 120 seconds) needed to fill the quart Equipment MPH = T jar. Repeat this for all nozzles and Where: average the results. Replace any MPH = Speed of tractor in miles per nozzles that vary more than ±5% hour from the average. T = Number of seconds needed to 2. Measure a distance of 176 travel 176 feet feet, and determine the length of Some examples may be found in time (in seconds) needed to cover the table on page 80. the 176 feet distance. This should 6. Now, determine the applica- be done with the same gear and tion rate from the formula: throttle setting as will be used for G.P.M. × 5,940 spraying. If possible, do this in G.P.A. = MPH × W the field that will be sprayed so that sinkage will be nearly con- Where: stant. G.P.A. = Application rate in gallons 3. Measure the swath width of each per acre (treated area) nozzle. For boom spraying where G.P.M. = Gallons per minute deliv- the total area is covered, this is ered by nozzle the nozzle spacing in inches. For MPH = Speed in miles per hour band spraying, this is the band W = Width width in inches. (a) For broadcast spraying, W is 4. Now, refer to the nomograph nozzle spacing in inches on page 74. Draw a straight line (b) For band spraying, W is band from the “seconds to travel 176 width in inches feet” to the “nozzle spacing in 7. Divide tank capacity by the gallons inches.” per acre determined in step 6. 5. Locate the point where your This gives the number of acres first line crosses the pivot line. covered by one tankful of spray. Draw second straight line from 8. To determine the amount that point to the “seconds to fill of chemical to add to each tank, quart jar” using the average de- multiply the recommended rate termined in Step 1. of application by the number of 6. Read “Gallons per Acre” from acres covered per tankful. the appropriate scale. Calibration Nomograph Example The nomograph eliminates the (Shown in dashed lines) calculations usually required to calibrate A field crop sprayer is equipped a sprayer. Needed are a quart jar, with nozzles that fill a quart jar in funnel, tape measure, watch with 50 seconds at the usual spraying pres- a sweep second hand, pencil and a sure. The sprayer covers the distance straight edge. This procedure is not of 176 feet in 24 seconds. Nozzle adapted to sprayers with ground spacing is 20 inches. When operated driven, positive displacement pumps. under these conditions, The only other requirement is that the sprayer will deliver 17.8 gallons the speed, nozzle spacing, and nozzle per acre. flow rate fall within the limits shown Note: For a more thorough discus- on the scales of the graph. sion of sprayer components, nozzle Procedure selection and calibration, refer to 1. Operate the sprayer standing Extension Bulletins FM-l3, “Under- still with plain water (or the usual standing Your Sprayer,” and AF-20, carrier) in the tank. Use the normal “Selecting the Right Sprayer Nozzle.” engine speed and pressure settings. Adjusting Your Sprayer Use a funnel to catch the flow If the sprayer is delivering more or from one nozzle in a quart jar. less spray than the label directs, you Determine the length of time (in can change the rate three ways: 78 Calibration Equipment

79 Calibration ■ Change the pressure. Lower 1 pint per acre × 10 acres per tankful = Equipment pressure means less spray de- 10 pints per tankful. livered; higher pressure means Suppose the formulation of a pest- more spray delivered. This is icide is a 50 percent wettable powder not a good method, because a 1 and you want to apply ⁄2 pound of pressure change may change the active ingredient per acre. In this ex- nozzle pattern and droplet size. ample the tank will cover 10 acres. Pressure must be increased 4 Find how many pounds of formu- times to double the output. lation are needed to apply 1⁄ pound of ■ 2 Change the speed of your spray- 1 Field Speed Determination active ingredient per acre. There is ⁄2 er. Slower speed means more pound of active ingredient in Time required spray delivered, faster speed 1 pound of 50 percent wettable to drive means less spray delivered. This powder formulation. So 1 pound of 176 feet Speed method is practical for small formulation is needed for each acre (seconds) (miles per changes in delivery rate. If you your sprayer will cover. hour) drive half as fast, you double the 1 pound per acre × 10 acres per tank- 60 2 delivery rate. ful = 10 pounds per tankful. ■ 40 3 Change the nozzle tips to Add the 10 pounds of wettable 30 4 change the amount delivered. powder to a small amount of water 24 5 The larger the hole in the tip, the in a clean bucket. Stir until it is mixed 20 6 more spray delivered. This is the well and add this mixture (called 17 7 best method for making major a slurry) to the partly filled tank. changes in the delivery rate of Remember to operate the sprayer’s sprayers. Always select proper agitator while adding the slurry and nozzles for the job. Use the man- filling the tank. ufacturer’s performance charts to make the selection. Granular Application After making a change, recalibrate to make sure the rate is correct. Calibration Granular chemicals for weed or Determining the Correct Dosage insect control must be applied with Next, the correct amount of pesti- precision. This is particularly true of cide to put in the tank to apply the pre-emergence herbicides and soil correct dosage must be determined. insecticides. To do this, you need to know two Both herbicides and insecticides more facts: may be broadcast before planting or 1. How much the sprayer tank applied after planting. It is common, holds. however, to apply those chemicals 2. The amount of formulation to in a band over the row by attaching be used per unit of area. This will applicators to the planter. This reduces be given on the label. the amount of material used and thus Suppose the tank holds 200 gallons lowers costs. of spray. The directions say to apply one pint of formulation on each acre, Check and Maintain and the sprayer applies 20 gallons per Ground Speed acre. First find the number of acres Speed should be checked care- one tank load will spray. Divide fully in the field where the chemicals 200 gallons by 20. will be applied. One method is to set markers 176 feet apart and check the 200 gallons per tankful = 10 acres per time (in seconds) required to drive be- tankful 20 gallons per acre tween them. Make each check with a running start. To determine the speed To find the amount of formulation in miles per hour, divide to add to the tank for spraying 10 acres 120 by the traveling time in seconds. with one pint per acre, multiply 1 pint Some examples are given in the table by 10. at left.

80 Calibration Once the field speed has been es- Solution: tablished and checked, keep the speed The total row length covered is: Equipment uniform during the application. 4 passes × 6 rows × 2,650 feet = 63,360 Even though granular applicators feet, so the application rate is: use a rotating agitator that varies with 20 pounds × ground speed, the flow of the gran- 16 ounces/pound ules through the outlet hole is not 63.36 thousand feet= 5.05 oz./l,000 ft. necessarily proportional to speed. It is not uncommon to find a The application rate is too low, so 100 percent variation in the applica- the applicator should be readjusted. tion rate with a speed change of Example 2 Checking Calibration 1 mile per hour. An applicator refilled the gran­ular Feet of lbs/Acre to The factors that affect application hoppers after finishing a 9-acre field Row Row in Equal 1 oz. rate can vary from one day to the next and found that 75 pounds of granules per or from one field to another. For this had been applied. The label calls for Spacing 1 Acre 1,000 ft. of reason, check the application rate often 5 to 7 ounces per 1,000 feet of row and Row so the necessary adjustments to obtain the applicator is using 24-inch rows. 40 13,068 .82 the proper application rate can be made. Is this within the allowable range? 36 14,520 .91 Field Check of Application Rate Solution: 30 17,424 1.09 Once the applicators have been set The application rate in lbs/acre is: 24 21,780 1.36 according to the operator’s manual, 75 pounds 20 26,136 1.63 = 8.33 lbs/acre make a field check for each hopper. 9 acres This can be done in several ways. One From the table, 1 oz./l,000 ft. = 1.36 method is to make a round or two in lb./ac, so the row application rate the field with the seed boxes removed was: from the planter. Paper, plastic, or 8.33 lb/ac cloth bags can be used for collecting = 6.125 oz/l,000 ft. the granules from each hopper. The 1.36 lb/ac granules collected can be weighed or The application rate was acceptable. checked with a calibrated measure. Example 3 Repeat this process until the desired A patch of weeds about 80 feet in rate is obtained from each hopper. diameter needs to be treated for a Another method that is less accu- noxious weed. The granular herbicide rate but still acceptable is to proceed being used should be applied at the with the planting and check the exact rate of 2 pounds per square rod. How amount dispensed through each hop- much should be broadcast on this area? per. The disadvantage of this method is the possibility of not having the Solution: proper application rate on the cali- 1 rod = 16.5 feet, so one sq. rod = brating rows. 272 sq. ft. The table at right shows the num- The area of a circle is: ber of feet of row in 1 acre, and the A = 3.14 × r × r, where r is the radius pounds per acre to equal 1 ounce per of the circle. 1,000-foot row. The table can be used to check calibration. In this case, r = 40‘, so: A = 3.14 × 40 × 40 = 5,024 square feet, Example 1 or It is desired to apply a granular 5,024 sq. ft. = 18.5 sq. rd. insecticide with units mounted on a 272 sq. ft./sq. rod 6-row 30-inch planter. The insecticide calls for 6 to 8 ounces per 1,000 feet So, the total amount applied of row. Four passes were made across should be: × a quarter section and the operator 2 lbs./sq. rd. 18.5 sq. rd. = 37 lbs. refilled all the hoppers. Refilled, they held a total of 20 pounds of insecti- cide. Is this within the allowable range? 81 Calibration Volume and Area How much is in the tank? Equipment Cylindrical spray tanks are often Determinations mounted horizontally, but unless the Determining Volume tank has a capacity scale taped to it, it Volume of a Cylinder = 3.1416 × ra- is hard to calculate how much liquid dius × radius × length. is left in the tank. Volume of a Cone = 1.0472 × radius × The first question is “What is the radius × height (i.e. round hopper total capacity of the tank?” The volume bottom). of a cylindrical tank is: Volume of a Pyramid = length of base V = 3.1416 × R × R × L × width of base × 1⁄ of the height 3 This assumes the end of the tank (i.e. square hopper bottom). is square, not oval or spherical. For Volume Conversion Factors example, if the tank diameter is 1 gallon = 231 cubic inches. 36 inches and the length is 48 inches, 7.48 gallons = 1 cubic feet the volume is: 62.4 pounds of water = 1 cubic feet V = 3.1416 × 18 × 18 × 48 = 48,858 8.336 pounds of water = 1 gallon cubic inches. 1 gallon = 0.1337 cubic foot 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard Since 1 gallon contains 231 cubic inches, the tank capacity in gallons is: Determining Field Areas × 48,858 Area of a Rectangle = length width = 211.5 gallons 1 × × 231 Area of Right Triangle = ⁄2 length Depth-Volume Graph width Now, if the tank is only partially Area of a Circle = 3.14 × radius × filled, how much does it contain? To radius determine this, with the tank level, Area Conversion Factors measure the depth of the liquid, Acres = sq. ft./43,560 then consult the graph. Considering miles = ft./5,280 the same tank (36" × 48") as above, miles = rods/320 assume the liquid depth is 9 inches. rods = ft./16.5 Then, d/D × 100 becomes 9/36 × 100 or 25. Reading up from the bot- Useful Conversions tom axis, then over, the graph indi- × Example 1 MPH ft/min/88 cates that the tank is 20 percent full, MPH × swath width(ft) or 20 percent × 211.5 gallons equals Acres/Hour = 8.25 42.3 gallons. MPH × swath width(ft) Example 1 Acres/Minute = 495 An operator filled a 300-gallon spray tank and started spraying a half Example: section. He ran out in the middle of A 20 foot sprayer traveling 6 MPH the second round. Swath width is 30 covers 14.5 acres/hour. A 100 MPH feet. How many gallons per acre are airplane with a 50 foot swath covers being applied? 10.1 acres/minute. 3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon Solution: 2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce First, calculate the area sprayed. In 8 fluid ounces = 1 cup this case, the top and bottom strips 2 cups = 1 pint are 5,280 feet long, while the end 2 pints = 1 quart strips are 2,640 - 90 = 2,550 feet long. 4 quarts = 1 gallon Thus, the areas sprayed are: 1 pint = 473 milliliters Top: 30' × 5,280' = 158,400 1 gallon = 3,785 milliliters Bottom: 60' × 5,280' = 316,800 1 pound = .454 kilograms Left: 60' × 2,550' = 153,000 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram Right: 30' × 2,550' = 76,500 1,000 milliliters = 1 liter TOTAL 704,700 ft2 1,000 grams = 1 kilogram 82 Calibration Now to convert square feet to acres: ter pivot irrigated field. At the end of 704,700 ft the third round, about Equipment = 16.18 acres 43,560 ft/acre 320 gallons of spray has been used. What is the application rate? So the application rate is: Solution: 300 gallons = 18.5 gallons/acre A 90 feet wide strip was sprayed 16.18 acres around the outside of the circle, so Example 2 we can calculate the total area of the A creek runs through an 80 acre circle, then subtract the area that has field, cutting a large corner off. The not yet been sprayed. 1 east and west boundaries are ⁄2 mile Total area of circle: 1 × × 2 and ⁄8 mile long, and the south fence A = 3.14 1,320 1,320 = 5,471,136 ft 1 is ⁄4 mile long. The creek is nearly or 5,47l,l36 ft2 straight. A 25' wide sprayer makes = 125.6 acres 30 passes, starting at the west edge, 43,560 ft2/ac and about 340 gallons of spray is Area not yet sprayed used. What is the application rate? r = 1,320 - 90 = 1,230' Solution: A = 3.14 × 1,230 × 1,230 = 4,750,506 ft2 To solve the problem, first divide or 4,750,506 ft2 the sprayed area into two regions, a = 109.1 acres rectangle and a triangle. 43,560 ft2/ac Rectangle (Region 1) So, the area that has been sprayed Area = 30 passes × 25' × 660' = 495,000 is 125.6 - 109.1 = 16.5 acres, and the 2 1 ft ( ⁄8 mile = 660 feet) application rate is: Triangle (Region 2) 320 gallons = 19.4 gallons/acre 1 × × Example 2 Area = ⁄2 W L 16.5 acres 1 1 3 Now, Z = ⁄2 – ⁄8 = ⁄8 mile = 1,980' W = 750' Since the creek is nearly straight: L is the same proportion of Z as W is to 1 ⁄4 mile. Thus, W L = 1 × Z ⁄4 mile or

750 × L = 1,320 1,980 = 1,125' 1 × × So Area = ⁄2 750 1,125 = 421,875 ft2 and the total area sprayed is: Example 3 495,000 + 421,875 = 916,875 ft2 or 916,875 ft2 43,560 ft2/acre = 2l.0 acres Since 340 gallons were used, the application rate is: 340 gal. 21.0 acre = 16.2 gallons/acre Example 3 A sprayer with a 30 foot boom 1 starts spraying a ⁄4 section sized cen-

83 Calibration Study Questions 3. (78) The following can be used to Equipment adjust a sprayer to deliver more 1. (75) Accurate calibration of a or less spray: sprayer: a) change the pressure a) is done at the factory b) change the speed b) is the only way to know how c) change the nozzle tips much chemical is being ap- d) all the above. plied c) only needs to be done every 4. (80) When calibrating a granular three years applicator, the speed should be d) can be done while you wait checked: for the tank to fill up between a) on hard ground in the barn loads. yard b) along the shoulder of the 2. (76) To apply a pesticide evenly roadway and accurately, the sprayer must: c) in the field where they will be a) move at a constant speed applied b) have a constant pressure d) in the most convenient loca- c) have only the correct size and tion. type of nozzle d) all of the above.

84 Laws and Regulations In Kansas, a pesticide business duction of ornamental trees, must be licensed. Any individual, shrubs, and flowers. business, association of persons, or b. Turf Pest Control—in the corporation who applies pesticides main-tenance and production for compensation on or to the prop- of turf. erty of another is required to obtain c. Interior Landscape Pest Con- a Kansas Pesticide Business License. trol—in the production and It is unlawful to advertise, offer for maintenance of houseplants sale, sell or perform any service for and other indoor ornamen- the control of a pest on the property tal plants kept or located of another or apply a pesticide on the within structures occupied property of another within this state by humans including, but not without a pesticide business license. limited to houses, apartments, Pesticide businesses must employ a offices, shopping malls. commercial applicator who is certi- 4. Seed Treatment—on seeds. fied in each category and subcategory 5. Aquatic Pest Control—purpose- in which application work is per- fully applied to standing or run- formed prior to becoming licensed. ning water, excluding applicators Commercial applications of pesti- engaged in public health related cides have, for certification purposes, activities included in category 8 been separated into the following cat- below. egories/subcategories, depending on 6. Right-of-Way Pest Control—in what reason the pesticides are used: the maintenance of public roads, 1. Agricultural Pest Control—in electric powerlines, pipelines, the production of agricultural railway right-of-way or other crops and animals. similar areas, excluding applica- a. Agricultural Plant Pest Con- tors engaged in regulatory activi- trol—in producing agricul- ties included in category 9. tural crops and for grasslands 7. Industrial, Institutional, and non-crop agricultural Structural and Health Related lands. Pest Control—in, on, or around b. Agricultural Animal Pest Con- food handling establishments, trol—on animals and to places human dwellings, institutions on or in which animals are such as schools and hospitals, confined. (Doctors of Veteri- industrial establishments, includ- nary Medicine engaged in the ing warehouses and grain eleva- business of applying pesti- tors, and any other structures and cides for hire, publicly holding adjacent areas, public or private; themselves out as pesticide and for the protection of stored, applicators, are included in processed, or manufactured prod- this category) ucts. c. Agricultural Wildlife Damage a. Wood Destroying Pest Control­ Control—in rangeland and —in the control of termites, agricultural areas. powder post beetles, wood 2. Forest Pest Control—in forests, borers, wood rot fungus and forest nurseries, and forest seed- any other wood destroying pest. producing areas. b. Stored Products Pest Con- 3. Ornamental and Turf Pest Con- trol—for the control of pests in trol—to control pests in the stored grain and food products. maintenance and production of c. Industrial Weed Control—for ornamental trees, shrubs, flowers control of weeds in industrial and turf. areas. a. Ornamental Pest Control—in d. Health Related Pest Con- the maintenance and pro- trol—in health programs for 85 Laws and the management and control dress—such notification is to be Regulations of pests having medical and made by the tenth of the month public health importance. following the month during e. Structural Pest Control—for which the change occurred. control of pests in structures; 3. A certified commercial ap- human dwellings, institutions, plicator who is not employed by schools, hospitals, industrial or otherwise acting for a licensed establishments; those applica- business is required to prepare tions not covered by wood- a written statement of work destroying or stored product performed for each application of pest control. restricted use pesticides made by 8. Public Health Pest Control— him/her or made under his/her federal, state, or other govern- supervision. Each such statement mental employees in public health must set forth the following: programs for the management 1. Name and address of com- and control of pests having medi- mercial applicator; cal and public health importance. 2. Name and address of owner 9. Regulatory Pest Control—fed- or operator of property eral, state, or other governmental treated; employees who use or supervise 3. The name of each pest to be the use of restricted use pesticides controlled; in the control of federal or state 4. Date and location of the ap- regulated pests. plication of the pesticide; a. Noxious Weed Control—in 5. Complete brand or product the control of weed pests name of each pesticide used; regulated under the Kansas 6. EPA Registration number; Noxious Weed Law. 7. Quantity of pesticide used; b. Regulated Pest Control—in 8. Total area to which the pesti- the control of federal or state cide is applied; regulated pests not covered in 9. The concentration or rate of subcategoty (a) above. pesticide applied, when ap- 10. Demonstration and Research plicable; Pest Control—this category in- 10. Signature of the individual cludes: who performed or supervised a. individuals who demonstrate the application; to the public the proper use 11. Wind direction and velocity, and techniques of application when applicable; of restricted use pesticides 12. Expiration date of all gurran- or supervise such tees, if any are given; ­demonstrations; 13. If the pseticide was applied at b. persons conducting field less than label rate, this must research with pesticides and, be conspicuously stated; and in doing so, use or supervise 14. For additional required records, the use of restricted use pesti- see (b) under the Required cides. Records section below. Such records must be maintained Responsibilities for three (3) years after such ap- of Certified Applicators plication of pesticide, and shall be 1. A certified applicator is to available upon request of the Kansas have his/her certificate or pocket Department of Agriculture. card in possession when applying 4. A non-certified person apply- a restricted use pesticide. ing a restricted use pesticide must 2. A certified commercial ap- be under the supervision of a certi- plicator is required to notify the fied commercial applicator. This Kansas Department of Agricul- super­vision requires that both ture of any change in mailing ad- persons are stationed at and work 86 Laws and from the same business address 4. Date and location of the ap- and that the certified commercial plication of the pesticide; Regulations applicator provide the non-cer- 5. Complete brand or product tified applicator with detailed name of each pesticide used; instructions in the handling and 6. EPA Registration number; application of the pesticide being 7. Quantity of pesticide used; used. The certified commercial 8. Total area to which the pesti- applicator must be available to cide is applied; the non-certified applicator by 9. The concentration or rate of telephone, 2-way radio or other pesticide applied, when ap- comparable means of commu- plicable; nication during the time the 10. Signature of the individual restricted use pesticide is being who performed or supervised applied. The certified commercial the application; applicator shall be physically 11. Wind direction and velocity, present, when such presence is when applicable; required by the pest-icide label. 12. Expiration date of all gurran- The certified commercial applica- tees, if any are given; tor shall be prepared to verify 13. If the pesticide was applied at that the requirements were met, if less than label rate, this must requested to do so by an autho- be conspicuously stated. rized representative of the Kansas (b) Whenever the service involv- Department of Agriculture. ing the application of pesticides Uncertified applicators in wood- is performed for the purpose destroying, ornamental, turf or of controlling termites, powder interior landscape pest control post beetles, wood borers, wood may not commercially apply any rot fungus or any other wood pesticide unless they are regis- destroying pest; the following tered pest control techni-cians or information shall be included in if either a certified appli-cantor or addition to that required under registered pest control technician subsection (a); is physically present. (1) The conditions under which retreatments, if any are to be Required Records made; The Kansas Pesticide Law requires (2) the approximate date or dates each pesticide business to maintain of inspection, for any to be certain kinds of records of all (both made after the original appli- restricted use and general use pesti- cation of the pesticides; and cides) commercial applications. These (3) a diagram of the structure to requirements as stated in the law are be treated, showing the location as follows: of visible evidence of active (a) Each pesticide business shall and inactive infestations by present to each customer for any wood destroying pest or whom he or she performs a pest pests for which the treatment control service involving the ap- is proposed; where a partial plication of pesticides a written or spot treatment is to be made, statement of services or contract this diagram shall also show setting forth the following infor- the area or areas of the struc- mation: ture which are to be treated. 1. Business name and address of (4) If the treatment is not complete, the pesticide business; conspicuously state that a 2. Name and address of the cus- “LIMITED TREATMENT,” tomer; (All addresses should “PARTIAL TREATMENT” or include the street address or “SPOT TREATMENT” rural route) was made. 3. The name of each pest to be controlled; 87 Laws and (c) The required written statement of on the label registered under the Regulations services or contract for services Kansas agricultural chemical act involving the application of pes- and/or by the environmental ticides may be incorporated into protection agency; or any business form used by the 5. knowingly use ineffective or pesticide business licensee. improper methods of materials; (d) The pesticide business licensee or shall retain a copy of each written 6. knowingly operate faulty, un- statement of services or contract safe, or if registration is required, in his files for three (3) years from unregistered equipment, or oper- the expiration date of any written ate any equipment in a negligent statement of services or contract. manner; or Each pesticide business licensee 7. refuse to neglect to keep and shall make available to the Secre- maintain records required by this tary of the Kansas Department of act or refuse or neglect to make Agriculture upon request: records available when and as (1) A copy of any written state- required by this act; or ment of services or contract; 8. make false or fraudulent (2) Records of all pesticide appli- records, invoices or reports; or cations during any specified 9. make any misrepresentation period; or defraud any member of the (3) Records of all employees who public; or performed any service involv- 10. use any method or material ing, or in conjunction with, the without regard to public health, application of pesticides; and safety or welfare. (4) Any other requested ­infor­mation. Penalties Violations of the provisions listed Prohibited Actions above may incur a civil penalty in an All pesticides must have a label. amount not less than $100 nor more The label includes instructions for than $5,000 for each violation and, use, storage and disposal of con­ in the case of a continuing violation, tainers. The label, together with any every day such violation continues, literature to which it refers, has the shall be deemed a separate violation. force of law. It is unlawful to detach, Any commercial applicator vio- alter, deface, or destroy the label. lating the provisions of the Kansas The following is a partial list of Pesticide Law and Regulations may Unlawful Acts specified under the bee deemed guilty of a class A misde- Kansas Pesticide Law. It shall be un- meanor. lawful for any person to: 1. Use pesticides in a manner Federal Insecticide, which is inconsistent with such Fungicide, and pesticide’s label or labeling; or 2. discard or store any pesticide Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) or pesticide container in such a as Amended manner as to cause injury to hu- Pesticides are regulated by both mans, vegetation, crops, livestock, state and federal laws. Certification wildlife, pollinating insects or wa- as it exists today was first created in terways and wildlife therein; or 1972 when the U.S. Congress passed 3. make false or fraudulent a law which is called FIFRA (by its claims through any media, mis- initials). This law covers the registra- representing the effect of material tion of all pesticides, including their or methods to be utilized; or classification as restricted. FIFRA 4. make a pesticide recommen- requires that applicators meet certain dation or use not in accordance competency requirements to use re- with the directions for use shown stricted pesticides. It also provides for

88 Laws and civil penalties up to $5,000 for each (d) you must contact DOT immedi- offense and criminal penalties up to ately after each accident: Regulations $25,000, or one year in prison, or both, (a) when someone is killed, for persons who do not obey the law. (b) when someone is injured Use inconsistent with the label is a badly enough to go to a hospital, violation of FIFRA. or (c) when damage is more than In general all pesticides must be $50,000. registered by EPA. FIFRA and related (e) you must tell DOT about all spills rules and regulations set forth the during shipment. requirements for registration. These State and local laws may require requirements are quite complex and you to take additional precautions. need not be discussed here other than Specific Fish and Game laws govern to point out that EPA will not register the use of such pesticides as 1080, so- a pesticide unless the agency is satisfied dium cyanide, fumigants and others that the use of the pesticide as speci- used in vertebrate damage control. fied by the label will not cause undue Disposal of pesticide waste is harm to man or the environment. Pes- regulated in Kansas by the Depart- ticides must be reregistered periodi- ment of Health and Environment. cally, and EPA must make the same To avoid the expense and regulatory kind of judgment on a reregistration problems associated with pesticide that it does on an original registra- waste, every effort should be made to tion. EPA may cancel the registration avoid producing it. Excess pesticide of a pesticide if information becomes solutions and diluted rinse solutions available to show that the material should be collected and appropriately poses an undue risk to man or the used in subsequent spray mixtures. environment. Liquid pesticide containers should be There are some exceptions to the properly rinsed (use the triple rinse registration requirement, but those method or equivalent) so that they exceptions do not generally affect the can be disposed of as solid waste or availability or use of a pesticide in recycled. agriculture. An unregistered pesti- For regulatory purposes, pesticide cide may be made available for (1) wastes are classified as hazardous, experimental use under a temporary small quantity hazardous, or non- permit especially if the experimental hazardous. What must be done with use is needed to develop information pesticide waste depends upon its clas- to support an application for registra- sification. Questions concerning the tion, and (2) emergency use upon ap- classification and required disposal plication by the Kansas Department methods for certain kinds of waste of Agriculture for a Section 18 permit. should be directed to the Kansas De- partment of Health and Environment. Related Regulations Applicators are responsible­ for deter- Shipment of pesticides and other mining whether or not they produce dangerous substances across state hazardous waste. Basically, the EPA lines is regulated by the Federal De- considers a waste to be hazardous if partment of Transportation (DOT). it is ignitable, reactive, corrosive or If you haul pesticides between toxic, or if it is listed among 400 or states, you should know that: more substances the EPA has deter- (a) they must be in their original mined to be hazardous. packages. Each package must meet DOT standards. Residues (b) the vehicle must have a correct The pesticide that stays in or on sign. Manufacturers must put the raw farm products or processed foods correct warning signs on each is called a residue. EPA sets residue package. tolerances under regulations autho- (c) the pesticides may not be hauled rized by the Federal Food, Drug, in the same vehicle with food and Cosmetic Act. A tolerance is the products. 89 Laws and concentration of a pesticide that is inconsistent with their individual Regulations judged safe for human use. Residues labels is a violation of the pesticide law. in processed foods are con­sidered to be food additives and are regulated Common Law Rules as such. Governing the Use of Tolerances are expressed in “parts per million” (ppm). One ppm equals Pesticides one part (by weight) of pesticide for In addition to all the state and each million parts of farm or food federal statutes and regulations gov- product. Using pounds as a mea- erning the use of pesticides, farmers sure, 50 ppm would be 50 pounds and commercial pesticide applicators of pesticide in a million pounds of may be held liable for improper use the product. The same pesticide may of pesticides under common law. For have a different tolerance on differ- centuries, Anglo–American law has ent products. It might be 5 ppm on held that you have the right to enjoy grapes and 25 ppm on apples. the use of your property without If too much residue is found on undue interference from your neigh- a farm or food product, the product bors. This common law right has been may be seized or condemned. reaffirmed by court actions through- The label will tell you how many out our history and is not based days before harvest the pesticide may on specific acts of legislators or the be applied. Follow the label exactly to Congress. However, statutes within be sure you are not breaking the law each state define and limit common and to be sure dangerous levels of law rights. pesticide residues are not consumed. Under common law, you may pro- tect your property from trespass by Common Pesticide another. Trespass includes the drift of a pesticide from a person’s property Misuses to that of his neighbor. If pesticide The common misuses involving drifts onto a neighbor’s property and pesticides start with poor planning. causes damage, he/she has cause for The “more is better” syndrome has a suit and recovery of damages. If the no place in choosing the rate to apply. drift is enhanced by your negligence, Adherence to pesticide label rates his/her case against you is strength- specified for the crop, soil, and pes- ened. Any act or omission that creates ticide combination provides higher an unreasonable risk of harm to probability that the pesticide will another constitutes negligence. work as desired without crop dam- Under some circumstances, use of age, illegal residues or environmental pesticides may constitute a nuisance, hazard. Improper mixes of different even when no trespass can be estab- pesticides are sometimes chosen in lished. Spraying a golf course may an attempt to “kill two birds with one create a public nuisance if, for ex- stone.” Unless the pesticide label has ample, the odor drifts over an adjoin- instructions for a specific mix, the ap- ing urban community. In such a case, plicator assumes responsibility. Com- only a public official or a class action mon errors include use of excessive suit may seek an injunction against rates in the combination, improper continued spraying. Or the spraying carrier, incompatibility of formula- may constitute a private nuisance tions, and inappropriate timing of ap- where only a neighbor may feel an plication for a component pesticide. invasion of his/her enjoyment of his Pesticide misuse commonly results land. Here, he/she may seek an in- from poor management decisions in junction against further spraying and spray application, use of inadequate perhaps seek damages as well. safety equipment, and use of improp- Under common law strict liability erly maintained or designed sprayer is imposed on any activity known to equipment. Use of pesticide products

90 Laws and be abnormally dangerous. In some Phrases such as “high degree of states, use of pesticides is subject care” and “reasonable precautions” Regulations to the strict liability rules (liability are tough to define and give lower without fault). Kansas is not one of courts a wide degree of discretion in these strict liability states. However, determining whether an applicator is the Supreme Court has stated that to be held responsible for damages. applicators are required to exercise Legal scholars have found that except “a high degree of care, not liability for unusual circumstances, the injured without fault,” in keeping chemical plaintiff will almost always win if he pesticides from causing damage to can establish two things: others. A high degree of care requires (1) That the drifted or misapplied one to exercise “reasonable precau- chemical caused the injury, AND tions,” given the nature and location (2) The plaintiff was damaged. of his business, to prevent his actions from harming others.

91 Laws and Study Questions 4. (89) In general, all pesticides Regulations must be registered by: 1. (86) How long must an applica- a) Kansas Department of Health tor maintain application records? and Environment a) 6 months b) U.S. Environmental Protection b) 1 year Agency c) 3 years c) Kansas Department of d) 5 years. ­Transportation d) Kansas Water Resource Board. 2. (87) When must a certified appli- cator be physically present while 5. (90) The residue concentration of supervising an application by a a pesticide on food or feed judged non-certified applicator? to be safe for human use is called a) Mondays and Fridays a: b) from 10:00 a.m. until 3:00 p.m a) tolerance c) when the application costs b) residue over $500 c) amount d) when such presence is re- d) none of the above. quired by the pesticide label. 6. (91) In court actions under 3. (88) Under the Kansas Pesticide common law, strict liability such Use Law: phrases as ”high degree of care:“ a) it is unlawful to spray after a) mean the same to all persons sundown b) are never used b) it is unlawful to spray a neigh- c) are easy to define and lock the bor’s property for no pay courts into narrow actions c) it is unlawful to detach, alter, d) are tough to define and give deface or destroy the label courts a wide degree of action. d) it is unlawful to treat for cer- tain pests after September 31.

92 Pesticide Safety ■ carelessly splashing pesticide into the mouth. Dermal poisoning Pesticides are designed to poison can be caused pests. Unfortunately, many pesticides by: ■ not washing hands after handling are also poisonous to people. Many pesticides or their containers, people in all walks of life have pes- ■ splashing or spraying pesticides ticide residues in their bodies. Pes- on unprotected skin or eyes, ticide applicators and their families ■ wearing pesticide-contaminated are regularly exposed to far greater clothing (including boots and than normal contact with pesticides. gloves), Therefore, it is important to do every- ■ applying pesticides in windy thing possible to keep exposure to an weather, absolute minimum. ■ wearing inadequate protective You also want to protect your clothing and equipment during workers and other people from pesti- mixing or application. cide injuries. Most pesticide accidents Inhalation poisoning can be result from careless practices or lack caused by: of knowledge about safe handling ■ prolonged exposure to pesti- of pesticides. The time you spend to cides in closed or poorly venti- learn about and to use safe proce- lated spaces, dures is an investment in the health ■ accidentally breathing vapors and safety of you, your family, and from fumigants and other toxic others. pesticides, Protecting Your Body ■ breathing fumes, dust, or mist Some pesticides are so highly toxic during application without ap- that accidental exposure to them propriate protective equipment,­ ■ without proper protection can sicken inhaling fumes present immedi- or kill humans. Other pesticides are ately after a pesticide is applied much less toxic; large exposures to (reentering the area too soon), ■ these poisons would be necessary not having a good seal on your to cause illness. Even slightly toxic respirator or using an old or pesticides can irritate the nose, throat, inadequate cartridge or canister. eyes, and skin of some people. You People can be exposed to pesticides should know how to protect yourself, in two major ways: ■ your workers, and other persons from acute exposure, and ■ harmful exposure to the pesticides chronic exposure. you are applying. Acute exposure is a single incident Pesticides can enter the body in of exposure to a pesticide. Usually the three major ways: symptoms of poisoning begin quickly ■ through the mouth (orally), and leave little doubt about the cause ■ through the skin and eyes (der- of the illness. Acute exposure is usu- mally), ally due to an accident such as: ■ ■ through the lungs (by inhalation). splashing a pesticide into the People may be poisoned without mouth, ■ realizing the seriousness of the expo- spilling or spraying a pesticide sure—especially if pesticides enter onto your clothing, or ■ through the skin and lungs. being contaminated by broken Oral poisoning can be caused by: equipment. ■ not washing hands before eating, Chronic exposure is repeated ex- drinking, smoking, or chewing, posure to pesticides over a period of ■ mistaking the pesticide for food time. Chronic exposure may go unno- or drink, ticed since some pesticides may per- ■ accidentally applying pesticides sist in the body for a long time with- to food, out any obvious signs or ­symptoms of poisoning. If you continue to be 93 Pesticide Safety exposed to these pesticides, residues Gloves should not be lined with a fab- in your body may increase. An ad- ric. The lining absorbs chemicals and ditional risk is that even low-level is hard to clean. For most jobs, sleeves chronic exposure may lead to serious should be outside of the gloves to illness. Chronic exposure most often keep pesticides from running down occurs in the work-place because of: the sleeves and into the gloves. But if ■ faulty or inadequate protective you will be working with your hands clothing or equipment, and arms overhead, put the gloves ■ early reentry, outside of the sleeves. ■ inadequate cleanup of clothing Hat and body, or Wear something to protect your ■ contaminated working conditions. head. A wide-brimmed hat will help What You Should Wear keep pesticides off your neck, eyes, To prevent pesticides from entering mouth, and face. Most special cov- the body, you must wear protective eralls have an attached protective clothing and equipment. You should hood. Hats should not have a cloth follow all advice on protective cloth- or leather sweatband. They should be ing or equipment which appears on easy to clean or disposable. When you the label. However, the lack of any will be exposed to liquid pesticides, statement or the mention of only one wear a liquid-proof hat. Plastic “hard piece of equipment does not rule out hats” with plastic sweatbands are liq- the need for additional protection. No uid-proof and are cool in hot weather. safety recommendations can cover Shoes and Boots all situations. Your common sense Sturdy shoes and socks are suffi- and knowledge of pesticide toxicity cient for some pesticide applications. should help you assess the hazard Neoprene or rubber boots are a wise and select the kind of protection you precaution with many pesticide ap- need. plications because canvas, cloth, and Protective Clothing leather shoes can readily absorb pes- ticides. If you will be handling liquid Body Covering concentrates or highly toxic pesticides Protective clothing should be clean, (those with “DANGER” on the label), dry, free of holes and tears, and cover neoprene or rubber boots are neces- as much skin as possible. Always sary. Wear unlined boots with trouser wear long-sleeved coveralls or long- legs outside the boots so the pesticide sleeved shirts and pants. Tuck shirts will not run down the leg and collect into pants and cover the waist area in the boot. with an apron for added protection. Clothing should be made from Goggles or Face Shield tightly woven fabric and have collars Wear goggles or a face shield when and cuffs that fit snugly when but- there is any chance of getting pesti- toned. Waterproof and/or disposable cide in your eyes. Eyes readily absorb coveralls are now available and offer pesticides and the temporary blind- good protection. ness caused by an accident may delay Wear pant legs outside to prevent or prevent self-treatment. You can pesticides from seeping into boots wear goggles alone or with a respira- or shoes. Wear long sleeves outside tor. gloves; however, if you are working Protective Clothing for Fumigant above your head, tuck sleeves inside. Application Gloves When handling or applying When you handle concentrated or fumigants, be sure to check the label highly toxic pesticides, wear gloves. for directions on how to best pro- For liquid formulations, liquid-proof tect yourself. If the label does not neoprene gloves are best. They should give specific instructions, then you be long enough to protect the wrist. should wear at least gloves, shoes

94 Pesticide Safety or boots, and a long-sleeved shirt fill. The amount of detergent suggest- and long-legged trousers made from ed on the box is for 16 gallons of wa- tightly woven fabric. Some fumigants ter, and the high fill setting on many readily penetrate rubber, neoprene, of today’s large capacity machines can and leather. These fumigants may use up to 24 or 26 gallons. Heavy duty be trapped inside the gloves, boots, liquid detergents are known for their or liquid-proof suit and cause severe oil-removing ability, so they would be skin irritation or lead to poisoning the best choice for removing oil-based through skin absorption. The labels pesticides. on these fumigants will specify the Although bleach and ammonia are appropriate protective clothing to be useful laundry aids at times, the usual worn while handling them. amounts used in laundering do not Care of Clothing help remove pesticide residue. Either can be used if you wish, but not Laundering Clothing Contaminated together. NEVER MIX BLEACH AND with Pesticides AMMONIA. They can react with each Research has shown that pesticide other to form a potentially fatal gas. residues are transferred to other cloth- If necessary, launder contaminated ing in the wash load—so always wash clothing two or three times with contaminated clothes separately. lots of water to thoroughly flush the Know what pesticide was used, its fabric. It is not necessary to dry them toxicity level, and formulation so you between washings. can use the appropriate treatment. Since pesticides could remain in One machine washing may be suf- the washer and contaminate subse- ficient to remove some diluted, water quent loads, it is essential to clean the soluble, less toxic pesticides. Howev- machine by filling it with hot water er, up to three launderings are recom- containing a detergent, and running it mended when removing residue from through a complete cycle. the less water soluble, more concen- To avoid any possibility of residues trated or more dangerous chemicals. collecting in the dryer, line drying Emulsifiable concentrate formulations is recommended for the clothes. An are more difficult to remove. Discard added benefit of this practice is that clothing contaminated with highly many pesticides break down when toxic, concentrated chemicals. exposed to sunlight. Always prerinse contaminated clothes before washing by hosing Protective Equipment garments outdoors, soaking in a The respiratory tract—the lungs suitable container, or use the prerinse and other parts of the breathing sys- cycle with agitation in an automatic tem—is much more absorbent than washing machine. A detergent is not the skin. You must wear an approved necessary at this stage. Prerinsing is respiratory device when the label especially helpful in removing wet- directs you to do so. Even if the label table powder formulations. does not require it, you should always Wash no more than three or four wear a respiratory protective device: ■ pieces of clothing at a time using the if the pesticide you are mixing highest water level setting, regular or applying has a label precau- 10 to 12 minute cycle, and hot water tionary statement such as “do (140°F). The lower the water tempera- not breathe vapors or spray ture, the less pesticide is removed. If mist,” or “harmful or fatal if your hot water heat thermostat is set inhaled,” ■ at a lower temperature, you should during calibration and adjusting reset it before washing. of equipment if you are using Use the recommended amounts of pesticides with the above pre- any good laundry detergent, remem- cautionary statements, ■ bering to increase the amount if your if you will be exposed to a pesti- machine exceeds a 16-gallon water cide for a long time,

95 Pesticide Safety ■ if you are working in an with a supplied-air respirator. Seek ­enclosed area. training from competent instructors If you still have trouble breathing before using self-contained breathing while wearing a respiratory device, equipment. These devices contain a see your physician to find out whether limited air supply, which may be used you have a respiratory problem. up even more quickly in high temper- Cartridge Respirator atures or with excessive exertion. You should wear this kind of respi- Positive Pressure Respirator rator when you will be intermittently Both chemical cartridge and chemi- exposed to a pesticide. cal canister respirators rely on the The inhaled air is drawn through wearer’s ability to draw air through both a fiber filter pad and a cartridge the filters in normal breathing. To be to absorb pesticide vapors. Most effective, these “negative-pressure” harmful vapors, gases, and particles respirators must be tightly sealed to are removed. These half-face masks the face. A positive-pressure respira- cover the mouth and nose. To cover tor uses a lightweight blower to draw the eyes also, use one that is com- the contaminated air through the fil- bined with goggles, or wear separate ter. It forces the clean air into a loose- Cartridge Respirator goggles. fitting helmet-like head covering. The Canister Respirator (Gas Mask) outflow prevents contaminants from You should wear this kind of respi- entering the helmet. The filtered air rator when you will be continuously circulates over the head, neck, and exposed to a pesticide. upper body of the applicator, provid- The canister has longer-lasting ing some cooling. absorbent material and filters than Positive-pressure respirators are the cartridge respirator. Gas masks available as lightweight backpacks, usually provide full-face protection. or they may be mounted on or in ap- Canister plication equipment where the power Respirator Neither cartridge nor canister respira- tors will protect you from high con- is supplied by the vehicle’s electrical centrations of vapor, and neither kind systems. Some vehicle-mounted units is effective when the oxygen supply is provide cool filtered air to the appli- low; for example, during fumigation cator. inside buildings, railroad cars, holds Respiratory Devices for Use With of ships, or grain bins. Fumigants Supplied-Air Respirator Fumigants are gases. They pose the You may use this kind of respirator greatest hazard of poisoning through Supplied-Air when mixing or applying pesticides: inhalation. Exposure to even small Respirator ■ when the oxygen supply is low, concentrations of the fumigant as a ■ when you are exposed to high gas can cause severe injury and death. concentrations of highly toxic Special precautions are necessary pesticides. during handling and application. Use You must work close to a supply of a supplied-air respirator, or at least a clean air, since this type of respirator canister respirator with an organic va- works by pumping clean air through por canister. Wear a respirator during a hose to the face mask. application and reentry if any expo- sure to the fumigant gas is likely. In Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus closed areas, such as bins, vaults, and You should wear this kind of chambers there may be insufficient respirator under the same conditions Self- oxygen to sustain life. Use ­ as the supplied-air respirator. It does contained supplied-air respirators or a self-con- about the same thing. The difference Breathing tained breathing apparatus and never is that you carry cylinders of air or Apparatus work alone. oxygen with you, usually on your back. This lets you move more freely Selection and Maintenance and over a wider area than you can Use only those respirators which Repiratory Protective Devices carry a seal of approval for pesti- 96 Pesticide Safety cide use from the National Institute The useful life of a cartridge or for Occupational Safety and Health canister depends on: (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and ■ the amount of absorbent materi- Health Administration (MSHA). Read al it contains, the manufacturer’s instructions on ■ the concentration of contami- the use and care of any respirator and nants in the air, its parts before you use it. ■ the breathing rate of the wearer, A negative-pressure respirator ■ the temperature and humidity. must fit the face well. Long sideburns, Operation and maintenance a beard, or glasses may prevent an requirements for positive-pressure adequate seal. respirators are similar to those for When applying pesticides, change cartridge and canister respirators. The filters, cartridges, or canisters if you filter has a longer working life than have trouble breathing, if you smell those in cartridges or canisters, but pesticides, or after a maximum of it should be replaced after about 150 8 hours of use. Remove and discard hours of use or when the amount of filters, cartridges, and canisters and air being supplied to the applicator wash the facepiece with detergent drops noticeably. The exposed parts and water, rinse it, and dry it with of these respirators also need to be a clean cloth. Store it in a clean, dry washed and dried after each use. place away from the pesticides.

Special Handling Precautions ■ If possible, clothing worn when applying pesticides should be saved for that use only. ■ If clothing gets contaminated when working with pesticides, change immediately. Don’t wait until you’ve finished the job. ■ Always wear rubber gloves when handling and rinsing clothes contaminated with pesticides. ■ Wash hats, gloves and boots daily. Always wear clean clothes daily. ■ Empty pockets and cuffs of any pesticide granules outdoors, discarding them in a safe manner. Granules left in clothing could dissolve into the wash water and not be completely resolved during the wash cycle. ■ Keep contaminated clothing in containers separate from the regular family laundry and always wash separately. ■ Test gloves for leaks by filling them with water and gently squeezing. ■ Wash contaminated clothing as soon as possible after each wearing. The longer they stand, the harder it is to remove the chemicals. ■ Wash goggles and face shield at least once a day. ■ If clothes have become contaminated with concentrated, highly toxic pesticides, destroy them by burial. Washing will not make them safe to wear. A recent research study found that cotton denim fabric swatches contaminated with an undiluted methyl parathion emul- sifiable concentrate solution still contained a considerable amount even after 10 washings. However, three launderings removed nearly all traces of a diluted field strength methyl parathion solution. ■ Burial is the preferred method of disposing of heavily contaminated clothing. Burning is not a satisfactory solution because of the danger of pesticide residue being carried some dis- tance by the smoke. ■ Bury contaminated clothing at least 18 inches deep in open fields, but only in locations where surface and subsurface water will not be polluted. Don’t use sites where animals, such as hogs, might uncover them while rooting or digging.

97 Pesticide Safety

Protective Clothing and Equipment Guide Label Signal Word Formulation CAUTION WARNING DANGER Dry Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and long- long-sleeved shirt; shoes and long-sleeved shirt; shoes and sleeved shirt; shoes and socks; socks socks; wide-brimmed hat. hat; gloves; cartridge or cannister respirator if dusts in air or if label precautionary statement says: “Poisonous or fatal if inhaled.” Liquid Long-legged trousers; long Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and long- (when mixing) sleeved shirt; shoes and long-sleeved shirt; shoes and sleeved shirt; rubber boots; socks; wide-brimmed hat. socks; wide-brimmed hat; wide-brimmed hat; rubber rubber gloves. Goggles if gloves, goggles or face shield. required by label precaution- Canister respirator if label ary statement. Cartridge or precautionary statement says: canister respirator if label “Do not breathe vapors or precautionary statement says: spray mists,” or “Poisonous if “Do not breathe vapors or inhaled.” spray mists.’ or “Poisonous if inhaled.” Liquid Long-legged trousers and Water-repellent, long-legged Waterproof suit, rubber boots, (prolonged long-sleeved shirt, boots, trousers and long-sleeved shirt, rubber gloves, waterproof hood exposure to rubber gloves, waterproof rubber boots, rubber gloves, or wide-brimmed hat, face spray, or wide brimmed hat, cartridge rubber apron, waterproof shield canister respirator. application in respirator. wide-brimmed hat, face shield, enclosed area) cartridge or canister respirator.

98 Pesticide Safety Personal Cleanup is in the back of a truck. Secure all Any time you spill a pesticide on containers to prevent breakage and yourself, wash immediately. When spillage. Keep the pesticides away you finish working with pesticides from food, feed, livestock, pets, and or pesticide-contaminated equip- passengers. Pesticides should be ment, take a shower. Wash your body transported only in correctly labeled and hair thoroughly with detergent containers. Be sure to keep paper and water. Work clothing should be and cardboard packages dry. If any changed daily. Place used clothing pesticide is spilled in or from the away from your other clothes and vehicle, clean it up right away using away from the family laundry. The correct cleanup procedures. Do not pesticides remaining on your work leave pesticides unattended. You are clothes could injure persons who responsible if accidents occur. touch them. Do not allow children or pets to play in them. Be sure that the Pesticide Storage Regulations addressing storage, person who will be laundering your mix/load, wash facilities have been work clothes knows of the potential proposed by EPA. Contact the Pesti- danger. Do not launder work clothes cide and Fertilizer Program, Kansas with the family laundry. Run the Department of Agriculture at 785-296- washing machine through one cycle 3786 for current information. with only detergent after washing As soon as pesticides arrive, store pesticide work clothes Do not wash them in a designated place. The stor- contaminated gloves, boots, respira- age area should be in a cool, dry, well- tors, or other equipment in streams ventilated and well-lighted room or or ponds. The pesticides could poison building that is insulated to prevent aquatic life or harm people, livestock, freezing or overheating. Be sure that or wildlife. the area is fireproof, with a concrete Reentering Treated Areas floor. Keep the area locked to prevent Unprotected persons should not entry by children and other unauthor- enter an area immediately after a ized persons and post warning signs pesticide application. The waiting on doors and windows. period is called the reentry interval. The area should be supplied with Workers not wearing proper protec- detergent, hand cleaner, and water; tive clothing must always wait at least absorbent materials, such as absor- until sprays have dried or dusts have bent clay, sawdust, and paper to settled before entering an area treated soak up spills; a shovel, broom, and with any pesticide. Some highly toxic dustpan; and a fire extinguisher rated carbamate and organophosphate for ABC fires. pesticides have specific reentry times The storage building or area set by law. These times must be listed should be located away from where on the pesticide label. people and animals live. This will If you are in charge of a pesti- avoid or minimize harm to them in cide application, you should warn case of fire or flooding. ­workers and other people that an area Store all pesticides in the original has been treated with pesticides. The containers. Do not store them near only exceptions are mosquito abate- food, feed, seed, or animals. Store ment and related public pest control paper containers off the floor. Check programs, and livestock and other every container for leaks or breaks. If animal treatments. one is leaking, position the containers so the hole is on the top. Then transfer Handling Pesticides Safely the contents to a container that has Transportation of Pesticides held exactly the same pesticide. If one You are responsible for the safe is not available, use a clean container transport of pesticides in your posses- of similar ­construction and label it sion. The safest way to haul pesticides correctly. In cases where paper con- 99 Pesticide Safety tainers are punctured, place them in a When loading pesticides, stand so heavy, clear-plastic bag. Clean up any the wind does not blow them toward spills. Keep an up-to-date inventory your body. To prevent spills, close of the pesticides you have. containers after each use. Mixing and Loading Closed Handling Systems Closed handling systems can Pesticides reduce the applicator’s exposure to Studies have shown that pesticide concentrated pesticides. A closed han- applicators are most often exposed to dling system is a series of intercon- harmful amounts of pesticides when nected equipment which allows the handling concentrates. applicator to remove a pesticide from Workers involved in mixing and its original container, rinse the empty loading undiluted highly toxic pesti- container, and transfer the pesticide cides are exposed to a high risk of ac- and rinse solution to the spray tank cidental poisoning. Pouring con-cen- without contacting the pesticide. trates from one container to another is Closed system handling has several the most hazardous activity. advantages and disadvantages. Safety Guidelines Advantages: By observing some simple precau- ■ increased applicator safety, tions, you can reduce the risks involved ■ less need for protective clothing in this part of your job. It is important and equipment (waterproof to keep livestock, pets, and people out clothing and respirators can be of the mixing and loading area. Do uncomfortable, especially in hot not work alone when using highly weather), toxic pesticides. Choose a place with ■ reduction of spills, good light and ventilation. Be par- ■ more accurate measurement. ticularly careful not to mix or load This reduces overdosing and pesticides at night or indoors unless under dosing and may result in lighting and ventilation are adequate. savings to the applicator. Before handling a pesticide con- Disadvantages: tainer, put on protective clothing ■ equipment may be cumbersome, and equipment. Each time you use a ■ equipment is not usable with pesticide, read the directions. Do this all pesticide containers because before you open the container. This of variations in drum openings, is essential—directions, including shapes, and sizes, amounts and methods, often change. ■ many steps involved in the system Do not tear paper containers to ■ all must be done in proper se- open them. Use a sharp knife. Clean quence. the knife afterwards, and do not use The systems now available are it for other purposes. When pouring designed to remove the pesticide con- a pesticide from the container, keep centrate from the original container in the container and pesticide below eye one of two ways: level. This will help avoid a splash ■ gravity, or spill on your goggles or protective ■ suction. clothing. Gravity systems are sometimes If you splash or spill a pesticide called “punch and drain” systems. while mixing or loading, stop right The unopened pesticide container is away and remove contaminated inserted into a chamber, which is then clothing. Immediately wash thor- sealed. A punch cuts a large open- oughly with detergent and water. ing in the container, allowing all the Then, clean up the spill. material to drain into the mixing tank. When mixing pesticides, measure A water nozzle attached to the punch carefully. Use only the amount called sprays the inside of the container to for on the label and mix only the vol- rinse it thoroughly. The rinse water ume you plan to use. also drains into the mixing tank. The

100 Pesticide Safety rinsed container is then removed for Wear the correct protective cloth- disposal. A limitation of this system is ing and equipment. Wear waterproof that only full container quantities can clothing if you will be working in be used. It is not possible to use part drift, spray or runoff. Do not wipe of the pesticide in a container and your gloves on your clothing; this will store the rest. contaminate your clothing and may Suction systems use a pump to soak through to your skin. Never eat, remove the pesticide through a probe drink, smoke, or chew while handling inserted into the container. Some or applying pesticides. Wash your containers are equipped with built-in face and hands thoroughly first. If probes. The pesticide is transferred you feel ill, do not try to finish the job. to the mixing tank by hose and pipe. Get out of the area fast and get help. When the container is empty, it and If you will be working outdoors, the transfer system are rinsed with choose application equipment, water. The rinse water is added to the formulations, and additives that will mixing tank. minimize drift and runoff. Do not To allow the use of only part of the apply pesticides during or just before pesticide in the container, the sys- expected high winds or heavy rains. tem must have a way to measure the Try to spray downwind from sensi- amount of pesticide suctioned into tive areas such as beehives, residen- the mixing pan, and must allow the tial areas, waterways, and nontarget probe to remain in the container until crops and livestock. all the pesticide is used and the con- If you are working indoors, be tainer and probe can be rinsed. Some sure you have adequate ventilation probes have a breakaway head which or wear a supplied-air respirator. Be allows the head to stay and the probe sure that nontarget food and feed, to be withdrawn and reused. toys, and pets are removed from the In some systems, it is not possible area to be treated. Failure to do this is to reseal partially emptied containers. a misuse of the pesticide. Choose ap- Another disadvantage of suction sys- plication techniques, equipment, and tems is that highly viscous pesticides formulations that minimize exposure (those which pour like molasses) are to persons and non-target animals difficult to move by suction. who may have to reenter treated areas Two techniques have been devel- to live or work. oped for handling dry concentrates. To prevent spillage and possible One is a dosed handling system poisonings, check all application similar to those used for liquid equipment for leaking hoses, pumps, formulations. The other is soluble or connections; and plugged, worn, packaging. Soluble bags or containers or dripping nozzles. Do not blow out allow an applicator to put the entire clogged nozzles, hoses, or lines with package (pesticide and container) your mouth. Do not allow children, into the tank. The container dissolves pets, or unauthorized persons to in the solvent in the tank. Disadvan- touch application equipment or tages of soluble packaging include pesticide containers or to enter stor- the risk of releasing the concentrate age areas. Correctly calibrate your if the packaging is exposed to water equipment before use. Try to use all during shipping and the possibility of the pesticide in your tank or hopper. “splashback” as containers are added If you have some left over, use it for to the tank. other labeled uses. Before application, you must Pesticide Application clear the area of all unprotected The safety of yourself and others persons. By law, the application of a should be a major concern during any ­pesticide—either directly or through pesticide application. Follow all label drift—must not expose workers or directions carefully, and ­observe these other persons. basic safety guidelines.

101 Pesticide Safety Cleaning Equipment 1. Empty the container into the Never leave pesticide equipment tank. Let it drain an extra at the application site. When the 30 seconds. tank or hopper is empty, return the 2. Fill it one-fifth to one-fourth equipment to the area designated for full of water. equipment cleanup. Mixing, loading, 3. Replace the closure and rotate and application equipment must be the container. Invert the container cleaned as soon as you finish using it. so the rinse reaches all the inside Clean both the inside and outside, in- surfaces. cluding nozzles. Only trained persons 4. Drain the rinse water from should do this job. They should wear the container into the tank. Let correct protective clothing. the container drain for 30 sec- Have a special procedure for clean- onds. ing equipment. A designated cleaning 5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 at location ought to have a wash rack least two more times for a total of or concentrate apron with a sump to three rinses. Remember to empty catch contaminated wash water. each rinse solution into the tank. If at all possible, reuse sump collec- Burnable Containers tions when mixing compatible spray ■ You may burn small numbers of solutions. If necessary contaminated them if permitted by state and sump collections should be disposed local regulations unless prohibit- of as you would other pesticides. ed by the label. Keep drainage out of water supplies ■ You may take them to a landfill and streams. operating under state permit for Equipment sometimes must be re- pesticide disposal. paired before it is completely cleaned. Nonbunable Containers (metal, Warn the person doing the repairs of plastic, or glass) the potential hazards. ■ Rinse the containers three times. Disposal ■ Many large containers in good shape can be reused by your Pesticides supplier. Return them to your The best way to solve the prob- supplier, a pesticide manufac- lem of pesticide waste disposal is to turer or formulator, or a drum simply avoid producing any. Excess reconditioner. pesticides should be properly collect- ■ You can send or take them to a ed, labeled and temporarily stored for place that will recycle them as use in another spray mixture. Rinse scrap metal or dispose of them solutions should also be collected and for you. used as diluent in subsequent tank ■ Properly rinsed containers may mixes. Pesticide inventories should be crushed and buried in a san- be carefully managed so that old or itary landfill. Follow state and useless pesticide products do not ac- local standards. cumulate. All pesticides or pesticide ■ If it is not possible to rinse con- solutions should be stored according tainers, contact the Department to label directions. of Health and Environment for Containers assistance. Do not leave pesticides or pesti- cide containers at the application site. Hazardous Waste Never give pesticide containers to When a pesticide waste is pro- children to play with or adults to use. duced it is important that it be prop- Leftover pesticides should be kept in erly disposed of according to state tightly closed containers in your stor- and federal laws. Four options are age facility. available with preference in the order Always triple rinse empty con­ listed: tainers of liquid pesticides as follows:

102 Pesticide Safety 1. Reuse according to the label it to warn people. Do not leave unless instructions. The Kansas Depart- someone is there to confine the spill ment of Agriculture, Pesticide and warn of the danger. If the pesti- and Fertilizer Program (785- cide was spilled on anyone, wash it 296-3786) can provide assistance off immediately. concerning label instructions. Confine the spill. If it starts to 2. Return the unused pesticide spread, dike it up with sand or soil. to the manufacturer or distribu- Use absorbent material such as soil, tor for reprocessing. This should sawdust, or an absorbent clay to soak be done only after obtaining up the spill. Shovel all contaminated their approval. Transportation material into a leak-proof container must be in accordance with all for disposal. Dispose of it as you applicable U.S. Department of would a pesticide waste. Do not hose Transportation regulations. The down the area, because this spreads pesticides should also be left in the chemical. Always work carefully the original containers unless and do not hurry. they are leaking. Assistance for Do not let anyone except properly shipment of pesticides include the trained persons enter the area until U.S. Department of Transporta- the spill is completely cleaned up. tion (785-267-7288) and the U.S. Major Spills Environmental Protection Agency The cleanup of a major spill may (913-551-7030). be too difficult for you to handle, or 3. Hazardous wastes in quantities you may not be sure of what to do. In exceeding the minimum exemp- either case, keep people away, give tion limit must be disposed by first aid if needed, and confine the a permitted hazardous waste spill. Then call Chemtrec, the local disposal facility. fire department, and state pesticide 4. Small quantity hazardous authorities for help. and non-hazardous wastes can Chemtrec stands for Chemical be disposed at the county sani- Transportation Emergency Center, a tary landfill depending upon the public service of the Manufacturing quantity and type of pesticide. Chemicals Association. Its offices are However, before transporting located in Washington, D.C. Chemtrec any pesticide wastes to a sanitary provides immediate advice for those landfill, you must contact the at the scene of emergencies. Kansas Department of Health and Chemtrec operates 24 hours a day, Environment (785-296-1600). seven days a week, to receive calls In order to determine if any of your for emergency assistance. For help wastes are considered hazardous and in chemical emergencies involving to what extent you are regulated, spills, leaks, fire, or explosions, call contact the Kansas Department of toll-free 800-424-9300 day or night. Health and Environment. They have This number is for emergencies only. prepared a booklet entitled, A Guide If a major pesticide spill occurs to Pesticide Waste Disposal in Kansas, on a highway, have someone call the which provides information on this highway patrol or the sheriff for help. subject. The booklet may be obtained (Carry these phone numbers with by calling 785-296-1600, or by writing: you.) Do not leave until responsible Department of Health and Environ- help arrives. ment, Bureau of Waste Management, 1000 S.W. Jackson, Suite 320, Topeka, Cleanup Notification of Kansas 66612. Pesticide Spills Cleanup of Pesticide Spills Minor Spills Generally speaking, a minor spill Minor Spills is one involving 1 quart or approxi- Keep people away from spilled mately 2 pounds or less of pesticide chemicals. Rope off the area and flag 103 Pesticide Safety concentrate. However, common sense If there are individuals who have must be used in determining how been exposed to the spilled pesticide, much action you as an individual the local poison control center should take regarding pesticide spills. For be notified. Every effort should be example, 1 quart of a highly toxic taken to keep other people from being insecticide requires more expertise exposed to the spill until local au- and precautions in handling clean-up thorities can assume responsibility at and disposal than does 1 quart of low the site. toxicity herbicide. For all problems, accidents, or Keeping the product toxicity in incidents that occur, you should have mind, a general procedure for clean- a list of the phone numbers of these ing up a minor spill would be to use authorities available and accessible. an absorbent, such as pet litter, cover Pesticide Regulatory Agencies with bleach, and scrub the area with Department of Emergency detergent. Then follow label statements Management: 785-296-3176, or for disposal, or telephone the State 800-905-7521. Department of Health and Envi- Department of Health and ronment, 785-296-1600, or the State Environment: 785-296-3786. Depart-ment of Agriculture, Kansas Department of Agriculture: 785-296-3786, for further instructions 785-296-3786. on disposal. U.S. Environmental Protection Pesticide Spill Phone Numbers Agency Region VII Office: 1. Local Poison Control Center: 913-551-7030. 2. County Extension Agent: 3. Local Police Department: First Aid and Pesticide City, County, State Poisoning Recognition 4. Local Fire Department: 5. Civil Defense: First Aid 6. Department of Emergency Get medical advice quickly if you Management: 785-296-3176, or or any of your fellow workers have 800-905-7521. unusual or unexplained symptoms 7. Department of Health and starting at work or later the same day. Environment: 785-296-1600. Do not let yourself or anyone else get 8. Kansas Department of Agri- dangerously sick before calling your culture: 785-296-3786. physician or going to a hospital. It is Before authorities arrive, get a copy better to be too cautious than too late. of the pesticide label and if possible First aid is the initial effort to help determine the toxicity of the pesticide a victim while medical help is on the involved. Information from the label way. If you are alone with the victim, can be very helpful to the doctor. make sure the victim is breathing and Major Spills is not being further exposed to the Pesticide spills caused by commer- poison before you call for emergency cial spray rigs, aerial spray planes, help. Apply artificial respiration if the and large pesticide containers may be victim is not breathing. too big to be handled by one person. Read the first aid instructions on There are certain procedures one the pesticide label, if possible. Fol- should follow to notify the proper low those instructions. Do not be- authorities. come exposed to poisoning yourself All spills should be reported by while you are trying to help. Take the telephone to the Kansas Division of pesticide container or the label to the Emergency Management, 785-296- physician. Do not carry the pesticide 3176. If contact cannot be made, you container in the passenger space of a should notify the local authorities car or truck. such as the police department, fire department or civil defense office.

104 Pesticide Safety Poison on skin: ■ Put finger or the blunt end of ■ Act quickly. a spoon at the back of victim’s ■ Remove contaminated clothing throat or give syrup of ipecac. and drench skin with water. ■ Collect some of the vomitus ■ Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly for the physician if you do not with detergent and water. know what the poison is. ■ Dry victim and wrap in blanket. ■ Do not use salt solutions to Chemical burn on skin: induce vomiting. ■ Wash with large quantities of Do not induce vomiting: ■ running water. If the victim is unconscious or is ■ Remove contaminated clothing. having convulsions. ■ ■ Cover burned area immediately If the victim has swallowed a with loose, clean, soft cloth. corrosive poison. A corrosive ■ Do not apply ointments, greases, poison is a strong acid or alkali. powders or other drugs in first It will burn the throat and aid treatment of burns. mouth as severely coming up as it did going down. It may get Poison in eye: into the lungs and burn there ■ Wash eye quickly but gently. also. ■ Hold eyelid open and wash with ■ If the victim has swallowed gentle stream of clean running an emulsifiable concentrate water. or oil solution. Emulsifiable ■ Wash for 15 minutes or more. concentrates and oil solutions ■ Do not use chemicals or drugs may cause severe damage to in the wash water. They may the lungs if inhaled during increase the extent of injury. ­vomiting. Inhaled poison: ■ Carry victim to fresh air Pesticide Poisoning ­imme­diately. Recognition ■ Open all doors and windows so Pesticides can poison humans as no one else will be poisoned. well as the target pests. Some pesti- ■ Loosen tight clothing. cides are highly toxic to humans; only Apply artificial respiration if a few drops in the mouth or on the breathing has stopped or if the skin can cause severe injury. Other victim’s skin is blue. If patient is in an pesticides are less toxic, but over­ enclosed area, do not enter without exposure to them will cause injury. proper protective clothing and equip- You should know the kinds of injury ment. If proper protection is not avail- most likely to be caused by the pesti- able, call for emergency equipment cides you use. from your fire department. A symptom is any bit of evidence that you are sick. It is something Poison in mouth or swallowed: abnormal that you feel. Examples ■ Rinse mouth with plenty of water. of symptoms are headache, dizzi- ■ Give victim large amounts (up ness, profuse sweating, weakness to 1 quart) of milk or water to and nausea. A sign is evidence of an drink. abnormality or disorder as observed ■ Induce vomiting only if instruc- by a physician. Examples of signs are tions to do so are on the label. vomiting, salivation, fever, declining Procedure for inducing vomiting: mental alertness, and convulsions. ■ Position victim face down or Symptoms reported by a patient and kneeling forward. Do not allow signs observed by the doctor are used victim to lie on his/her back, in diagnosis of a pesticide poisoning. because the vomitus could enter Pesticides in the same chemical the lungs and do additional group cause the same type of poi- damage. soning. The illness may vary from mild to severe depending upon the

105 Pesticide Safety pesticide, the amount of pesticide Herbicides and length of time the pesticide is in Phenoxy Compounds contact with the body, and other fac- Herbicides in this group include tors. Pesticide poisonings may occur 2,4-D and 2,4-DB. by accidental ingestion, skin contact Toxicology: Some of the phenoxy and/or by inhalation. Contact your acids, salts, and esters are moderately doctor immediately if you or your irritating to skin, eyes, and respira- co-worker have symptoms or signs tory and stomach linings. These of pesticide poisonings which occur compounds are absorbed through the after using a pesticide. Take the label gut wall, lungs, and skin. Excretion of the pesticide with you when you in the urine occurs within hours, or go to the doctor. at most, days. Given in large doses to Most chemical manufacturers are experimental animals, 2,4-D causes equipped to provide emergency in- vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, formation on their products. Manu- ulcers of the mouth and pharynx, and facturers may be contacted through toxic injury to the liver, kidneys, and CHEMTREC. For help in a Chemical central nervous systems. Emergency Involving a Spill, Leak, Symptoms and Signs: Phenoxy Fire, or Exposure, Call Day or Night compounds are moderately irritating CHEMTREC, (800) 424-9300. to skin and mucous membranes. In- Below are frequent symptoms and halation of sprays may cause burning signs of pesticide poisonings. sensations in the chest and coughing Dithiocarbamates and may result. Swallowing of very large Thiocarbamates amounts has produced fever, hyper- These classes of chemicals include ventilation and sweating. many fungicides and herbicides. Nitrophenolic and Nitrocresolic Fungicides of the group include thiram, Herbicides ferbam, maneb, and zineb. Herbicides Herbicides in this group include of this group include butylate, verno- dinitrophenol, dinitrocresol, and late, and EPTC. dinoseb. Combinations widely used Toxicology: Although these chemi- include dinoseb + naptalam and so- cals are similar, they are metabolized dium salts of dinoseb + naptalam. differently by animals and effects on Toxicology: These materials are human health are also different. Thi- highly toxic to man and animals. ram and ferbam irritate the skin and Most nitrophenols and nitrocresols mucous membrane. Maneb and zineb are absorbed through the stomach, degrade in the environment and in skin, and lungs when fine droplets are animal tissues to a compound that ap- inhaled. These chemicals are toxic to parently causes cancer in laboratory the liver, kidney and nervous system. animals. Thiocarbamate herbicides Symptoms and Signs: Profuse are moderately irritating to skin and sweating, headache and thirst are eyes but do not appear to be highly common early symptoms of poison- toxic. ing. Signs of poisoning include fever, Symptoms and Signs: Skin irrita- unconsciousness and convulsions. tion may result from contact with thiram and ferbam. Swallowing large Paraquat and Diquat amounts of one of these pesticides Herbicides and products in this may produce nausea, vomiting and group include paraquat (Gramoxone, diarrhea. If excessive amounts of spray Paraquat, Ortho Paraquat) and diquat or dust are inhaled, maneb, zineb and (Orthro Diquat). some herbicides irritate the skin and Toxicity: These chemicals injure cause itching, sneezing and cough. the skin, nails, cornea, liver, kidney, and linings of the gastrointestinal and

106 Pesticide Safety respiratory tracts. Contact with the oping later than 12 hours following concentrate may cause irritation and exposure are not apt to be the result fissuring of the skin of the hands, and of organophosphate poisoning. Early cracking and sometimes loss of the symptoms include headache, dizzi- fingernails. When absorbed in inges- ness, and weakness. Blurred vision tion, paraquat damages the liver and or “pinpoint” vision may occur; eyes kidney. Diquat appears less likely may water, drooling or watering at than paraquat to cause death. the mouth, abdominal cramps, diar- Symptoms and Signs: Pain, rhea, and sweating may also occur. In nausea, vomiting and diarrhea are advanced cases, fits and unconscious- the earliest symptoms of injury and ness, lack of bowel control and respir­ signs following ingestion of paraquat. atory depression may be experienced. Diquat ingestion results in intense Even though the patient may be nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Other near death at this stage of poisoning, signs signal severe poisoning by para- he/she may be saved if proper medi- quat or diquat. cal treatment is applied quickly and Insecticides continued for a long enough period of time. Organophosphates You should be alert to the early Some common examples are signs and symptoms of poisoning. parathion, methyl parathion, DiSys- Other illnesses may cause symptoms ton, Phosdrin, and Counter. These similar to those described here. If any pesticides poison insects and other of these signs or symptoms appear, animals by binding with a chemical shortly after contact with these pesti­ in the bloodstream. This chemical, cides, call your doctor and advise an enzyme, must be present for the him/her of the nature of the pesticide normal transmission of nerve impulses involved. A copy of the label should from the nerve fibers to the body be taken along when going to the doc- tissues. Some loss of this enzyme can tor. Remember the importance of im- occur before symptoms and signs of mediately and completely removing poisoning appear. When the insecti- contaminated clothing. By so doing, cide is present in sufficient dosage, you may prevent additional pesticide the enzyme “cholinesterase” becomes exposure and minimize injury. “tied up.” This allows accumulation of acetylcholine (the substance that al- Carbamate Insecticides lows for the transmission of impulses Highly toxic ones include Temik, at various junctions), and a “shot- Vydate, Furadan, Methomyl (Lannate, circuit” results. The nerves continue Nudrin). Insecticides of this class to send messages to certain muscles. also cause inhibition of the cholin- This is reflected in muscle twitchings esterase enzyme in a manner similar and weakness. It also impairs nerve to organ­ophosphates. A victim of transmission in the brain causing carbamate poisoning often tends to disturbances in one’s vision, sense of recover after exposure. Carbamates balance, muscular control and respi- are absorbed by inhaling, swallow- ratory drive. ing, and skin exposure. Signs and Organophosphates are absorbed symptoms of poisoning are similar to by breathing, swallowing, and skin. those of phosphate poisoning. These Signs and symptoms of poisoning include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, may develop rapidly in some cases, abdominal pain, profuse sweating, and more gradually in others. To a salivation and blurred vision. Tempo- degree, toxicity depends on the rate rary paralysis of the extremities has that insecticides are broken down in been reported. Most reported illnesses the body. Symptoms of acute poison- have not exceeded a few hours and ing usually develop within 4 hours of the prognosis is usually better than contact; signs and symptoms devel- with organophosphate poisonings.

107 Pesticide Safety Chlorinated Hydrocarbons bioresmethrin, cypermethrin, deca­ Examples are: Endosulfan­ (Thiodan), methrin, permethrin, fenvalerate, toxaphene and lindane. EPA has tetramethrin and resmethrin. These sharply curtailed use of many of these compounds rapidly paralyze the products. Others, however, are still insect nervous systems, making them active ingredients of various home famous for the quick knockdown ac- and garden products and some agri­ tion. Toxicity to mammals, however, cultural pest control uses. The exact is rare. Oral LD50 values of these mode of action of these compounds compounds are several hundred or is not known. In general, they act on thousand milligrams per kilogram of the central nervous system to stimu- body weight. Symptoms and signs of late or depress. This results in behavior over-exposure include a stuffy, runny changes, sensory and equilibrium nose and scratchy throat from inhala- disturbances, involuntary muscle ac- tion of partially purified pyrethrin tivity, and depression of vital centers, extract. Asthmatic wheezing may be particularly those controlling respira- precipitated by exposure of predis- tion. Symptoms have been reported posed individuals. A sudden bronchial as soon as 30 minutes after massive spasm, swelling of mouth and larnyx exposure, but generally they develop mucous membranes and shock have more slowly. If maximum symptoms been reported with pyrethrin inhala- are not reached within a few hours tion. On rare occasion, nervousness, after acute exposure, another diagno- irritability and tremors have been sis or complicating feature must be reported in persons who have breathed sought. large amounts of pyrethrins. Hy- Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids drocarbon propellants in bug bomb Several hundred of these products products present a risk of heartbeat are available. Many are packaged for irregularities if inhaled to excess. household or garden lawn type uses. Hydrocarbons­ used as solvents in Commonly these products contain spray products, are likely to result pyrethrins or a pyrethroid with a in cough, fever or chest pain if these synergist such as pipronyl butoxide. liquids are inadvertently aspirated. Common pyrethroids are allethrin,

108 Pesticide Safety Study Questions 7. (100) Closed handling systems are designed to remove pesticide 1. (93) Exposure to pesticides may concentrate from the original be: container by: a) acute a) gravity b) chronic b) suction c) both of the above c) high pressure d) none of the above. d) a and b above.

2. (94) Neoprene or rubber boots 8. (101) Before applying a pesticide, are necessary when handling you must: liquid concentrates which have a) be paid for the job ______warning on the b) clear the area of all unprotect- label: ed persons a) Caution c) get the neighbor‘s approval b) Warning d) be sure the treated surface will c) Danger dry within 30 minutes. d) use care. 9. (102) The best way to solve the 3. (95) Which pesticide formulation problem of pesticide waste dis- is more difficult to remove by posal is: laundering? a) dump it out along the road a) dusts b) pour it out in back of the shed b) soluble powders c) simply avoid producing any c) wettable powders d) bury it on the neighbor‘s d) emulsifiable concentrates. property.

4. (96) When you are intermittently 10. (103) In the case of minor pesti- exposed to pesticide fumes you cide spills, you should: should wear a: a) keep people away a) canister respirator b) confine the spill b) cartridge respirator c) dispose of it as you would c) supplied air respirator pesticide waste d) self-contained breathing ap- d) all the above. paratus. 11. (104) The initial effort to help a 5. (97) When should you change poisoned victim is: filters and cartridges on your a) respiration respirator? b) transfusion a) if you have trouble breathing c) first aid b) if you smell pesticides d) circulation. c) after a maximum of 8 hours of use 12. (105) In the case of poison in the d) all the above. eye, you should: a) keep the eye closed for 6. (99) As soon as pesticides arrive 30 minutes for storage you should: b) wash the eye quickly for a) store them in the designated 15 minutes with running place water b) mark them with an ”X“ for c) put your goggles on to keep storage dust and dirt out c) remove the label so it will not d) cover the eye with black cloth get lost to keep all light out d) pack them in an absorbent e) all the above. material.

109 Terms Used in Other Terms Used Bait Shyness: The tendency for Pest Control in Pest Control rodents, birds, or other pests to avoid Some of these words have several a poisoned bait. meanings. Those given here are the Bipyridyliums: A group of syn- ones that relate to pest control. thetic organic pesticides which Abrasion: The process of wearing includes the herbicide paraquat. away by rubbing. Botanical Pesticide: A pesticide Abscission: The separation of fruit, made from plants. Also called plant- leaves, or stems from a plant. derived pesticides. Absorption: The process by which Broadleaf Weeds: Plants with a chemical is taken into plants, broad, rounded, or flattened leaves. animals, or minerals. Compare with Brush Control: Control of woody adsorption. plants. Activator: A chemical added to a Carbamate: A synthetic organic pesticide to increase its activity. pesticide containing carbon, hydro- Adherence: Sticking to a surface. gen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Adsorption: The process by which Carcinogenic: Can cause cancer. chemicals are held on the surface of a Carrier: The inert liquid or solid mineral or soil particle. Compare with material added to an active ingredient absorption. to prepare a pesticide formulation. Adulterated: Any pesticide whose Causal Organism: The organism strength or purity falls below the (pathogen) that produces a specific quality stated on its label. Also, a disease. food, feed, or product that contains Chemosterilant: A chemical that illegal pesticide residues. can prevent reproduction. Aerobic: Living in the air. The op- Chlorinated Hydrocarbon: A posite of anaerobic. synthetic organic pesticide that contains Aerosol: An extremely fine mist or chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen. Same fog consisting of solid or liquid par- as organochlorine. ticles suspended in air. Also, certain Chlorosis: The yellowing of a formulations used to produce a fine plant’s green tissue. mist or smoke. Cholinesterase: A chemical cata- Agitation: The process of stirring lyst (enzyme) found in animals that or mixing in a sprayer. helps regulate the activity of nerve Alkaloids: Chemicals present in impulses. some plants. Some are used as pesti- Concentration: The amount of ac- cides. tive ingredient in a given volume or Anaerobic: Living in the absence weight of formulation. of air. The opposite of aerobic. Contaminate: To make impure or Animal Sign: The evidences of an to pollute. animal’s presence in an area. Corrosion: The process of wearing Antagonism: The loss of activity of away by chemical means. a chemical when exposed to another Crucifers: Plants belonging to the chemical. mustard family, such as mustard, cab- Antibiotic: A substance which is bage, turnip, and radish. used to control pest microorganisms. Cucurbits: Plants belonging to Antidote: A practical treatment for the gourd family, such as pumpkin, poisoning, including first aid. cucumber, and squash. Aqueous: A term used to indicate Deciduous Plants: Perennial plants the presence of water in a solution. that lose their leaves during the Arsenicals: Pesticides containing winter. arsenic. Deflocculating Agent: A material Aseptic: Free of disease-causing added to a suspension to prevent set- organisms. tling. Degradation: The process by which a chemical is reduced to a less complex form. 110 Terms Used in Dermal: Of the skin; through or by which an animal is producing milk. the skin. LC : The concentration of an active 50 Pest Control Dermal Toxicity: Ability of a ingredient in air which is expected chemical to cause injury when ab- to cause death in 50 percent of the sorbed through the skin. test animals so treated. A means of Diluent: Any liquid or solid mate- expressing the toxicity of a compound rial used to dilute or carry an active present in air as dust, mist, gas, or ingredient. vapor. It is generally expressed as Dilute: To make thinner by adding micrograms per liter as a dust or mist water, another liquid, or a solid. but in the case of a gas or vapor as Dispersing Agent: A material parts per million (ppm). that reduces the attraction between LD50: The dose of an active ingredi- particles. ent taken by mouth or absorbed by Dormant: State in which growth the skin which is expected to cause of seeds or other plant organs stops death in 50 percent of the test animals temporarily. so treated. If a chemical has an LD50 Dose, Dosage: Quantity of a pesti- of 10 milligrams per kilogram (mg/ cide applied. kg) it is more toxic than one having Emulsifier: A chemical which aids an LD50 of 100 mg/kg. in suspending one liquid in another. Leaching: Movement of a sub- Emulsion: A mixture in which one stance downward or out of the soil as liquid is suspended as tiny drops in the result of water movement. another liquid, such as oil in water. Mammals: Warm-blooded animals Fungistat: A chemical that keeps that nourish their young with milk. fungi from growing. Their skin is more or less covered GPA: Gallons per acre. with hair. GPM: Gallons per minute. Miscible Liquids: Two or more Growth Stages of Cereal crops: liquids that can be mixed and will (1) Tillering—when additional shoots remain mixed under normal conditions. are developing from the flower buds. MPH: Miles per hour. (2) Jointing—when stem internodes Mutagenic: Can produce genetic begin elongating rapidly. change. (3) Booting—when upper leaf sheath Necrosis: Localized death of living swells due to the growth of develop- tissue such as the death of a certain ing spike or panicle. (4) Heading— area of a leaf. when seed head is emerging from the Necrotic: Showing varying ­degrees upper leaf sheath. of dead areas or spots. Hard (water): Water containing sol- Nitrophenols: Synthetic organic uble salts of calcium and magnesium pesticides containing carbon, hydro- and sometimes iron. gen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Herbaceous Plant: A plant that Noxious Weed: A plant defined does not develop woody tissue. as being especially undesirable or Hydrogen-Ion Concentration: troublesome. A measure of acidity or alkalinity, Oral: Of the mouth; through or by expressed in terms of the pH of the the mouth. solution. For example, a pH of 7 is Oral Toxicity: Ability of a pesticide neutral, from 1 to 7 is acid, and from 7 to cause injury when taken by mouth. to 14 is alkaline. Organic Compounds: Chemicals Immune: Not susceptible to a dis- that contain carbon. ease or poison. Organochlorine: Same as chlori- Impermeable: Cannot be penetrat- nated hydrocarbon. ed. Semipermeable means that some Organophosphate: A synthetic substances can pass through and oth- organic pesticide containing carbon, ers cannot. hydrogen, and phosphorus; parathion Lactation: The production of milk and malathion are two examples. by an animal, or the period during 111 Terms Used in Ovicide: A chemical that destroys Susceptible: Capable of being dis- Pest Control eggs. eased or poisoned; not immune. Pathogen: Any disease-producing Susceptible Species: A plant or organism. animal that is poisoned by moderate Penetration: The act of entering or amounts of a pesticide. ability to enter. Suspension: Finely divided solid Phytotoxic: Harmful to plants. particles mixed in a liquid. Pollutant: An agent or chemical Synergism: The joint action of two that makes something impure or dirty. or more pesticides that is greater than PPB: Parts per billion. A way to the sum of their activity when used express the concentration of chemi- alone. cals in foods, plants, and animals. Target Pest: The pest at which a One part per billion equals 1 pound particular pesticide or other control in 500,000 tons. method is directed. PPM: Parts per million. A way to Tolerance: (1) The ability of a liv- express the concentration of chemi- ing thing to withstand adverse condi- cals in foods, plants, and animals. tions, such as pest attacks, weather One part per million equals 1 pound extremes, or pesticides. in 500 tons. (2) The amount of pesticide that may Predator: Any animal that ­destroys safely remain in or on raw farm prod- or eats other animals. ucts at time of sale. Propellant: Liquid in self-pressur- Toxicant: A poisonous chemical. ized pesticide products that forces the Trade Name: Same as brand name. active ingredient from the container. Vapor Pressure: The property PSI: Pounds per square inch. which causes a chemical to evaporate. Pubescent: Having hairy leaves or The lower the vapor pressure, the stems. more easily it will evaporate. RPM: Revolutions per minute. Vector: A carrier, such as an insect, Safener: A chemical added to a that transmits a pathogen. pesticide to keep it from injuring Viscosity: A property of liquids plants. that determines whether they flow Seed Protectant: A chemical readily. Viscosity usually increases applied to seed before planting to when temperature decreases. protect seeds and new seedlings from Volatile: Evaporates at ordinary disease and insects. temperatures when exposed to air. Soil Sterilant: A chemical that Wetting Agent: A chemical which prevents the growth of all plants and causes a liquid to contact surfaces animals in the soil. Soil sterilization more thoroughly. may be temporary or permanent, depending on the chemical. Soluble: Will dissolve in a liquid. Solution: Mixture of one or more substances in another in which all ingredients are completely dissolved. Solvent: A liquid which will dis- solve a substance to form a solution. Spreader: A chemical which in- creases the area that a given volume of liquid will cover on a solid or on another liquid. Sticker: A material added to a pes- ticide to increase its adherence. Surfactant: A chemical which increases the emulsifying, dispersing. spreading and wetting properties of a pesticide product. 112 NOTES:

113 114 ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS

Pages 5–26 Pages 66–73 1. b 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. c 1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. b 8. a 9. c 10. a 11. d 12. b 13. a Pages 75–83 14. c 15. d 16. d 17. c 18. c 19. d 1. b 2. d 3. d 4. c 20. c 21. c 22. a Pages 85–91 Pages 29–34 1. c 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. d 1. c 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. d 6. d Pages 93–108 Pages 36–57 1. c 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. a 7. d 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. c 6. a 7. d 8. b 9. c 10. d 11. c 12. b 8. d Pages 59–64 1. b 2. a 3. c 4. b

115 Frannie L. Miller Pesticide Coordinator

AUTHORS: Appreciation is expressed to the following for preparation of the material in this manual: Donald C. Cress, Entomologist, Former Pesticide Coordinator, Kansas State University Robert Bowden, Specialist, Plant Pathology, Kansas State University H. Leroy Brooks, Specialist, Insecticides (Pesticidal Safety), Kansas State University F. Robert Henderson, Former State Leader, Wildlife Damage Control Program, Kansas State University Dennis K. Kuhlman, Agricultural Engineer, Pesticide Application, Kansas State University Dallas Peterson, Specialist, Weed Science, Kansas State University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Appreciation is expressed to the following for cooperation in the Pesticide Applicator Training Program: Jeanne Fox, Ecological Specialist, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of Agriculture Glenda Mah, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of Agriculture Gary Boutz, Administrator, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of Agriculture

Brand names appearing in this publication are for product identification purposes only. No endorsement is intended, nor is criticism implied of similar products not mentioned. Publications from Kansas State University are available at www.bookstore.ksre.ksu.edu

Contents of this publication may be freely reproduced for educational purposes. All other rights reserved. In each case, credit Frannie L. Miller, et al., Pesticide Application Training, General Manual, Kansas State University, July 2002.

Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service S-12 July 2002 It is the policy of Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service that all persons shall have equal opportunity and ac- cess to its educational programs, services, activities, and materials without regard to race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age or disability. Kansas State Universi- ty is an equal opportunity organization. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Marc A. Johnson, Director. 116