V Harlc^Hr^ and Davhi Li

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V harlc^Hr^ and DavHi li No figure in history is mor,:; vv.ri.d and dramatic than the me'.'jex :/< knight. Fierce in battle ana ga'Jant in their defense of the weak, these warriors of the Middle Ages are seen as champions of justice in a savage world. They did not always live up to our image of them, but they still represent a noble ideal. And when we think of knights, we think first of their plumed helmets, their flashing swords, and, most of all, the gleaming armor that covered them from head to toe. In lucid text and marvelously precise illustrations, Charlotte and

David Yue tell the story of armor

— how it evolved over the centuries,

how it was designed and made by skilled craftsmen and armorers, even how the knight donned his armor. There are chapters on armor for horses, on jousts and tournaments, on the exotic armor of warriors in the Near East, the South Seas, and

Japan. Here is an absorbing introduction to a subject that has fascinated readers of history and legends for many years.

Jacket art © 1 994 by David Yue

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Houghton Mifflin Company Boston 1994 To the Classroom on Carpenter Lane for being ''graceland'

Thanks to Frances Elise Yue

for all her assistance

in the preparation of this manuscript

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Yue, Charlotte.

Armor / by Charlotte and David Yue.

p. cm. ISBN 0-395-68101-4

1. Armor — Europe — History — Juvenile literature. 2. Military history. Medieval — Juvenile literature. 3. Armor — History — Juvenile literature. [1. Armor — History. 2. Military history, Medieval.]

I. Yue, David. II. Title. U810.Y84 1994 93-50601 355.8'241 — dc20 CIP AC

Printed in the United States of America VB 10 987654321 Contents

1. Knights and Knighthood 1

2. The Development of Armor 13

3. The Armorer and His Craft 33

4. A Full Suit of Plate Armor 43

5. Getting Dressed 63

6. Armor for Horses 69

7. Tournaments and Jousts 71

8. Last of the Knights 79

9. Other Armor 83

Bibliography 87

Index 91 A Knight of the Fifteenth Century V/earing Italian Gothic Armor Knights and Knighthood CHAPTER ONE

Two armies thirsting for a fight face each other on the battlefield in the first light of dawn. The king has formed the center of the line with his best men. Two of his most trusted leaders flank him with their men-at-arms. The enemy begins the fighting with a shower of arrows. Both sides shout curses and insults, trying to make their opponents angry enough to break ranks and fall into disarray. After the bombardment of arrows and insults, the foot soldiers close in bloody hand-to-hand combat. It is a grim trial of strength, with a confusion of men cutting, stabbing, and blud- geoning with swords, axes, clubs, and spears. Suddenly a horn sounds. At the signal, there is a thunder of horses and the gleam of metal. Knights charge into the fray with lance and sword. Iron-willed and iron-hearted, they move quickly and hit hard. Foot soldiers are no match for the combined force of man and horse, and they scatter and run before the invincible men of iron. KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD

The knight in shining armor is one of the most vivid images of the Middle Ages. We envision vaHant warriors on horseback, completely encased in suits of iron. Knights were the masters of the battlefield; their fierce and determined charge would decide the outcome of a battle. Off the battlefield, we picture them fighting for the right, defending the weak, upholding justice, and trying to establish order in a savage world. In truth, knights frequently fell short of this image. They were often violent, de- structive, and cruel. And they were likely to be a major cause of lawlessness and disorder. Yet the image of knights as zealous champions of causes and chivalrous defenders of principles re- mains untarnished. For in spite of their many shortcomings, the medieval knights still represent for us a noble ideal that men were striving to attain. Who were these knights in shining armor, and how did they become such an important part of medieval life? The origins of the knight go back to the downfall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century a.d. At its greatest, the Roman Empire included most of what is now central and northern Europe west of the Rhine and Danube Rivers, as well as North Africa and practically all the Mediterranean world. It united millions of people within its realm and protected them with an army of well-trained, professional soldiers. But the vast size of the empire made it difficult to defend. Across the long borders of the Rhine and Danube, there were dense forests, treacherous mountains, and wild marshlands in- habited by tribes of people that the Romans called barbarians. Although the Romans thought them uncivilized, these people had their own laws and culture. They lived in villages of houses built of a woven matting of brushwood thickly plastered with clay. Their religion was based mainly on nature worship. Important questions that concerned a tribe — war, peace, migrations, se- •^'

Barbarian Helmet, Shield, and Sword

.^^^ KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD lections of leaders, judgments of crimes and disputes — were decided by an assembly and a council of elders. Guilt or innocence was often determined by ordeals of fire, by oath-taking, or by fighting. Being outlawed from the tribe was considered one of the most severe punishments. These barbarian tribes farmed and raised livestock. Some were excellent metalworkers. Their minstrels composed eloquent poems about glorious events and the heroes of their people. The men were fierce warriors who considered courage and loyalty the highest virtues. Their way of life included constant raiding and warfare. Each tribe had a chief or king who was chosen because he was a great warrior. This chief was expected to lead his men in warfare and protect them during their quarrels. He was also expected to be generous to his followers, giving them booty, gold, weapons, and gifts from raids and conquests. And he was expected to wine and dine them in his hall. The warriors, in turn, gave the chief their loyalty to death. If their chieftain was killed in battle, their duty was to avenge his death or die in the attempt. Men who were the best fighters became part of an inner circle of the chief's chosen companions. Fighting was the most important thing in their lives. They fought for fame and glory as well as for riches. They believed that brave deeds on the battlefield would earn them a warrior's paradise. Minstrels sang in praise of warriors who chose to die in battle rather than retreat. Centuries later, the medieval knight would evolve from these traditions. The barbarian warriors, who were the forerunners of medieval knights, fought with spears, axes, and knives. A sword was the most prized possession of a warrior. Some swords were given names and handed down from father to son. The blades were double-edged, with a groove called a fuller running down the center. Some people have thought that this groove was to allow blood to flow off the blade; the real purpose was to reduce the KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD

Sword

weight of the sword and make it more flexible to handle. The tips of the blades were rounded rather than pointed, since swords at that time were used more as cutting weapons than as thrusting weapons. The hand grip was normally made of wood bound with leather. The quillons, the crosspieces that prevented the warrior's hand from sliding onto the blade, were short and straight. And the finishing knob, or pommel, was round or dome-shaped. Most warriors wore the best protective clothing they had. Usu- ally this was a leather or woolen tunic. Chiefs sometimes wore a mail shirt made of interlinked iron rings or a shirt of overlapping metal scales laced together. The earliest accounts of King Arthur describe him in this kind of armor. Helmets were cone-shaped. Some were beaten into shape from a single piece of iron, but most were formed by a framework of

Fuller Pommel

Quillons KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD

iron bands filled in with segments of horn, iron, or bronze. Usu- ally a nasal, a metal piece to protect the nose, was riveted to the front edge. Cheek and neck guards might also be attached. Some helmets were decorated with jewels and elaborate designs. From early on, armor and weapons were more than equipment for fighting. Warriors wanted finely made and richly decorated weapons and armor to show how powerful, wealthy, and important they were. The major piece of defensive equipment was a round shield.

It was usually made of wood covered with leather, and had a large surface which could be used to turn aside a blow from the attacker's weapon. The warrior grasped his shield by an iron bar fastened to the back. His fist fit into a hole covered by a large metal projection, called a boss, which could be used to punch his opponent. During the decline of the Roman Empire, these barbarian people were embroiled in a period of upheaval and tribal warfare.

Round Shield KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD

Tribes were always moving and resettling. Established tribes were being attacked and weakened by migrating tribes. Stronger neighbors attacked weaker neighbors. A powerful chief attracted more warriors who were willing to fight with him. Historians group these tribes of warriors according to their languages and traditions, such as Vandals, Goths, Visigoths, Franks, Angles, and Saxons. But the tribes did not see themselves as part of a unified group. The Romans had at times tried to expand their empire into barbarian territory, but columns of soldiers marching through the wild forests were easy prey for the bands of barbarians who knew the land. The Romans had to give up such attempts at expansion and concentrate instead on defending what they already had. But when barbarian tribes raided and harassed Roman forts, the Romans were eventually forced to admit some of the tribes into the Empire. They gave them land and privileges and recruited them into the Roman army. But these people were as hard to control within the Empire as they had been outside the Roman borders. Alaric the Goth, one of their commanders, led his people into Italy and sacked Rome. In 476 a.d., a Gothic chieftain, Odoacer, deposed Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor, and overthrew the Western Empire. After the fall of the Empire, Europe entered a period that has been called the Dark Ages. Tribes set up kingdoms and the barbarian kings struggled to hold onto and expand their territories. Even when they began to settle in one place, these people remained fierce fighters. Bands attacked villages to loot and steal. Tribes fought each other and among themselves. Also, with the collapse of the Roman Empire, roads and bridges were no longer maintained. It became difficult and dangerous to travel. Trade was disrupted and cities declined. Centers of learning were destroyed. Written records were lost. People lost contact KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD with each other. Society broke down into smaller, more isolated communities separated by areas of thick forest. Most people feared these dark woods surrounding them. Though some of their fears were based on superstition, most were well founded. The deep forests sheltered wild animals that attacked their flocks, and bands of warriors that might raid villages and burn homes. Upheaval and invasions continued as new groups of raiders overran settled people and established their own kingdoms. Franks crossed the Rhine River, and, by 600 a.d., had gained control of what is now Belgium, France, and the western part of Germany. At about the same time, Lombards established the kingdom of Lombardy in what is today northern Italy. The Lom- bards were skilled horsemen who used their horses in battle. In the eighth century, the followers of Islam — fierce fighters and skilled horsemen — overran portions of Spain, Sicily, Italy, and southern France. And Vikings threatened Europe from the north, invading by seas and rivers during the eighth and ninth centuries. In this time of constant fighting, methods of protection evolved. Barbarian chiefs, surrounded by their chosen warriors, fortified their dwellings. Those needing protection were willing to swear homage and loyalty to a strong noble in return for his pledge to defend them. This eventually evolved into feudalism. Feudalism is the name given to the way of life developed in the Middle Ages to meet the problems of military defense, the administration of justice, and the distribution of land. The king owned all the land in his kingdom. He kept large estates for himself and divided the rest among his principal nobles on the condition that, as the king's vassals, they maintain a certain number of men to defend the kingdom. These nobles kept some knights in their households and gave a few of their most trusted knights estates of their own. The knights supplied a portion of the men required by the king, and were the armed strength of the noble. KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD

The people who worked the fields lived in huts clustered around the noble's manor house or castle. These peasants had to give part of their crops to the knight or lord while laboring on his farm. The lord protected his territory and administered local affairs and settled disputes in his court. The details of the arrangements were often very complicated, and varied from region to region. If a noble became powerful and could count on the loyalty of those under him, he could challenge the power of the king.

Europe during the Middle Ages had little political unity, but it did possess religious unity. Christianity was that one unifying force. From the fourth century a.d., Christianity had been the religion of the Roman Empire. Priests stayed in their churches even after the fall of the Empire. Christianity had many elements that were familiar and appealing to the barbarians who took over the land. Christians believed in life after death. They believed that a fife of virtue was rewarded. And they believed in miracles. At first barbarians probably accepted elements of Christianity as extra protection, since Christians preached that no one could be saved outside its fold. Some barbarian helmets were ornamented with symbols from both their own religion and from Christianity. But in the next few centuries, most barbarians were converted to Christianity. It might have seemed difficult for a warrior to be a good Christian, since Christians preached nonviolence, but the early church allowed that fighting and killing were acceptable when done to protect God's people and God's work. It was easy for a Christian warrior to convince himself that he was fighting for right. Fighting non-Christians became an accepted duty of Christian warriors. After the Frankish army of Charles Martel defeated the Islamic warriors (the Saracens) at Poitiers in 732, the Franks recognized the advantage these warriors had had as horsemen, Helmet Made of Horn and Iron with Barbarian Symbols and Christian Cross

and so enacted laws to recruit, train, and equip soldiers to fight on horseback. The cost of keeping, breeding, and training warhorses would mean that mounted warriors had to come from wealthier classes of society. By 800, the great Prankish warrior Charlemagne had con- quered most of western Europe and become ruler of what was called the Holy Roman Empire. He also reaUzed the importance of strengthening the cavalry. New technology helped improve the KNIGHTS AND KNIGHTHOOD

effectiveness of mounted warriors. The introduction of stirrups gave a knight greater stabiUty in the saddle and greater control over his horse. He could even stand up in his stirrups and increase his height above his enemy. This made the fearsome charge of mounted knights possible, increasing their importance on the field of battle. By the end of the era of Charlemagne, barbarian w^arriors had evolved into a wealthy warrior class. These knights were horsemen; their only job was to fight, and they were sup- ported by those who worked their land. A knight needed to spend a long time learning to handle his warhorse. All his fighting techniques were based on horsemanship. He had to learn to use weapons from the saddle. He needed grooms to help him, and other horses to ride during a march, so as not to tire his charger. The combined strength and speed of a man and horse enabled knights to be the ones who decided the fortunes of battles and the fate of kingdoms. The medieval knight, as the warrior on horseback, would hold a special place in medieval society for centuries to come.

The Development of Armor CHAPTER TWO

The medieval knight Hved in a dangerous time, a time of constant fighting. When people must do dangerous things, whether playing sports or fighting wars, they try to protect themselves as much as they can. They adapt whatever materials are available. Animal skin, or leather, has been used as a defensive material since earliest times. It was used either as the sole defense, or reinforced with metal plates over the most vital body parts.

Leather could also be treated to make it extremely hard. The hide would be boiled in oil or water, until it was soft enough to be molded into the desired shape. When it cooled, it hardened.

Often, it was beautifully decorated with embossed designs. It could also be painted for ornamentation. This specially treated leather was called cuir bouilli, which means boiled leather. Even when full suits of plate armor were available, knights sometimes used cuir bouilli instead. It provided good protection and was much lighter and less costly than metal. Unfortunately, few ex-

Armor of the Period of the Norman Conquest 14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR amples survive today. Usually discarded pieces were used for other things, and unless it was kept dry and oiled regularly, it would crack and rot. As skill in weaving techniques improved, people made armor from fabrics. Linen jackets were padded and quilted to make them about two inches thick. Quilted armor was popular with both foot soldiers and knights. It was inexpensive, easy to put on and take off, and less oppressive than metal on long marches. It was very effective against cutting blows, and gave some protection against crushing ones. Other materials, like horn and whalebone, were sometimes added to fabric or leather. Few fabric defenses survive, having been destroyed by moths and mildew. Most of our information comes from pictures and documents.

And it is hard to tell in pictures whether a defense is fabric, metal covered with fabric, leather, or decorated metal. From the tenth to the thirteenth century, the most popular material for armor was mail. It was so widely used in Europe that this period is often called the Age of Mail. Mail was constructed of a mesh of hand-formed, riveted metal links. Making mail was an ancient craft that continued to be used into the early seventeenth century. Mail was also worn by warriors in many eastern countries.

Little is known about the methods and tools used for the construction of mail, but with the knowledge we have of the tools and techniques of blacksmiths and other metalworkers, we can guess how a mail-maker probably worked. A mail garment was constructed of anywhere from 30,000 to 250,000 metal rings. Because each ring was made by hand, there must have been a division of labor in the workshop to produce mail fast enough to be practical. Apprentices or assistants probably did the rep- etitious and tedious jobs involved in making the rings. One man concentrated on one job, using the same tool over and over again. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR 15

To make rings, the mail-maker first needed wire. Metal rods were heated until soft. Then they were drawn through smaller and smaller holes, making the rods progressively longer and thinner. To do this, a worker probably used a tool that looked like

a screw press. Holding the wire with tongs, he pulled it through a tapered hollow cut in the blocks of the press. The screw was then tightened between each pull, making the opening slightly smaller each time. The finished wire was then wrapped around an iron rod and the coiled wire was cut into rings with wire cutters. The rings needed to overlap to be joined together. A worker, using a special punch, drove the rings through a metal block, which had a tapered hole to form overlapping rings that were uniform in size. An apprentice threaded the rings on wire and heated them again.

Making Mail Links Assembling Mail Links

A mail-maker then hammered the softened rings between hinged dies to flatten and shape the ends. A slot was pierced in the overlapped ends of each ring with punching tongs. Another apprentice cut wedge-shaped rivets from a sheet of metal. The final linking, riveting, and building up of the garment required the most skill. That was done by the master craftsman who was supplied with the rings and rivets. Generally every link was attached to four others. The skill of the master mail-maker was getting the correct combination of rings to shape a garment.

Although mail shirts were flexible enough to fit different wearers, the craftsman put a lot of care into constructing them for as much ease and comfort in movement as possible. For a garment to have shape, it had to be expanded in some places and contracted in others. That meant that rings had to be added or subtracted THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR 17 from rows, or the number of rows had to be increased or de- creased. To do this, the mail-maker inserted "idle" rings, which were attached only to three other rings instead of the usual four. Mail was constructed somewhat like knitting, one row at a time. Craftsmen probably worked with fixed plans that were passed on from generation to generation. Idle rings were usually placed in symmetrical patterns in the garment. Mail shirts had a front and a back. Rows were added at the back so that the wearer could bend over. Rings were often increased over the shoulder blades, allowing the wearer to hunch his shoulders. Shirts were reduced at the waist and expanded at the hips. Shirts with sleeves had a set of idle rings to decrease the number of rings on the inside of the elbow; this kept the sleeve from bunching when the knight bent his arm. Under the arms, rings were joined at right

Idle Ring (Dark) for Triangles for Reducing the Number Reducing the Number of Links of Links and Circles for Additional Links

Idle Ring (Dark) for Adding to the Number of Links in a Row angles. Mail shirts also had an inside and an outside. Rivet backs were always on the inside, since they gave a smoother surface that caused less wear and tear on the garment underneath. Brass rings were sometimes added in decorative patterns. The finished garment was then case-hardened. This means that it was packed with crushed charcoal in an iron box. The box was placed in the forge and kept at red heat for some time. The carbon from the charcoal turned the outside of the iron into steel. Actual Size of a Link

A knight in complete mail armor wore a padded undergarment, called an aketon or gambeson, which protected him from the roughness of the metal and absorbed some of the force of blows. Over this he wore a hauberk, a mail shirt that came down to his knees. The hauberk usually had a slit at the middle of the hem, at both the front and back, for riding. Some shirts had a mail hood called a coif to protect the head and neck. The coif was kept close to the head by a thong that went around the temples. 20 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR

Some had an overlapping flap that covered the chin and tied on the side with laces. Sometimes the sleeves were extended to form mail mittens called mufflers. These had leather palms with a slit so the hand could slip in and out easily. Some knights wore mail leggings called chausses. Sometimes these tied at the back of the legs and were held up by thongs threaded through the rings and tied around the legs. Other leggings were fastened to a belt under the hauberk. And some warriors just wore hose with crisscross bindings. A surcoat was worn over the suit of mail. It was used to keep off rain since mail rusted easily. It was also important for identifying knights. Emblems, which were the unique badge of each knight, were sometimes displayed on the surcoat. Knights also wore crests on their helmets. These could be animals, plumes, or banners displaying the knight's emblem. Kings or knights of high rank might wear a crown on their helmet instead of, or in addition to, a crest. Crests made men look tall and fierce. They also helped friends and enemies pick out who was who in a crowd. This often saved lives, as a man in complete armor could be mistaken even by his own men. A knight's emblem could tell his enemies that he was important and would probably be able to afford a ransom. Sometimes an army would try to confuse the enemy by sending several men onto the field dressed exactly alike.

At first knights wore conical helmets similar to those worn by barbarian warriors. Later they wore large, cylindrical helms that completely covered their heads, except for two slits for their eyes and pierced holes for breathing. They were worn with a padded arming cap and had straps that tied under the chin. The earliest of these great helms had flat tops. This flat top formed a rim, which stood out around the knight's head at the place where he was likely to receive heavy blows. But knights found that they Tunic and Leggings Aketon Hauberk with Surcoat and Coif and Chausse Great Helm

Still felt the full force of a downward blow. When the skull of

the helm was rounded or pointed, it created a glancing surface, and blows were deflected. During the Age of Mail, knights carried kite-shaped shields of wood and leather. This elongated shape protected the whole left side of the horseman. Shields were also decorated with the knight's particular signs and colors. This shield design later became a knight's coat of arms. Eventually, the use of these emblems would develop into a complicated science known as heraldry. 22 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR

A knight's sword was longer than the early barbarian swords, but it still had a straight, broad blade. The blade was double- edged and somewhat more pointed, since it was used for thrusting, as well as for cutting. This was the kind of armor and equipment used by the knights at the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066. It was used by the knights who went on the First Crusade in 1096 and those who went on the Last Crusade, ending in 1291. The complete outfit weighed about thirty pounds and cost as much as a small farm. Wounded and dead knights were stripped of their armor on the battlefield. Armor was so expensive that it was a valuable prize to be taken in war and raids. Improved military tactics were adding to the effectiveness of knights in battle. Knights developed the technique of charging with a couched lance. They held their lances near the blunt end, clamped tightly against their bodies with their right hands. Sad- dles had raised and reinforced backs that kept the knight from being thrown backwards off his horse after the impact of hitting his target. He could deliver a devastating blow to his enemy because his rigidly held lance had the momentum of both man and charging horse behind it. An entire line of knights charging this way seemed unstoppable. The effectiveness of the most fearsome weapons of the time, like the four-foot battle axe, could be overcome by a cavalry charge with couched lances. Knights needed skill and training to carry out such a charge effectively. They had to learn to hold the lance steady while controlling a galloping horse, and they had to be able to work together as a unit. Wearing a full suit of mail and an aketon, a knight was fairly well protected from sword cuts, arrows, and lance thrusts. We know from eyewitness accounts that knights fighting in the Cru-

Arrows Snared in Mail Armor

24 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR

sades sometimes had so many arrows caught in their mail they looked like hedgehogs. And yet they were not injured. However, mail could not give adequate protection against crushing and bruising blows, and the heavily padded garment worn underneath to prevent breaking bones became unbearably hot. It also gave very little protection against missile weapons like the crossbow. And if mail was split by a sword or lance, broken links were sometimes pushed into the wound. Mail hung mostly from the knight's shoulders, and felt heavy and cumbersome if it was worn for a long time. In spite of all the shaping the mail-maker could work into a garment, it creased in folds whenever a knight bent, interfering with his freedom of movement. The metal rings could easily chafe and produce sores, even with careful padding. The large shield, which compensated for the insufficient protection of mail, limited the freedom of movement of the left arm, needed to hold the reins and control the horse. As the crossbow came into more general use, the inadequacies of mail became more apparent. This weapon was a strong bow mounted on a stock, with a groove for the arrow. At first it was strung by hand, with the stock braced against the body. As the crossbow was made stronger, the bow was placed on the ground, and the archer held it down with his feet while he pulled up the string with both hands. Then he inserted the short, heavy arrow or bolt, brought the bow up, aimed, and released the trigger.

Eventually it was made so powerful that mechanical means had to be used for holding and releasing the string. At one time, the

Pope tried to outlaw the use of the crossbow because it was considered such an unfair and brutal weapon. But by the end of the thirteenth century, use of the crossbow was widespread. And while it was a powerful weapon, and took less skill and strength to use than an ordinary bow, a skilled archer could still shoot faster and farther with an ordinary bow. Crossbows were also Crossbowmen

more expensive. Yet, most armies could not spend time training archers and preferred the ease of the crossbow. On the battlefield, crossbowmen had to be entrenched behind shields fixed in the ground to allow them time to load their weapons. Mail armor was easily pierced by the powerful bolt of a crossbow. Warriors were always engaged in an arms race. As better weapons were developed, better armor and defensive equipment had

to be created to save the knight's life. Mail could only be made stronger by increasing the thickness of the rings or by using double rings. But thicker mail became stiff and rigid, and the wearer was unable to move easily. An already heavy defense Z6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR

became even heavier. Armorers tried to find ways to strengthen and reinforce mail in other ways. They tried to stop the effectiveness of missiles by using surfaces that would deflect them. Different materials were used for added defenses — hardened leather, horn, whalebone, or padded fabric. The choice of material depended on how much expense a knight was willing to go to, how much additional weight he was willing to carry, and how much flexibility he was willing to give up. Probably breast-

plates of some kind were added under the surcoat, but it is often

difficult to tell from pictures and statues whether or not a knight was wearing these defenses. Some knights wore a coat of plates over their mail hauberk, under the surcoat. This was a leather

or cloth vest that had metal plates riveted on it. In the mid-thirteenth century, armorers started making metal plates to wear with the mail to protect parts of the body that were particularly vulnerable. They were added on piece by piece as more reinforcement was needed, and either over or under the mail. Knights often suffered knee and leg injuries. These were vulnerable spots for a man on horseback, places easily reached by foot soldiers. So armorers made small plates fitted to the knees, called poleyns. Then they added metal shin guards, sometimes with foot defenses as well. Later, round plates called couters were added at the elbows, and gutter-shaped plates were made to protect the upper arms. Discs, called besagews, were also added to protect shoulders and armpits. Eventually the knight's arms were completely protected with metal. Boiled leather and quilted fabric remained popular for thigh defenses, since knights found this more comfortable on horseback. But eventually they preferred the greater protection of metal. A conical helmet called the bascinet was being used more frequently. Some curved down on each side to cover the ears and Mail Suit Add: Poleyns Add: Shin and Foot Guards

Add: Couters Add: Complete Metal Add: Camail, and Besagews Arm Defenses and Bascinet Gauntlet, and Thigh Defenses z8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR

back of the head. In the fourteenth century, the camail, a mail cape that protected the sides of the head, neck, and shoulders, was fastened to the bascinet, eliminating the need for a mail coif.

The edge of the camail usually had holes that fit over staples along the edge of the bascinet. A lace or a thick wire was passed through the staples to hold the camail in place. Some bascinets had hinged visors to protect the face. They usually came to a sinister-looking point in front and were called pig-faced or dog- faced bascinets. The first gauntlets were leather gloves covered with small metal plates or scales. Later, the back of the hand and wrist were covered by a single plate, and the fingers had metal scales riveted to the glove. The quilted aketon or gambeson, worn underneath the armor.

Bascinet with Pig-Faced Visor THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR 29

changed shape and form as the armor required. The mail hauberk was still worn to cover places not protected by metal, with a

breastplate and backplate or a coat of plates over it. The surcoat became a shorter and more fitted garment called a jupon. As armor improved, shields became smaller and more triangular. This shape came to have spiritual significance for the knight, symbolizing the Trinity, the Christian belief in the union of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in one god. Although shields gave moveable protection, they still interfered with the knight's ability to manage his horse, since, along with the shield, he also held the reins in his left hand. By about 1400, armor had become so effective that shields could be discarded. Sometimes, plates of armor were left as polished metal. Others were coated with tin to prevent rust. Usually helmets and metal plates were covered with leather, velvet, or silk. Knights wanted to look well dressed as well as be well protected. Brigandine armor was a popular form of light armor developed during the fifteenth century. This was a jacket of rich material — satin, brocade, leather, or silk — with small overlapping metal plates riveted to the underside of the cloth and lined with another layer of cloth. The exposed rivets gave a distinctive look to the jacket. Brigandines were brightly colored and elegant-looking, and the small plates allowed more freedom of movement than was possible with solid breast- and backplates. Since the fighter turned his left side toward his opponent, the brigandine buckled left side over right to prevent a sword blade from catch- ing in the opening. Men's jackets are still buttoned left over right today.

The sword was still the most important knightly weapon. Like the triangular shield, it also had spiritual meaning for the knight, since it was shaped like a cross — another important symbol for Christians. Brigandine

Becoming a knight was also taking on more significance. He was more than a warrior; he was expected to Uve his Hfe according to a code known as chivalry. This included fair and honorable behavior in battle, as well as generous treatment of people off the battlefield, especially women. Learning to be a knight involved formal training. Usually a son was sent to the household of another lord where he would serve first as a page, then as a squire. He would receive training in the fighting skills necessary for a knight. But he would also learn the manners and accomplishments that were required of a gentleman. Part of the education of a page or squire was to wait at his master's table, learning how to carve meat and select wine. As in warrior days, a knight still had to keep himself and his followers at a standard of living that made their loyalty worthwhile and give them food THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR 3 I and wine, but these were now being judged by a higher standard of cuisine. At the end of the squire's training, he was ready to be dubbed a knight. He fasted, bathed, and prayed the day before. At the ceremony, the lord touched the shoulders of the kneeling squire three times with a sword blade, transforming him into a knight. He was then given his spurs — the symbols of knighthood. These were attached to his heels and were used to urge his horse forward. Early spurs had a single, straight point. Later, they had a spiked wheel called a rowel. A knight was usually buried with his spurs. i/'!

<•;

Water Wheel Powering the Mechanical Bellows of a Furnace

-^' "^^ The Armorer and His Craft CHAPTER THREE

The craft of the armorer was extremely important because of the protection it suppHed the knight in battle. And since the pros- perity of a town or a community depended to a large extent on the security provided by a strong leader, the armorer was held in especially high esteem. Regions which had iron, plenty of timber, and mountain streams to use for power became the mining and metalworking centers. Some places were known for the high quality of their iron. German ore was very highly regarded, and Germanic peoples were experts at metalworking. To get iron ore into a workable state, crushed ore was mixed with charcoal and heated in a charcoal-fueled furnace. Early in the Middle Ages, European ironmasters smelted ore in small furnaces, with air supplied to the burning mixture by hand- or foot-powered bellows. In this process, impurities called slag flowed off from the bottom of the furnace into pits, and the Water-Powered Hammer ironworkers collected the spongelike mass known as bloom. The bloom was hammered and reheated several times to remove more slag and to get a usable form of iron. Eventually water-powered bellows were used to heat the furnaces to higher temperatures. This increased the size of the bloom and the output of the ironworks.

After the iron was made into bars, it was beaten into flat plates.

At first, this was done by hand; later this work, and most of the preliminary hammering, was done by water-driven tilt hammers. Medieval engineers developed many ways to apply power from waterwheels to industrial processes. Throughout the Middle Ages, water power and specialization of labor became more important in the production of armor. Sometimes, plates of iron were produced in mills owned by the armorer, but as the craft of the armorer became more impor- THE ARMORER AND HIS CRAFT 35

tant and involved large trade, it was more convenient to have the plates beaten out in special mills, before they w^ent to the armorer. In the armorer's workshop, a worker cut the plates into ap- proximate shapes for various pieces of armor. He used a huge pair of shears, which were fixed in a heavy block of wood to keep them steady. Rough shaping could be done by water-driven hammers. Then the armorer shaped the individual pieces, hammering them by hand over metal formers. These were small anvils of various shapes, each mounted on a stake that fit into a hole in the armorer's workbench or a large wooden block. There were special anvils and hammers for each part of the suit. Finished pieces were trimmed with the huge shears. The outer edges were usually stiffened by bending them around a wire. This edge also formed a stop rib, which kept a weapon from slipping off the edge and wounding the knight. Polishers took the pieces, which were blackened from the fire and marred with hammer dents, and, using grindstones of various sizes powered by a wa- terwheel, polished them until they gleamed. To make high-quality armor, the medieval armorer had to understand how to work with his material. He could do most of his work when the metal was cold, but hammering made it hard and brittle. During the process, he frequently had to heat the piece of metal and allow it to cool slowly to keep it workable.

The more rapidly the metal was cooled, the harder it became. Of course, the armorer wanted the finished armor to be strong and hard. Some armor was case-hardened, the same process used for mail. The carbon from the charcoal turns the outside of the iron into steel, and the layer of steel thickens as the process continues. Eventually the metal would become steel right through, but that Making a Steel Helmet THE ARMORER AND HIS CRAFT 37

did not produce the best armor. Steel is hard and strong but it can also be very brittle. The best armor was diamond hard on the outside and as soft as the original iron on the inside. This kind of plate could resist greater blows and was less likely to crack or split than if it had been allowed to become all steel. Another method for hardening iron was to smear the piece with hog's lard. The iron was then wrapped in strips of goatskin, covered in clay, and heated for a long time. Carbon would very slowly diffuse into the iron, increasing the carbon content of the piece. Steel could also be hardened by quenching, a method in which the ironsmith plunged the red-hot metal into liquid. Water pro- vides the most rapid cooling, but again, brittleness was a problem. Certain waters were supposed to have special quenching prop- erties. If hot steel was quenched in oil or air-cooled, it was less brittle, but also less hard.

A better way to make hard, flexible steel was to quench it in water and then reheat it carefully to temper it. The success of tempering depended on the armorer's ability to control the temperature and to measure the time accurately. Medieval metalworkers did not have tools to measure time or temperature precisely. They had to rely on trial and error and careful obser- vations. One method of controlling the temperature was to watch the changes in color of the metal while it was heating. It goes from white, to yellow, to brown, to blue, then to red. Some places became known for producing superior armor, such as Germany, which had high-quality metal as a natural resource. And though the two-stage process of quenching and tempering was not regularly used in the Middle Ages, it was probably known in Innsbruck and Augsburg, the two armor- making centers of Germany that produced armor of exceptional strength and hardness. They may have also discovered how to use manganese to harden steel. 38 THE ARMORER AND HIS CRAFT

Sometimes a city became a great armor-producing center because a master founded a school that taught superior methods. The Missagha family of Milan were renowned for their beautifully designed and well-made armor. It was said that the craftsmen of Milan could outfit an army in a few days. Besides the great armor-producing centers of Milan and Ger- many, there were many good armorers and centers throughout Europe. The great armorers became rich and famous. They re- ceived royal commissions, knighthoods, gifts, and sometimes ex- emptions from taxes. They worked with some of the finest artists of the times on the design and decoration of armor.

Armorers signed their work by stamping it with their mark. These marks could be initials or a symbol like crossed keys or a helmet with a cross over it. The buyer wanted a guarantee that the armor would protect him from the weapons he would face on the battlefield. There was also a proof mark to certify that the armor had been given an official test of strength. The armorer proved his work by the most powerful weapons in use, usually the crossbow. This test probably took place at the armorers' guild, where a bolt shot from a crossbow was fired at the plate. All the plates of the same suit would usually have a mark of proof. In some instances, each separate plate of a brigandine was stamped with a proof mark. Mail was also marked and proofed against arrows. A small label with the maker's stamp was sometimes riveted to the mail garment. A guild was an association of craftsmen of the same trade formed to protect their common interests. An apprentice had to be tested by the guild before he could become a master craftsman. Guilds were responsible for seeing that the quality of work produced was up to a certain standard. They were allowed to inspect workshops and confiscate any work that did not meet their standard. The craftsman was encouraged to produce good work, and

Missaglia Missaglia Negroli Helmsschmid

Treytz Armourers' Desiderius Valentin Company of London Colman Helmschmidd Siebenbiirger

Augsburg Nuremburg Landshut Wittenburg

Armorers' Stamps the customer was protected from inferior work. Guilds also made sure that armorers did not charge unreasonable prices or un- dercharge to try to put competitors out of business. When armor was repaired or remodeled, it was again subjected to tests. Manufacture of plate armor was complicated and involved a number of specialized craftsmen. Besides the different metalworkers — ironmasters, hammermen, millmen, polishers, and workers in the armorer's shop — there were other skilled workers who contributed to the finished armor. Linen armorers and tailors were distinct groups of craftsmen. They made undergarments, complete defenses of padded fabric, as well as linings and paddings for plate armor. All parts of the suit were lined with silk, velvet, leather, or some other fabric. The lining helped prevent chafing. If the armor was unlined, it would tear and stain the 1

THE ARMORER AND HIS CRAFT 4

undergarment in a short time. Covering armor, especially helmets, was common early in the fourteenth century. Fabric coverings helped keep armor from getting wet, made it more colorful and fashionable, and prevented the gleam of metal from attract- ing attention. Some knights had their leg defenses covered in red, so that enemies could not easily tell if they were bleeding. Leather workers made linings and straps for attaching plates. Locksmiths made hinges and fastenings. Ornate armor for wealthy patrons required the services of gilders, etchers, or other decorative artists. Sometimes, they all were part of a large workshop. More often, making armor involved many separate workshops and merchants who worked closely with the armorer. Part of the armorer's duties was to be present when the knight put on the armor and to carry out any small alterations that might be needed. ^^ A Full Suit of Plate Armor CHAPTER FOUR

Armorers had a difficult job developing better designs for plate armor. Many parts of the body were very awkward to protect — elbows, knees, armpits — and yet, freedom of movement was essential to a knight fighting in battle. The armorer needed to understand human anatomy. He had to consider what movements the human body makes for walking, riding, and fighting. Then he tried to construct each part of the suit to allow for these movements without difficulty. At the same time, he had to try to protect every part of the body while the wearer was in motion. He was trying to create a steel skin that took into account the working of every muscle and the hinging of every joint, and was strong enough to protect the fighting man from a variety of powerful weapons. The armorer also had to study the needs of the knight who would be wearing the armor. Armor could be bought ready- made, off-the-peg. A mold was kept on which ordinary harnesses 44 A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR were made for the men-at-arms. Nobles and kings kept a stock of arms and armor to supply their retainers. Some bought their armor at fairs. But the fine suits of armor were custom-tailored. When a great lord could not attend fittings, he had a suit of clothes sent to the armorer to measure his size. Armor could be made for men over six feet tall and for small children. Sometimes, armor would be outgrown and have to be replaced. The suits of armor made for Henry VIII show him expanding from a thirty- five-inch to a fifty-four-inch waistline. It was the individual the armorer studied when he made armor. He was creating a sculpture in steel of the man who would wear the armor. The average man of the fifteenth century was probably slightly smaller than an average man of today. Estimating the height of the man who wore the armor displayed in a museum can be deceptive. How high or low upon his hips a knight wore his armor can make a difference of several inches. Armor that has survived in good condition perhaps belonged to a younger man who outgrew it, rather than to an adult who wore it in brutal battles. The typical knight was a brawny, muscular man whose body reflected his activities and his way of Hfe. He usually had broad shoulders and slender legs and ankles, because he did little walking. Knights were trained as horsemen rather than foot soldiers. The armorer designed plate armor to be as thin as possible to keep it from becoming too heavy, yet thick enough to prevent a weapon from piercing it. Well-designed armor was made so that the shape of the plate would guide a point harmlessly aside. Rounded surfaces gave no sure hold for cutting or thrusting weapons. Ridges looked decorative, but they also gave added strength, while creating grooved channels that would guide a lance or sword off the body of the wearer. Armorers showed great skill in their ability to control the thick- A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR 45

ness of the metal, in spite of the difficult nature of the material they were working with. The metal was thickest at places that were most likely to be injured, and generally heavier on the left side where a knight was exposed to his opponent while striking out with his sword in his right hand. The helmet was usually thicker at the front. Different attachments were used to join plates of armor, but the craftsman did everything he could to keep them from being weak points in the harness. Hinges were hidden when possible. Leather straps and buckles were placed where they were less likely to be exposed to the enemy's sword — on the inside of the legs next to the horse, for example. In some cases the end of the buckled strap fit into a metal shoe bossed out of the armor plate, to prevent it from being cut off or hindering the wearer in any way. The suits of armor produced in the fifteenth century were the finest European armor ever made. This was the armor worn during the War of the Roses, at the time of Joan of Arc, at the fall of Constantinople, and at the conquest of the Spanish Moors.

It is the armor that has come to be most admired by art collectors. A knight was covered from head to foot in a jointed metal skin. It was beautifully designed, with the highest quality of workmanship, and was light, graceful, and well adapted to the needs of the wearer. Most of all, it protected its wearer well. The foot defense was called a solleret or sabaton. The best were made so that the knight could move his foot naturally when he was walking. There was a center plate with smaller overlapping plates called lames. The upper lames overlapped downwards toward the central plate, and the toe plates overlapped upwards. This allowed for the toes and ankle to bend at the same time. Foot defenses often came to points at the toes — a fashion of that time. Sometimes they had very long points that could be removed for walking. Others had broad, round toes. Solleret A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR 47

The leg was covered by three pieces that protected the calf, knee, and thigh. Sometimes they were buckled on separately, but on some suits they were connected. The defense for the calf was called the greave. It was made in two pieces, with metal hinges on the outside of the leg, and fastened with a strap and buckle on the inside. There were moveable lames joining the knee guard to the greave below and also to the thigh defense, or cuisse, above. This allowed the knight to bend his knee freely. The cuisse only covered the top part of the thigh for greater ease on horseback, and was fastened with a strap and buckle on the inside of the knight's leg close to his horse. If he wore a cuisse with a plate to protect the back of his thigh, he was most likely expecting to be fighting on foot.

The armorer made the breastplate thicker than the backplate, and thicker at the center than at the sides. The cuirass, as the whole torso defense was called, was fastened at the shoulders and sides. Straps and buckles were often used, or a raised stud on one plate was fitted into a hole on the other plate. The springi- ness of the metal was enough to keep them tightly shut. When

Breastplate 50 A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR stud-and-hole fastenings were used for the cuirass, they sometimes had several holes for adjustments. This allowed for garments of different thicknesses to be worn underneath the armor, as well as for weight gain by the knight. In early harnesses, the breast- and backplates were each made of a single plate. Later, one or both were sometimes made in two or more pieces riveted together. This gave the knight more flexibility and freedom of movement. A lance rest was frequently bolted to the breastplate. Since a knight needed considerable freedom to bend at the waist, suits usually had a skirt of overlapping lames called the taces, which protected the lower torso from the waist to the hips. The taces were attached to the breast- and backplate with turning or locking pins. These pins fit into slots and could be turned to lock into place. To adapt to the human form, taces narrowed at the waist and spread out over the hips. The plates overlapped upwards so the fighting man could bend easily. Additional plates called tassets were hung from the taces with straps and buckles. They gave increased protection to the thigh without hampering the knight's movement. The tassets were usually also made of overlapping plates. The lames on the taces and tassets were secured to each other by being riveted to leather straps. They also had a line of sliding rivets. Sliding rivets were an ingenious device armorers used with moveable lames to allow as much flexibility as possible, while still preventing the plates from opening up as the knight moved.

The rivet in the upper plate fit into a slot in the lower plate, allowing for the expansion of half an inch or more to each lame. Sometimes, in later armor, the tassets were discarded, but the cuisses or thigh defenses were laminated in this way from waist to knee. Lining of these overlapping pieces was very important.

It prevented scraping caused by metal working over metal, and it also helped to lessen the metallic noise.

52- A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR

Making defenses for the arms was a difricult design problem. Fighting men needed to raise and lower, bend and straighten, and freely turn their arms. The defense for the forearm, or vambrace, was either a tube or was hinged on the outside and fastened with straps or hooks on the inside. The vambrace was attached to the elbow guard, which often had lames on either side. The upper arm defense, or rerebrace, was also tubular, but had overlapping plates held together by sliding rivets where it joined the shoulder guard, the pauldron. The knight could move his arms forward freely, but had less freedom in moving them backwards.

The upper arm defense sometimes had a rim at its top that fit into a grooved collar, so that the arm could turn outwards and inwards. The shoulder guard, or pauldron, was usually larger on the left side than on the right. This allowed the knight room for the couched lance on his right, and gave more protection to his left arm, which held the bridle and was exposed to the brunt of an attacking weapon. Pauldrons were also made to protect the arm- pit when the knight raised his arm to deliver a blow.

Turner Arm Defenses 54 A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR

Gauntlets were probably made with thinner steel than other portions of the suit. They had overlapping lames covering all the fingers, while still allowing them to bend at the joints. These were known as mitten gauntlets. On some gauntlets there were narrow, overlapping plates from wrist to knuckles. The knuckle-plate was ridged, and the fingers were protected by small overlapping plates. The entire metal hand covering was always sewn to a leather glove or attached to it with leather loops. The leather gloves often wore out or were damaged and had to be replaced. As the science of swordplay developed, the gauntlet was eventually discarded. With their warrior mentality, knights resisted fencing techniques for a long time. They believed fighting men should confront each other face-to-face in a test of brute strength. But after the fifteenth century, as swordplay began to be studied as a science, the sword hilt was designed to be a defense, with intricate guards and counterguards. The neck defense, called a gorget, was made in two halves. Sometimes each half was a single plate; other times, each was composed of two or three horizontal lames that allowed the knight some flexibility of neck movement. The two portions were usually

Gauntlet A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR 55 held together by a turning pin or stud-and-hole fastener on the right side. The gorget was worn either over or under the cuirass. The helmet protected the knight's head and at the same time allowed him to see, hear, and breathe as much as possible. Many helmet designs were developed over the centuries. Italian armorers often used a kind of helmet called a barbute. This helmet usually covered the face, except for a T-shaped opening that both gave protection and allowed the wearer plenty of room to see and breathe. It was relatively light to wear, but was not easily knocked out of place. The chapel de fer, on the other hand, was just a simple iron hat with a brim. A variation of this design was used by soldiers in World War I. The salade was used frequently in German armor. This helmet came close to the head at the front and sides and extended backwards in a long, tail-like piece. Some salades had a moveable visor. Others covered the entire face with just a slit across the front, through which the wearer could see. Some had a chin guard called a bevor.

The armet, or close helmet, was ingeniously designed. It fit the shape of the head so closely that to put it on it had to be opened at the hinged side plates. These side plates fastened with a screw at the back, which was, in turn, protected by a circular disc. In the front, the plates locked together at the point of the chin. Armets had visors which could be lifted up so that the knight

Barbute Chapel de Fer Salade Armet

Gorget (Upside Down) Side Front

Open 58 A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR

could leave his face uncovered until the moment of attack. Then he could quickly close the visor and secure it with a stud-and- hole fastening. Helmets were padded against the shock of a blow. Usually they had a leather lining stuffed with dried grass and horse hair, and fastened to the metal with either rivets or leather laces that tied through pairs of holes in the helmet.

Sometimes a penis defense called a codpiece was worn. It had a hole at the top and was attached to a pin in the last lame of the taces. It did not really have much defensive value. The groin area was mainly protected by a mail skirt, worn under the armor, and also by the taces. On horseback, the high saddle offered extra protection. But the codpiece was considered important. At one time, every man above a certain rank was required by English law to have one.

Codpiece A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR 59

A suit of armor was heavy. A complete harness weighed around fifty pounds. Some weighed as Httle as twenty-five pounds, while others as much as a hundred pounds. The best armor weighed least in proportion to the protection it gave, but even at its best a full suit of armor was uncomfortable to wear for any length of time. A knight had to wear not only a metal suit, but all the linings, paddings, and fastenings that went with it, together with the clothing underneath. Heat was a major problem. Polished armor reflected sunlight, but body heat had no means of escape. A knight wearing armor usually exerted himself and perspired heavily, all of which was trapped inside the suit as heat. On a long expedition during cold weather, plate armor offered no warmth. In fact, the coldness of the steel sometimes had to be counteracted by warm garments worn underneath. Getting air through a closed visor was also a serious problem, becoming even more dangerous as the wearer became exhausted and was breathing rapidly. A helmet was designed to withstand hard blows and stay in place, but that meant that it could not be removed quickly and easily. Some knights were killed or wounded opening their visor for some air. Most knights felt that the protection plate armor gave was worth the discomfort and out- weighed the problems.

Armor needed a good deal of maintenance and repair. It re- ceived brutal batterings in battle and rusted easily. Mail was difficult to maintain. Rain and perspiration rusted it quickly and left stains on the quilted undergarment. Even in the fifteenth century mail was used extensively. Sometimes a knight would carry mail in his saddlebag to put on quickly in case he had to suddenly fight. Mail was used under plate armor to protect vital parts not covered by plate. Mail was either rolled in barrels, or shaken in leather bags, with sand and vinegar to clean it. 6o A FULL SUIT OF PLATE ARMOR

To avoid rust, plate armor had to be scoured and oiled. Olive oil was considered best. Painting and tinning were also used to protect armor from water damage. Leather straps and buckles frequently needed to be replaced. A travelling knight took an armorer with him if he could, to maintain his armor. The armorer brought oil and pumice stone for scouring rust, as well as rivets, files, hammers, and other tools to take out dents and repair damaged armor. Blankets were used for packing the armor on a journey. When not in use, armor was stored in sacks, boxes, leather cases, cupboards, or barrels. Few full suits of armor remain intact. Most of the suits we see in museums are composites — suits put together with pieces of similar styles from the same time period. The beautiful armor from the fifteenth century is known as Gothic armor. The great armor centers in Italy and Germany developed their own distinctive styles. Italian armor was more rounded and smooth. German armor tended to be spiky and to make more use of grooved channels.

Maximilian armor was a style of armor made during the first half of the sixteenth century, originally for Emperor Maximilian. It was elaborately fluted, with grooves radiating like a scallop shell from a point on the plate. The fluting was intended to give increased strength to the armor without adding weight, like cor- rugated metal. It was very fine armor, but lacked the simplicity of Gothic design. Armorers gave painstaking care to the design of their armor, making any changes that increased its efficiency, safety, or flexibility. The full suits of plate armor worn by knights in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries have never been surpassed for their beauty and for their perfect adaptation to the needs of the wearer. kSL:=»4fc:- ^^^*^.mi 4^^;^X>\iiT'^^^.^:=55;^^^^tVrr^

Italian Gothic German Gothic Maximilian

Getting Dressed

CHAPTER FIVE

Armor became heavy and uncomfortably hot when worn for any

length of time. The knight did not put it on until he was ready to go into battle. It did not take long to put on a suit of armor,

but it did require the help of a squire. Under his armor a knight wore an arming doublet. This was a close-fitting jacket lined with satin or silk. Metal armor rubbed and wore through fabric easily, so the doublet was constructed of sturdy material, such as cotton canvas or corduroy. The smooth lining kept the roughness of the other material away from the knight's skin and helped prevent chafing. He wore a pair of thick woolen hose tied to the arming doublet. Usually these were separate leggings, but sometimes the two legs were sewn into a single garment. Pieces of mail were attached by laces called arming points at any place that was not well protected by the plate armor. Vul- nerable places were under the armpits, at the bend of the elbow, and at the bend of the knee. Sometimes, pads of blanketing were fastened at the knight's knees to prevent chafing from the knee guard. He wore stout leather shoes. Parts of the plate armor were usually tied to the arming doublet. This helped distribute the weight of the harness and helped keep the armor securely in place and less likely to shift as the knight moved. Arming a man was a serious business; an improperly attached piece of armor could prove fatal. Since a suit of armor was such a complicated defense, it was easy for a fastening to break or a hinge to work improperly. When arming a knight, the squire began at the feet and tried, as far as was possible, to dress his knight so that each piece overlapped the one beneath it. This created a glancing surface.

The foot defenses were put on first. They covered only the top of the foot and were strapped to the sole of the shoe. The leg armor was strapped on next — greaves, knee guards, and cuisses. Then a skirt of mail, called a brayette, was attached around the waist to protect the groin. If the neck defense, or gorget, was worn under the body armor, it was put on next. Otherwise, the breast- and backplates were buckled on with the taces and tassets, the attaching plates which protected the knight from his waist to his thighs. A leather belt was usually buckled around his waist to make sure the body defenses stayed secure. After this, the arm defenses were put on and fastened to the arming doublet just below the shoulder. In some suits they were kept as three pieces that were strapped on separately. If the gorget was worn over the body armor, it went on next. The sword was buckled on the left side and the dagger on the right. The helmet and gauntlets were put on last. These were the two parts of his equipment that the knight would take off at the first opportunity. Anyone who has ever worn a snowsuit in winter might wonder if a knight was able to reUeve himself after all his armor was in place. It was possible, although inconvenient. Leg armor went up to the top of the thigh. The covering from waist to thigh was skirt- like. The hose underneath were just tied to the arming doublet. The armorer had put a lot of effort into making movement as free as possible and in distributing the weight of armor as evenly as possible. A knight in full armor could bend, stoop, drop to his knee, fall to the ground, lie flat on his back, pick himself up, mount his horse, and move his arms enough to wield his sword without difficulty. The medieval knight had special training in wearing armor. He began his training at boyhood, and Hterally grew up in armor. He exercised to keep lean and active and agile in full armor. Young men would even accustom themselves to wearing armor by turning somersaults in their suits. It is not true that a knight in full armor had to be hoisted into his saddle. Nor was he unable to get up if knocked off his horse. Some knights could vault into the saddle with armor on. But of course, knights varied in how agile they actually were in full armor. Unhorsed knights were frequently captured or killed in battle. This was often because the fall in heavy armor would stun the knight or shift his helmet, impairing his vision. Knights were known to swim to safety in full armor; others drowned trying.

Armor for Horses

CHAPTER SIX

A warhorse was very expensive. It had to be specially bred to be powerful enough to carry a fully armed knight, and was specially trained to be brave enough to go into the noise and danger of battle. The knight was entirely dependent on his horse; a man who did not have a horse was not a knight. Defensive armor for horses was also very important to knights. Horse armor, called barding, went through the same evolution as armor for men. Materials used for knights were also used for horses — padded fabric, leather, cuir bouilli, mail, and plate. Protecting vital parts of the horse's body was the main concern, but full armor for horses became more commonly used during the fifteenth century, when knights themselves were wearing full suits of armor. However, full armor for horses was not always constructed of metal plates. Since the horse had to carry the weight of the knight's armor in addition to its own barding, hghter materials, especially cuir bouilli, were often used. These yo ARMOR FOR HORSES

materials were also less expensive than metal bardings. Most horse armor, regardless of the material used, was designed along similar lines. The horse's head was protected by a chanfron. The chanfron sometimes had hinged cheek plates, and usually had a holder for a plume. The knight's coat of arms could be displayed on the horse's forehead, but more often there was a tapered spike. The neck defense was called a crinet. Crinets were made of overlapping plates, or, instead of crinets, mail was used as a flexible neck covering. The breast of the horse was protected by a peytral. The peytral was a heavy apron-like plate hung from the neck and withers. In some designs, it was hinged in three pieces and often had large projections, called bosses, to direct the lance thrust away from the horse. Flanchards hung from the saddle on either side of the horse, and generally curved upwards at the center so the knight could use his spurs. The saddle had high peaks in back and front and was often covered with metal. The rump of the horse was protected by a large plate called the crupper, made up of several pieces riveted or hinged together. The root of the horse's tail was covered by a tubular plate, called the gardequeue. The legs of the horse were rarely covered, but some attempts were made at constructing jointed leg defenses. Horse armor needed heavy leather lining or cotton padding to prevent chafing from the metal. A textile trapper usually covered the horse's armor. It was similar to the knight's surcoat. It gave some protection from wetness, but was mostly used for ornament and display of heraldry. Tournaments and Jousts

CHAPTER SEVEN

Military games kept knights in training for war. This kind of practice was common from the time of early warrior societies. These games were actually hard fighting that resulted in many injuries and sometimes death. Tournaments were originally intended to train men for the different kinds of fighting they would have to engage in during a war, and were, at first, strictly a preparation for war. It was sometimes the only training a knight had before going into battle. By the twelfth century, tournaments became complicated games that were a favorite pastime of nobles and gentlemen. These nobles believed that in addition to giving knights an opportunity to practice their battle skills, tournaments kept the knights from becoming restless and quarrelsome during times of peace. Others saw these events as more likely to start feuds and fights than to avoid them. Tournaments were contests of skill. The tourney was between two groups of combatants who first charged on horseback, and p?^ •"*'• " ^ "" — :fr Tiir!*'??-:3t-T #-

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t^' ^"•^i, b-'* , JU'C " 74 TOURNAMENTS AND JOUSTS then dismounted and continued fighting on foot with swords, maces, or axes. Jousts, or tihs, were between a single pair of mounted men. Originally the combatants charged each other, or ran the courses, in an open enclosure. In the fifteenth century, a barrier was set up between the contestants to prevent headlong collisions. The barrier was a heavy wood fence as high as the waist, or sometimes the neck, of a man on horseback.

The joust was the favorite game; it was less dangerous, and gave individual knights a better chance to show off their skills. The knights would ride alongside the barrier with their left sides toward it and their lances pointing diagonally across it. The object was for each knight to try to strike his opponent. Often the shock from the combined force of a heavily armed man and horse dismounted both contestants. Men and horses sometimes fell together. Even though blunt weapons were frequently used, it was easy for a knight to break his ribs or neck, or to receive a mortal wound. Later, the object of jousters was simply to score points and not to injure each other. Complicated rules developed for scoring points and winning prizes. A skillful knight could make his fortune winning prize money from jousting. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, knights fought in the same armor they would have used in battle. Later, ordinary armor was adapted for the tournament by adding extra pieces which were put on over the regular suit. Eventually entire harnesses were designed only for jousting, and were unlike anything worn in battle. Different games had their own rules and required their own armor. By the sixteenth century, a suit of armor sometimes had as many as one hundred extra pieces to be worn in different kinds of military sports. The armor for jousts and tourneys was much heavier than a harness intended for real warfare. Since the combatants passed each other on the left, this side of the armor was reinforced until TOURNAMENTS AND JOUSTS 75

it became totally different in appearance from the right side. Because of the high barrier between the knights, leg armor was less important and sometimes not worn at all. Jousting helmets were always special, but useless for ordinary fighting. Some were known as frog-mouthed helms. They were constructed so that the lance point would glance off them when the wearer was in the proper jousting position. The knight could only see through the vision slot when the helm was tilted forward.

When the knight leaned back, the opening was placed so that it was almost impossible for a spear to enter. The helm rested on the knight's shoulders and was bolted to the breastplate. Some jousting helms presented a smooth surface on the left side, with openings for ventilation on the right. A heavily padded leather hood, which protected the jouster's head and neck, was worn under the helmet. The right hand of the jouster was protected by a vamplate. This was a large shield fixed directly to his lance. The left hand was only used to hold the reins, and the articulated gauntlet, used on the battlefield, was not necessary.

The weight of jousting armor became so great that it was impossible for the wearer to mount his horse without assistance. Sometimes, a scaffold was built for tournaments so the knight could mount his horse with assistance from his squire. Pictures of this made some people mistakenly think that all armor was cumbersome and restrictive to movement. Tournaments were also gatherings for important nobles and kings, and opportunities for knights to display their skills. People needed to be correctly acknowledged; badges and symbols which had originally helped fighting men recognize each other in battle became the means to identify men whose faces were completely covered during tournaments. As coats of arms became more nu- merous and complicated, heralds were needed to keep track of 76 TOURNAMENTS AND JOUSTS

the different shields. By the end of the twelfth century, the science of heraldry developed words to describe every color and possible shape and arrangement, so there could be no mistake in the identification of a coat of arms. Sometimes, a family used a picture that was a play on their name, like "trumpets" for the "Trumpingtons." Some wanted to be represented by brave and noble beasts like lions or eagles. Others had a geometrical design, bold and easy to recognize. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Per Fess Per Pale Per Bend Per Chevron Per Saltire Bendy

Cinquefoil Fleur-de-Lis

Argent, Three Per Pale Azur Cheeky Or Fusils Cojoined and Argent, Cinquefoil and Azure, in Fess Gules Argent and Fleur-de-Lis a Fess Gules

Escallop Fusil ii 4. 4

Label Crescent Vert, on a Or, Three Gules, Chevron Or Chief Sable Three Rondels Vert, a Label Charged with Three ^ F.scallops Argent ^of Three Points Argent Crescents^Purpure ^ Paley Cheeky Gyronny Chevrony Bend Charged TOURNAMENTS AND JOUSTS 77

In describing arms, a herald would begin with the basic color of the shield and then give the shape and color of whatever was placed on it. Many of the terms come from Old French. English heralds also adopted these words because French was the language of the upper classes in England at that time. Gold or yellow was called or, silver or white was called argent, red was known as gules, blue as azure, green as vert, purple was purpure, and black was sable. If the shield was divided into quarters, a herald would describe it from the right of the wearer (called dexter), to the left of the wearer (called sinister), then from top (called chief) to bottom (called base). A beast could be in many different positions, and all had to have identifying names. A rampant beast was standing on its left hind leg with the forelegs elevated, the right above the left, and usually with the head in profile. If the animal was facing and walking toward the viewer's left with one front leg raised, it was called passant. Combinations were often made of a mother's and father's family crests, so that family trees could be traced by shields. A son sometimes added a label of some kind to distinguish himself from his father. Heralds were the experts who could identify these badges at a glance, and who could ensure that the right people were where they ought to be and treated with the respect due to their rank. They knew the rules of jousts and tourneys. They were responsible for seeing that the different events were arranged without confusion. They kept records of what happened at tournaments, and of all the knights and their badges. The special language they used made their knowledge more mysterious to others. They became so important that in war heralds were allowed to pass messages unharmed between the fighting armies. A Grotesque Helmet of the Sixteenth Century, with Metal Horns, Face, and Eyeglasses for Use as Parade Armor Last of the Knights

CHAPTER EIGHT

Over the centuries, military tactics changed, kings became more powerful, and cavalry ceased to be the main strength of armies. The single, armed horseman became less important. Armies dug holes and ditches so that the warhorses stumbled and fell, unable to get sure footing. Weapons were developed that could crush and pierce the work of even the best armorer. Halberds and bills could crack plate, and could also be used to drag a horseman from his saddle. The English longbowmen proved that the professional foot soldier was a formidable opponent for the knight on horseback. The longbow became one of the most important English weapons. It was from five and a half to six feet in length and made of yew with a string of hemp or silk. The archer shot shafts tipped with goose-quill. Skilled bowmen could fire fast, accurately, and from a long distance. As early as 1346, at the Battle of Crecy, and 141 5, at Agincourt, battles were won by the use of longbows, not charging knights. 8o LAST OF THE KNIGHTS

The pike was another important weapon used by foot soldiers. A wall of pikes could resist cavalry or at least keep them at bay while other weapons were being loaded. Pikes were very long spears with spikes at the bottom that stuck firmly into the ground; their shafts were reinforced with iron so they could not be cut by the attacking cavalry. The grip was covered with velvet to give a sure hold for the pikeman's hand, and sometimes a tassel was attached midway to prevent the rain from running down the shaft and causing his hand to slip. With the greater use of firearms during the sixteenth century, and their increasing force and range, knights were as likely to be killed as ordinary soldiers. Making armor that was bulletproof was possible, and later armorers tested their pieces with pistol shot; but the armor became so heavy that it no longer served its purpose. The weight was not worth the imperfect protection it offered. Armor was lightened by discarding less essential parts, piece by piece. Knights were now frequently fighting against professional soldiers who were disciplined, well equipped, and who were outside the code of chivalry. Changes in tactics gave greater importance to masses of men, and less to the individual. By the seventeenth century, the role of heavily armored knights on the battlefield had come to an end.

Splendid armor was still being made. It became more complicated in construction and often richly decorated with embossing, etching, and gilding, but the heating processes used for adding ornaments weakened the steel. The decorations destroyed the smooth glancing surface and provided many places for an opponent's sword to take hold. Decorated lames could not move easily over each other. This armor was not made for war; it was to make kings, princes, knights, and nobles look magnificent in ceremonies and parades. They appeared at tournaments and on LAST OF THE KNIGHTS 8l

State occasions in armor that was colored, gilded, covered with embroidered materials, and decorated with monumental crests, jeweled crowns, and fluttering ribbons. Helmets were made to look like human heads or animal heads. Suits imitated fashionable styles of the time; they were decorated to suggest the texture of fabric and given puffed sleeves and great skirts of steel. Armor became jewelry for gentlemen, worn to enhance the life of the wearer rather than to preserve it. By the seventeenth century, this fashion was waning. Armor was a cumbersome, useless possession that required a lot of work to clean and maintain. Harnesses were sold by weight to be melted down for horseshoes, pikeheads, and firearms. Helmets were used by merchants to measure grain. The gates of a botanical garden in Munich were made from iron that had once been beautiful Gothic armor. Marshall Islander with a Blowfish Helmet, Armor of Coconut Fiber, and Shark's Teeth Weapons Other Armor

CHAPTER NINE

Although the full suit of plate armor was unique to medieval Europe, armor has been worn by almost all nations. It has evolved along the same lines everywhere, but has not gone equally far in all countries. Most people started using animal skins for protection and gradually added scales or rings of some harder material to the outside. Padded and quilted defenses have been used by many peoples. Plates of metal or some strong material were fixed between layers of cloth or leather. This kind of defensive clothing was similar to what was known as the brigandine in medieval Europe, and was the form of armor most used in China. Styles of European armor were always changing. With Oriental armor the styles seldom changed, and some types of armor were worn for centuries with only slight variations of decoration. The armor used in the East was not as heavy or complete as in Europe. The climate was hotter, their horses were lighter and faster, and they believed speed and agiHty were more valuable defenses than the greater protection of heavy armor. Turkey, 84 OTHER ARMOR

Persia, India, and other eastern countries used mail as their main defensive material. Sometimes the mail was stiffened by running leather thongs through the rings. Often, they constructed suits of small plates connected by mail. The proportion of plate to mail varied greatly in different suits. Helmets were usually conical and came to a point or spike at the top. They often had a nasal and plate, mail, or padded neck guards. Eastern warriors sometimes protected their horses with armor. Like European horse armor, barding followed the construction of that used for fighting men. Turkish horse armor had solid chanfrons to protect the horse's head. The crinets and body armor were made up of a great many very small plates connected by mail. People were ingenious at adapting available materials for defensive purposes. Native peoples of North America made sturdy, light-weight armor by lashing together thin slats of wood or bone with sinew or cord. Warlike people in the South Seas fought with spears, swords, and daggers armed with shark's teeth. To protect themselves from these fierce weapons, they constructed complete suits of armor made from coconut fibers. They wore an additional body defense of more closely woven fibers with a shield that extended several inches above the head in back. This protected the back of the head from the women who followed the men into a fight throwing stones. They wore gauntletlike protections that were covered with shark's teeth and could also be used for striking. They wore helmets made from the dried, spiky skins of porcupine fish, cut open at the head, with the tail sticking upwards, and sometimes used two fins as guards for the ears. From the twelfth to the mid-nineteenth century, Japan had a warrior class, known as samurai. Like medieval European knights, they were warriors on horseback. They were skilled Armor of the Japanese Samurai 86 OTHER ARMOR archers and swordsmen. Samurai were often brutal, but they Uved by a strict code that valued bravery, honor, and loyalty to their lord. Japanese armorers developed elaborate armor that protected the samurai completely. His body was covered with a do, a cuirass made of small lacquered plates laced together with silk or leather cords. The do had shoulder defenses hung from it, as well as pieces similar to taces that protected him from his waist to hips. Under this he wore an apron of brocade covered with mail or plate and mail. He wore leg and arm defenses, neck and shoulder defenses, guards in front of his armpits, gauntlets, and bearskin or sealskin shoes. The helmet, called the kabuto, was usually made of a large number of narrow plates riveted together. It had a small peak in front, a wide neck guard, and decorative pieces similar to the crest on a European helmet. The samurai wore a steel mask, called a menpo, which was designed to protect his face, help secure his helmet, and frighten his enemies. Japanese armor balanced lightness with security, and the workmanship of Japanese armorers was of the highest quality. People in all countries have constructed armor to protect themselves from their enemies. Their designs are all expressions of ways in which people confronted the things they feared most. They created ingenious defenses against the most fearsome weapons of their times. Warriors wore armor to build up their courage and to intimidate their enemies. In many forms of armor, the wearer is held straight and tall; it is impossible to slouch in a metal suit. Knights used armor to glorify themselves, to be an outward representation of the man inside. They tried to create armor that had the power to make a man a hero. As the way of life changed, the need for armor vanished. But the heroic images are captured so vividly in the armorer's art that the glories and ideals of knighthood live on long after the last of the knights. Bibliography

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Anderson, L. J. Japanese Armour. Harrisburg, Pa: Stackpole Books, 1968. Paul, Aylward, J. D. The English Master of Arms. London: Routledge & Kegan 1956. Barker, Juliet R. V. The Tournament in England 1 100-1400. Wolfeboro, N.H,: The Boydell Press, 1986. Blair, Claude. "The Emperor Maximilian's Gift of Armour to King Henry VIII and the Silvered and Engraved Armour at the Tower of London." Archaeologia 99, (1965): 1-52.

. European Armour. London: B. T. Batsford, 1958. Borg, Alan. Arms & Armour in Britain. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1979.

Brooke-Little, J. P., ed. Boutell's Heraldry, revised ed. London: Frederick Warne, 1978. Bull, Stephen. An Historical Guide to Arms and Armor. New York: Facts on File, 1991. Bullock, Randolph. "Oriental Arms and Armor." Metropolitan Museum of Art

Bulletin 5 no. 6 (February 1947): 168—172. Burgess, E. Martin. "Further Research into the Construction of Mail Garments." The Antiquaries Journal xxxiii (1953): 193—202.

. "The Mail-maker's Technique." The Antiquaries Journal xxx'ni (1953): 48— 55-

. "Mail Shirt from the Hearst Collection." The Antiquaries Journal xxxviii (1958): 197-205.

. "The Mail Shirt from Sinigaglia." The Antiquaries Journal xxxvii (1957): 198-205. "Byam, Michele. Arms & Armor. Eyewitness Books. New York: Knopf, 1988. * Cairns, Trevor. Medieval Knights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 88 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carey, John, ed. Eyewitness to History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987. *Clare, John D., ed. Knights in Armor. Living History Series. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, GuUiver Books, 1992. Davis, R. H. C. The Medieval Warhorse. London: Thames and Hudson, 1989. Dean, Bashford, "An Armorer's Workshop." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin X no. 6 (January 1915): 125— izy.

. "An Explanatory Label for Helmets." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin X no. 8 (March 1915): 172—177.

. Handbook of Arms and Armor. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1930. Dennys, Rodney. The Heraldic Imagination. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1976. Duby, Georges, ed. A History of Private Life. Vol. 2: Revelations of the Medieval World. Translated by Arthur Goldhammer. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap- Harvard University Press, 1988. Edge, David, and Paddock, John Miles. Arms and Armor of the Medieval Knight. Avenal, N.J.: Crescent Books, 1988. Ffoulkes, Charles. Armour & Weapons. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909.

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. "A Barbarian Chieftain's Helmet." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 7 no. ID (June 1949): 272—281.

. "The Bashford Dean Memorial Collection." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin xxv no. 4 (April 1930): 86-94.

. "The Interrelationships of Costume and Armor," Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 8 no. 7 (March 1950): 176—188.

. "Knights in Armor." Metropolitan Museum ofArt Bulletin vi no. 6 (February 1948): 187-188.

. "A Maximilian Helmet and Gauntlet Retrieved." Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin xxxiii no. 12 (December 1938): 268—271.

-. "Sculpture in Steel: A Milanese Renaissance Barbute." Metropolitan Mu-

seum of Art Bulletin xxi no. 5 (January 1963): 182-192. Gravett, Christopher. Knight. Eyewitness Books. New York: Knopf, 1993. German Medieval Armies 1^00— 1^00. Men-at-Arms Series, 166. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1985. Gudger, E. W. "Helmets from Skins of the Porcupine-Fish." Scientific Monthly, xxx (1930): 432-442. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Aketon, 19, zz, Z8-Z9 Camail, z8 Armet, 55 — 58 Case-hardening, 18, 35 Arming cap, zo Chanfron, 70, 84 Arming doublet, 63, 65, 66 Chapel de fer, 55 Arming points, 63 Chausses, zo Armor: cost of, 13, 14, zz, z6; coverings, Chivalry, z, 30, 80

14, Z9, 41, 81; decoration and ornamen- Christianity, 9, Z9

tation, 6, 9, 13, 14, 18, 38, 41, 44, 80- Coat of arms, zi, 70, 75, 76 81, 83, 86; dressing in, 63—67; Eastern, Coat of plates, z6, Z9 83—84; fastenings and attachments, zo, Codpiece, 58

z8, Z9, 41, 45, 47, 49-50> 5^. 54, 55> Coif, 19-ZO, z8 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65; Gothic, 60, 81; Couters, z6

ItaHan, 60; Hnings, Z9, 40-41, 50, 58, Crests, zo, 81, 86

59> 63, 70; maintenance and repair, 13— Crinet, 70, 84 14, zo, 59-60, 81; MaximiHan, 60; Crossbow, Z4-Z5, 38

Native American, 84; scale armor, 5, z8, Crupper, 70 83; storage, 60; undergarments, 18, 19, Crusades, zz— Z4 zo, Z4, z6, z8— Z9, 40—41, 50, 58, 59, Cuir bouilli, 13, 69

63, 64, 66, 75, 86; weight of, Z5— z6, 59, Cuirass, 49-50, 55, 86 63, 66, 69, 75, 80, 81 Cuisses, 47, 50, 64

Armorers: z6, 33—41, 43—45, 49, 50, 55, 60, 66, 80, 86; Japanese, 86; mail- Dark Ages, 7 makers, 14—18, Z4 Dog-faced bascinet, z8

Barbarians, z— 11, zo, zz Feudalism, 8

Barbute, 55 Flanchards, 70 Barding, see Horse armor Frog-mouthed helm, 75 Bascinet, z6-z8 Fuller, 4—5 Besagews, z6

Bevor, 55 Gambeson, 19, z8— Z9 Boss, 6, 70 Gardequeue, 70

Brayette, 64 Gauntlets, z8, 54, 65, 75, 84, 86

Breast- and backplates, z6, Z9, 49—50, 65, Germany, 8, 33, 37, 38, 55, 60 75 Glancing surface, zi, z6, 64, 80 Brigandine, Z9, 38, 83 Gorget, 54-55, 64-65 92. INDEX

Gothic armor, 60, 81 Pommel, 5 Greaves, 47, 64 Porcupine-fish helmet, 84 Guilds, 38—40 Quenching, 37 Hauberk, 19-20, 2,6, 29 Quiilons, 5 Helmets, 5-6, 9, 20-21, 26-28, 29, 38, Quilted armor, 14, 26, 28-29, 59, 83 41. 45. 55-58. 59, 65, 67, 75, 81, 84, 86 Heraldry and heralds, 21, 70, 75—77 Rerebrace, 52 Horses and horsemanship, i, 2, 8, 9— 11, Rivets, 6, 14, 16, 18, 26, 28, 29, 38, 50, 19, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 31, 44, 47, 45, 52, 58, 60, 70, 86; sliding, 50, 52 58, 66, 67, 69-70, 71, 74, 75, 79, 83, Roman Empire, 2, 6-7, 9 84; armor for, 69—70, 84

Sabatons, 45 Iron, I, 2, 5-6, 15, 18, 33-37, 55, 80, 81 Saddles, 11, 22, 58, 59, 67, 70, 79 Italy, 7, 8, 55, 60 Salade, 55 Samurai, 84—86 Jackets, 14, 29, 63 Japanese armor, 84—86 Saracens, 9 Shields, 21, Jousting, 74-75. 77 6, 24, 25, 29, 75, 76, 77, 84 Jupon, 29 Sollerets, 45 Spurs, 31, 70 Knee guards, 47, 63, 64 Squire, 30, 31, 63, 64, 75 Knights, knighthood, i, 2, 4, 8-9, 11, 13, Steel, 18, 35, 37, 43, 44, 54, 59, 80, 81, 86 14, 17, 19, 20-24, 25, 26, 29-31, 33, Stirrups, 11 35. 38, 41, 43. 44. 45. 47, 5°. 5^, 54. Surcoat, 20, 26, 29

55, 59, 60, 63-67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, Swords, I, 4—5, 22, 24, 29, 31, 44, 45, 54, 77, 79, 80, 84, 86 65, 66, 74, 80, 84, 86

Lance, i, 22, 24, 50, 52, 70, 44, 74, 75; Taces, 50, 58, 65, 86 couched lance, 22, 52; lance rest, 50 Tassets, 50, 65 Leather, 6, 13, 14, 20, 21, 26, 28, 5, 29, Tempering, 37 60, 40, 45, 50, 54, 58, 63, 65, 69, 70, Tilt, see Jousting 75, 83, 84, 86 Tournaments, 71-74, 75, 77, 80 Longbows, 79 Tourneys, 71—74, 77 Trapper, 70 Mail, 5, 14-26, 28, 29, 35, 38, 58, 59, 63, 64, 69, 70, 84, 86 Vambrace, 52 Maximilian armor, 60 Vamplate, 75 Visor, 28, Nasal, 6, 84 55—58, 59

Pauldron, 52 Waterwheels, 34, 35

Peytral, 70 Weapons, i, 4, 5, 6, 11, 22, 24, 25, 29, 35,

Pig-faced bascinet, 28 38, 43, 44, 52-, 65, 74, 75, 79, 80, 81, Pikes, 80, 81 84, 86. See also Crossbow, Lance, Long- Poleyns, 26 bows, Pikes, Swords

1 "

Also by Cho (ofte and David Yue:

Christopher Columbus: How He Did It

"An incisive look at the tools, knowledge, and personal qualities that made Columbus's first voyage possible."

— Kirkus Reviews, pointer review

"Well researched and clearly written, the book discusses how the educated person in the fifteenth century knew that the earth was round."

— Booklist, starred review

The Igloo

"The Yues once again describe a tradi- tional way of life with remarkable clarity, simplicity and understanding."

— Scientific American

"A tidy source of reference information, curriculum support, and just plain compelling reading."

— School Library journal, starred review

The Pueblo

"Superb nonfiction and a boon to report writers. — School Library Journal, "Best Books of 1986"

"Sympathetic but not sentimental, the text and drawings of this brief book describe the Pueblo people of today and yesterday as well as many a more ambitious volume has."

— Scientific American 'l^-

'.f^miu . ^ jjtg.

ISBN D-3^s-bfllDl-^ 90000>

S-TflTOfl 780395"681015