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Table of Contents LIFE SATISFACTION OF ADOLESCENTS: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY IN MALTA AND AUSTRALIA VICTORIA BORG Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2005 School of Psychology Victoria University Abstract Life satisfaction research among adolescents is scarce especially at cross-cultural levels. The nature and the means to attain life satisfaction vary from one culture to another (Bradley & Corwyn, 2004; Lu & Shih, 1997). The current study examined life satisfaction in native Maltese, Maltese-Australian, and Anglo-Australian adolescents. It is argued that adolescents of Maltese origin come from a culture that is still predominantly oriented towards a traditional and collectivistic oriented culture, thereby being significantly different from the Australian culture. Besides developmental challenges, these adolescents are faced with additional cultural challenges especially Maltese-Australian adolescents. The present investigation was carried out over two stages. During the first stage, in-depth individual interviews were conducted among native Maltese (N=20) and Maltese-Australian (N=18) adolescents. These interviews explored issues that related to the home environment, social support, and coping strategies. In addition, ethnic identity and ethnic identification were explored among Maltese-Australian adolescents. The nature of the relationship and the support received from parents was a key element in detracting from their life satisfaction. In the second stage, a questionnaire was administered to native Maltese (N=113), Maltese-Australian (N=108), and Anglo-Australian adolescents (N=111). The questionnaire comprised these scales: the Family Environment Scale Form R, Short Form Social Support Questionnaire, Adolescent Coping Scale, and Satisfaction with Life Scale. For Maltese-Australian adolescents, the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure was also included in the questionnaire. According to the findings of the second phase, most adolescents were satisfied with life and there was no significant difference between the groups. Results also indicated that overall, male adolescents reported higher levels of life satisfaction with life than females but there was no interaction between gender and ethnic group. Regression analysis showed that the experiences of life satisfaction are similar for these two groups. In addition, the results indicated that different patterns of predictors of life satisfaction emerged for the three ethnic groups. The three models showed that a significant amount of variances remained unaccounted for by the current predictors. However, the qualitative study shed more light on these findings. Although both studies contributed significantly to our understanding of the experiences of life satisfaction of adolescents across cultures, more research is required, especially among adolescents of Maltese origin. ii Declaration I, Victoria Borg, declare that the PHD thesis entitled “Life satisfaction of adolescents: A cross-cultural study in Malta and Australia” is no more than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, references, and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Signature: Date: iii DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my husband, Louie, my son Mark, my daughter Michelle, son-in-law Louis, and my grand-daughter Monique iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank my husband, Loiue, for having supported me throughout this academic journey. His continuous support is greatly appreciated, especially during those critical times that I reached due to my medical condition. Special thanks are also extended to my two children, Michelle and Mark, for being there for me when I needed them and for believing in my potential. I would like to thank Dr. Cynthia Leung who was my supervisor at the early stages of my doctoral research project. Her contribution, including her great interest in cross- cultural issues, is greatly appreciated. I feel very indebted to Associate Professor Adrian Fisher who took over and supervised me for the rest of the completion of this thesis. His continuous support and his academic expertise greatly contributed to both my personal and academic development. Special thanks go to Professor Dorothy Bruck, Head of the School of Psychology, who was also very supportive, especially during critical times when I needed to take some time out to deal with my personal problems. Indeed, all members of the staff were behind me in some way or another and showed their invaluable support in their own way. To you all I say “thank you”. I would also like to thank Professor Ron Adams and Associate Professor Helen Borland. They both left quite an impression on me especially when I returned to study as a mature age student. Their appreciation of the Maltese culture and their interest in the Maltese community, both in Malta and Australia, served as a further incentive for me to examine psychological and cultural issues that relate both to native Maltese and Maltese-Australian adolescents. I would also like to thank both Ron and Helen for helping me to get a scholarship through Air Malta. This scholarship enabled me to travel to Malta and collect data for my doctoral research project. At this point I would also like to thank Air Malta for facilitating this opportunity. I would also like to acknowledge the continuous support from other post-graduate students. They helped me to establish a good support network system that kept me v going especially as I was writing up my thesis. I will always cherish the times we spent together in the computer lab and the tea-room. Special thanks also go to the adolescents who participated in this study. Their co- operation is greatly appreciated. Through this project they provided me with invaluable information about the Maltese and the Maltese culture. The richness of this information has not only enabled me to produce this thesis, but it has also generated a great interest in me to conduct further research amongst the Maltese community both in Malta and in Australia. Another special person that I would like to thank is Maria Merenda. Although she has no academic background, she values education very highly and was always behind me during my academic achievements. Many times she gave me the opportunity to have intelligible and insightful discussions. Her support and her encouragement are greatly appreciated. Special thanks to my dear 4 year-old grand-daughter Monique who kept me young at heart and added more meaning to my life at a time when I needed it most. Finally, I would like to thank my bereaved parents, Ġużeppa and Mikieli Bajada, for the gift of life. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………………. xiv LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES………………………………………….. xv CHAPTER PAGE 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………. 1 1.1 Context of research……………………………… 1 1.2 Research Problem………………………………. 6 1.3 Significance of Research………………………… 11 2 THE EXPERIENCE OF LIFE SATISFACTION 2.1 Definition of Life Satisfaction………………….. 15 2.2 Predictors of Life Satisfaction: A Literature Review………………………………. 17 2.3 Theories of Happiness and Life Satisfaction……………………………………… 19 2.3.1 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Theory……………… 19 2.3.2 Telic Theory……………………………………… 20 2.3.2.1 Need Approach…………………………………… 20 2.3.2.2 Goals Approach………………………………….. 21 2.3.3 Multiple Discrepancy Theory…………………….. 22 2.4 Empirical Findings and Life Satisfaction……… 24 2.5 Life Satisfaction: The case of Immigrant Adolescents………………………………………. 27 2.6 Gender and Life Satisfaction……………………. 29 2.7 Conclusion……………………………………….. 31 3 A THEORETICAL EXPLORATION OF ADOLESCENCE 3.1 The Experience of Adolescence…………………. 32 3.2 Overview of Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecological Model………………………………… 34 3.2.1 The Experience of Adolescence: An Ecological Perspective……………………….. 35 3.2.2 Interrelationships among Family Members………………………………………….. 36 3.3 Psychosocial Theory: An Eriksonian Approach………………………………………… 39 3.3.1 Erikson’s Theory………………………………….. 41 3.3.1.1 Trust vs Mistrust…………………………………. 41 3.3.1.2 Autonomy vs Shame……………………………… 42 3.3.1.3 Identity vs Identity Confusion……………………. 43 3.4 The Separation-Individuation Process………… 44 vii 3.5 Social Identity Theory…………………………... 45 3.6 The Experience of Stress and Coping during Adolescence……………………………………… 46 3.6.1 Definition of Coping……………………………… 46 3.6.2 Coping: A Theoretical Approach…………………. 48 3.6.3 Types of Coping…………………………………… 48 3.7 The Experience of Social Support………………. 49 3.7.1 Definition of Social Support………………………. 49 3.7.2 Perceived Social Support………………………….. 51 3.7.3 Social Support: A Theoretical Framework………… 51 3.7.3.1 Buffering Effect and Main Effect Models…………. 52 3.7.3.2 Social Support and Attachment Theory………….. 54 3.8 Conclusion………………………………………… 55 4 THE IMMIGRANTS’ EXPERIENCES AND LIFE SATISFACTION 4.1 Culture and Ethnicity…………………………… 57 4.2 Individualism and Collectivism………………… 59 4.3 The Immigration Experience…………………… 60 4.3.1 Berry’s Model of Acculturation………………….. 61 4.3.2 Ethnic Identity and Identification………………… 63 4.4 The Role of the Family Environment in the Acculturation Process…………………………… 66 4.5 Life Satisfaction among Immigrant Adolescents: Empirical Findings……………………………… 69 4.5.1 Acculturation……………………………………… 69 4.5.2 Ethnic Identity and Life satisfaction……………… 70 4.6 Immigrant Adolescents and Social Support…… 71 4.7 Coping Strategies among
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