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Thermal Conductivity and the Unfrozen Water

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Thermal Conductivity and the Unfrozen Water Clays and Clay Minerals, Vol. 65, No. 3, 167–182, 2017. 1 1 2 2 3 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THE UNFROZEN WATER CONTENTS OF 3 4 VOLCANIC ASH DEPOSITS IN COLD CLIMATE CONDITIONS: A REVIEW 4 5 5 6 6 7 E LENA K UZNETSOVA 7 8 Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway 8 9 9 10 10 Abstract—Layers of volcanic ash and Andosol soils derived from the ash may play an important role in 11 11 preserving snow and ice as well as in the development of permafrost conditions in (a) the immediate 12 vicinity of volcanoes at high elevations or at high latitudes and (b) land areas that are often distant from 12 13 volcanic activity and are either prone to permafrost or covered by snow and ice, but have been affected by 13 14 subaerial ash deposition. The special properties of volcanic ash are critically reviewed, particularly in 14 15 relation to recent research in Kamchatka in the Far East of Russia. Of special importance are the thermal 15 16 properties, the unfrozen water contents of ash layers, and the rate of volcanic glass weathering. Weathering 16 of volcanic glass results in the development of amorphous clay minerals (e.g. allophane, opal, palagonite), 17 17 but occurs at a much slower rate under cold compared to warm climate conditions. Existing data reveal 18 (1) a strong correlation between the thermal conductivity, the water/ice content, and the mineralogy of the 18 19 weathered part of the volcanic ash, (2) that an increase in the amounts of amorphous clay minerals 19 20 (allophane, palagonite) increases the proportion of unfrozen water and decreases the thermal conductivity, 20 21 and (3) that amorphous silica does not alter to halloysite or other clay minerals, even in the Early 21 22 Pleistocene age (Kamchatka) volcanic ashes or in the Miocene and Pliocene deposits of Antarctica due to 22 the cold temperatures. The significance of these findings are discussed in relation to past climate 23 23 reconstruction and the influence of volcanic ash on permafrost aggradation and degradation, snow and ice 24 ablation, and the development of glaciers. 24 25 Key Words—Allophane, Amorphous Clay, Climate Change, Cold Climate, Opal, Palagonite, 25 26 Permafrost, Thermal Conductivity, Unfrozen Water, Volcanic Ash. 26 27 27 28 INTRODUCTION 28 29 properties of volcanic glass as well as the different 29 30 Volcanic ash is associated with a considerable climatic conditions. For example, even for the same 30 31 proportion of the Earth’s land surface. At the same region of Kamchatka in eastern Russia, the volcanic ash 31 32 time, an estimated 15% of the land surface is affected by may not only have different ages and the glass different 32 33 permafrost and glacial ice. Consequently, volcanic ash chemical compositions, but also different weathering 33 34 may play an important role in the aggradation and stages, mineralogical compositions, and degrees of water 34 35 degradation of cold regions (Kellerer-Pirklbauer et al., saturation. These ashes may be permanently frozen or 35 36 2007; Froese et al., 2008). An understanding of the unfrozen and all of these characteristics may affect the 36 37 influence of volcanic ash on these frozen areas will thermal properties (Braitseva et al., 1997; Ponomareva 37 38 allow for a more accurate prediction of the stability of et al., 2007; Kuznetsova, 2011; Kuznetsova et al., 2011, 38 39 cold areas in the future and provide a better under- 2013; Kyle et al., 2011; Kuzentsova and Motenko, 39 40 standing of the factors that affect past climates, soils, 2014). These differences may be why the critical 40 41 and soil stability. Vital to making accurate predictions is thickness of tephra on the top of glaciers may act to 41 42 an understanding of the thermal properties of volcanic either insulate or enable the ablation of different 42 43 ash, which are thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, volcanoes. The measured critical tephra thickness values 43 44 and heat capacity (Juen et al., 2013). The available ranged from 24 mm for the glaciers at Mt. St. Helens, 44 45 measurements on the thermal properties of various types USA, (Driedger, 1980) and for the tephra that erupted in 45 46 of volcanic ash in different geographic and climatic 1996 at Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand, (Manville et al., 46 47 settings is limited and this means that inappropriate 2000) to <5.5 mm for the tephra from the 1947 eruption 47 48 assumptions are being used and empirical comparisons of the Hekla volcano, Iceland, (Kirkbride and Dugmore, 48 49 are currently being made using insufficiently ‘represen- 2003) and the tephra from the Villarica volcano in Chile 49 50 tative’ natural soils. Such empirical comparisons can be (Brock et al., 2007). The reasons for this disparity in 50 51 seriously misleading because the comparisons do not critical tephra thicknesses are unknown. Ayris and 51 52 take into account the unique mineralogical and chemical Delmelle (2012) assumed that the particle size and 52 53 porosity of the tephra might be the reason. Taking into 53 54 consideration that the tephra cover on glaciers is wet 54 55 * E-mail address of corresponding author: during periods of ablation, the thermal conductivity (l) 55 56 [email protected] of this material should not be overlooked. For most 56 57 DOI: 10.1346/CCMN.2017.064057 models, the dry thermal conductivity of tephra is used 57 168 Kuznetsova Clays and Clay Minerals 1 (Brock et al., 2007). For the same degree of saturation, 1992; Schoerberl et al., 1993; Langmann, 2014). Despite 1 2 the l values can vary by a factor of 2À3(Kuznetsovaet active volcanism, permafrost (i.e. ground that remains at 2 o 3 al., 2012; Kuznetsova and Motenko, 2012). The or below 0 C for 2 or more years) and glaciers often 3 4 unfrozen water content is of particular importance in exist on the slopes of high elevation or high latitude 4 5 understanding the thermal and mechanical behavior of volcanoes (Kellerer-Pirklbauer et al., 2007). Examples 5 6 frozen soils at temperatures near the melting point. of the coexistence of volcanism, permafrost, and glaciers 6 7 Unfrozen water exists naturally in silts and clays, but is are known from Argentina (Liaudat et al., 2014), Chile 7 8 absent in sands and granular soils (Ershov et al., 1978; (Brock et al., 2007; Reid and Brock, 2010), Hawaii 8 9 Andersland and Ladanyi, 2004; Yershov and Williams, (Woodcock, 1974), Iceland (Etzelmu¨ller et al., 2007), 9 10 2004). In glacier interlayers, the unfrozen water between Kamchatka (Ba¨umler, 2003; Abramov et al., 2008), 10 11 ice and mineral particles can act as a lubricant to modify Mexico (Palacios et al., 2007), New Zealand (Manville 11 12 the stress transfer between ice-particle and particle- et al., 2000), North America (Froese et al., 2008), and 12 13 particle contacts by relaxing the interactions between the Antarctica (Gow and Williamson, 1971). 13 14 particles and the ice (Moore, 2014). In permafrost areas, Extraterrestrially, Mars has an average surface tempera- 14 o 15 unfrozen water controls ice segregation processes at ture of -63 C, ice caps, and permafrost conditions that 15 16 freezing temperatures, which are responsible for frost cover more than half of the surface, but Mars is covered 16 17 heaving in soils and rock disintegration mechanisms by rocks of volcanic origin and other evidence of 17 18 (Ershov et al., 1978; Andersland and Ladanyi, 2004; volcanism (Allen et al., 1981; Carr, 2007). Volcanic 18 19 Yershov and Williams, 2004; French, 2013). The present eruptions are one of the major causes of ice and snow 19 20 review summarizes existing data regarding: (1) the burial in volcanic areas. This has been demonstrated on 20 21 thermal properties and unfrozen water contents of frozen volcanoes in Iceland, the USA, New Zealand, and Chile, 21 22 volcanic ash and cinders, (2) the effects of cold where the combination of a climate favorable to 22 23 temperatures on the weathering processes of volcanic permafrost and a thin tephra layer (with a low thermal 23 24 glass, and (3) the relationships between frozen volcanic conductivity) is sufficient to reduce snow ablation in the 24 25 deposit mineralogy and the thermal properties. This layer beneath the tephra and to cause substantial ground 25 26 review is based on published data from studies in ice formation and permafrost aggradation (Gow and 26 27 Kamchatka, Eastern Russia, where investigations con- Williamson, 1971; Driedger, 1980; Major and Newhall, 27 28 sidered the effects of climate change on permafrost and 1989; Kirkbride and Dugmore, 2003; Kellerer- 28 29 theresponseofglaciers,theproperties of volcanic soils Pirklbauer et al., 2007; Reid and Brock, 2010; Liaudat 29 30 in cold regions, and numerical modelling of glaciers and et al., 2014). Properties of volcanic ash and pumice, as 30 31 permafrost thermal behavior (Kellerer-Pirklbauer et al., well as volcanic soils, have been widely investigated due 31 32 2007; Abramov et al., 2008; Ayris and Delmelle, 2012; to the unique properties. Paleoscientists and tephrochro- 32 33 Juen et al., 2013; Kuznetsova and Motenko, 2014; nologists use volcanic ash as a tool for linking and 33 34 Langmann, 2014). dating geological, paleoecological, paleoclimatic, and 34 35 archaeological sequences or events (Braitseva et al., 35 36 MATERIALS AND METHODS 1993; Marchant et al., 1996; Ponomareva et al., 2007; 36 37 Lowe, 2010, 2011; Jaramillo et al., 2015). Soil scientists 37 38 Materials are concerned with the unique physical, chemical, and 38 39 The majority of the World’s volcanoes are within the mineralogical properties of soils formed on volcanic ash 39 40 active subduction zones of oceanic and continental (or Andisols) with respect to the high permeability, 40 41 plates.
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