JAPANESE PRONOUNCIATION

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Syllables sai sah ee Syllables in Japanese are very regular. Unlike English, there is stress on any particular syllable of word. Each syllable is also nande nah dey given equal time pronounce, including double consonants, nakatta nah kah t~ ~ individual vowels, and ん. Toukyou to~ ~oh kyoh~ ~oh Keep in mind that because Japanese is spoken quickly, empha- kiite kee~ ~ee tey sizing each syllable would sound strange. Instead, focus on the time given to each syllable. The language should sound like a kitte kee t~ ~tey steady flow.

Vowels Vowels can act inconsistently in English, but vowels in Japanese are simple and predictable. Japanese vowels never form diphthongs (combined vowels that form a new sound, like “ai” in “rain”), but remain distinct sounds. There are also “long vowels,” which are when a single vowel sound is held for two intervals.

a ah, like in “raw” aoi ah-oh-ee

ee, like in “bee” iie ee~ee-ay

oo, like in “moo” uu (long u) oo~oo

eh, like in “meh” or ey, like in “hey”* ee or ei (long e) e~ey

oh, like in “bow” oo or ou (long o) o~oh ん Although it is typically translated as “n” in romaji, ん sounds like an “m” when followed by “m,” “p,” or “b.” Also remember that the ん sound is held for the same time as any other syllable, which results in a slight pause after the ん.

NOTES * Some syllables tend to have a weak vowel sound. For example, “shita” → “shh-tah”, “desu” → “deh-ss” * For double consonants, treat it like one long * “f” sounds more like an “h” in Japanese. Try to say sound. Start the beginning of the sound at the “” without touching your teeth to your lips. end of the preceding syllable, hold silently for * “r” is softer in Japanese. Try to say “” by flicking an interval, then finish with the next syllable. your tongue, not pursing your lips. * The vowel “e” can vary slightly in sound. When * Tip: Try clapping your hands at even intervals or at the end of a word or followed by a vowel, it using a metronome to help you practice your sounds harder, like “ey” in “hey.” timing. JAPANESE WRITING:

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A あ I い U う E え O お か き く け こ ﾞSA さ し す せ そ ﾞTA た ち つ て TO と ﾞNA な に ぬ ね NO の は ひ FU ふ へ ほ ﾟﾞMA ま み む め も や ゆ よ ら り RU る れ ろ わ を KYA きゃ KYU きゅ KYO きょ ﾞSHA しゃ SHU しゅ SHO しょ ﾞCHA ちゃ CHU ちゅ CHO ちょ ﾞNYA にゃ NYU にゅ NYO にょ HYA ひゃ HYU ひゅ HYO ひょ ﾟ MYA みゃ MYU みゅ MYO みょ ﾞ N ん RYA りゃ RYU りゅ RYO りょ

DAKUTEN k g t d* HANDAKUTEN s z* h b h p * tsu → dzu shi → ji chi → ji

* “j” syllables other than ji (じ) combine “ji” and small “y” kana. For example, “ja”: じゃ * A small tsu (っ) represents a double consonant. For example, かったﾟ means “katta.” * A long dashﾞ (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals. JAPANESE WRITING:

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A ア I ィ U ウ E え O オ KA カ KI き KU ク KE ケ KO コ ﾞSA サ SHI シ SU ス SE セ SO ソ ﾞTA タ CHI チ TSU ツ TE テ TO ト ﾞNA ナ NI ニ NU ヌ NE ネ NO ノ HA ハ HI ヒ FU フ HE へ HO ホ ﾟﾞMA マ MI み MU ム ME メ MO モ YA や YU ュ YO ヨ RA ラ RI リ RU ル RE レ RO ロ WA ワ WO ヲ KYA キャ KYU キュ KYO キョ ﾞSHA シャ SHU シュ SHO ショ ﾞCHA チャ CHU チュ CHO チョ ﾞNYA ニャ NYU ニュ NYO ニョ HYA ヒャ HYU ヒュ HYO ヒョ ﾟ MYA ミャ MYU ミュ MYO ミョ ﾞ N ン RYA リャ RYU リュ RYO リョ

DAKUTEN k g t d* HANDAKUTEN s z* h b h p * tsu → dzu shi → ji chi → ji

* The “v” sound doesn’t occur naturally in Japanese, so it is often substituted with “b” or represented as a dakuten form of “u”: ヴ. * Other syllables that don’t occur naturally in Japanese are often formedﾟ by using a small version of a vowel. For example, “fu+small o” makes “fo”: フォ. Simularly, ヴぁ makes “va” A smallﾞ tsu (ッ) represents a double consonant. For example, カッタ means “katta.” * * A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals. JAPANESE VERBS: INTRODUCTION

JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Godan Verbs Ichidan Verbs Irregular Verbs Meaning “five stage,” for each vowel Ichidan verbs consist only of verbs There are dew irregular verbs in stage, and the most common type of that end in -eru or -iru, but not all Japanese, including the “copulas,” da verb. They are mostly regular, aside -eru or -iru verbs are ichidan. The and desu, and the verbs suru and from three special classes: iku/yuku, only way to tell is by memorization. kuru, as well as verbs that use suru -aru verbs, and colloquial -u verbs. as their root.

aruku to walk taberu to eat suru to do

kau to buy oboeru to remember benkyou suru to study

kasu to lend deru to leave chuumon suru to order

mastu to wait kariru to borrow shimpai suru to worry

yomu to read miru to see kuru to come

kudasaru to give (honorific) dekiru to be able da ~to be

iru to need iru to be, to exist desu ~to be (polite)

Godan Conjugations Conjugate each form starting from the dictionary (”u”) form. -[vowel]+u -[v]+wa A -tsu -ta Suru/Kuru -u -a Ichidan suru shi A -tsu -chi A -ru ー kuru ko -su -shi I -ru ー suru shi I I -u -i E -ru -re kuru ki -ru¹ -i O -ru -you suru sure E -tsu -te -ru -te kuru kure E TE -u -e TA -ru -ta suru shiyou O -tsu -tou kuru koyou O -u -ou suru shite TE -ku² -ite -ku² -ita kuru kite

-gu -ide -gu -ida suru shita TA TE -u³/-tsu/-ru -tte TA -u³/-tsu/-ru -tta kuru kita ¹ Only for the five “honorific” aru verbs: kudasaru, -su -shite -su -shita nasaru, gozaru, irassharu, and ossharu ² iku itte / itta | yuku yutte / yutta -bu/-nu/-mu -nde -bu/-nu/-mu -nda 行く → 行く ³ In some dialects, -u → -uta/ute or -ota/ote JAPANESE VERBS: VOWEL FORMS

JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM aruka kawa kasa mata tabe mi shi ko

-nai² negative present -naide negative command

-nakatta negative past -zu (ni) [clause] not have done when [clause]

-nakereba negative condition [nai to/nakereba] [naranai/ikenai] must do irrealis-mizenkei A Form aruki kai kashi machi tabe mi shi ki

-masu polite present -tai² desiderative (”want to do”)

-masen (deshita) polite negative (past) -nikui² / -yasui² hard / easy to do

-mashita polite past -nagara [verb] do while doing [verb] I Form continuative-ren’youkei aruku kau kasu matsu taberu miru suru kuru attributive-rentaikei U Form U [base] plain present + [noun] present relative clause

plain negative command no/ nominalization

nara assumptive conditional koto ni suru¹ decide to do U Form terminal-shuushikei aruke kae kase mate tabere mire sure kure

-ba hypothetical/provisional conditional -ru³ potential/ability (godan only) kateikei -ba ii² optative (”would be good if”) -nai² no potential/ability (godan only)

-ba yokatta regret (”would’ve been good if”) [base] impolite command (generally godan only) E Form hypothetical- arukou kaou kasou matou tabeyou miyou shiyou koyou

[base] volitional (”let’s...”) NOTES to omou¹ think about doing ¹ verb that can be conjugated ² adjectival verb (i-adjective) that can be conjugated to suru¹ try to do / be about to do ³ forms new ichidan verb that can be conjugated O Form volitional-ikoukei JAPANESE VERBS: TE, TA, PASSIVE, AND CAUSITIVE

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-ku -ite Te Form The participle is a verb form that modifies the noun, verb, or noun or verb clause. In Japanese, -gu -ide the participle it is commonly used for continous actions, to -u/-tsu/-ru -tte make requests, answer questions, and link a series of actions performed in order. -su -shite

-bu/-nu/-mu -nde [base] command/answer/linking kudasai request

ichidan -ru -te iru¹ continous action (”i” often omitted) aru¹ passive perfect continous

iku itte kuru¹ perfect continuous action iku¹ future continous

suru shite oku¹ to plan to do miru¹ to try doing and “see”

kuru kite shimau¹ accidentally/unexpectedly mo ii “may” (”may I?”/”you may”)

-ku -ita Ta Form The perfective aspect doesn’t exist in English, -gu -ida the perfective but it is simple enough to compare it to our simple past tense. It is an action that has been -u/-tsu/-ru -tta completed in full. -su -shita

-bu/-nu/-mu -nda [base] perfective (~simple past) -ri [...-ri] suru³ list general actions

ichidan -ru -ta bakari to have recently done koto (ga) aru¹ to have experienced

iku itta -ra conditional (“tara” form) -rou past subjunctive (”probably”)

suru shita to shitara/suru¹ suppositional to shite mo “even if...”

kuru kita toki “when [clause happened]...” tokoro to have just done

Passive Tense Causative Tense Subject becomes the direct object. Subject causes indirect object to act. NOTES godan a form +reru² godan a form +seru² ¹ verb that can be conjugated ² forms a new ichidan verb that ichidan a form +rareru² ichidan a form +saseru² can be conjugated suru sareru² suru saseru² ³ each clause uses the -ri conju- gation, but the tense for every kuru a form +rareru² kuru a form +saseru² clause is determined by suru, which comes at the very end Passive-Causative causative a form +rareru² JAPANESE VERBS: COMPOUND, DA, AND DESU

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Compound Verbs Most V+V compound verbs are formed by using the i-form of the topic verb and conjugating the phrasal verb, similar to using helping verbs with the infinitive in English, where the “helping verb” comes second. Other V+V compound verbs use the linking form (te-form) for the first verb to link two actions taken together.

N+V compound verbs use “suru” for the phrasal verb. Some use the object particle (を), some don’t.

[verb, i-form]+hajimeru to begin to do [verb, te-form]+miru to try doing and “see”

[verb, i-form]+oeru to finish doing [verb, te-form]+shimau to do accidentally

[verb, i-form]+sugiru to overdo motteiku to take (to have + to go)

[verb, i-form]+naosu to redo mottekuru to bring (to have + to come)

[verb, i-form]+tsudzukeru to continue doing benkyou suru to study (study/research + to do)

Da and Desu ー The Copula? Whether you want to call da/desu copulas, auxillary verbs, or whatever, it does not explain when and how to use them. Instead, consider them contextual markers for tense and politeness and follow these simple rules:

must use¹ when there is not already a predicate verb or adjectival verb in the clause to provide tense/politeness

can use² when it will add context of tense, politeness or meaning to a clause, if the main verb cannot do it itself

cannot use³ when it would not add context of tense, politeness, or meaning, or it would disagree with the main verb ¹ For example, to say you are happy, you must use a form of da/desu with the noun “shiawase.” In this sense, it is a copula. ² For example, since “taberu” has the polite form “tabemashita,” you CANNOT say “taberu desu.” However, you can say “tabetai desu.” ³ For example, you cannot say “tabemasen datta,” because “tabemasen” is polite. The past form must be “tabemasen deshita.”

Da (Plain) Desu (Polite) present da present desu

negative de (waは) /ja nai negative de (waは) /ja arimasen

past datta past deshita

past negative de (waは) /ja nakatta past negative de (waは) /ja arimasen deshita

volitional darou volitional deshou

te-Form de te-Form de arimashite

conditional nara/naraba conditional de areba

attributive/prenominal no/na attributive/prenominal desu JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: INTRODUCTION

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The does not have “adjectives” from a linguistical sense. Instead, it uses verbs and nouns to describe objects. When used prenominally, they form a relative—or adjectival—clause; and when used as a predicate, they are used inflected or paired with a form of da/desu to create a state-of-being (stative) sentence.

attributive/prenominal kawaii neko (cat that is cute) terminal/predicate Neko ga kawaii. (The cat is cute.)

i-Adjectives verb na-Adjectives noun A very common type of “adjective.” They always end in Another common type of “adjective,” formed simply by い in their character form. They are considered a special adding a conjugation of da or desu after the noun. The type of verb because they include state-of-being and “na” only refers to their prenominal present form; they are conjugated directly, often similarly to verbs. have no visual way to distinguish them.

f-Adjectives verb no-Adjectives noun f-adjectives are the continuous or perfective form of a The other type of adjectival noun. There is no outright normal verb, used to modify a noun. Prenominally, they way to distinguish na- and no-adjectives, but personal are considered a relative clause, like “city that froze,” and qualities are usually na-adjectives, while unsubjective not “frozen city,” meaning they can be used in advanced attributes are commonly no-adjectives, like “next” or ways, such as “the city that was frozen by a storm.” “my,” or even “apple tart” and “German dog.”

WHAT TYPE? COMPARISONS

ends in “ii” it’s an i-adjective A > B [clause A] hou ga [clause B] [adj]

ends in “ei” it’s not an i-adjective B > A [clause A] yori [clause B] hou ga [adj]

ends in “[consonant]+i” it’s not an i-adjective ↑ “[B] yori” or “[B] no hou ga” can be dropped if clear from context. Must use attributive form (”na”/”no”).

physical attribute probably an i-adjective¹ degree [clause] hodo [adj] conceptual attribute probably a na-adjective ↑ For example, to say someone is “so tall that [clause]” or “not tall enough to [clause]” unsubjective attribute probably a no-adjective superlative ichiban [adj]

superlative mottomo [adj] ↑ Both forms can be used before the terminal/predicate NOTES or attributive/prenominal form. more than anyone [noun] wa は dare yori [adj] ¹ A notable exception to this is color. The most primary colors (red, blue, yellow, black, white) more than anything [noun] wa は nani yori [adj] have both i-adj and no-adj forms. Secondary, ↑ “dare” must be used for animate objects, while tertiary, tints, and shades are strictly no-adjs. “nani” is used for inantimate objects. * The only “irregular” verb is “ii” (”good”). In all “same exact” [A] wa は [B] to onaji forms other than present, its stem reverts to its true form, “yoi.” “as much as [noun]” [noun] to onaji gurai [adj] “different” [A] wa は [B] to chigau JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: CONJUGATION

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i-adjectives are like special verbs, which include tense (and thus must i-Adjectives hayai 早い early | stem: haya not use the plain verb da). the adjectival verb attributive present hayai [noun]

terminal present hayai irrealis (a-form) hayaku adverb hayaku [verb]

negative hayaku nai continuative (i-form) haya¹ conditonal hayakereba

past (ta-form) hayakatta volitional (o-form) hayaku shiyou neg. conditonal hayaku nakereba

past negative hayaku nakatta participle (te-form) hayakute noun hayasa (”speed”)

na-adjectives are nouns used to describe attributes by using a form na-Adjectives benri 便利 useful of the verb da (plain) or desu (polite). the adjectival noun attributive present benri na [noun]

terminal present benri da irrealis (a-form) benri de adverb benri ni [verb]

negative benri de(waは)² nai continuative (i-form) benri conditonal benri nara/dattara

past (ta-form) benri datta volitional (o-form) benri de arou neg. conditonal benri de nakereba

past negative benri de(wa)² nakatta participle (te-form) benri de noun [base]

okoru 怒る to get angry f-adjectives are really just the perfect or continuous form of a verb, used as f-Adjectives attributive perfect okotta [noun] a relative clause to describe a noun. the adjectival clause attributive continuous okotte iru [n]

terminal present okotte iru present okotte imasu

negative okotte inai negative okotte imasen

past (ta-form) okotte ita past okotte imashita

past negative okotte inakatta past negative okotte imasen deshita “adverb”/te form okotte [verb]

no-adjectives are a class that include NOTES possessive, “type,” numeral, demon- no-Adjectives strative, and interrogative adjectives. ¹ The i-form of adjectives that end in the other adjectival noun “nai” appends “.” Ex. “nai” → “nasa” ”ja” is a colloquial form of “de(wa )” ² は possessive: my watashi no * Aside from present or polite forms, each form may be used as either the “type”: Japanese nihon no distributive: another betsu no predicate (terminal) or the prenomi- numeral: two ni [counter] no demonstrative: this kono nal (attributive) form. numeral: many oku no interrogative: what nani no JAPANESE ADVERBS

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Manner Adverbs Manner adverbs (how an action is performed) are usually derived from adjectival verbs and nouns. For i-adjs, the adjective is inflected to the adjectival form. For na- and no-adjs, use the particle, “ni.”

i-adj i → ku ureshii (”delightful”) ureshiku (”delightfully”)

na/no-adj na/no → ni ketteiteki na (”~decisive”) ketteiteki ni (”decisively”) Locational Adverbs Locational adverbs (where an action is done) usually use a noun, followed a location particle like “ni” or “de.”

koko ni / soko ni here / there Toukyou no kita 10 mairu ni 10 miles north of Tokyo

chikaku ni / tooku ni nearby / distantly tsukue no shita ni underneath the desk (”at the desk’s bottom”) Time/Frequency/Degree Adverbs Time/frequency adverbs (when or how often ima now hotondo almost/barely an action is done) and degree adverbs (to what degree an action is done) usually use a “true” mainichi every day zenzen not at all (neg. tense) adverb. Time adverbs usually go towards the beginning of the clause. taitei usually amari not very much (neg. tense) NOTES * Generally, adverbs can be placed anywhere. Time adverbs usually come near the beginning, while other types go near the verb. The adverb applys to the next verb in the sentence. * Some adverbs can only be used with negative conjugations. For example, while “zenzen” might be translated as meaning “entirely,” the clause “zenzen tabetakunai” would be translated as “I don’t want to eat at all.”

Kanjiru & Omou While “feeling” something in English uses adjectives, Japanese uses manner adverbs with “kanjiru” or “omou.” To mention what makes you feel that way, use the direct object particle “o” を.

sabishiku kanjiru/omou feel lonely sore o を shiawase ni kanjiru/omou feel happy about that Suru & Naru Using a manner adverb directly before “suru” can imply causitive tense. In other words, the subject causes the direct object to become [adjective]. Using “naru” can imply that the subject became [adjective].

yowaku suru turn down (”make weak”) atsuku naru become hot

hazukashiku suru embarrass or make shy tomodachi ni naru become friends

kirei ni suru clean (”make pretty/clean”) suki ni naranai cannot like (”will not become likable”) JAPANESE NOUNS: PRONOUNS

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Interrogative Pronouns Interrogatives are “question words” like who, what, when, where, and how. These are a few common examples.

what nani what time nanji How many...

who dare how (manner) nanide / douyatte / dou people nan nin

whose dare no how much (cost) ikura times nan kai

why naze / doushite / nande how many (general) ikutsu years nan nen

where doko / dochira how much/far doregurai (n) / donogurai (a) years old nan sai

when itsu how long (”until when”) itsu made vague nan [counter]

Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstratives are words that refer to something by proximity. These are a few common examples.

ko- (close to speaker) so- (close to listener) a- (far) do- (interrogative)

pronoun kore (this) sore (that) are (that over there) dore (which?)

determiner kono (this...) sono (that...) ano (that...over there) dono (which...?)

adjective konna (like this) sonna (like that) anna (like that) donna (how/what?)

place koko (here) soko (there) sasoko (over there) doko (where?)

direction kocchi (this way) socchi (that way) acchi (over that way) docchi (which way?)

manner kou (this manner) so (that manner) aa (that manner) dou (how?)

Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to one or more unspecified people or things. These are a few common examples.

nani (-thing) dare (-one) doko (-where) itsu (-time)

ka (some-) nani ka dare ka doko ka itsu ka

mo (every-) nani mo (rarely used) dare mo doko mo itsu mo

mo ... nai (no-) nani mo ... nai dare mo ... nai doko mo ... nai itsu mo ... nai

demo (any-) nan de mo dare de mo doko de mo itsu de mo These suffixes (or rather particles) are not limited to these examples. For example, “nan nin ka” means “some people.” JAPANESE NUMBERS: BASICS

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Basic Numbers juu man sen juu Similar to “hundred” and “thousand,” each place value up to the millions has a key word. 2 6 1 8 4 1 2 百万 十万 万 千 百 十 However, this system is not as simple as it seems hyaku man man hyaku because many sounds are contracted depending on the values. For example, 800 is condensed Together: 二百万 六十万 一万 八千 四百 十 二 from “hachi hyaku” to “happyaku.” “Ichi” (1) is only used in the 1s place and the 10,000s (”man”) place. Decimals Fractions Use “ten” 点, meaning “dot.” Ordinals Say it like “A of B parts.” “me” 目 indicates a place in a series. juu ichi ten san roku 3rd thing mitsu me 三つ目 4 roku bun no yon 11.36 十一点山ろく 6 六分の四 5th person go nin me 五人目

Measurements Units always come after the number. To give height/length/etc, use a noun, like “nagasa” (length). When de- scribing distance away from something or somewhere, you can use the verb “hanareru” (to be apart).

Shinchou wa 203 senchi¹ da. (My) height is 203 cm. Takasa¹ 605 fi-to no biru a 605-foot tall building

Taijuu² wa 60 kiro desu. (My) weight is 60 kilo(grams). Kore wa omosa² ga 4 kiro da. Its weight is 4 kilo(grams).

Eki wa 2 mairu hanarete iru. The station is 2 miles away. nagasa roku inchi no sakana a 6-inch long fish

Machi wa koko kara nan kiro hanarete imasu ka? How many kilo(meters) away is the town from here? ¹ “shinchou” is used to measure the height of a living being, while “takasa” is used for the height of an object. ² “taijuu” is used to measure the weight of a living being, while “omosa” is used for the weight of an object. Time & Dates Use “ji” (時) after the hour and “fun” (分) after the minutes. “han” (half 半) is often used for half-past an hour.

4:30 yo (not yon) ji han 11:00 juu ichi ji 7:15 nana ji juu go fun 9:40 ku³ ji yon fun

Years/months use the standard counting system, followed by “nen”/“gatsu” (年/月). Days 1-10, 14, 20, and 24 use a different reading system, followed by the reading “ka” (日). All other dates use the reading “nichi” (日).

1/1 ichi gatsu tsuitachi 2/2 ni gatsu futsuka 3/3 san gatsu mikka 4/4 shi gatsu yokka

5/5 go gatsu itsuka 6/6 roku gatsu muika 7/7 shichi gatsu nanoka 8/8 hachi gatsu youka

9/9 ku gatsu kokonoka 10/10 juu gatsu touka 11/14 juu ichi gatsu juu yokka 12/20 juu ni gatsu hatsuka

5/24 go gatsu ni juu yokka 2/12 ni gatsu juu ni nichi 3/21 san gatsu juu ichi nichi 9/30 ku³ gatsu san juu nichi

1996年 sen kyuu hyaku kyuu juu roku nen 2014年3月4日 ni sen juu yon nen san gatsu juu yokka ³ “kyu” tends to change to the shortened “ku” for time, months, and days. JAPANESE NUMBERS: COUNTING

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Counters Counters are used when counting objects, definite or indefinite. Think of “loaves” in “some/2 loaves of bread.” Contrary to belief, counters are not used for every noun, but they are more common in Japanese than English. The proper counter varies based on the object, and some objects can use different counters. Common counters:

general counter tsu¹ small animals hiki 匹 long, cylindrical hon 本

people (ex. boys) ri / nin² 人 large animals tou 頭 flat, thin mai 枚

time (often omitted)³ kan 間 books, magazines satsu 冊 small, compact ko 個

months⁴ kagetsu (kan) ヶ月(間) vehicles, machines dai 台 liquid (ex. drinks) hai 杯 Counting Objects Most counters can be used in two ways. The first is preferred unless referring to people, using -tsu, or emphasizing quantity.

[object] [number] [counter] [number] [counter] no [object]

Hon ni juu yon o satsu katta. (I) bought 24 books. Hitotsu¹ no shitsumon ga arimasu. I have one question.

aoi no kami ni mai two pieces of blue paper Futari² no ane ga imasu. (I) have two older sisters. ¹ “tsu” uses the traditional Japanese counting system, which is much different from the modern system. ² When counting people, 1 and 2 are “hitori” and “futari,” while all other numbers use the modern counting system with “nin.” Counting Time When counting time, the order is different than counting objects. Counting days uses the calendar-day system.

[number] [object] [counter]

Go ji kan kore o sagashita. (I) looked for five hours. Mikka kan mae ni itta. (I) went three days ago.

Konojo wa ni nen kan nana kagetsu⁴ atte inai. I haven’t seen her in two years and seven months. ³ When counting time, “kan” can be omitted except in the case of hours. ⁴ The word“kagetsu” combines the counter and object into one word, and “kan” is almost always omitted.

Approximations

ni juu go nin gurai around 25 people suu hyaku hiki no inu several hundred dogs

ni ijou, juu ika not less than 2, not greater than 10 shi, go nin no gakusei 4 or 5 students

Occurances and Frequency The noun “kai” 回 is to count the number of times of an event. Along with “ni,” it can convey frequency. Ni, san kai sushi o tabeta. I’ve eaten sushi 2 or 3 times. Nen ni san kai koko ni iku. I go three times a year.

kotoshi de rokkai me sixth time this year san kagetsu ni ikkai once every three months JAPANESE PARTICLES: INTRODUCTION

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Particles are special parts of speech that modify or mark the noun, verb, or clause that comes before it. Often, they will behave like English prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs, but they play a heavier role than just that. There are six central types of particles, with different uses. Knowing each type can help you understand its complete and proper use within a sentence. Many particles belong to multiple categories, but by recognizing the part of speech they follow, it can become much easier to discern which meaning they take.

Case Markers Parallel Markers Identifies the role of a noun in a clause. They always Identifies the relationship between two or more nouns. follow a noun. They always follow a noun.

ga Subject marker no Possession marker

o を¹ Direct object marker to “and” (exhaustive)

ni Indirect object marker ya “and” (inexhaustive)

e へ¹ Direction marker na do “etc.”

Binding Particles Adverbial Particles Identifies the topic and its context in the sentence. They Modifies a clause to operate like an adverb for the inde- generally follow a noun. pendent clause. They may follow a noun or a clause.

wa は¹ Topic marker bakari “only,” “just”

mo Agreement marker made “up until”, “as far as”

koso Emphasis marker dake “as (much as)”

shika “only”, “just” hodo “to the extent of”

Conjunctive Particles Sentence-Ending Particles Identifies the relationship between two clauses. They Provides additional context to the sentence, like emotion. always follow a clause. Despite the name, some can follow internal clauses.

kara “because” ka Uncertainty marker

to “if” ne Tag question marker

ga “although” ka na “I wonder”

keredomo “but” yo Assertive final particle (masculine)

¹ Based on old kana roots, some particles are pronounced differently than they are written. * Particles always come after the word or clause that is being modified. * These lists only provide a very small handful of examples for each category. NOTES JAPANESE PARTICLES: CASE & BINDING

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Case Markers - The Basics Case markers indicate the role of a noun. Ever wonder why “I” changes to “me” when you’re the object of a sentence? Because it is a different “case.” These changes are much more simple in Japanese, where you only need to mark the noun with a particle based on its role. These are some of the most common case particles:

ga subject/actor performer of the action ni indirect object recipient (inc. place) of the action

o を direct object object being acted upon de instrument means by which the action occurs

to accomplice participent of the action yori comparison object compared against subject

Watashi ga¹ kare ni eigo de tegami o kaita. I wrote him a letter in English.

Kare ga¹ kanojo ni zenryoku de nagurareta.² He was hit by her with all (her) force. ¹ “ga” vs “wa”: Using “ga” suggests that there is emphasis on the subject (”it wasn’t her, it was ME.”). More on “wa” below. ² Like English, when using passive form, the subject is the recipient of the action while the indirect object is the actor. * Unlike English, stating subject/object is not required. Objects are usually left out if they are obvious, especially “I” and “you.” * You cannot have more than one “ga” or “o” per clause. In order to avoid repeating particles, look into using “lists.” Case Markers - Location & Time Location and time share similarities, and are marked by case markers that indicate whether they are starting points, general points, or ending points. Note that ORIGIN, DESTINATION, and LIMIT can also be people.

ACTION DESTINATION (”to”) REQUIREMENT (”by”)

ORIGIN (”from”/”since”) [place] ni³/e へ [time] made ni LOCATION (”at”/”in”) [place] kara [place] de/ni³ LIMIT (”until”) [time] TIME (”at”/”on”) [place] made [time] [time] ni ³ “ni” can only be used for location when the verb itself involves a location as being the recipient of the action. Binding Particles Unlike case markers, binding particles actually give a meaning to the word it modifies. If used on the actor or direct object of the action, they replace “ga” and “o.” Otherwise, if the object has a particle, it comes afterwards.

wa は ~“about” Kare wa nihongo ga umai. About him, (his) Japanese is very good.³

mo “also” Watashi wa nihon ni mo itta koto aru. I have also been to Japan.⁴

sae (mo) ”even” Nihongo de sae kore o ginei dekiru. He can even recite it in Japanese.

sura⁵ “not even” Neko sura suki ja nai. He doesn’t even like cats.

shika⁵ “anything but” Sore wa nihon de shika okorenai. It can’t happen anywhere but Japan. ³ “wa” and “ga” together: His Japanese is the subject, not “him,” but “kare wa” establishes whose Japanese are talking about. ⁴ “mo” is modifying “nihon ni,” not “watashi,” so it means “in addition to another place,” not “in addition to another person.” ⁵ Must be used with a negatively conjugated verb. * Binding particles cannot be used on interrogative pronouns, like “dare” or “nani.” JAPANESE PARTICLES: を, に, & CAUSITIVE CASING

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The Complexity of「を」 Direct objects for Japanese verbs do not always translate as such in English. You will need to learn that certain verbs can be transitive in Japanese, especially when English equivalent would use prepositions.

sagasu to look (for) Watashi no neko o を sagashite ita. I was looking for my cat.

matsu to wait (for) Kare o を ichi nichi juu matte imashita. She waited for him all day.

deru to leave (location) San jikan mae ni ginkou o を deta. He left the bank about three hours ago.

kanjiru to feel (about) Sore o を dou kanjimashita ka? How do you feel about it?

The Complexity of「に」 Likewise, indirect objects are not always how we see them in English. Especially when dealing with location. It is not a true location/destination marker: it can only be used if the location itself can “receive” the action.

This chart shows which particle can be used with each type of action. “Ni” tends to be preferred when possible.

ni indirect object de location e へ destination made limit movement verb ”to” Mise ni iku.¹ Mise e aruku. Mise made aruku. locational verb ”at”/”in” Koko ni aru.² other action verbs ”at”/”in” Gakkou de taberu. transferal verbs ”to” Neko o kare ni ageta. Neko o kare e ageta. indirect “-” Tomodachi ni au. indirect ”for” Anata ni ii. ¹ “ni” can only be used with some movement verbs. For example: “iku” and “tobu” can accept it, but “aruku” and “hashiru” cannot. ² “Locational verbs” are verbs that inherently involve the subject attaching to a location. For example, “to be,” “to hide,” “to enter.” Case Markers - Causitive Tense English does not have causitive tense, but it is a simple concept. Someone or something is forcing someone or something else to perform the action. The subject is always the person causing the force.

Kanojo ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him.

Most of the time, the person being forced to perform is selected with the indirect object particle, “ni.”

Kanojo o を mise ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him to the store. However, you can also use the direct object particle “o,” particularly when you have already have an indirect object. This does not mean you cannot use two “ni” particles, but it sounds better not to repeat them so close.

Kanojo ni kare o を mise e へ okuraseru. I will have her escort him to the store. Remember that you cannot repeat “o,” so it is good to be familiar with the above chart in order to avoid repeat- ing the “ni” particle so many times. JAPANESE PARTICLES: PARALLEL, の, & POSTPOSITIONS

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Parallel Markers - Lists EXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and”) Parallel markers are case markers that link nouns together. 1 to 2 to 3 [particle] Most of them are used to construct lists. Formally, they must follow each noun except the last. ALTERNATIVE LIST (”or”) THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST CLAUSES OR VERBS. 1 ka 2 ka 3 [particle] Sakura to Shirou ni agete. Give it to Sakura and Shirou. INEXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and such...etc”) Basu ka karuma de ikou. Let’s go by bus or car. 1 ya 2 ya 3 [particle] Ringo ya nashi ga oishii. Apples and pears and such are tasty.

Possession & Nominalization 「の」 There are two “no” particles. First is generally called the possessive case. Like other parallel markers, it connects two nouns. Sometimes it is translated as “of,” since it is also used to turn some nouns into adjectives.; however, this is not very accurate (”sukoshi no jikan” cannot be translated as “hours of few”).

watashitachi no neko our cat daidokoro no nagashidai kitchen sink

kare to kanojo no kawaisa his and her cuteness nihon no denwabangou Japanese phone number

ni juu san sai no musume 23-year-old daughter ooku no nihonjin many Japanese people

The second “no” nominalizes a verb or clause. Remember that it will need to be followed by a particle. THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST MULTIPLE VERBS OR CLAUSES.

Watashi wa tomodachi to gakkou ni aruku no ga suki desu. I like walking to school with my friends.

Kore o kiru no wa hisashiburi da. It’s been a while since I’ve worn this. (“About wearing this, it’s been a while.”)

Kare wa engi o suru no tokui de nai. He is not good at acting. (”About him, (his) acting is not good.”)

Postpositional Phrases Postpositions (equivalent to English prepositions) use a noun + the possessive particle “no” + locational noun. As a noun, each of these must be followed by a particle.

ue above/on naka inside mae (in) front aida space between

shita below/under soto outside ushiro behind mawari around

Watashi no kasa wa reizouko to kabe no aida ni¹ aru. My umbrella is between the fridge and the wall.

Kare o eki no soto de¹ matte kudasai. Please wait for him outside the station.

Kanojo ga ki no ushiro ni kakurete iru no o mita. I saw her hiding behind the tree.

Kore wa watashi no tsukue no ue ni oite kudasai. Please put it on (top of) my desk. ¹ “ni” vs “de”: Typically, “de” is used for the location of an action, but when the verb is stative and inherently involves attaching to a location, the location is the recipient of the action, and thus uses the i.o. particle “ni.” Examples include “to be,” “to live,” and “to enter.” JAPANESE SENTENCES: CLAUSES & RELATIVE CLAUSES

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Clauses A clause is the simplest unit that can express something. The only required piece of a clause in Japanese is a predicating verb, which always comes at the end of the clause. The order of everything else is flexible, but the general order is: [time adverbs] + [topics] + [subject] + [everything else] + [predicating verb].

Sentences can have multiple clauses, which can be within or next to other clauses. The order of clauses is also flexible as [topic] + wa long as subordinate clauses come before the related indepen- は dent clause. [subject] + ga

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES [direct object] + o を A subordinate (dependent) clause provides the independent [indirect object] + ni [verb] (main) clause with additional information. They never use + polite tense. There are three kinds: [location] + de · Relative (Adjectival) Clauses describe nouns [adverb] · Adverbial Clauses describe actions (why/when/etc) · Noun Clauses are used as a noun ...

Relative (Adjectival) Clauses Also known as “adjectival clause,” these are subordinate clauses that describe a noun. In English, they use pro- nouns, like “that” or the “wh-words.” In Japanese, they are formed by putting the clause before the noun. As such, you must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb.

Kare ga mottekita ringo wa oishii. The apples that he brought were delicious.

The clause “kare ga mottekita” is being used to describe “ringo”

Senshuu kyuukou datta jugyou ni itta. I went to the class that was canceled last week.

Boku wa kare ni tegami o kaita kodomo o sagashite iru. I am looking for the child who wrote him a letter.

* Relative clauses sometimes use “no” instead of “ga” for the actor of the clause. This puts less emphasis on the actor as a whole.

Relative clauses can also use general nouns, like “person” or “thing.” Common nouns to use include:

koto¹ “thing (that)” Kare no ringo o tabeta koto o shitte iru. I know (the thing) that he ate the apple.

mono “object (that)” Kare wa motometa mono o eta. He got what he asked for.

hito² “person (who)” Sono hon o kaita hito o aitai. I want to meet the person who wrote this book.

basho² “place (where”) Kinou tabeta basho ga suki desu. I like the place where I ate today.

toki² “time (when)” Toukyou ni itta toki o kangaeta. I thought about the time when I went to Tokyo.

ryuu² “reason (why)” Eranda ryuu wa akiraka desu. The reason why (I) chose (it) is obvious. ¹ In English, it is more natural to use noun clauses, which are covered in another section, but Japanese often prefers to use of true nouns over noun clauses. However, you cannot use “koto” for quotes or thoughts. ² These are not used when the object is unknown or vague. For subordinate interrogatives, see the Noun Clause section. * You must use the prenominal/attributive form before each of these words. This means using plain tense, and “na” instead of “da.” JAPANESE SENTENCES: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

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Question Markers Japanese does not use intonation or rearrange sentence structure to form a question. Instead, questions are clauses or sentences that are “marked” by particles like “ka” and “ne.”

ka uncertainty prt. Kyou hirugohan o mou tabeta desu ka? Did you already eat lunch today?

ne tag question prt. Kare wa nihongo o yoku hanasu, ne? He speaks Japanaese well, doesn’t he?

Invitations In order to be polite, invitations (and even non-invitations) often use volitional or negative forms.

volitional [o-form] | [i-form]+mashou Ashita kaerou ka? Shall we return home tomorrow?

negative [a-form]+nai | [i-form]+masen Issho ni gohan o tabemasen ka? Won’t you eat with me?

Nounal Interrogatives: Who? What? Where? To ask a question with a nounal interrogative, pop the word right where the answer would go.

dare who Dare ga sono hon o kaita ka? Who wrote this book?

nani what Nani o tabetai desu ka? What do you want to eat?

doko where Kare ga doko ni iku hazu desu ka? Where is he supposed to go?

dochira which Dochira o jushoushita ka? Which one did you win?

Adverbial Interrogatives: When? Why? How? To ask an adverbial question, place the adverb anywhere before the verb.

itsu/nanji when/what time Kare wa itsu kaeru ka? When will he get back?

naze/nande/doushite why Naze kanajo wa gakkou ni ikanakatta ka? Why didn’t she go to school?

dou/donoyouni how Kore o donoyouni tsukau ka? How do you use this?

Answering Questions In Japanese, it is common to answer with the predicate, but not any of the objects, even with transitive verbs.

Kare ni banana o watashita?

Did (you) give him the banana? Bobbu ni? Iie, watasanakatta. Kare wa okotte iru?

To Bob? No, (I) didn’t give (him) (the banana). Is he angry? Hai, okotte iru desu. Yes, (he) is angry. JAPANESE SENTENCES: CONJUNCTIVE SENTENCES

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NOTES Coordinating Phrases ¹ The last clause’s verb denotes tense and polite- In coordinating sentences, each clause holds equal weight. ness for the entire sentence. ² Keredomo > keredo/kedomo > kedo in terms of [clause A] and [clause B] [clause A, te-form] [clause B]¹ politeness; verbs should reflect politeness used. Both clauses should be conjugated for tense [clause A] but [clause B] [clause A] ke(re)do(mo)² [clause B]³ ³ and politeness. [clause A], so [clause B] [clause A] kara⁴ [clause B]³

Subordinating Phrases (Adverbial Clauses) Some of the most common subordinate sentences, where “clause B” is the subordinate clause. NOTES [clause A] because [clause B] [clause B] kara/no de⁴ [clause A] These forms either use the particle “no” or [clause A] when [clause B] [clause B] toki ni⁴ [clause A] a noun followed by the particle “ni.” In these cases, clause B must use prenominal [clause A] while [clause B] [clause B] aida ni⁴/uchi ni⁴ ⁵ [c. A] /attributive form (using “da”instead of “na”).

[clause A] while [clause B] [clause B, i-form] nagara [clause A] Further, you must use plain tense. Use “nagara” if the subject of both clauses [clause A] after [clause B] [clause B, ta-form] ato ni⁴ [clause A]  is the same. If clause B is negative, “uchi ni” [clause A] before [clause B] [clause B, u-form] mae ni⁴ [c. A] means “[clause A] before [the positive of clause B].”

[clause A] since (time) [clause B] [clause B, te-form] kara [c. A] * As subordinate clauses, the first clause [clause A] until [clause B] [clause B, u-form] made [clause A] should not use polite tense.

[clause A], therefore [clause B] [clause A] no dakara⁴ [clause B]

Other Conjunctive Phrases

[clause] tame ni “in order to” yoriyoi yomu tame ni benkyoushite iru studying in order to read better

[clause] no ni “despite” Isogashii no ni kare wa made itte kimashita. Despite being busy, he still went.

[clause] kagiri “as long as” Watashi wa ikite iru kagiri hataraku. I will work as long as I live.

[noun] ni tsuite “about” nihongo o hanasu koto ni tsuite no hon book about speaking Japanese

[noun] niyotte “by means of” katsu koto niyotte uru obtain by winning

[A] ka [B] “either, or” Ie ni aruite ka koko de matte. Walk home or wait here.

[A] de mo [B] “even if” Shigoto wa taihen de mo tanoshii. Even if work is tough, it is fun.

Dakara [clause] “therefore” Abunai! Dakara sugoku nayamu. It’s dangerous! So, I’m really worried.

Shikamo [clause] “moreover” Shikamo shiken de isogashii. Moreover, I’m busy with the exam.

Soshite [clause] “and”/”then” Soshite watashi wa asagohan o tabeta. And then I ate breakfast. JAPANESE SENTENCES: IRREALIS MOODS

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Imperative While there is a grammatical imperative form (meireikei), it is considered rude and rarely used outside of TV.

polite [i-form]+na(sai) O-yasumi nasai. Good night (”rest”).

plain [te-form]+(kudasai) Tasukete! Isoide kudasai! Help! Please hurry!

impolite [meireikei form] Te o agero! Put your hands up!

plain neg. [a-form]+naide Shimpai shinaide (kudasai). (Please) Don’t worry.

impolite neg. [u-form]+na Kore o taberu na! Don’t eat that! Potential Potential forms conjugate like any ichidan verb. For suru verbs, use the ichidan verb dekiru, “to be able.”

godan [e-form]+ru Kare wa zenzen piano o hikenai desu. He can’t play the piano at all.

ichidan/kuru [a-form]+rareru Yoku neraremashita. I was able to sleep well.

Conditional As most of the conditional forms have general, interchangeable uses, below are merely their key divergences. The first clause is the condition, and thus uses the listed form, while the second clause is the result.

-ba provisional mood; focuses on necessary condition; not used to command, permit or suggest¹

verbs [e-form]+ba i-adj [stem]+kereba nouns [noun] de areba

neg. [a-form]+nakereba neg. [stem]+ku nakereba neg. [noun] de nakereba

-tara subjunctive mood, perfective tense; focuses on result; can show intent, relative past, and correlation

verbs [ta-form]+ra i-adj [stem]+kattara nouns [noun] dattara

neg. [a-form]+nakattara neg. [stem]+ku nakattara neg. [noun] de nakattara

baai hypothetical mood; noun meaning “case,” literally, “in the case that...”

verbs [u-form] baai i-adj [present] baai nouns [noun] na/no² baai

to implicative mood; used for expected, definite, habitual, correlative, or natural results; result is present tense

verbs [u-form] to i-adj [present] to nouns [noun] da to

nara assumptive mood; used when the condition is “known” or likely, but not when result is natural or obvious

verbs [u-form] nara i-adj [present] nara nouns [noun] nara

moshi for emphasis; must be used at the beginning of the clause, and in conjunction with another conditional form ¹ -ba form can be used for suggestions only when the condition is an i-adj, the verb is aru or iru, or the condition is negative. ² Use “na” for na-adjectives and general nouns, and “no” for no-adjectives. * These forms can be translated as “When B, A,” “If B, then A will occur,” or “If B, then A would occur” depending on context/tense. JAPANESE SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES

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The Subordinator “that” 「と」 The particle “to” is used very similarly to our word “that” when used to turn a clause into a noun. Below are common verbs to use with “to,” but the translations are more literal than natural.

to iu¹ to say Kanojo wa kare ga isogashii to itta. She said that he is busy.

“to” denotes that “kare ga isogashii” is the object that was said

to omou to think Hana wa kirei da to omowanai ka? Don’t you think the flowers are pretty?

to kanjiru to feel Nihongo o hanasu koto wa tanoshii to kanjiru. I feel that speaking Japanese is fun.

to shinjiru to believe Jijitsu de aru to shinjimasu. I believe that it is true.

to shiru to know Watashi wa jibun ga muchi da to shitte iru. I know that I am ignorant.

to wakaru to realize Mita totanni sugi kare da to watakatta. The moment I saw (him), I knew that it is him.

¹ “to iu” is often abbreviated to “tte,” which is also commonly used to emphasize words, similar to the expression, “[...], you say?” * You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “to.” This means using “da” instead of “na.” * Use the o を particle when dealing with direct objects or relative clauses, and not noun clauses, ex. ”I know the reason...”.

Subordinate Interrogative Clauses 「か」 The “ka” particle is not just used to ask questions, but shows that a clause is unknown or uncertain, even within a declarative sentence. If the noun clause starts with a “wh” word or “if,” you should use “ka” instead of “to.”

Doko ni iru ka shitte iru. I know where (he) is. Itsu iku beki ka shirinai. I don’t know when (I) should go.

Watashi wa kare ga oyogeru ka mitakatta. I wanted to see if he could swim.

Raishuu karera wa ikitai ka to omoimasu. (I) think that they want to go next week (but I am not sure).

* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “ka.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”

Nominalized Clauses 「の」 You should already know that the nominalization particle “no” turns clauses into nouns, but it can be used with “da/desu” to nominalize entire clauses. This essentially turns actions into statements, and is identical to our use of noun clauses and the verb “to be.” For example: “Here is where [I put my watch]” vs. “I put my watch here.” This is often used to provide explanation, but it is also makes questions sound more polite.

no/n (da) Ashita watashi wa ikitakunai no ja nai. It’s not that I don’t want to go tomorrow.

no/n (desu) Mou kirei na² no desu. It is that it is already clean.³

no/n (desu) (ka) Dou kore wa yatte mitsuketa no desu ka? How is it that you found this?

no/n de Osokatta n de, sensei ga okotte ita. It is that I was late, and the teacher was mad.³ ² You must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb before the particle “no.” This means using plain form, and “na” instead of “da” ³ Because the nominalization often implies explanation, this structure is usually translated as “because.” So the more natural translations would be “Because it is already clean.” and “The teacher was mad because I was late.” * Note that in casual speech, “no” is often abbreviated to “n” and “da/desu” and/or “ka” may be left out. JAPANESE EXPRESSIONS: EXPANDING ON QUALITIES

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Observations & Similes - “like” 「 よ う 」 The noun “you,” means something like “form.” As a noun, you must use prenominal/attributive form before it.

you da observation ¹ Karera wa konai you da. Seems like they aren’t coming tonight.

you na adjectival Kuiiru you na manazashi de jitto mita. (I) watched with a devouring gaze.

you ni adverbial Kare wa watashi o minakatta you ni furumatta. He acted like he didn’t see me!

no you ni simile Chou no you ni tobitai. I want to fly like a butterfly. ¹ This is not used when something literally has a certain appearance. For example, to say “looks sad,” use “kanashiku mieru.”

Comparisons - “-er, than” 「より・ ほ う 」 The case marker “yori” and the noun “hou” are commonly used to compare the quality of nouns or clauses against each other. “hou” represents the side of the subject, while “yori” represents the “challenger.”

Ikou yori iu hou ga yasashii. Easier said than done. (”Compared to doing, saying is easy.”)

Watashi wa suugaku yori sono hou ga rikai shiyasui desu. That’s easier for me to understand than math.

Both “yori” or “hou” may be left out. Also, “yori” can be used without a noun to give a general meaning.

Hayaku okiru hou ga zutto ii. You really should wake up early. (”It is much better to wake up early.”)

Mizu yori karui mono wa uku. Anything lighter than water floats. (“A thing that is lighter than water floats.”)

Yuki wa Taro yori mo hayaku hashiru. Yuki runs faster than even Taro too.

Watashi wa itsu ka yori tsuyoku naru. I will get stronger some day.

Degree - “enough/so” 「ほど」 When you want to elaborate the extent or degree of a quality, you can use the adverbial particle, “hodo.” Note how the positivity of the clauses reflects in the naturalized English translation.

[+] hodo [+] ~“enough” Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakai. He’s tall enough to reach the ceiling.

[+] hodo [-] ~“not enough” Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakanatta. He’s not tall enough to reach the ceiling.

[-] hodo [+] ~“so” Nikugan dewa mienai hodo chiisai. It is so small that you cannot see it with the naked eye.

[-] hodo [-] ~“not so” Sore o shiranai hodo baka de wa nai. He’s not so stupid that he doesn’t know that.

“too” 「過ぎる」 Use the continuative form of verbs and adj. verbs followed by the verb “sugiru” to say something is “too much.”

Kare wa segatakai sugite, kono heya de wa massugu ni tatenai. He is too tall, he can’t stand up straight in this room.