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African American Culture As a Political Weapon in the 1960S Civil Rights Movement

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African American Culture As a Political Weapon in the 1960S Civil Rights Movement Liberation Culture: African American culture as a political weapon in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. Joe Street A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of PhD University of Sheffield Department of History June 2003. Liberation Culture: African American culture as a political weapon in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement. Joe Street Synopsis This thesis addresses the use of African American culture as a political weapon in the 1960s civil rights movement. It argues that African American culture was an important weapon for the movement and focuses on how the three major 1960s civil rights organisations - the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Congress of Racial Equality and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference - engaged with cultural forms such as song, theatre, literature and art. It also examines smaller groups, such as the Free Southern Theater, the Southern Folk Cultural Revival Project, the Black Panther Party and Us, and important individuals such as Guy Carawan, Robert F. Williams, Amiri Baraka and Malcolm X. A particular concern of the thesis is the role that education played in spreading the civil rights movement's message. Although based in historical method, it is also grounded in cultural theory, addressing Antonio Gramsci's conception of hegemony and oppositional culture and incorporating ideas of identity and memory. It presents SNCC's 1964 Summer Project as a central event of the civil rights movement, where the relationship between education, culture and the movement peaked. In doing so, the thesis addresses the periodisation of the movement, suggesting that 1964 be interpreted as the turning point of the movement. Implicit in the thesis is the relationship between the civil rights organisations and the North. The thesis argues that the movement started to look north prior to 1965. It suggests that African American culture proved to be a unifying force between the 'Civil Rights' and 'Black Power' eras and examines events and individuals that straddled both periods. It therefore proposes that the relationship between these historical phenomena be re-examined and that Black Power be reassessed as an outgrowth of the civil rights movement. Contents: Page Acknowledgements: iii Introduction: 1 Chapter 1: 23 Singing for Freedom: Folk culture, the HighJander Folk School and the civil rights movement Chapter 2: 54 Tentative Steps: The civil rights organisations and African American culture, 1960-1 963 Chapter 3: 92 Uniting Around Black Culture: Malcolm X, Amiri Baraka, Robert F. Williams and black nationalism, 1960-1963 Chapter 4: 121 'Education in Mississippi. .. must be reconstructed from the ground up': Culture and the 1964 Summer Project Chapter 5: 160 Restoring Cultural Roots: Resurgent cultural nationalism in 1964 Chapter 6: 192 Integrationist Hopes: The SCLC and HighJander's continuing lllfluence,1965-1969 Chapter 7: 218 Addressing New Challenges: SNCC and CORE's relationship with African American culture, 1965-1969 Chapter 8: 245 'In struggle, art IS a weapon': Black cultural nationalism, 1965-1969 Conclusion: 288 Bibliography: 303 ii Acknowledgements I wonder whether all graduate students come to the acknowledgements section of their thesis wondering whether this will be their only opportunity to thank all those who have helped. This, I think, might explain why they are so long. It certainly explains the length of these thanks. Over the course of the last four years, good friends, colleagues and strangers alike have contributed in many ways to the production of this piece of work. They all deserve more than a mere mention in these pages. Robert Cook supervised this thesis from start to finish. I first encountered Robert when I was a callow, yet obstinate undergraduate. His courses at Sheffield transformed me and provided the basis from which this piece of work sprang. So it is, in many ways, his fault that you are reading this. Robert's challenging and perceptive, yet collegiate and understanding criticisms of my vague early ideas ensured that this thesis became a thesis, rather than a series of unrelated vignettes with a rather spurious theme running through them. His support when the project faltered ensured that I continued when all seemed lost and his superb readings of various drafts helped this work become much, much better than I imagined. I cannot thank him enough. Hugh Wilford also contributed to the early supervision of this thesis. His enthusiasm for my Masters dissertation set me on the road towards this project and his advice gave me a crucial theoretical backbone. Without it, this project would have collapsed. Dom Sandbrook kindly - some would say foolishly - agreed to read the first completed draft of this thesis. He made a number of helpful observations and prevented the worst excesses of my prose being revealed to the wider world. His trenchant and witty criticism tightened the thesis considerably. Seth Denbo also provided an excellent critique of some of the writing and Richard Carwardine offered wise advice. The various wings of my family also helped in many ways. I should first thank Jenny, who argued many years ago that I had a book in me. That remains to be seen, but she always encourages me to continue whenever I became bored. She would also be disappointed not to read her name here. Eddy and Anna have always provided a supportive environment for me. Barbara inspires me daily. Tesni is, as she always says, fine. Eddie and Laura take a keen interest in and support everything I do. The McGroarys welcomed me into their family, for which I am always grateful. The iii Mynotts make sure I stay on the straight and narrow (and will be horrified to learn that this thesis was supervised by, whisper it, a Villa fan). All my family have taken an abiding interest in my work. Without them I would not have started, let alone finished. I love them all. When travelling through the United States on my pilgrimage to various libraries and archives, I incurred enough debts to last a lifetime. My great friend Kris Holl gave me a place to stay for my first couple of weeks in DC and provided me with beer, movie tickets and ideas for other places to stay. When these fell through, her parents, Steve and Kathy, invited me into their home and into their lives. Without them, I would have left the US, tail between legs, within weeks of arriving. For three months, they fed, clothed and housed me and made me part of the family. The Holls have a special place in my heart. I will always be grateful for their kindness. At the Library of Congress, Jon Powell's cheeriness and willingness to discuss work over a beer kept me going during the long hours in the Manuscripts Department, whose staff also deserve thanks for their efficiency and helpfulness. At the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, JoEllen EI Bashir and her wonderful staff helped my search for material and kept my spirits high. I remain puzzled. though, by their insistence that I am a reincarnation of John Inman. Jon Wallace and Anne Langley offered me a room and more friendship ill Chapel Hill. They gave me an instant circle of friends that made my few weeks with them amongst the happiest of the last few years, due in part to the time we spent in Hell. I'll not forget the Beaujolais party for many years, let alone the hangover afterwards. Amy Davis of the Southern Folklife Collection at the University of North Carolina was incredibly helpful. She directed me towards the Guy Carawan collection and ensured that I was able to listen to a number of recordings that had not previously been available to researchers. Another great friend, Elizabeth Eagleson, took good care of me when I found myself in Winston-Salem. Jon Powell put me in touch with Jim and Christine Pawley, who kindly offered me the top floor of their house in Madison, Wisconsin and their friendship. Alice picked me up in the middle of winter and, as I shivered and wondered what the hell I was doing in this desolate place, ensured that I soon changed my mind about Madison. Alice's zest for life is infectious! Psyche played ball with me whenever I came home after a hard day's work and the sadly departed Gandalf offered interesting suggestions as to the direction of my work. I shall never forget the Pawleys' generosity, nor their support. Bill Van Deburg welcomed me to Madison and gave me a number of useful contacts who helped in my research. His kindness to a rather nervous British student helped me lV to settle in and will always be appreciated. Harry Miller and the staff at the Manuscripts Department at the State Historical Society helpfully directed me to the myriad sources available to researchers. They also filled in countless stack requests. Tim Tyson is one of the finest gentlemen currently working in academia. He invited me into his home and granted access to the dusty Williams archive that features in this thesis. His advice, good humour and generosity should be cloned. Jordi Getman and Patrick Michelson are rapidly approaching legendary status. They've become great friends of a number of British graduate students who excitedly share anecdotes about their antics. Jordi and Patrick entertained me with their incredible cooking and appetite for conversation, wine and ideas for many, many evenings. I only wish I could remember them all! Without them, Madisonian weekends would have not been the exciting times that they were. I look forward to returning their hospitality - soon. Thanks should also go to Ted Frantz, John Cornelius, Tony Gaughan and the many other grad students that befriended me over the course of my Madison visit.
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