Maritime Burial Cairns and the Land-Use History of South-Western Uusimaa

Burials at the End of Land – Maritime Burial Cairns and the Land-Use History of South-Western Uusimaa

Henrik Jansson

Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies Archaeology, P.O.Box 59, FI-00014 University of Helsinki [email protected]

Abstract

The maritime landscape of Uusimaa has been quite an unknown territory for archaeologists up to recent years. Only the archipelago of Ekenäs in the western part of the area was surveyed extensively before the year 2002. In this article recent research is presented. The focus is on the most maritime area between Hanko in the west and Espoo in the east. The viewpoint is from the sea, meaning that the relationship between the burial cairns and the maritime environment is especially emphasized, but the larger geographical context is not forgotten, either. Another important aspect is the perspective of the landscape. How are the sites located in the landscape and what meanings can be derived from the patterns in the landscape? Questions about the chronology of erecting cairns in the maritime zone will be discussed - when did the phenomenon start, how long did it continue, and when did it end? The main question is: How do the spatial and morphological patterns of the burial sites and stray finds reflect secular land use?

Keywords: archaeology, maritime areas, landscape, Bronze Age, Iron Age, burial sites, land-use.

1. Introduction maa (Jansson & Latikka 2006)1. During the surveys hundreds of formerly unknown sites were documented and reported. The data gathered during that project forms the basis for the dis- The maritime landscape of Uusimaa has been cussion in this article. A more detailed analysis quite an unknown territory for archaeologists of the material had to wait for the following up to recent years. Only the archipelago of project (2004–2006) called Uusimaa during Ekenäs in the western part of the area was sur- Iron Age and Middle Ages2. Part of that work is veyed extensively before the year 2002. Most presented in this article. of the archaeological field activities had up to that point been concentrated to the more inland agrarian landscape of Uusimaa. In 2002–2003, 1 The project was funded with the generous contributions archaeologists and historians, in a project of Svenska kulturfonden, Konstsamfundet, Sparbanks- named Our Maritime Heritage organized by stiftelsen i Hangö, Tenala, Bromarv, Esbo and Helsing- the department of Archaeology at the Univer- fors, The Jenny and Antti Wihuri Foundation, Svenska litteratursällskapet and the EU LEADER+ programme. sity of Helsinki, started surveys in the coastal 2 The project was funded with the generous contributions and archipelagic areas of south-western Uusi- of the Kone foundation.

Maritime Landscape in Change THE FINNISH ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, ISKOS 19, 2011 HENRIK JANSSON

The focus is on the most maritime area be- During the whole Holocene period, the tween Hanko in the west and Espoo in the east maritime area of Western Uusimaa has been (Fig. 1). This is also the part of Uusimaa that a coastline broken by several fjord-like inlets during medieval times formed the coastal and running from north to south. Geological rift for- archipelagic part of the county of Raseborg. The mations form east-west-oriented natural cause- term maritime area is used to define the area be- ways in the archipelago, which are quite easy tween the mainland seashore and the open sea to navigate nowadays with marked sea lanes. areas It consists of an archipelago with islands In the north-south direction, the archipelago is of various sizes. The scale of the archipelago quite narrow, only about 20 km at its widest. In depends on its location within the larger area. some areas, such as in Hanko, the archipelago The land uplift process in the area demands that consists of only a few scattered islands on the changes in shorelines are taken into considera- brink of the open sea. tion. The shoreline has changed depending on The inner archipelago consists of large is- the profile of the land cover, which means that lands (more than 15 hectares) with narrow the coastline in the former parish of Snapper- straits and smaller islands forming a mosaic tuna (Raseborg) and the parish of Siuntio was of shallow and narrow waters around them several kilometres to the north of the present (Häyrén 1900). There is no real middle archi- shoreline as relatively recently as in 1000–1500 pelagic zone in the area; the archipelago opens AD. In other parts the changes were minor and up to the outer archipelagic zone quite rapidly. larger fluctuation, such as the drying of inlets of In this paper, land use during the Bronze the shoreline, has taken place only locally. Age and the Iron Age in the maritime area of

Fig . 1. The area discussed in this article. Darkest grey shows the shoreline approximately 1000 AD, the lighter grey approximately 500 BC and the lightest grey approximately 1500 BC. The tilting effect of the area has been taken into consideration.

118 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

Western Uusimaa is discussed. Also the issue 2. Some perspectives on burial of when the archipelago was permanently set- cairns as indicators of land use tled will be addressed, but the main focus is on land use in general, of which dwelling is only a part. The main question is: How do the spatial and morphological patterns of the burial sites Burial site and burial cairn and stray finds reflect secular land use? The site types have been chosen because they are the most common and in many cases the only prehistoric types of sites in the maritime areas. The term burial site or burial cairn is used to The lack of Bronze Age and especially Iron signify a site whose main purpose is the burial Age settlements is not only a maritime problem and/or the ceremonies regarding the deceased, but also a problem for more inland areas. whether it was the primary or secondary place The viewpoint is from the sea, meaning of burial. The burial sites were places con- that the relationship between the burial cairns cerned with the actual burial, the funerary ritu- and the maritime environment is especially als, or rituals involving the ancestor and con- emphasized, but the larger geographical concerning the living (Barrett 1996:397). text is not forgotten, either (cf. Jasinski 1993). Another important aspect is the perspective of Representativity the landscape. How are the sites located in the landscape and what meanings can be derived from the patterns in the landscape? Questions In Finland, the land-use and settlement history about the chronology of erecting cairns in the of the Iron Age especially and to a large extent maritime zone will be discussed – when did the also the Bronze Age of southern Finland has phenomenon start, how long did it continue, been and still is mostly based on burial sites and when did it end? (Kivikoski 1961; Salo 1981; Edgren 1992; Salo In addition to the lack of recent field re- 1995; Lehtonen 2000; Pihlman 2004:84–85). search in the mainland area, also more theoreti- Especially during the early years of archaeol- cal studies and publications have been scarce. ogy, but also still in the late 20th century, stud- One exception has been the work of Anna ies tended to focus on burial sites, especially Wessman (Wickholm) on the Iron Age burial on the rich cemeteries from the late Iron Age. sites in the area (Wickholm 2000; 2005; 2007; In Uusimaa, only two Iron Age settlement sites Wessman 2010). It is important that the mari- were studied before the 21st century (Wickholm time areas are considered in relation to these ar- 2005). eas in order to obtain a complete picture. Also In this paper, burial and stray finds are used studies in neighbouring areas need to be given as indicators of land use because they are the some attention, especially the coastal areas and only type of prehistoric sites that can be found archipelago of Finland Proper where interest- throughout the area. The existence of Iron Age ing new results have been published during the settlements in Western Uusimaa is almost non- last 10 years (Asplund 2001; 2008; Tuovinen existent, and there are only a handful of pos- 1985; 1990; 2002). sible Bronze Age settlements (cf. Forsén et al The archaeological material from main- 1993). When burial cairns are used as indica- land burial sites in Western Uusimaa has not tors of land use, it has to be remembered that been included in field studies by the author and they represent only a part of the wide spectrum therefore only previous publications and stud- of activities that made up the life of a prehis- ies are used in the discussion regarding them. toric person. This raises the question of how representative the material is.

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Physical representativity means the physi- example, Lewis Binford saw the relation be- cal coverage of, for example, surveys done tween mortuary practises and the complexity by professional archaeologists and the repre- of a society as quite straightforward (Binford sentativeness of the number of sites and their 1972:235). This view has been criticized since geographical distribution. Fieldwork done in by several authors (cf. Trigger 1989; Lagerlöf most maritime areas can be considered as rep- 1991). Michael Parker Pearson has shown, by resentative. The coastline and archipelago were studying English graveyards, that an egalitar- surveyed in the same project during 2002–2003 ian mortuary practice does not always reflect using a standardized documentation method. an egalitarian society and care should be tak- Over 90% of the islands and coastal areas have en in the analysis of social structure based on been visited and mapped by professional ar- burial sites (Parker Pearson 1982). Studies have chaeologists. From 2002 to 2004, several teams shown, despite the criticism, that burials, rituals of archaeologists carried out surveys in the and ceremonies are connected with other struc- area with a standardized field and documenta- tures and activities in society (cf. Tilley 1994 tion method, which should make the material on the double bind and power; Kjeld Jensen et comprehensive enough for this paper. Most of al 1997; Mägi 2002). the sites have been visited and redocumented The religious rituals and ceremonies that by the author. In complementary surveys, done ended in the burial sites we find today were in after the 2002–2003 extensive surveys, only a an interdependency and complex dialogue with few sites have been found, and all of them were other aspects of life (Cassel 1999:30). The reli- other stone structures than burial sites. This gious beliefs and ritual were connected to eve- shows that the burial sites used for this article ryday life and could be used, for example, to are representative enough to be used as indica- emphasize status or the rights to certain areas or tors of land use even if no statistical compari- activities. This means that by understanding the son has been done. ritual and motives behind the burial places, also The question of what could be called cul- other aspects of past human life can be inter- tural representativity is more complex. This preted. Because the religious beliefs and ritu- term is used to signify how large a part of the als connected to these were closely connected past activity in the area the burial sites repre- to the more profane parts of life, they can also sent. No exact figure can be given, but it can be reflect other types of land use than only ritual discussed what the erecting of burial cairns in or religious. However, interpreting patterns and an area could have meant. Burial places are re- places with ritual function should be done care- lated to rituals and death. According to Kristina fully. The presence of burial sites means that Jennbert, burials and rituals concerning burials the area had a meaning and was considered give a perspective on the world of ideas of past important. The lack of burial sites does not, on humans and the burial places are consequences the other hand, mean that there was no land use of rites de passages (Gennep 1960; Jennbert in the area (cf. Huurre 1979:141). It could only 1993:71). The burial sites can therefore provide mean, for example, a change of meaning, ritual, a picture of the religion and ways of seeing the or belief system and not necessarily a hiatus in world in prehistoric societies (cf. Kaliff 1997). land use (Fitter 1995:8–9; Barrett 1999:257– In less complex societies that existed dur- 258). ing prehistory, religion and rituals were prob- Care should be taken especially in the dis- ably intertwined with every aspect of life (Ka- cussion of settlement history by using burial liff 1997:11–13). Hence burial sites have often sites. Studies have shown that an increase or been used in studies of the social structure of expansion of burial sites does not automatically past people. They have been thought to reflect mean the expansion or intensification of settle- hierarchies and social status in the society. For ments (Rasmussen 1993; Skoglund 2005:101).

120 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

In Finnish archaeological studies concerning become embedded with strong symbolic mean- Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement history, ing. On the other hand, these places were not burial sites have traditionally been used as indi- used for ceremonies that put an end to life, but cators of sedentary settlements. Especially the instead they were places that enabled a new ex- Late Iron Age cemeteries have been assumed to istence after death (Kaliff 1997:20). Thereby be in close connection to the settlements (Koti- burial sites were links between the world of the vuori 1992; Raike & Seppälä 2005; Wickholm living and the world of the dead, where contacts 2005:6; Vuorinen 2009). Therefore burial sites with ancestors were made (Cooney 1994). The without settlements have been considered reli- ritual was connected to the life of the living and able indicators of settlement at or close to the the places had other embedded meanings than site3. This assumption has not been extensively just as a burial place for an ancestor. By study- critically evaluated because there are still only ing the places in their landscape and their spa- a few examples of research directed at contem- tial pattern, also these underlying meanings of porary settlements in Finland. more secular nature can be interpreted. In the study of other types of burial sites Burial sites make it possible to interpret than cemeteries in an agrarian landscape, the how past people looked at themselves and how correlation is more complex. This has been dis- they understood the surrounding world (Cassel cussed by Tuovinen (2002): 1999:30). One more secular aspect concerning “Where does the line run within archaeologi- the latter, and the main focus of this article, is cal finds between sedentary settlement, mobile resi- the use of an area. The right to use an area was dential settlement, and desolate wilderness? On the important for any prehistoric society because mainland coast of Finland Proper there are more its survival depended on it. In a hierarchical than 600 registered Iron-Age graves and cemeteries society, this right could be connected to power which have undoubtedly been interpreted as indi- and controlled by a smaller group or even by an cations of sedentary agrarian settlement. But what individual. These rights had to be manifested about the more than 200 Iron-Age cairns in Åboland somehow. Before the time of maps or written at the distance of 10–70 km from the mainland coast documents, the landscape provided the means towards the archipelago; are they wilderness inter- for this. It could be done by emphasizing cer- ments or graves within sedentary settlement?” tain places and upheld by rituals and ceremo- On the other hand, some connections have nies, such as ancestral rituals. been shown also between Bronze Age burial cairns and dwelling sites, for example, on the eastern and western coasts of the Gulf of Places, space, and landscapes Bothnia (Kotivuori 1993; Baudou 1995:100; Okkonen 1999). As discussed earlier, it has to be kept in mind that burial sites connected to The places for the burial sites were not chosen rituals are not direct indicators of local seden- at random. They were erected in a landscape al- tary settlements. Other evidence, such as that ready filled with meaning, derived from its nat- provided by dwelling sites, toponyms, and pol- ural features and possibly the relics of cultural len analysis, is needed to make such interpreta- features (Barrett 1999:255). The places chosen tions. for the ritual that led to the erection of a monu- Burial sites were primarily places dealing ment were always located in a context that we with death in the community and therefore they call landscape. Sometimes the term environment is used to mean a context that is always there, while the landscape needs a perceiver 3 Unto Salo (1995) uses the term cemeterial settlement (Ermischer 2004). In this article, the term land- (fi. kalmistollinen asutus) for places defined as settle- scape is used in order to emphasize the perspec- ments based on cemeteries without the actual dwelling site. tive of the perceiver.

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Landscape has attracted the interest of ar- from the cultural or the sacred from the profane chaeologists for a long time. It was only in (Barrett 1991:8). The profane and sacred are in- the 1990s when the concept of landscape was tertwined and no sacred or religious landscape more widely theorized and the term landscape can be separated from the already mentioned archaeology became more widely used (e.g., taskscape or production landscape related to Barrett et al 1991; Tilley 1993, 1994; Bradley more mundane activities that people are car- 1993; Barrett 1994; Bender 1998; Knapp & rying out as a part of the landscape (Johnston Ashmore 1999a). Archaeologists, predomi- 1998:61–64). In order to understand the land nantly from Britain, criticized the earlier views use or the profane, the ritual or sacred must also of the landscape as a passive medium that hu- be understood, and the other way around (van mans utilized. The landscape was seen as an ac- Dommelen 1999:281). This is what Coones tive entity with a complex relation to humans (1992) called seamless totality. (Tilley 1994; Knapp & Ashmore 1999b:2). It The landscape is also always contextual in was furthermore not considered stable but an relation to the perceiver (Johnston 1998:56). unstable concept moving along a natural and Hence the landscape cannot be separated from cultural continuum (Tilley 1994:37). society because it is the outcome of the process The burial sites had a multitude of mean- between people and their engagement with the ings as argued above. The same case can be world they live in (Hirsch 1995). The landscape argued also for the landscape. Mircea Eliade and its significant elements, which can be stud- (1968) has put forward the idea that space can ied by archaeologists, are therefore the prod- be separated into profane and sacred. In the uct of specific local and historical conditions profane spaces there are hierophanies (Eliade and they have been and are in constant change 1968:20). These are holy places where people (Coones 1992). This means that landscape by can interact and communicate with gods. Burial definition never can belong to only one period sites may have been used over a long period and when sites are studied in their landscape, a of time for rituals and might therefore be inter- fourth dimension – time – always has to be ac- preted as hierophanies. counted for (Crawford 1953). From a landscape perspective, the division In understanding the sites it is important to between profane and sacred can be problem- understand how, why, and when they were ini- atic. Many studies use definitions of landscapes tially created. Why did the emerge as specific related to the profane space when studying places in the wider landscape? This does not secular activities like subsistence and dwelling. mean that they were not conceptualized or ritu- This has resulted in terms like taskscape (In- alized places before a monument was raised or gold 1993) or production landscape (Löfgren an ancestor buried at the place. The landscape 1981). The division of the landscape into such was filled with natural elements embedded with categories has been criticised by Richard Brad- meaning, but for some reasons, certain places ley (1997:216), who writes: were chosen for erecting burial cairns. (Brad- ”All too often the prehistoric landscape is stud- ley 2000). According to Christopher Tilley, the ied for evidence of settlement and subsistence. This monuments acted as a focus or a lens through is the task of ”landscape archaeology”. Monuments which the wider world of experience was to be associated with ritual and ceremonial use are usu- viewed (Tilley 1994). The place was given a ally studied separately, and these are the province strong communicative role in many senses in- of ”social archaeology”. Such a division of labour cluding communication with the people and the is faint-hearted, and ultimately it is impossible to surrounding landscape. maintain”. The landscape should be considered as one entity where the natural cannot be separated

122 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

Some points on scale and classification 2. Physical landscape change in south-western Uusimaa during As discussed above, a cairn does not point to the last 3500 years the coordinates of the place where the people who erected it dwelled, fished, hunted, or tilled The landscape and its appearance are affected their fields. Therefore the approach in this study by the physical changes caused by natural phe- is regional. It is related to Klas Selinge´s settle- nomena. An important factor is climate, which ment region (swe. bebyggelseregion) and not affects precipitation, erosion, and vegetation, to the settlement unit (swe. bebyggelseenhet) among other things. Another process that is (Selinge 1977). Instead of locating the specific very clearly visible in the maritime areas is unit itself and giving sites specific coordinates, the land upheaval. In the area of this study, the the study stays on a macro level. present-day land upheaval, according to the Burial cairns and stone settings are clas- isobases, varies between 3.2 and 3.8 mm/year sified in field conditions. The classification (Kääriäinen 1963). In another part of this publi- of stone heaps into morphological groups has cation, Arto Miettinen discusses the land uplift been criticized (cf. Bolin 1999:59–60). It is a processes during the last 2500 years. According fact that giving a burial cairn a definition based to him, the Baltic sea shoreline varied between on the outline or shape of the cairn is difficult. 8.5 m a.s.l. (west part of the area) and 6.5 m Hans Bolin has furthermore shown that cairns a.s.l. (east part of the area) around 500 BC and have undergone ritualistic reshaping and re- 1–1.5 m a.s.l. around 500 AD. The results fur- building phases (Bolin 1999:60–62). Therefore thermore suggest a gradually lowering sea level most of the sites in this study are defined into without any clear transgressions. one category, undetermined. Every site that The study by Arto Miettinen did not include lacks proper description or is ambiguous in any the Bronze Age, but it and the earlier period are way has been classified into this group. No at- covered by two other studies. One studied the tempts have therefore been made to differenti- shore displacements in the Tammisaari–Perniö ate between, for example, round or oval shapes, area (Eronen et al. 2001) and the other the because they are difficult to determine due to same processes in the Helsinki–Kirkkonummi the quality of documentation and the non-spe- area (Hyvärinen 1999). Both studies focused cific character of the sites. on earlier periods, but according to their shore On the other hand, there are some eas- displacement curves the shore line would have ily distinguishable stone settings or cairns been approximately 15 m a.s.l. in the western that can be classified, and they are the focus part and around 11 m a.s.l. in the eastern part of this study. Two morphological types have of the area at the beginning of the Bronze Age been distinguished and named rectangular around 1500 BC. cairns and elongated stone settings. Stone set- The effects and changes in the landscape tings and cairns that were built for a certain caused by the shoreline displacement process regular shape, especially the angular ones, are have varied quite a lot. In the north-western considered to be specifically designed to a cer- part of the area, in the former parishes of Bro- tain shape (Tuovinen 2002:154–155). The two marv and Tenala (today part of the town of types can clearly be defined and measured and Raseborg), where the topography is steeper, the thereby also classified and separated from the changes are not that significant. In the former rest of the burial cairns and stone settings. One parish of Snappertuna (today part of the town reason why these specific types of burial struc- of Raseborg), the archipelago stretched several tures are in focus is that they are distinct to the kilometres further towards the north compared maritime areas of south-western Uusimaa. to the present-day shoreline still during the Ear- ly Middle Ages.

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The vegetation in the area has probably into two groups. The monumental burial cairns, been quite similar to that of today for the last positioned in an elevated position and often 3500 years. An exception to this are some of with a stone cist, he dated to the early Bronze the larger islands, Älgö and Orslandet, where Age, while the later Bronze Age cairns includ- pollen analysis discussed by Teija Alenius else- ed cremation burials without stone cists (Häll- where in this publication shows a significant ström 1948:25–27). opening of the landscape around 400–800 AD. The four-sided settings in Uusimaa and a Today, these larger islands are more covered by tarand grave at Kroggårdsmalmen were dated forest than they were during that period. This is by Hällström to the early Iron Age. In accord- due to the regression in population and agricul- ance with the contemporary views of a settle- ture in the maritime areas during the last 50–80 ment hiatus during the Pre-Roman Iron Age, he years. Old fields and meadows, as well as pas- sees especially the Kroggårdsmalmen site as a ture islands, have been reforested. The vegeta- cemetery built by Estonian immigrants during tion on these islands today resembles that of the the first centuries AD. He furthermore states period before 1500 years ago more than that of that the origin of the grave form is in Estonia the agricultural maximum that occurred later. and the four-sided stone setting is a form of tarand grave with only one tarand (Hällström 1948:43). After the colonization, the settle- 3. Earlier research on Bronze Age, ments would have increased in number, with a Iron Age and early historical set- peak in the area during the Merovingian period (Hällström 1948:58). According to Hällström, tlement history in western Uusi- the end of the Viking Age meant an end to the maa permanent settlements in the area. Also Ella Kivikoski compared the four- Few synthesizing studies of settlement and land sided stone settings with the single tarand use in the prehistoric periods in western Uusi- graves from northern Estonia. Like Hällström, maa have been done so far. Fieldwork was quite she believed them to be tarand graves. She intensive up to the late 20th century (Fast 1989). concluded that they were incomplete or smaller Some of the mainland burial cairns and burial than contemporary tarand graves in Estonia due sites from the metal periods, especially in the to the smaller population in Finland during the Karis area, were excavated already during the Iron Age (Kivikoski 1961:128). Later Valter late 19th and early 20th centuries. The maritime Lang has stated that the four-sided stone settings areas, though, were ignored. The first synthesis and single tarand graves, a type more thoroughly of the mainland areas, especially the parish of studied after the publications by Kivikoski and Karis, was written by Olof af Häggström, who Hällström in the north-eastern part of Estonia, also excavated several sites before he wrote a are to be considered as belonging to the same book on the prehistory of Karis (1948). burial type (Lang 1996:323). Hällström dated the cairns in the area to Pekka Honkanen (1981) discussed the Iron the Bronze Age and believed they were built Age settlement development in the Uusimaa by seafarers or an archipelagic population area with an emphasis on the Migration and (Hällström 1948:24). At that stage, there were Merovingian Periods. Like previous and later no pollen analyses or dwelling sites from the authors on the subject, he discussed the settle- Bronze Age known in the area that would have ment development by using burial sites because supported a theory of local settlements. He of a lack of properly studied settlement sites. dated the beginning of the tradition of build- According to Honkanen, there is a decrease in ing cairns to around the year 1000 BC. Hence burial finds in the 6th century and an increase the Bronze Age would have lasted for only 600 again in the 7th century (Honkanen 1981:92– years in this area. Hällström divided the cairns 93). The so-called four-sided stone settings he

124 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

dates from the Late Roman Iron Age to the end some cases, also settlements between the cairns of the Merovingian Period (Honkanen 1981:37, have been found. 99). One important feature in the tarand graves During the centuries after the Pre-Roman is the collectiveness of the burials. The finds Iron Age, three new settlement clusters ap- and bones are spread out on top of and among peared in the Karis, Tenala, and Meltola- the stone setting inside the square kerb. Romsarby areas. The three groups from the By comparing the historical borders of the Pre-Roman Iron Age continued during the Ro- Medieval hamlets and the burial sites in the man Iron Age, but at least the Lohja group and area, Honkanen concluded that 7–8 settlement the coastal group seem to disappear during the units should have existed in the area during the Migration Period. For the coastal group, this Iron Age (Honkanen 1981:125–127). Like af period coincides with the time when the inlet, Hällström before him, also Honkanen remarks around which this group was located, ran dry. that the settlements were all located towards This population moved to the Lepinjärvi area, Lake Lepinjärvi. From this lake a pollen sam- which seems to be settled at the same time (For- ple was taken already in the 1970s, indicating a sén et al 1995:31–32). continuation of the agricultural activities from According to Forsén and Moisanen, the the 8th century forward and up to modern times. population reached its maximum during the (Tolonen et al 1979; Tolonen 1985). This con- Migration and Merovingian Period. During tradicts the fact that no sites have been dated to the Viking Age, this population went into a re- the period between the late Viking Age or after gression with the latest find from the area from 950 AD and the early Middle Ages. However, around 950 AD (Forsén & Moisanen 1995:38). Honkanen concludes that this did not mean Also as stated above, pollen analyses show that abandonment of the area; instead, one explana- at least the agriculture continued uninterrupted tion would be the adoption of Christian burial up to the Middle Ages. This is also recognized rituals (Honkanen 1981:139). by the authors, and combined with the place In the middle of the 1990s, Jukka Moisanen names they conclude that there should have and Björn Forsén (1995) published an over- been a Finnish peasant population in the area view of the Mustio river valley and the settle- when the Swedish colonization arrived. ment development in that area, including the Anna Wickholm discusses the much- Lepinjärvi area, during the Bronze Age, Iron debated settlement regression and hiatus in Age, and Middle Ages. In the prehistoric part settlement during the end of the Viking Age of the article, they analyze the chronology and and continuing until the Swedish colonization types of burial cairns in the area. According to in the early Middle Ages (Wickholm 2001; them, the Bronze Age population seems to have 2005). The discussion for and against a hiatus is been concentrated in the Tenala–Pohja area reviewed by Wickholm, and she points out that (northern part of present Raseborg), and they pollen diagrams are not ethnically determinant further argue that settlements seem to be mar- (Wickholm 2005:5). She points out that the itime-oriented (Forsén & Moisanen 1995:27). question is still symbolically loaded and more Looking at the spatial pattern of the contempo- research is needed (Wickholm 2005:7). rary burial sites, they concluded that during the The datings of the Iron Age sites in Uusi- Pre-Roman Iron Age there were three clusters maa are quite old and based mostly on typol- of settlements: the coastal group, the Mustio ogy, especially during the Younger Iron Age. group and the Lohja group (Fig. 2, Forsén & This is an issue that should be evaluated and Moisanen 1995:31–32, my translation). The discussed, but it is outside the scope of this pa- dominant site types from this period are cairn per. The hiatus in late Iron Age finds, for exam- areas that can be burials or clearing cairns from ple, is one problem that should be tested also on early agriculture (cf. Gren 1991 & 2003). In the sites that have been excavated earlier.

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Fig. 2. Map over the coastal, Mustio and Lohja group. Map drawn after Moisanen & Forsén 1995.

4. Maritime settlement and cairn more terrestrially oriented location, while the R studies in neighbouring areas group has a more maritime orientation. Accord- ing to Tuovinen, the general trend is continuity, even if there are changes in the locations of the Two recent studies that are geographically and cairns and their orientation in the landscape. thematically close to the theme of this article Tuovinen interprets this as an expression of need to be given more attention. The first one conservatism and a consciousness of ancestors. is Tapani Tuovinen’s PhD dissertation on burial (2002:242–243, 245) cairns in Åboland (fi. Turunmaa), which is a In contrast to the mainland cairns, the mari- synthesis of over 20 years of work on the sub- time cairns do not seem to cluster into cemeter- ject (Tuovinen 1985; 1991; 1994; 2002). The ies in the P group and they are located both on other, which is also a synthesis of decades of the largest islands and on the outermost sker- work, is Henrik Asplund’s PhD dissertation ries (Tuovinen 2002:200). In accordance with (2008). In his work the cairns are only a part of an earlier observation by Vuorinen (2000:181), all the data he uses for a long diachronic study Tuovinen also observes a correlation between of the settlement history of the island of Kimi- the size and age of the cairns, where the young- toön and the neighbouring areas. er ones were built further out in the archipelago Tuovinen analysed the cairns with the aid as the land rose from the sea. This phenomenon of GIS, mainly viewshed analyses, and statis- he names stochastic time gradient (Tuovinen tical studies. He made a basic classification 2002:201). This means that Iron Age cairns of the cairns into P (Bronze Age) and R (Iron should be found in greater numbers the farther Age) groups. It is interesting that the viewshed out in the archipelago one goes. analyses of the cairns in the P group have a

126 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

He criticizes territorial interpretations of the He sees an increase in interest again during burial cairns that are based on the overestima- the Viking Age with stray finds, cairns, and pa- tion of the visibility of the cairns (Tuovinen lynological evidence of continuous agriculture 2002:248; cf. Salo 1981). Many of the cairns (Asplund 2008:374–375). Looking at his dia- are not visible due to the low profile or set- grams showing the amount of stray finds in the ting and they are not dominant places or milieu archipelago the change is very small, though, dominant (Eskeröd 1947). Even visible cairns with a total of only 1–2.5 finds per period! in open places are not visible very far without (Asplund 2008:146, diagram 60). On whether visual aid. Therefore they probably represented this indicates a permanent settlement, he says internal spatial categorizations and knowledge the following (Asplund 2008:377): (Tuovinen 2002:202–203, 248). In addition to the dating of the Makila Majberget Especially the continuity of maritime cairn cairns and the small increase of Viking Period stray building from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age finds in the archipelago, the pollen data indicates in- has been discussed by Henrik Asplund (2008). creased Late Iron Age permanent utilisation of areas He criticizes the grouping of the cairns into two further away from the mainland central settlement ar- main chronological groups. In his opinion, the eas. How significant this was in terms of population Bronze Age/Pre-Roman Iron Age period was numbers remains unsolved. not a major change, but instead the major peri- Even if one can read this to mean that ods of change came later, in the Early Iron Age there might be a possibility of Iron Age periods (Asplund 2008:370–373). He thinks settlement in Kemiönsaari (Kimitoön), it that the division of the cairns into a Bronze Age seems, though, that Asplund still follows the and an Iron Age group is not sufficient to show traditional interpretation of a Swedish medieval the major changes in the settlement pattern of colonization of an uninhabited archipelago the maritime areas. On the other hand, Asplund (Asplund 2008:390 cf. Orrman 1991): generally agrees with the other arguments for It was not before a new religious and political Bronze Age–Iron Age continuity presented by system began to be established at the turn of the Iron Tuovinen, such as ecological sustainability, Age and the Middle Ages that the importance of the but he suggests that there might be a separate old territories finally seem to diminish or change Bronze Age and a separate Early and Late Iron into other types of organizations. In combination Age phase of cairn building, with a possible with a process of immigration, the outcome was that weakening if not break in between (Asplund whole new settlement regions developed in former 2008: 373–374). He bases his view on the lack peripheries like Kemiönsaari, now occurring in of dates or finds from the Early Iron Age and the written form Kymittæ. At that time, the original especially its later periods in the archipelago. scheme of the Iron Age territories, promoting central Asplund sees a change in the settlement settlement areas and ritual sites, had finally broken structure during the Early Iron Age when the up. settlements moved northwards towards the The divergence between the mainland and mainland. At the same time he sees a change archipelago that Asplund notices is also dealt where the cairns are built closer to the settle- with by Tuovinen. He suggests that people in ment sites, which according to him is related the archipelago had a different mode of life to a new territorial shaping of the landscape. than the people on the mainland. The archipe- (Asplund 2008:383–384) During the Early lagians would have continued the conservative Iron Age, there was a change in the settlement way of erecting cairns while rituals and grave structure. The Bronze Age and earlier disparity types changed on the mainland. He furthermore in settlement pattern changed when the settle- sees a kind of barter system between the archi- ments moved into the agricultural central areas pelago and the mainland settlements where in the mainland. According to Asplund, this led the archipelagic maritime food sources played to a decreased interest in the archipelago. an important role in providing stability to the

127 HENRIK JANSSON

more risky agriculture (Tuovinen 2002:275). 396. These are located in 324 sites, mean- Asplund does not agree with Tuovinen on the ing that some of the structures are grouped basis that he does not accept the idea of two dif- together. Burial structures form a quite com- ferent groups, but sees only one group utilizing plicated site type, especially in survey situa- the archipelago (Asplund 2008:390). tions. Stone heaps of all kinds have been built through centuries, for example, when clearing fields, marking shipping lanes and sometimes 5. Cairns and their morphology and as a recreational activity. These can sometimes topographical and geographical resemble prehistoric burial cairns quite a lot in shape, size, and topography. Many kummel or location beacons for the shipping lanes were destroyed and ruined in times of war and they can resem- Sites defined as burial cairns from all of the ble burial cairns. Also the moving of shipping coastal parishes in western Uusimaa have been lanes and changes in shoreline could result in included in this paper. The coast and archi- the abandonment or destruction of the stone pelago were systematically surveyed and sites beacon. Therefore it is important to study the documented by the author and colleagues in surrounding of the cairns, understand the his- the same project during 2002–2005 (Jansson & torical land use in the area, and use historical Latikka 2006). In the more inland areas, such sources. Even so the definition can sometimes as Karis and Pohja, information on the cairns remain ambiguous without excavations. has been gathered from the register of ancient Because of uncertainties in the charac- monuments by the National Board of Antiqui- ter and descriptions of the cairns, many sites 4 ties . The focus is on two types of stone struc- were left out of this study. Only cairns that had tures: rectangular cairns and elongated stone enough information and for which other his- settings. torical or prehistoric functions could be ruled The fact that part of the material was not out were included. More fieldwork is needed to surveyed by the project and part of it was determine whether the more ambiguous sites makes the material somewhat heterogeneous. should be included, and this has not been pos- On the other hand, all the rectangular cairns sible especially for the more inland areas. and elongated stone settings located more in- The burial cairns accepted for the study can land, on which information was gathered from be divided, based on their description, into mor- reports, have also been visited by the author. phological groups (Fig. 3): round cairns (150), The register of ancient monuments is in itself oval cairns (22), rectangular cairns (32), tri- of varying quality and heterogeneous. It seems angular stone settings (4), elongated stone set- that there have been no general guidelines to tings (17), and undetermined cairns (171). The how sites should be registered. Even in the ba- largest group, undetermined cairns, includes sic categorization of sites, there is a great vari- sites with not enough information or unclear ety in how cairns have been defined. Because of descriptions of the morphological character. On this, the sites from the register have been criti- the other hand, a large part of the undetermined cally evaluated and only those cairns that have group consists of cairns that cannot be defined clear definitions, measurements, and descrip- as belonging to any other group because of sec- tions have been included in the study. ondary disturbance or original complex shape. The total number of burial structures ac- As expected, the second largest group is cepted for this study after the evaluation is round cairns, which is also the most common shape in other areas (Tuovinen 2002). The dif- 4 The register is available at http://kulttuuriymparisto. ference between round cairns and oval cairns nba.fi/netsovellus/rekisteriportaali/portti/default.aspx is that the round cairn has a similar diameter For this paper also the Museoverkko web application measured in any direction while the oval has a has been used.

128 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

20 R² = 0,3454 Triangular Round Oval 15 Rectangular Length Elongated R² = 0,8447 Undetermined Tarand graves 10 Linear (Rectangular) Linear (Elongated)

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Width

Fig. 3. Length-width diagram with the morphological groups

diameter that is clearly longer in one direction. the edges have a kerb structure of larger stones. Because this definition is difficult or in many The elongated stone setting consists mostly of cases even very ambiguous, the two groups are one to three layers of stone. It always has a very discussed together. low profile with a surface that follows the un- Rectangular cairns are defined as having derlying bedrock. straight edges, four corners, and a generally There are also triangular stone settings that rectangular or sometimes trapezoid shape. I have been located also elsewhere in Finland. have named them cairns to distinguish them Their number is small and none have been ex- from the single tarand graves that have a clear cavated or studied closer. Therefore they are kerb of large slabs or stones with a low stone not discussed in detail in this paper. setting, often mixed with soil, inside. The rectangular cairns often have a slightly convex profile even if they are low (height generally 5.1. The elongated stone settings 0.3–0.4 m). They have a visible kerb in many cases on at least one to three sides, but several In the length-width diagram in Figure 3, the lack any structures. elongated stone settings can clearly be distin- Another morphologically distinct type is guished as a separate group. The longest stone the elongated stone setting that is defined by setting on Björkholmen, in the archipelago of having a length:width ratio of over 2:1. Fur- Ekenäs, is 24.5 m long, but only 3.2 m wide thermore, it always has a low and even profile at its widest and 0.3 m high. It consists of only with straight long edges and either straight or one to three layers of stone. When looking at slightly convex short edges. Sometimes parts of

129 HENRIK JANSSON

the geographical distribution of the sites, it is of them are built at a height of 20 m a.s.l. or very striking how maritime the distribution higher. is (Fig. 4). All but one site are located in the Tuovinen mentions similar structures in present archipelago and most of them around a the Archipelago Sea, but otherwise this is a geological rift formation that still forms a natu- different type of structure than the so-called ral fairway named Leden (eng. route). Attempts long cairn (swe: långröse, fi: pitkäröykkiö) in to locate this kind of sites on the mainland and Sweden and on the western coast of Finland further out in the archipelago have been made (Tuovinen 2002; Okkonen 2003:111; Baudou but none have been found. 1968). The long cairns are also clearly elon- It is striking how the elongated stone set- gated but they are different in shape and struc- tings are located in topographically similar ture, and they can be crosswise convex, often places. All are built on the highest part of a bed- rampart-shaped, and up to one meter high. The rock plateau or ridge. Most of them are built so elongated stone settings are all flat structures that they cross low hollows in the surface of consisting mostly of one or two layers of stones the bedrock. A large part (89 %) of the stone with carefully placed stones. They are clearly settings are built close to low escarpments. built to follow the bedrock surface and the Most of them have been built on a peninsula stones are carefully placed. The long cairns and on the islands. None of the elongated stone set- elongated stone settings resemble each other in tings are positioned under 15 m a.s.l. but most the fact that they are both located high up in the

Fig. 4. Map over the geographical location of the elongated stone settings. In the map also the settlement site at Älgsjölan- det, Ingå.

130 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

topography. The long cairn is considered to be- Björkholmen 1, Raseborg long to the early Bronze Age or even late Stone Age (Okkonen 2003:35). All but one of the elongated stone settings Only one of the elongated stone settings in have been erected in the outer archipelago at Uusimaa has been studied by excavation. The the fringe of the open sea. The stone settings site Björkholmen 1 in the inner archipelago of were all constructed in a very maritime setting Ekenäs was excavated in 2001 (Fig. 5, Jansson with a sea-dominated landscape around them. 2001). The relatively long (20.9 x 4.10 x 0.3 They were not very visible in their surround- m) stone setting was erected in the north part ings. On the other hand, from the places they of the island, which has given its name to the were built there was extensive visibility over site, on a cliff top that slopes gently towards the open water. Interestingly, many of the elon- north for the first 20–30 m, after which it falls gated stone settings are placed on the mainland as a steep slope to the seashore approximately side of the islands and skerries they were built 20 m below. The stone setting is constructed on. This was the more sheltered side, but be- close to a 1–1.5-m-high escarpment on its S sides this practical reason, the place could have side. It is NE–SW-oriented and stretches over also been chosen because it was connected in a low hollow in the bedrock. The shape of the that direction to the mainland and the inhabited stone setting is rectangular with slightly convex areas. ends. The stones gave the impression of being very carefully placed and two chains of stones were distinguished as intentionally built kerb structures.

Fig . 5. The elongated stone setting at Björkholmen 1, Raseborg, before excavations.

131 HENRIK JANSSON

The stone setting consisted of one to two arrowhead with a straight base has also been layers of stones. After removing the first layers found in a cairn, which is not a long cairn or an of stones, two underlying inner cairns, built of elongated stone setting, from the inner part of clearly smaller stones (Æ ≤ 5cm), were found. Finland, at Saunalahti in Siilinjärvi. The cairn The stone material of the stone setting and was interpreted as a sacrificial cairn (Pohjakal- the inner cairns consisted of naturally round- lio 1978). The long cairns, even if they have ed stones that can be found all around on the a different morphology, resemble in one attrib- shorelines and slopes of the island. The inner ute the elongated stone settings – the elongated cairns were both oriented in the direction of the shape is present in both. It seems that there stone setting and situated only 1.5 m from each might be an early tradition of building long other. One of the cairns had a chain of carefully cairns or stone settings on the coast and in the placed larger stones along its south edge. archipelago of southern and western Finland. Inside one of the cairns, three flint arrow- Also 112 quartz artefacts were recovered heads with straight bases were found (KM inside the stone setting (Rankama 2001). Of 32797). They were all located under the stone the total amount, 18 (16%) have been classi- packing against the bedrock, clearly positioned fied as implements, 87 (78%) as production de- there before the stone setting was built. One ar- bris, including 4 (4%) cores, and 7 (6%) as raw rowhead of the same type was found outside the material. Among the implements are, as whole inner cairns in the south part of the stone set- artefacts or fragments, scrapers, knives, and a ting, also against the bedrock. The arrowheads burin, for example. are all of a similar type. One was a broken tip The quartz artefacts do not seem to corre- with a clearly patinated fracture plane. They late with the inner cairns, but they were dis- are carefully shaped using bifacial retouching tributed all over the stone setting, mostly in of the surface. All four are of a relatively short the western part of the stone setting (Fig. 6). In and wide type that dates them typologically to contrast to the flint arrowheads, these artefacts the late Neolithic period and Early Bronze Age were also found in the stone packing between (Carpelan 1962). stone layers one and two. Some of the artefacts An early date for the whole group of elon- were also very carefully placed under stones gated stone settings is indicated by the very ho- or in between two stones. Interestingly, some mogenous attributes of the group. It is striking of the quartz artefacts were found below two how similar they are in shape and geographic outcrops on the south side of the stone setting. and topographic location. Furthermore, only These were located by the southern edge of the two of the elongated stone settings are located structure under the low escarpment. First they between 15–20 m a.s.l., while the rest are lo- were thought to be the result of erosion and nat- cated over 20 m a.s.l. Even though the location ural movement of the stone setting. Based on in relation to the present sea level cannot be stratigraphic observations and the quartz find- used directly as a dating mechanism, it is strik- ings, the outcrops were actually a part of the ing that they are all built high in the topography stone setting. and only on islands that rise more than 20 m No burnt or unburnt bones were found. above the present sea level. This does not nec- Unburnt bones would probably not have been essarily mean that they are located on highest preserved because of the poor conditions with point of the island. It seems that closeness to rainwater and air running unhampered through the sea was a factor in choosing the places. the structure. The early date of the stone set- The long cairns on the west coast of Finland ting, based on the finding of the arrowheads, is are dated to the Late Stone Age–Early Bronze a period of inhumations, and uncremated buri- Age. In one of the long cairns in that area, a als can be found in contemporary cairns. The quartz arrowhead with a straight base has pos- underlying cairns that are about 2 m in diam- sibly been found (Okkonen 1999:120). A flint eter are well sized for a human body. The cairns

132 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

Quartz artefact

Arrowhead

Fig. 6. The spatial distribution of the finds from Björkholmen 1. Map drawn by Jaakko Latikka 2001. could have had a practical function, because might indicate a post-burial ritual where people they covered the body and sheltered it better returned to the place. than the thin layer of heavy stones that the stone The re-use of burial cairns and repeated vis- setting was built of. This practice is not nec- iting have been acknowledged by Hans Bolin essary in the burial of a cremated individual, on the Norrland coastline in Sweden (1999). He whose bones can be placed in a crevice or un- suggests that the cairns were long-term monu- der a small setting of stones. On the south-west ments used by local population groups (Bolin edge of one of the underlying cairns, a straight 1999:63). The elongated stone setting at Björk- chain of larger stones was observed. This could holmen could have been returned to in order to also have had a practical function, for example, reconnect with the dead ancestors. The burial for holding down a textile covering the body. places were places of memory and liminal The distribution and stratigraphic observa- places between two worlds, where a connection tions of the quartz artefacts suggest that they with the ancestors could be made5 (see also Ok- are not only related to the inner cairn. Hence konen 1999:237). The static monument could they cannot be interpreted as coming from an have been a dynamic structure, and what we see underlying settlement layer, as the underlying is only the end of a long period of ritual use. surface is bare bedrock. They must have been 3000–4000 years ago the elongated stone deposited into the stone setting at the ritual of setting at Björkholmen 1 was located on a small the building of the stone setting or later dur- peninsula, close to the shoreline, in the outer- ing the use of the site. The outcrops were prob- most archipelago. Björkholmen was a small ably built later than the stone setting, but it is skerry with sandy beaches around the cliff of course impossible to say how long this time difference was – it could have been 15 minutes or 150 years. But the distribution of the finds 5 Anna Wessman discusses the cremation cemeteries under level ground as liminal places (Wessman 2010)

133 HENRIK JANSSON

where the stone setting was constructed. This that are clearly larger. These differ also in topo- was an area where people came to fish or hunt graphical location. The two larger cairns are lo- and it might be that an important stage in the cated more inland on the mainland and in con- hunting trips was to conduct rituals, including nection with round monumental cairns that can deposition of quartz artefacts and asking the an- be dated to the Bronze Age at least based on cestor for good hunting or fishing. analogous datings from the area. Both are also clearly larger than the other ones with areas of 99 m2 and 143 m2. One is a rectangular cairn 5.2. The rectangular cairns found in relation to a cairn area dated to the Early Iron Age. The cairn itself has been dated to the Early Roman Iron Age (Hällström 1952; In the map (Fig. 7), the locations of rectangular 1959). The third largest rectangular cairn has cairns, cairn areas, and single tarand graves are an area of only 30 m2. The majority of the rec- shown. The rectangular cairns have been divid- tangular cairns differs from the tarand graves in ed into size groups. The division was made by that they are clearly smaller (Fig. 8). counting the smallest possible rectangular area Of the clearly smaller rectangular cairns, 9 that the cairns can be fit into (length x width). are located on the mainland and 21 in the pre- The rectangular cairns are also quite distinct sent archipelago. Most of the mainland cairns in the length-width diagram (see Fig. 3). They are placed so that they were on an island as late are all quite small in size, except for two cairns as the Viking Age, or they are located more or

Fig. 7. The geographical distribution of tarand graves, cairn areas and rectangular cairns. The rectangular cairns are classified into size classes depending on the smallest rectangular their area could fit in.

134 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

Rectangular cairns Length, m Length, 6 Tarand graves

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Width, m

Fig. 8. Length-width diagram with the tarand graves and rectangular cairns.

less on an open unsheltered coastline lacking a lands that have been studied by Helena Edgren wider archipelago (Fig. 9). The rest are all lo- (1983). There they most often appear in groups cated on today’s coastline or in the archipelago of cairns and in sheltered places. The rectan- in the southern part of the study area. The ones gular cairns appear mainly as single structures. in the archipelago are not erected on the largest islands, but mainly on smaller islands around Gunnarsö 4, Raseborg them, some in the contemporary outer archipelago. Topographically the cairns are mostly lo- On a site named Gunnarsö 4 in the archipelago cated on bedrock terraces next to the shoreline of Ekenäs, two rectangular cairns were exca- or at the end of peninsulas and they have some- vated in 2000 (Jansson 2000). It is an island times been built very close to the sea. They are located in the outer part of the archipelago. The very seldom placed on elevated places. Instead site is located on the south-eastern part of the it seems that closeness to the sea and water was island and has been built on a terrace that forms important in choosing the place. If one looks a peninsula towards the south. The site consists from the sites towards the sea, an area with of three cairns, all rectangular and of various extensive open sea opens outside most of the sizes. Two of these were excavated. The largest sites. The latter is similar to how cairn sites cairn A (4.8 x 2.8 x 0.35 m), did not have any are located in the Archipelago Sea (Tuovinen structures and was clearly built in a rectangu- 2002:242–243). lar shape. It was built over a low (0.2 m high) The topographic location differs from the threshold in the bedrock. Below this threshold, so-called four-sided cairns in the Åland is- under three layers of stones, a small amount

135 HENRIK JANSSON

Fig. 9. The rectangular cairn at Gåsö, Ingå outer archipelago. The cairn has a partial kerb and is located only 5 m above sea level.

of burned bones (12 g) was found in a small as traces of tree roots were observed in the silt. area under it. On top of the burned bone, a tight The crevice where it was found was in the low- packing of smaller stones was observed. They er part of the cairn and formed a natural gath- seemed to have been purposely put against the ering place for water and sediments. Therefore wall of the threshold to form a tight packing. the dating cannot be considered reliable. The bones had been exposed to very high heat The burned bones from cairn A were C14- and were in such small pieces that they could dated to 530–690 cal AD (Σ2), that is, mainly not be identified by osteologists (Mannermaa the Merovingian period. The result has been 2000). corrected in order to take the marine reservoir The second excavated structure was cairn B. effect into account. The date fits well with the The cairn had a clear kerb on three of its sides height above present sea level, which is around and in between these, under the stone layer, 8 m a.s.l. The cairns at Gunnarsö 4 were not there was a layer of silt mixed with unburnt and built on an elevated place, but instead very burnt clay. The bedrock under the cairn slopes close to the shoreline on a bedrock terrace only towards the south, and in the southern part of 10–15 metres from the sea. Outside the site, the structure, there was a 0.2-m-deep crevice in towards the south, east, and west, an open sea- which a large amount of charcoal was found. A scape opens up. sample of the charcoal was C14-dated to 1300– This is the only excavated site of this type 1700 cal AD (Hel-4498). Study of the excava- in the archipelago. The archipelagic cairns are tion plans shows that the charcoal is probably clearly smaller, located lower in relation to secondary and can originate from a forest fire, the present sea level, and consist only of ap-

136 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

Fig. 10. The geographical distribution of the round and oval cairns. The cairns have been classified into size classes depending on the smallest rectangular they could fit into. proximately 2–4 layers of stones. They are also be observed on the mainland. In south-west- mostly single sites with Gunnarsö being an ex- ern Finland it has been shown that cairns are ception with three cairns at the same site. Over smaller the further out they are found toward half (17) of the cairns are located so low in rela- the coast and that Iron Age cairns are on aver- tion to the present sea level that they can be giv- age smaller than Bronze Age cairns (Vuorinen en a terminus post quem dating to the Iron Age. 2000:181–182). The geographic distribution in As with the elongated stone settings, the rec- western Uusimaa supports this and the pattern tangular cairns are also homogenous in shape suggests that the cairns in the archipelago are and topographic and geographic location, and later than most of the cairns on the mainland. therefore one date from the Gunnarsö site is a Round and oval cairns, as well as undeter- strong indication of an Iron Age burial type. mined cairns, can be found at any height above the present sea level and they are also present all over the area. Some of these have been ex- 5.3. Other morphological groups cavated or finds from them have been reported. Four triangular stone settings have been observed in the area. Because of the small num- The round and oval cairns seem to have a ten- ber and the fact that none of them have been dency of the largest structures being located on studied more closely it is difficult to draw any elevated places along the present coastline (Fig. conclusions about the group. 10). Some concentrations of large cairns can

137 HENRIK JANSSON

Kärrängen, Ingå consist of groups with two cairns (76 sites, or 19% of the total number, see Table 1). All of the groups are located on a bedrock hill or One important site for this study is Kärrängen ridge. They are located either very close to each (Ingå), which was excavated in a rescue ex- other, or inside a radius of 100 m. Almost all cavation in 2006 (Seppälä 2006). This cairn of the groups of cairns are of the round, unde- has been located in the inner archipelago dur- termined, or oval type, and they are located on ing prehistory, even though today it is on the the mainland often on elevated places and at the mainland. The cairn had been partly destroyed, ends of inlets. but in some parts the stone setting was still in One special group type consists of cairn place. Also sediment layers in hollows of the areas that were already described by Forsén and bedrock were excavated. Due to the poor pres- Moisanen (1995, see above). All groups with ervation of the cairn, its morphology cannot more than six cairns belong to this group type. be ascertained. The site plan, though, shows a Besides the number of cairns, this type can be cairn that could have originally been rectangu- distinguished from the group of cairns type on lar with a possible kerb in the south-eastern and the basis of their location, often on moraine or north-eastern part of the cairn. The excavators sand slopes, and their structure, which is very observed that the stones were carefully placed low and mixed with earth. They are dated to and often small stones were placed as support the Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age. Some of for the larger ones (Seppälä 2006:29). the sites seem to continue into the Migration In a small hollow in the bedrock under the Period. This is a problematic type of site to north-western part of the cairn, a small amount interpret, because often finds in the cairns are of bones (1 g) was found together with char- very scarce and settlement finds have been coal. In the same spot, a pendant made of am- found in excavations between the cairns. The 14 ber was also found (KM 35867). The C dates functions of the cairn areas, of which the largest of charcoal show that the trees have been cut ones consist of more than 50 cairns, could th down at the end of the 8 century. That means actually be settlements with clearing cairns for that the burial could have been made during the agriculture around them. th th Viking Age or between the 8 and 11 centuries In the map (Fig. 7), the coastal and Mustio (Seppälä 2006:32). groups can be seen as two concentrations of cairn areas. Since Forsén and Moisanen made their map cairn areas have been found further to 6. Single cairns and groups of the south as far as the present inner archipelago. cairns The cairn areas are all located in sheltered places close to the contemporary seashore. All Most of the cairns are found as single sites, but places are accessible from the sea and they 39% (153 sites of the total number) can be de- show a maritime orientation that is common to fined as groups of cairns. Half of the groups all the other types of burial cairns in the area.

Total sites Group of cairns cairn areas 100 % 39 % 9 % 396 sites 153 sites 37 sites two structures 50 % 76 sites three structures 23 % 35 sites four structures 14 % 22 sites Table 1. The groups of cairns in five structures 13 % 20 sites numbers.

138 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

Fig. 11. The stray finds in the area.

7. Stray finds The rest of the finds are from the Viking Age. In Hanko, a spearhead, a bracelet from th All the sites where stray finds had been report- the 10 century (KM 8594), four Arabic coins th ed were test-excavated and studied closely in (KM 9623) minted in the mid-9 century, and the 2002–2003 surveys. There were no indica- two Viking Age brooches have been found at tions of settlements, burials, or other past ac- four locations (Granberg 1966:173; Talvio tivities on or around the sites. On most of them, 2002:151; Kivikoski 1951:6 & fig 680). In the conditions were such that finds would have Ekenäs Lökholmen, a spearhead of the Petersen th been expected if there had been any at any time. M type dated to the 11 century and two hang- Only eight stray finds have been found in ing grinders (KM 8591, 8308:1–3; 9388) have th the archipelago (Fig. 11). They are all dated been found, and in Kirkkonummi Hästö, a 9 - to the Iron Age. Two are elliptical fire-striking century Arabic silver coin has been found (KM stones, one from the island of Skedö in the ar- 3570) (Granberg 1966:174; Petersen 1951; chipelago of Ekenäs and one from Porkkala in Talvio 2002:198). Kirkkonummi. Such stones were used from the The stray finds from Uusimaa have been Early Roman Iron Age to the Merovingian Pe- discussed in earlier studies. The maritime stray riod, with the main period of use being the Late finds have been interpreted as the remains of Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period. trading places where trade with passing Vikings They are often found in places connected with was conducted (Kivikoski 1961:196–197). This other land use than settlements, such as slash interpretation is contradicted by the fact that no and burn agriculture (Pellinen 1999). other observations of prehistoric activity were

139 HENRIK JANSSON made during the surveys. If these sites had been 8. Discussion market places, at least some other finds would have been expected in the vicinity. This was not The general geographical distribution of the the case, and among the finds there are jewel- burial cairns shows that they were not random- lery, coins, and weapons. ly placed in the landscape (Fig. 12). They were The stray finds have also been connected built in specific places that had to have meaning to the sea routes and to the places mentioned for the builders – the place and the landscape in the later Medieval Danish itinerary (Edgren were important. The spatial pattern shows that 1992:220; Jansson 2006). All finds come from the cairns were built along natural waterways sheltered places close to the shoreline mostly and the coastline, as well as on the islands in at the ends of inlets. In the Hanko area, there the archipelago. This is especially clear in the are not many sheltered inlets, and Viking Age west part of the studied area where the burial stray finds are known from almost all of them. cairns follow specific west-east-oriented natu- The inlets were suitable as harbours for small ral waterways. The cairns in this area are always vessels. It is interesting that the places do not located in narrow places in the waterways and show any other indications of activities. This on islands or peninsulas. The same pattern has suggests that the places were accessed from the been noticed also in the neighbouring Kemiön- sea for short periods of time. saari area (Kimitoön) to the west (Cleve 1948: 492–493). This distribution shows a very clear maritime appearance in geographical location and

Fig. 12. The geographical pattern of all the burial sites in the area.

140 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

setting. Most places have a good visibility that if the cairns had been external territorial towards the sea and they are often located on markers for outsiders, they should have been peninsulas protruding into the sea. Therefore located around the borders of the territory it can be assumed that the maritime landscape (Forsberg 1999:254). Interpretations have also was important for the people who erected the been made to the effect that the burial cairns cairns. The maritime pattern and visible setting could have been ancient beacons for seafarers of prehistoric burial cairns can be seen in many (cf. Krantz 1940; Wigren 1987:121–125) This areas in Scandinavia (Selinge 1977; Salo 1981; has been disputed by Tuovinen, who shows that Baudou 1995:99–101; Okkonen 1999; Tuovi- the cairns have never been really visible from nen 2002:242; Asplund 2008; Nord 2009:208). the sea without optical aids. Even the more Knut Helskog (1999) has noticed that monumental cairns would not have been visible the prehistoric rock carvings in Norway, in very far (Tuovinen 2002:202). Norrland (Sweden), and around the Karelian The geographical pattern of elongated stone lakes (Russia) are all located in shore zones. settings (Fig. 4) and most of the rectangular He sees the sites as places were cosmological cairns (Fig. 7) is different from the rest of the worlds had counterparts in the elements burial sites. They are predominantly located out of nature and where they met in symbolic in the present archipelago. If the early date of oppositions. In his opinion, the images included the elongated stone setting is accepted, then it is in rock carving panels indicate that these could evident that they were built on smaller islands have been liminal places and water should be on the brink of the outermost archipelago. The part of the explanation (Helskog 1999:74; see places seem to have been chosen carefully geo- also Westerdahl 2005). graphically and topographically and the setting Similar observations have been made by in the landscape is very homogenous in each Antti Lahelma regarding Finnish rock paint- group. The geographical distribution shows ings (Lahelma 2005:40; see also Sepänmaa that the outermost archipelago was a ritualized 2007:110). For the burial cairns, the view over landscape already during the Early Bronze Age the sea seems to have been important. Accord- or even Late Stone Age. Thereby this landscape ing to Unto Salo, it was the wide viewshed that must have been an integral part of the contem- raised “the feeling of infinity and the eternal” porary societies. (Salo 1981:125). The spatial pattern suggests The elongated stone setting is not a visible that they were liminal places, and they were type of monument, but the settings were built also located in a liminal area – the area where in visible places in the landscape. The visibil- land met water (see also Helms 1988:25; Scarre ity from the places was important. This means 2002; Westerdahl 2005:11). that understanding of the meaning connected to In that sense the cairns had a double com- these places was dependent on the social group municative role – they communicated with the the spectator belonged to. The elongated stone ancestors and with the landscape. The cairns in settings and the other cairns should be seen as the study area seem to be distributed both in forms of internal communication inside the the coastal areas and far out in the archipelago. population group. However, examination of the spatial patterns of The burial sites, including the cairns and the round cairns shows that most of them follow stone settings, were places of communica- the prehistoric shoreline, as would be expected tion among the living themselves or between if they were constructed in a liminal area. the living and the dead or the past. They were Especially in the 20th century, the visibility what Anna Wickholm (Wessman) calls sites and closeness to the sea has led to many ter- of memory (Wickholm 2008:94; Wessman ritorial interpretations and interpretation of the 2010:86–88, see also Nora 1996). The mean- cairns as markers of proprietary rights to exploit ing of the places had relevance for those who the area (cf. Baudou 1968; Salo 1981:125–131; belonged to the group that built the elongated 1984:133–137). Lars Forsberg has pointed out stone setting (see also Tuovinen 2002). Further-

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more, they show an early knowledge of the area settings for burial and ritual places the meaning that could only have been obtained by repeated of this zone was strengthened and they became visits. People knew how to move in open sea hierophanies. The rituals made it possible to areas and came to the small islands where ritu- safely move from the sheltered sea out to the als were performed. treacherous open sea. The geographic pattern One of the few settlements dated to the Late thereby emphasizes a population adapted to Stone Age and Bronze Age in the study area maritime life that moved over large areas of the has been found at Älgsjölandet (see Fig. 4). It sea, fished among the outermost skerries, and is dated based on finds of ceramics and located stayed there for some time, as shown by the set- on the northern part of an island that was at the tlement at Älgsjölandet. time quite small and situated in the outer ar- No dates from the period between the chipelago. The nearest elongated stone settings Bronze Age and the Merovingian Period are are only a few kilometres away. To the south known from the archipelago. The discussion of the island, the open sea began and the archi- between Tuovinen and Asplund about a pos- pelago ended. During a survey of an abandoned sible continuity in the maritime landscape be- sand quarry, ceramics with a striped surface tween the Bronze Age and the Iron Age is quite and quartz artefacts were found. The profile of difficult to answer, mostly because of the pre- a hearth was also observed on the edge of the sent research situation in the area. More datings quarry (Jansson & Latikka 2006). The site is from several sites are needed. Sites dated to probably a small hunting station and indicates the period in question have been studied on the that more are to be found in future surveys. mainland. According to earlier studies, cairn Why are the elongated stone settings found areas seem to date from the Pre-Roman Iron only in the contemporary outermost archipela- Age to the Migration Period. Already in the go? Where did the idea come from? The con- Pre-Roman Iron Age, a clustering of the sites ceptual idea behind the elongated stone setting can be seen in the coastal landscape (Forsén & had to have a meaning related to the landscape Moisanen 1995). it was built in, which in this case is the open sea Furthermore, there seems to be a scattered with its small islands and skerries. They seem occurrence of cairn areas in the south-western to concentrate into a certain level of the archi- coastal areas. This shows that more research of pelago in the north-south-direction. They form this site type is still needed before a deeper un- a kind of barrier or portal between the outer- derstanding is possible. In the 1980s and still in most archipelago or the open sea and the inner the 1990s, the cairn areas were widely consid- archipelago. As the burial is a portal between ered as belonging to the earlier part of the Iron the living world and the world of the dead, the Age. Later research especially in Sweden has elongated stone settings could be seen as por- questioned this view (cf. Engman & Nordström tals between two worlds – the relatively safe 2001). The cairn areas are considered to be inner archipelago and the more dangerous open chronologically more complex, with a strong sea. In order to move from the archipelago to occurrence in the Medieval periods (Ericsson the open sea you had to pass through the zone 2004:43–45). This shows that care should be of stone settings. In that sense, they were also taken before any of these sites are dated based geographically liminal places between two on analogies to a certain period. physical worlds (Tuovinen 2002:246). Later Bronze Age burial cairns were con- Islands are known to have been consid- structed closer to the arable lands, and it has ered liminal places and links between different been observed that changes in settlement struc- worlds (Coney 2003:326). The islands where ture started during the late Bronze Age (Salo the elongated stone settings were built form a 1981). The clustering of cairns into large areas link or portal between the sheltered inner ar- with tens of small, low small cairns from the chipelago and the open sea. By building stone beginning of the Iron Age is a natural continu-

142 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

ation of the development already started in the lake of Läppträsket (Raseborg, Karis), the Bronze Age. The sites are connected with where an increase in archaeological sites can agriculture, as some of them could be clear- be seen during the Merovingian Period with an ing cairns and not burials. The appearance of increase already at the end of the Migration Pe- the sites and their spatial pattern seem to be riod. When the period of tarand graves ended, connected to the early stages of agriculture new burial customs occurred with the crema- observed in the pollen analyses from the area tion burial under level ground being dominant (Alenius 2011, this volume). from the Merovingian Period. Agriculture would explain the large clusters The single tarand graves and the cairns in the combined with the scarcity of finds in the ex- archipelago could be interpreted as having been cavated cairns. On the other hand, it has to be constructed by Estonian fishermen or colonizers, remembered that burial and agriculture do not as has been suggested earlier (Hällström 1948; exclude each other. The agriculture was most Kivikoski 1961). However, the new burial intense around the settlement areas where buri- types do not mean external immigration into the als were made, and even if the population were area. Instead, it seems, as Forsén and Moisanen mobile some kind of close land or inägor could (1995) state, that an internal restructuring of the have been a part of the landscape. The burials settlements occurred. One reason for this was and ritual connected to the sites could be, as the the intensification of agriculture. Hence the cemeteries under level ground, connected with settlements moved to the more arable lands and the agriculture. tended to concentrate around these. The cairn areas, regardless of their function, The spatial connection between the earlier were directed towards the maritime landscape. Iron Age sites and the single tarand graves sug- Also, they are all located in direct connection gests continuity. As Forsén and Moisanen sug- with the contemporary shoreline, either the gested, the single tarand grave was only a new sea or inland waters. The subsistence based on burial ritual adopted by the local population hunting, fishing, and small-scale agriculture, during a subsistence and social change that re- at least at the mainland sites, meant that the structured the society. maritime areas were visited and utilized. But The maritime rectangular cairns seem to be did someone erect graves in the archipelago later, even if only a few dates are known from during this time? So far, no dates have been the archipelago of Uusimaa. One quite large obtained from the Pre-Roman Iron Age to the (8.3 x 7.7 x 0.7 m) rectangular cairn was ex- Migration Period in most maritime areas. This cavated in 1986 at the cairn area at Furunabb does not mean, however, that the knowledge on the island of Houtskär. No finds were made, of the meaning of the earlier burial cairns was but through group analogy the cairn was dated lost or that the importance of these places had to the Migration Period. The analogy was made disappeared (cf. Holmblad 2005:42–44). These to Eckerö on Åland, where several rectangular places of meaning could have been upheld by cairns have been built in a cemetery with 83 means of oral traditions over the generations. cairns (Tuovinen 1990:58). Somewhat earlier than the earliest Iron Rectangular shapes in cairns can also be Age dates of cairns in the archipelago, influ- found at or in connection to the cairn areas in ence from Estonia is evident in the form of sin- Uusimaa (Hällström 1952). This could be seen gle tarand graves on the mainland. No single as an indication of continuity in the cairn build- tarand grave has been found in the archipelago. ing tradition. Carl Fredrik Meinander, on the The site type is dated from the Roman Iron Age other hand, suggested that the rectangular shape to the Merovingian Period on the mainland of was an Iron Age phenomenon (Meinander western Uusimaa. They show a change in the 1969:32–34). Rectangular cairns are found, geographical pattern, as they occur mainly in though, in a Bronze Age context, but they are two clusters in the area. One cluster is aroundt not dated by excavation. The rectangular shape

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is hence not a new thing in the Merovingian Pe- of the archipelago where the open sea begins, riod. The elongated stone settings, on the other which seems to have been important for the hand, show that the rectangular shape was used builders. Also the rectangular cairns could be already very early in the Bronze Age, even if interpreted as liminal places and gates to the Bronze Age cairns are predominantly round. open sea. Where there is no archipelago, the According to the palynological studies by cairns are built on the outermost peninsulas. Teija Alenius (Alenius et al 2005; Alenius in The datings of the cairns in the archipelago this volume), the start of the erecting of rec- mean that from the Merovingian Period on- tangular cairns in the maritime landscape coin- wards, different burial rituals were performed cides with the start of permanent and intensive only a few dozen kilometres from each other. agricultural activities on the island of Orslan- On the mainland, the dead were buried col- det. On the other sampled island in western lectively in cremation cemeteries under level Uusimaa, Älgö, regular cultivation and opening ground. Anna Wessman (2010) has discussed of the landscape use started during the Merov- this burial type recently, and she remarks that ingian Period as well. The intensification of ag- the cremation cemeteries under level ground riculture starts on Älgö in the Crusade Period. are mostly located on moraine hills close to the However, the sample site at Älgö is problem- fields, waterways, and settlements (Wessman atic, because it is located at the periphery of the 2010:67–68). Thereby they were visible loca- site and the basin was also larger (Alenius in tions distinguishable by local people who could this volume). return to the cemetery to perform rituals and Even if the tarand graves and rectangular commemorate the dead. cairns resemble each other in morphological At the same time, an individual cremation character, they are different in one aspect. In burial custom was in use in the archipelago. the excavated cairn A on Gunnarsö, a single The dead were buried separately in separate burial was studied that was clearly deposited as graves. The answer to how this situation ap- such under a packing of small stones. All of the peared may be found in the small amount of excavated tarand graves include collective bur- bones. In both excavated maritime cairns, ials where no individuals can be distinguished. only a very small amount of burnt bones was This is an important ritually based difference found. It has to be remembered, though, that (cf. Wessman 2010). The tarand grave belongs the Kärrängen cairn was partly destroyed. On to the burial tradition that is later connected to the other hand, the small amount of bones is a the cremation cemeteries under level ground, common trait in the cairns in Åboland as well while the rectangular cairn clearly belongs to (Tapani Tuovinen pers.comm.). In the case of the tradition seen in the burial cairns from the Gunnarsö, the small packing of stones and the Bronze Age. topography show quite clearly that the origi- The rectangular cairns in Uusimaa are also nal amount of deposited bones was small. This predominantly maritime burials, while the means that only a small part of the cremated chronologically earlier tarand graves are locat- body was brought to the site. ed close and directed towards the fertile lands Hence it is possible that the rectangular more inland. Especially the small cairns (of size Late Iron Age cairns in the Uusimaa archipel- category 1–3) are located in the present outer ago are actually not primary graves but ritual archipelago. The date of Gunnarsö and the even places where only part of the cremated body later Viking Age date of Kärrängen show a tra- was brought. The primary grave was the col- dition of burial cairns in the maritime landscape lective cremation cemetery under level ground that stretches to the end of the prehistoric times. on the mainland. The spreading of the deceased The geographical pattern of the rectangular into several graves is actually mentioned in the cairns is similar to that of the elongated stone Icelandic sagas, where an important man was settings. They are also located on the fringe buried in six different mounds to bring good

144 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

fortune (Jennbert 2004:194). In the maritime Also the topographic situation of the rectan- rectangular cairns, part of the cremated ances- gular cairns could be compared to the cremation tor was deposited. The place was ritualized and cemeteries under level ground that are located became a place with greater meaning. If the close to the field on moraine hills. The cairns idea of the cairns being part of a ritual that is are mostly erected on smaller rocky islands. connected to the mainland cremation cemeter- They are all built on low terraces very close to ies under level ground is accepted, no separate the contemporary water level and looking over group of people burying their dead in cairns is larger open sea areas - the sea-field. For the needed in the interpretations. The rectangular people moving in the outer archipelago, the sea cairns were erected by people using maritime was a provider of food and transport, but also a outlands and not by a separate archipelagic source of danger, because in the wrong condi- population. tions one could perish. The idea behind the building of cairns could Why did the building of ritual rectangu- have been a reproduction of older grave types, lar cairns start in the Merovingian Period? At as has been suggested in Ostrobothnia (Holm- the same time, there seems to be a restructur- blad 2005). On the other hand, cairns were still ing of the settlements into clusters on the most built for burials in the beginning of the Iron fertile land, while burial cairns are erected in Age, with the rectangular shape present in con- the archipelago. Earlier studies by Hällström nection with the cairn areas on the mainland. and Honkanen stated that a peak in population The tradition of Late Iron Age maritime cairns occurred during the Merovingian Period (Häll- could hence have developed locally as a contin- ström 1948; Honkanen 1981). Also other stud- uation of earlier periods. This is also indicated ies in south-western Finland show an increase by the fact that the burial cairns almost every- in population during the Merovingian Period where and in all periods were very maritime and the Viking Age (Pihlman 2004:82–84). in character. Water was an important element This was also a period when the central, more present almost everywhere where burial cairns agriculturally based areas were settled and were erected. Hence it is very logical that the the Late Iron Age regions appeared (Asplund tradition of constructing cairns for the deceased 2001:250). and to mark important places in the landscape Along with sedentary and agriculturally continued in the maritime landscape. based settlement, also the sense of ownership Taavitsainen (2003) has suggested that the might have changed. Anna Wessman suggests small amount of bones in the inland cairns is that the re-use of cremation cemeteries under a result of people utilising faraway areas and level ground over and over again was “caused depositing some bones in the cairn to mark by land ownership and thus legitimized heredi- ownership, while the rest of the bones were tary rights to the land.” (Wickholm 2010:96). disposed somewhere at their home farm (see The rectangular cairns that were ritualistic buri- also Asplund 2008:374). Also the rectangular als connected to the mainland burial sites could cairns in the maritime areas are mostly located be related to this phenomenon. The ownership on the fringe of the archipelago with a view could have stretched to the waters that were towards larger open waters. In that sense, they utilized regularly and the cairns thereby legiti- really could have marked the territory, but as mized the rights to use the archipelago. the cairns were poorly visible from the sea, this Agriculture during the Migration and marking must have been visible only to people Merovingian Periods on Orslandet must have sharing the same perception of the landscape. meant at least semi-permanent stays on the The boundaries existed only in the minds of larger islands. During the Late Iron Age, an the persons who understood the meaning of the expansion of agriculture outside the settled places. areas has been reported from southwest Fin-

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land (Pihlman 2004:86). On the other hand, we on the people who stayed in the settlements on might ask why agricultural investments were the mainland. made on the islands when more fertile land From this situation, of course, there is only could probably be found closer to the settle- a short way to permanent settlements if, for ex- ments. Most probably there were large areas of ample, the population grows on the mainland. It outlands and wilderness around the sites in the has been suggested that the settlement pressure areas of Läppträsket (Karis) and Bonästräsket that occurred during the Viking Age could not (Tenala). These areas had to be more suitable be handled by means of internal colonization, for agriculture than the small patches with less and therefore the pressure to colonize new areas fertile land and barren soils that can be found arose (cf. Pihlman 2004; Asplund 2001; 2008). even on the largest islands in the archipelago. The Merovingian Period, on the other hand, is The people who used the archipelago may considered to be the time when the population have done so for long periods of time. In order maximum occurred in western Uusimaa. This to maximize fishing and hunting yields, it was coincides with the intensification of agriculture necessary to stay close to the fishing places for and permanent settlement on Orslandet, as in- some time. This was common up to the intro- dicated by the pollen analyses. duction of faster motorized boats in the early The burial cairns show that the archipelago 21st century. The traces of this can still be seen can be seen as a part of the mainland settled in the fishing hut remains that can be found zone already in the Merovingian Period. If the by the thousand along the coasts of Finland islands already had prepared land and a tradi- and Sweden (cf. Norman 1993). On the east- tion of cultivation and grazing, they would ern Swedish coast, fishing huts have been ex- have been attractive also as settlement sites. In cavated and dated to the Viking Age (Rönnby general, the pattern of intensifying settlement 2003:176). In southern Finland, no fishing huts in existing settlement zones is more common in have been excavated so far. the human use of space than colonizing virgin People had to stay on the islands at least wilderness (Olausson 1993:102). Urban Ema- for some longer periods, for example, during nuelsson has calculated that 3–10 times more spring and autumn, which are the most op- effort is required to clear unmodified forest for timal fishing and hunting seasons. Sheltered agriculture than to maintain already cleared inlets close to the outer archipelago and inner fields (Emanuelsson 1988:116). This would archipelago could have been used as temporary have favoured the already grazed islands with stations. During the stays, the clearing of the small fields as potentially new places for dwell- larger islands started and some kind of semi- ing. permanent settlement occurred. It was natural Similar colonization processes, where hin- that small-scale agriculture started and in order terlands were first extensively utilized for graz- to fertilize the fields, small numbers of domes- ing and agriculture and later settled, have been tic animals were brought to the islands. studied in Norra Uppland (Sweden) (Broberg Making the trip out to the outer archipela- 1990:95; Windelhed 1995:114). Also in the ar- go was an investment in time and human re- chipelago of Sörmland (Sweden), a pattern of sources. Fishing and hunting provided more extensive use during the Late Iron Age has been resources, but at the same time, the human observed (Norman 2006:68–70). resources needed for the maritime trips were The stray finds show that in the Viking Age missing from the mainland agriculture. Small- there was an increase in the deposition of arte- scale farming that needed attention only peri- facts. They seem to concentrate on good har- odically made the fishing and hunting in the bour places and places that are conveniently outer archipelago more profitable. Farming and located for ship traffic. One comparable place small-scale grazing could have made longer is Kyrksundet in Hitis, where a large amount of fishing trips possible. This evened out the stress metal finds has been found along the shoreline

146 Burials at the end of land – Maritime burial cairns and the land-use history of South-western Uusimaa

of a strait. The site has been interpreted as a None of the dated burial cairns in the present harbour and trading place (Edgren 1995; 2005). archipelago can be dated to the Roman Iron The situation in the late Viking Age and Age. This can be due to a lack of excavation, the following periods is still archaeologically but on the other hand, a restructuring of the uncertain. Palynologically it seems clear that settlement pattern seems to have started already there is a strong continuous settlement structure during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The change from the Iron Age into the Middle Ages. Finds meant a movement from a disparate mobile from settlements excavated in Hanko and Ors- settlement pattern towards a more stable landet indicate that there might even be a con- settlement pattern with some areas becoming tinuity going back to the Iron Age at some of more central, while others became peripheral. the medieval settlements in the maritime zone The settlements during the Pre-Roman (Jansson et al 2010). Iron Age were still very maritime, though, because they were all connected directly to the sea. During the Migration Period and the 9. Conclusions following Merovingian Period, the settlements concentrated around the best arable land, which In this paper, the maritime land use history of was around the lakes of Läppträsket in Karis nearly 3000 years has been discussed. A deep and Bonästräsket in Tenala. time perspective is needed in order to under- During this period, there seems to be a re- stand the processes and the reasons behind vitalizing of cairn building in the archipelago. them. The main material for this discussion has Older cairns could also have been revisited, consisted of the burial cairns. This situation has as can be seen in Kirkkonummi, where an ar- arisen out of necessity, because no settlements rowhead from the Iron Age has been found in a or other types of contemporary sites are known Bronze Age cairn. At the same time, the burial from the area. customs changed on the mainland. This shows The interpretations emphasize a holistic ap- that the burial cairn is a very maritime struc- proach in the study of the cairns in their land- ture that was connected to the sea and the ar- scape. They were burial places and places for chipelago for more than 3000 years. Small rec- ceremonies, but at the same time they were tangular cairns were erected at least from the connected to more secular activities that were Merovingian Period on smaller islands around also ritualized. This dualistic interpretation some of the largest islands and peninsulas in underlines how difficult it is to distinguish be- the area. They were mainly built in the outer tween what is called sacred and profane. These archipelago and on the open coastline next to concepts were intertwined with each other in large open water areas. The cairns were most every aspect of society and life. probably built by the local population that was A general picture of the land use history of utilizing the archipelago, although settlement at the maritime areas can be drawn. The present that time concentrated around the lake of Läpp- archipelago was probably used from the time it träsket and Tenala. arose from the sea by humans living in western This extensive use of the islands in the ar- Uusimaa. The early elongated stone settings chipelago, which included small-scale farming show that the archipelago was a conceptualized and grazing, led to permanent settlement when area at least 3500 years ago. The sites were re- the population grew and pressure was put on visited, and the outer archipelago was already the core settlement area. During the Meroving- by that time a vital part of the landscape of ian Period and the Viking Age, permanent set- coastal populations. During the Bronze Age, tlements occurred on the largest islands and on most of the monumental cairns were built in peninsulas suitable for agriculture and grazing. the inner archipelago or coastline, but still with The colonization process probably took place a very maritime appearance and location at cer- slowly in stages with semi-permanent settle- tain waterways. ments before the places were permanently set-

147 HENRIK JANSSON

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