Geographical Review of Japan Vol.80, No.5, 272-289, 2007

Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions due to Grazing in South Carpathian Mountains under the Influence of Changing Social Structure in

URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO Kazuko* and MORI Kazuki** *DepartmentofGeography, Hosei University, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8160, Japan **DepartmentofGeosystem Sciences, Nihon University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8550, Japan

Abstract:This study tried to clarify theecological damage in the areas of sheep transhumance, afterthe regime change of 1989, in the South Carpathian Mts. of Romania. The number of sheep increasedby a factoroften per hectare inareas where transhumance waspracticed inthe South CarpathianMountains. This was because the sheep cheese produced in this area became more popularand increased inprice. Jina and Poiana Sibiului villages arelocated on thethird pene- plain(900-1000m a.s.l.) ofthe Southern Carpathian Mountains, which consists ofcrystalline schistofPrecambrian origin. Soil erosion of commonlands and water pollution caused by the transhumanceofsheep is a seriousproblem in these villages. Soilerosion speeds were measured by comparingprofiles on Sept. 20,2003, and Sept. 6,2004. Soil erosion inthese transhumance areasprogressed more during that one year. The bedrock is extremely hard and the recovery of soiland vegetation willprobably be difficultoverthe short term. In Patarlagele, wheresoils were composedof Miocene marl, soil erosion was very prevalent and easily progressed. However, the recoveryofsoils and vegetation wasfaster than in Jina and Poiana Sibiului, because of the softer andyounger mother rock. In Jina and Poiana Sibiului, theRoma andBayash people have been washingwool in the creeks. The water was seriously polluted asa result.Results ofa chemical analysisshowed high sodium, potassium and bicarbonate levels after wool washing. Itis recom- mendedthat in areas with soil erosion, sheep would not be allowedentry so as to protect na- ture.Wool washing should be donein plants, where polluted water can be treatedbefore being dischargedinto natural. Key words: Romania,transhumance ofsheep, soil erosion, water pollution, peneplain, land degradation

morphology, hydrology and human geography Introduction and finally,to give adviceon the reductionof the presentecological damage and for the establish- In order to investigate the issues of land ment of more favorablemethods of land use, degradation, soil erosion, water pollution and water use, grazingand other human activities. other geoecological variables after the 1989 regime change in Romania, a cooperative study Study Regions was initiatedby a group of Japanese and Ro- Geographical conditionsand social manian geographers. economical conditions Peoples in the rural areas are now recovering from the mood of pessimism that followed 1989, The area of Romania is 237,500km2 and its but the geoecologicalconditions of the country- population is 22.5 millionin 1998 (Balteanu side in the mountain regions are not always in 2003). Nearly 80% of the working populationis good order. The present study will seek to clar- engaged in agricultureand forestry.Romania is ify the conditions from the standpoint of geo- generallydivided into three main regions(Bog-

-272- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 77

Figure 1. Geographical sketch of the topography of Romania and the study area. dan et al. 2004): (1) The Central Mountains; (2) the following geological differences. The Plains of Wallachia and Moldavia; Geological map which is compiled from the and (3) and Banat. The mountains map of Academia Republicii Socialiste Romania are divided into three ranges. Namely, these are (1979) is shown in Figure 2. This map shows the Eastern Carpathians, Southern Carpathians that some part of the South Carpathian Moun- and Western Carpathians (Apcen Mountains) tains is composed by the materials of Precam- (Balteanu 2006). brian crystalline schist exceptionally. The other The present study areas are in the South areas are mainly Mesozoic and Tertiary materials Carpathian Mountains. The location of the study as normal Alps Mountains. Therefore study areas areas is shown in Figure 1 as Regions A and B. were chosen from 2 places. Region A was cho- In Region A, our research fields are Jina and sen from typical Precambrian crystalline schist, Poiana Sibiului, located on the north facing and the other shown as B is from Tertiary sedi- slopes of the , the central part mentary rock areas. A locates in Cindrel Moun- of the South Carpathian Mountains. The Cindrel tains where are composed of Precambrian crys- Mountains are thickly forested with beach and talline schist and peneplains landform. Region B oak trees at lower elevations and pines and other locates in the Tertiary sedimentary rock area and conifers at higher elevations. But the upper, landslides are very popular. ridge parts of the mountains are covered by After the revolution in 1989, the agricultural grassland, which are used for transhumance. As lands were given back to the past owners or their Region B, Patarlagele, the eastern part of the descendents, as far as this could be established South Carpathian Mountains, is chosen based on by the old documents of title, but not all the

-273- 78 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K . and MORI K.

Figure 2. Geological map of South Carpathian Mountains.

owners actually farm the land at the present erosion and water pollution have been studied time. In such cases, they rent the fields to farm- taking an example in the Cindrel Mountains, ers and at the present time, the land is badly which forms one part of the Carpathian Moun- worked in some instances. This has resulted in tains bending westwards. land degradation, even though this region is lo- Study areas are shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3. cated in the fertile, broad Chernozem zone. Due The location of profile taken in Figure 4 are to the underdeveloped transport system, agri- shown also in Figure 1. The central part the South cultural products do not always reach national or Carpathian Mountains is formed mainly from the international markets. Also, the farmers are not Mesozoic limestone and sandstone, but Tertiary willing to establish an Agricultural COOP. conglomerate and sandstone are also found in

In 2002, when one of the writer visited Jina the fringe areas. In the central part of the region and Poiana Sibiului, a base area for transhu- Precambrian crystalline schist has intruded as a mance, serious soil erosion had already started block. The study objects were chosen taking into on the marginal parts of the pasture land. Near consideration the vertical cross sections of the

Poiana Sibiului, a Roma settlement had already peneplains with their geological conditions and expanded into the area of the village. During our vegetation zones shown in Figure 4. study in this area in 2003 and 2004, the Roma The Precambrian crystalline schist is dominant settlement expanded with great speed. They in the Cindrel Mountains (Buza and Fesci 1983). used common lands freely for washing and dry- There are three peneplains: Step ‡T, about 2000- ing wool. 2200 m (equivalent to the highest altitudes) (the

Borascu Peneplain); Step ‡U, about 1800m (the Study areas regarding soil erosion and water Raul Ses Peneplain), and; Step ‡V, about 950- pollution 1100m (the Gornovita Peneplain). Settlements

Cindrel Mountains The problems of soil like Jina and Poiana Sibiului are located on Step

-274- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 79

Figure 3. Detail map of A region in Figure 1.

Figure 4. Peneplains and vegetation zones on a cross section of the Cindrel Mountains.

, where our observations were made. These Yoshino 2006). Sheep grazing stays Banat Plain

settlements are all based on transhumance. The during winter time. In spring, sheep shift up to

farmers and their stock all shift in spring from higher places and shift back to lower places in

Step ‡V to Step ‡U and stay on Step ‡T in summer. autumn. Namely, sheep stay from 1 May to 10

After coming back to the base settlements in au- May on the Peneplain of Gornovita, from 10 May

tumn, sheep move further away to the lowlands to 15 June on the Raul Ses Peneplain, from 15

of the Banat Plain, where they stay in winter June to 1 Sept. on the top of South Carpathian

(Uruhibara-Yoshino and Hada 2005; Urushibara- Mountains. Then sheep will shift back from 10

-275--

‡V 80 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K. and MORI K.

Sept. to 1 Oct on the Raul Ses Peneplain, and tographs taken by him shows serious soil ero- from 1 Oct, to 14 Oct, on Gornovita Peneplain. sion. In the present study, a southeast facing

Sheep will be transferred to Banat Plain, where slope of the Virful Colane, near Muscel village, they stay during winter by truck, train or walk. was taken as an example of a common grassland, Taking into account the fact that 38% where transhumance was practiced. (1,075km) of the total length (2,857km) of the Danube River passes through Romania or forms Study Method and Results its border, this particular river has great impor- tance to the country not only for water resources Soil erosion but also from an environmental point of view Methods and materials 1) Type of soil ero- (Bogdan et al., 2004; Lennox 1996). The study sion in study areas. The types of soil erosion, area is located on the northern slope of the observed in the grasslands with transhumance on Southern Carpathians, and contains a tributary of the north facing slope of Cindrel Mountains (Re- the River, which flows into the Danube at a gion A)and the south facing slope of Patarlagele point near the city of Turnu Magurele (Figure 1), (Region B), are classified into Types Ⅰ to Ⅳ, as after being regulated by approximately 30 reser- shown in Figure 5. The progressive degree is ex- voirs (Mandrut 2000; Whitehead and Noe 1995). pressed as(1)to(4). In Type Ⅰ, not only sheep, Observations were conducted in the compara- but also heavy animals like cattle or horses are tively small watershed, situated in the headwa- grazed together in the area. Here ample, thick ter basin of the Cibin and Saliste Rivers. The Sal- soil layers can be found. In Type Ⅱ, erosion oc- iste River, which springs from the vicinity of Jina, curs initially on steep slopes, but barren sites ap- flows 26km through the pastoral settlements of pear due to trampling by livestock, then this Rod, Tilisca, Gales and Saliste si Sacal, and runs spreads along the slopes, where drainage also fa- into the Cibin and Rivers. Its drainage cilitates it. This trigger results in a series of con- basin (115km2) extends from west to east, the nected chains from the upper part to the lower highest altitude being 950-1,100m in the water- part of the slope, like a form of gully erosion. In shed at the western extremity, and ca. 500m at the developed stage, the depth may reach 15-20 its confluence with the Cibin River. In this area, m with a width of 20-50m in extreme cases. In the watershed is predominantly covered by pas- the case of gully erosion, even though there are ture, which is used by local people as grazing differences in size, relatively large gullies de- land for sheep (Buza and Fesci 1983). The rural velop on steep slopes with thick soil layers. settlement of Jina, located on a mountain ridge, However, the downward progression of erosion has a population of 4,200 and about 39,000 head stops, when bare rocks appear in the gully bot- of sheep in 2004. According to the results of in- tom. Type Ⅲ is also found on grazing terraces. quiry at the village office, it is said that the num- This happens of when many flocks of sheep con- ber of sheep had increased tenfold as compared tinuously tread along the gentlest gradients of with the years before 1990. The drainage basin the slopes. Tracks develop in accordance with has a mean annual precipitation of approximately the frequency with which the sheep are moved. 640mm (Urushibara-Yoshino 2005; Urushibara- Here road-like steps are also formed by the Yoshino and Hada 2005). Local people in the movement of large, heavy cows. When heavy community depend on groundwater for drinking rainfall comes, the soil on parts of the terraces and rain water for washing. will be washed out and the terrace will become

Patarlagele in the Musel Valley The land part of the drainage channel. In the most ad- in the region near Patarlagele, where Tertiary vanced cases of Type Ⅲ erosion, the soil is com- sedimentary rocks are distributed adjacent to pletely removed and bare rocks are exposed. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, has been utilized Furthermore, as the sheep, cattle and horses use partly by collective farm orchards cultivating parts of the terraces continuously, the remaining plums, and partly for the transhumance of sheep. soil will fall down to the lower parts of the slope, Before the time of the revolution, Balteanu exposing bare rocks. In Type Ⅳ, the slopes are (1983) studied this region and one of the pho- steeper than those of the surrounding mountain

-276- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 81

Figure 5. Classification of soil erosion in South Carpathian Mountains. areas, and cases of erosion have been caused not monitor climatic conditions in the study area, rain only by sheep, but also by human movement that gauge was set in Jina. A rain gauge (Type: 34-T, is part of the transhumance process. In the KADEC 21-MIZU-C) was set at Jina, 988m a.s.l. southern parts of the Carpathian Mountains, the Figure 6 shows the observation station set in type of rocks determines the occurrence. In par- a grassland field in Poiana Sibiului on the ticular, in the case of crystalline schist, they Gornovita Peneplain, which is the third pene- were observed to they develop according to plain. Precipitation records were taken from angle of the slope. Sept. 19, 2003 to Jul. 15, 2005. The daily pre- The erosion develops and spreads on the cipitation expressed by the vertical bar is shown ground surface in the upstream direction. The soil in Figure 7. Seasonal changes of precipitation layer is thin on the steep slopes of the crystalline were clear: relatively large amounts occurred schist area, so the bedrock tends to appear. When from April to October, the warmer season, with the erosion reaches the bedrock, it becomes hard the maximum from May to September. The dry to regenerate the vegetation cover, resulting in season is from November to March. Rainfall oc- the rock being exposed for a long period of time. curs continuously with short interruptions from However, in the case of areas with thick weath- April to October. Our measurements of precipi- ered layers of Tertiary rock, the erosion sites tation can be used to consider the climatic con- evolve into being like the land slide areas. ditions that affect soil erosion. This applies es- 2) Speed of soil erosion. The profiles of soil pecially to the frequency and intensity of rain- erosion areas were measured on Sept. 20, 2003, fall. Even the annual precipitation at this loca- and again on Sept. 6, 2004. Both profiles were tion is about 600mm/year, and this intensive compared and the differences were considered rain, especially the higher daily amounts, will to indicate the speed of soil erosion. cause severe land degradation. The occurrence 3) Rain gauge measurement. Precipitation of such heavy rain in semi-arid zones will data could not obtained in the study area. To especially affect the progress of soil erosion.

-277- 82 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K. and MORI K.

Throughout the present observation period, it in Table 1). As a result of the heavy daily pre- was found that daily rainfall of over 20mm oc- cipitation, total values are rather high. A maxi- curred four times a year (eight times during the mum of 47mm per day was recorded in two oc- two years in seasons with heavy rain, as shown casions. Under these conditions, once the soil layer on the surface is exposed, the heavy rains can expand the area affected by erosion very easily. This also leads to continuous exposure of the parent rock. Climatic conditions for sheep transhumance were studied in Romania (Urushibara-Yoshino and Hada 2006). Because of the semi-arid condi- tions under which this occurs, the peneplain on the northern slopes has developed and maintains a grassland. According to our observations of precipitation, heavy rain occurs occasionally (eight times of the daily precipitation more than 20mm). This may accelerate erosion and further

Table 1. Daily precipitation occurrence in the pe- riod of 666 days, from Sept. 19, 2003 to July. 15, 2005

Figure 6. Rain gauge in Jina (taken by K. Urushibara-Yoshino, Aug. 19, 2003).

Figure 7. Daily precipitation in Jina (from Sept. 19, 2003, to Jul. 15, 2005).

- 278- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 83

facilitate the development of land degradation 1) Dinuta Siring for drinking water in Jina. before any chance of recovery can occur. In the study area. theie are springs and water

Soil erosion in Jina and Poiana Sibiului holes with drinking water not only for sheep, cat-

We investigated soil erosion that had occurred tle and horses, but also for the local people, who through the transhumance of sheep in the area carry the water to their homes. The houses are

surrounding Jina, one of the transhumance bases distributed on the ridge, but the springs are lo-

on the Step ‡V peneplain. Because no large-scale cated on the sloes at the head of the valley. maps were available for this area, it vas impos- The types of soil erosion around these springs

sible to draw a distribution map. However, the are a combination of Types Ⅰ and Ⅲ. The results movement of material and the form of its dis- of measurements carried out on September 20, placement were studied through simple meas- 2003, are shown by broken line, and those taken urement. on Septiember 6,2004, by a solid line(Figures 8

and 9). Lowering of the ground surface by soil

erosion reached 70 cm at the maximum-The

gully had already reached bedrock at that loca- tion (Type Ⅲ with the status of Ⅲ-(3)). Also, at

a location with a steep slope (47 degrees), type

I erosion had reached the status of Ⅰ-(3) or Ⅰ-(4).

Because they are sites where sheep, cattle and

horses come frequently to drink water, erosion

had reached the stage where crystalline schist

had been exposed.

2) Gully type soil erosion in Poina Sibiului. This type appears on the border areas between

Jina and Poiana Sibiului where the grasslands are

Figure 8. Measuring the slope at Dinuta Spring utilized cooperatively. At this location, a large in- (taken by K. Urushibara-Yoshino on stance is found of gully erosion crossing the main Sept. 20, 2003). road connecting Jina to Poiana Sibiului. Mea-

Figure 9. Cross section of the slope at Dinuta Spring in Jina.

- 279- 84 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K. and MORI K.

surement of this gully was made along a longi- As a result, it became clear that the slope at tudinal section (Figure 10), and cross sections at the valley head had retreated by about 1m. Re- three points (Figure 11). A comparison was treat was also observed at several places form- made between the findings of September 20, ing knick points. When the slope retreat had 2003 (broken line), and September 5, 2004 (solid reached this stage, it did not shift anymore. line). Along the cross sections, it was observed that

Figure 10. Longitudinal section of erosion gully in Poiana Sibiului.

Figure 11.. Cross sections ①-③ of erosion gully in Poiana Sibiului.

-280- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 85

the head parts of the gully on the side slopes had these are the most vulnerable parts of the study retreated and the eroded soil materials had area. Also areas of Type Ⅳ-(3) erosion on the

shifted to the valley bottom. As observed at lower parts of the slopes should be kept as small these points in the valley bottom, the amount of as possible.

shifted material was large. 4) Distribution of soil erosion areas in Jina and

3) Community grasslands in Poiana Sibiului. Poiana Sibiului. A distribution map showing the The people dry shorn wool on the open grass data mentioned above will be included in future terrain surrounding the settlement. It has be- studies. Common findings in the study areas are:

come evident that the soil erosion on these rel- the grasslands and the cultivated land in private atively steep slopes has been broadly speaking ownership are in general kept in good condition. enlarged. The existence of fences plays an important part

Soil erosion of Type Ⅳ is found in this area. It in achieving this. In those areas, there is no dan- has already reached the condition of Type Ⅳ-(3). ger of soil erosion. In the cooperatively owned

That is, the bedrock is exposed. Because the grasslands, however, the number of sheep has in- bedrock is Precambrian crystalline schist, it is creased tenfold since the 1989 revolution, as very hard and, therefore, it cannot be expected made clear by Shirasaka (2006), one member of that the soil will recover over a broad area of this the study group. again through accumulation of weathered mate- As a result, the deterioration of the environ- rials over the short term. ment in the latter case is progressing at high

In September 2003 at the edge of the town of speed. We therefore would recommend more em-

Poiana Sibiului, there were a lot of houses in- phasis on environmental education, especially in habited by the Roma. One year later, in Sep- relation to the special problems of the Roma. tember 2004, their number had increased Soil erosion in Patarlagele In the present markedly. Washed wool was seen drying on the study, a southeast facing slope of the Virful ground surface of the grasslands, and then being Colane, Muscel Village, was taken as an example graded by the Roma according to quality. Roma of common grasslands where transhumance was drivers engage in transportation by trucks but on carried on. As shown in Figures 12 and 13, dis- the other hand, the Romanian people make and tribution maps were drawn for every soil erosion sale cheese. After the 1989 revolution resulted type in the region. The top of the slope is at 590 in a substantial increase of Roma population in m a.s.l. and bottom of the slope 390m a.s.l. A this region. cross section is also shown in Figure 14. Ac-

In some instances, the Roma occupied the cording to Figure 15, the bedrocks is exposed in houses which had been abandoned by Romanian the case of slopes with a gradient of more than

Germans, who had emigrated to Germany. In 45 degrees, and the erosion reaches Ⅳ-(2) for other cases, like the case of this village, they Type Ⅳ and Ⅰ-(4) for Type Ⅰ. In particular, the built their own homes illegally, working with most seriously eroded slope has a gradient cheap materials and poor construction tech- steeper than 45 degrees, exposing the bedrock. niques. On the lower parts of the slopes, there An example of Type Ⅰ-(4) is shown in Figure 15. are sites with accumulated garbage, dumping Land degradation has been progressing on the grounds of useless wool, and other used as out- steep slopes, but because the bedrock is sand- door breeding places for pigs. In addition, peo- stone, it seems that the supply of weathered ma- ple, sheep and cattle are frequently moving terials has been good, even though the vegeta- about there. All these factors have enlarged the tion has not yet recovered. In the case of slopes extent of Type Ⅳ-(1) erosion. with a gradient of less than 20 degrees, there are

The most pressing matters in this region are some signs of landslides that frequently produce as follows: when the process of erosion reaches soil erosion of Types Ⅱ and Ⅲ. the bedrock, the recovery of vegetation will be However here the vegetation recovers fast and impossible. In the areas with Precambrian crys- there are few serious problems. It should be talline schist, everything should be done to stop mentioned, however, that one must build a fence the process as soon as possible. This is because surrounding the parts of the slopes steeper than

-281- 86 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K. and MORI K.

Figure 12. Soil erosion of common grasslands, Maloteasa Valley (taken by K. Urushibara-Yoshino, Sept. 1, 2004).

Figure 13. Distribution map of soil erosion types in the Maloteasa Valley, Muscel Village.

about 45 degrees, in order to prevent grazing by 2) The regions with Tertiary sedimentary sheep and so facilitate the recovery of the veg- rocks have suffered from frequent land slide etation. damage. In cases where the gradient of the slope

1) Due to the severe soil erosion, exposed is more than 45 degrees, the bedrock is exposed bedrock is widely seen in the region with Pre- on the slopes. cambria.n crystallized schist. Those regions are Water pollution classified as Type Ⅱ-(3) and Type Ⅳ-(3) by the present study. In these regions, tihe vegetation A case of the Cibin River Hydrological in- will not recover. It is also difficult to help its re- vestigations were conducted through August into covery without human intervention. September 2003 and again in August 2004 in the

-282- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 87

Figure 14. Cross section of a slope (NW-SE) of the Maloteasa. Valley.

Figure 15. Soil erosion of common grassland, Maloteasa Valley (taken by K. Urushibara-Yoshino on Sept. 1, 2004). upper reaches of the Cibin River (Region A). Fig- dition to the analytical procedures for these ure 16 shows a land-use map of the study area chemical elements, the measurement of electri- and the position of sampling sites. The quality of cal conductivity was made in situ (Mori 2006; the river water including groundwater and stored Mori et al. 2006). rain water was assessed, using the following A striking concentration of pollution in river analytical methods. water is observed at some particular points Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chlo- where sheared wool is washed directly in the ride, sulphate, nitrate and ammonium were de- river channel during the summer season. The termined by ion chromatography. Bicarbonate local people and Roma wash sheared wool in the analysis was based on titration with sulphuric Cibin River (Figure 17). Contamination of river acid. Chemical Oxygen Demand was obtained as water by animal waste is also recognized at some consumption of potassium permanganate. In ad- observation points. Based on differences in con-

-285- 88 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K. and MORI K.

Figure 16. Land-use map of the headwater basin of the Cibin River and the locations of sampling sites.

centiration and composition of major dissolved

substances, a summary of the pollution of river

water is shown in Figure 18. The controlled sam-

ple shows 215μS/cm of electrical conductivity

and 7.5mg/L of COD, which gives the back-

ground signature of the water in the study area

to compare against the polluted samples to be

compared (Figure 18). By contrast, the maxi-

mum values of pollutant concentrations in

river water affected by wool washing include

8,960μS/cm of electrical conductivity, 2,882mg/L

of COD, and 68.4mg/L of ammonium ions. It is

deducted that the enriched ammonium ions in Figure 17. Local people washing sheared wool in the Cibin River (taken by K. Mori the stream derive from sheep excrement which on Aug. 28, 2003). adheres to the fleece. The difference in electri-

cal conductivity indicates whether the river

water is affected by both domestic and stock- compositions of many samples to be represented breeding sewage (4,570μS/cm) or by stock- on a single graph in which major grouping or breeding sewage alone (3,430μS/cm). The qual- trends in the data can be discerned visually. As ity of the groundwater is much better than that shown in the triangular and key diagrams of Fig- of the river water, but pollution by animal waste ure 19, types of water quality are designated ac- is also recogzused for spring water, with a max- cording to the domain in which they occur on imum nitrate concentration of 21.0mg/L (Mori the diagram segments, and the hydrochemical 2005a, 2005b). faces of water are clearly classifiable into four

A Piper diagram permits the cation and anion categories as follows: rain water and river water

-284- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 89

Figure 18. Summary of pollution of river water as classified by its primary factor.

without human activity as a control: Cat+-HCO-3, b) As a constant pollutant source, untreated river water affected by domestic and stock- domestic and stockbreeding sewage in breeding sewage: Na+-Cl-, river water affected rural areas has a strong effect on river by wool washing: K+-HCO-3, groundwater: water quality.

Na+/Ca2+-HCO3 with comparatively high levels ⅲ) The distinguishing features of river water of nitrate. quality were consistent with the nature of land use and water use as well. The distinguishing features of the water qual- ity are consistent with the nature of both the ⅳ) The results show conditions of marked land use and water use. The results show marked water pollution and a problem awaiting solution water pollution and a problem awaiting solution in order to create and sustain a better water en- in order to sustain a better water environment. vironment

The water quality of the upper course of the A case of the Muscel River Hydrochemi-

Cibin River in central Romania was investigated cal characteristics on river water and phreatic with special reference to pollution and its cause. groundwater in the Muscel River basin (Region

The characteristics of the river water quality B) were investigated with a research focus on were as follows: their regional difference and primary cause. The Muscel River basin is located at 96 kilometer's ⅰ) Concentrations of dissolved substances

show maximum values at the uppermost point, distance in the northern direction of Bucharest,

and decrease downstream as a result of dilution. and has a total area of approximately 21km2 with alength of about 8.8km. As is inferred from the ⅱ) Water is classified into four categories ac- fact that improvement of the sewage system is cording to differences in concentration and com- overdue in the study area, it is expected that the position of major dissolved substances. domestic wastewater from settlements has a con- a) As a transient phenomenon, striking con- siderable effect upon the quality of river and tamination of the river water was found

at some particular points during the sum- groundwater as a pollutant source. On this sup-

mer season where sheared wool was position, river water quality was preponderantly clarified as to the connection with groundwater. washed directly in river channel.

-285- 90 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K . and MORI K.

Figure 19. Triangular and key diagrams for quality of river water, including groundwater and rain water.

As shown in Figure 20, sixteen observation tion of water of the Muscel River is character- stations were chosen for measuring of discharge ized by calcium sulfate, whereas the polluted and water temperature and quality along the water which is considerably affected by human

Muscel River. In addition, nine observation wells activity is predominantly rich in sodium and were also established to determine the depth to chloride. As far as correlation of the river water the water table from the ground surface. with the surrounding groundwater is concerned,

As is generally pointed out, the electrical con- the chemical composition of river water is inti- ductivity of river water has a tendency to in- mately analogous to that of the groundwater crease in value as the water flows down. In other near the river channel. According to the results words, the electrical conductivity of water in the of measurements on the depth of the water

Muscel River should increase with increasing dis- table, river water seems to be recharged by t ance from its source. As is also obvious from groundwater. The strong similarity of the chem- this figure, the effect of dilution by the conflu- ical characteristics of the water and the com- ence with a tributary is clearly recognized. It is parison of water levels, suggest that groundwa- pointed out that the rather high electrical con- ter plays an important role as a source of the ductivity, above 1,000μS/cm as observed in the Muscel River. upper reaches, is significantly influenced by elu-

tion from the marl which makes up the matrix of Conclusion and Suggestions the river channel. In the lower reaches of the Cindrel Mountains (Region A) river in comparatively densely populated areas, human activity, including domestic sewage and ú@) The most serious land degradation has oc- livestock excrement, has a direct effect upon the curred in the common lands in Jina and Poiana quality of Mussel River. Sibiului on the Gornovita peneplain. The climatic

Both the concentration and composition of conditions of Romania are semi-arid. The annual eight kinds of inorganic ions in river water are precipitation is about 600mm/year in the regions also shown in Figure 20 by Stiff's hexagonal di- of the study area. Local conditions conduced to agram. In a general way, the chemical composi- land degradation on the slopes in the mountains

-286- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 91

Figure 20. Distributions of dissolved constituents in river water and groundwater in the Muscel River Basin (observed on Sept. 1-3, 2004).

are evident in the region of the central part of caused water pollution in the villages. The the South Carpathian Mountains. The main rea- sodium and potassium content of the small sons for this are the intense rainfall in the streams is especially high. Dangerous conditions warmer seasons. Furthermore, the parent mate- found presently in the Cindrel Mountains. The rial of the soils is very hard rock, Precambrian area covered by exposed outcrops of crystalline crystalline schist. The weathering processes are schist is a signal of serious conditions. The shep- also very slow. Parent rock exposure has in- herds in the district do not have traditional ex- creased year by year. Land degradation is seri- perience of such conditions. The crystalline ous around cattle water holes on the mountain schist is extremely hard, and its surface weath- slopes and where the tracks have gouged out ering to rebuilt soil and enable human use to tracks. The evidences of soil erosion measured occur is an extremely slow process. from Sept. 2003 to Sept. 2004, and the results ⅳ) In the Cibin River, a striking concentration show a high-speed movement of the load. of pollutants in river water is observed at some

ⅱ) One of the other reasons for increased eco- particular points, where shored wool is washed logical stress is the increase in sheep numbers. directly in the river channel during the summer

This density(3-4 head/ha)is now observable season. The concentration of dissolved sub- even at sites with poor natural conditions. It stances in river water is at a maximum at the would be necessary that sheep would be man- uppermost observation point, and decreases aged more carefully and moved out of areas suf- downstream. Such a peculiarity in river water fering serious land degradation. quality is closely related to the location of the

ⅲ) The washing of wool in the mountain settlement. Pollution by animal waste is also rec- streams by the Roma and Bayash people has ognized in spring water, with comparatively high

-287- 92 URUSHIBARA-YOSHINO K . and MORI K.

nitrate concentrations. the grassland surface should be tightly con-

trolled. The method which has been applied in Patarlagele (Region B) Velika Planing (Slovenian should be introduced in

ⅰ) The production of sheep's cheese is not as this area. large in Patarlagele. Therefore, the stress of ⅲ) It is obvious that some infrastructure is sheep numbers on the transhumance sites is not needed in this area for the production of wool , as strong. but again, this needs to be much more tightly

ⅱ) Geologically this area is highly prone to soil managed. For example, the process of washing erosion, because the bedrock here is composed wool should be controlled so that the pollution of soft Tertiary sedimentary rock. The weathered of clean water in the adjacent streams is con- materials are also very thick. If the angles of the trolled..The best contemporary techniques of slopes are steeper than 35 degrees, even the wool production should be introduced to give a grazing of sheep can easily cause landslides and final product of first grade quality. soil erosion. It is also true, though that the thick ⅳ) National and international markets should soil layer helps the vegetation to recover quickly. be developed for the cheese and wool produced

ⅲ) In Patarlagele, the liquid waste from cheese in the area. production is discharged onto the hilly slopes. ⅴ) In order to sustain a better water environ-

There is no effective disposal system for this liq- meet, the facts indicated above suggest a task uid waste that does not impinge on the villages. awaiting solution, including further improvement

ⅳ) In the area of Patarlagele, washing of wool by introduction of a sewage treatment system. In in the creeks and on the creek banks was not ob- addition, the awareness of local people is also served. important in order to improve the present water

ⅴ) In the Muscel River basin, a rather high environment. concentrations of dissolved constituents in river Patarlagele (Region B) At the sites where water and groundwater was observed even in the serious erosion has been caused by grazing, the upper reaches with no human activity. This par- land should be kept free of sheep for at least ticular water quality originates from elution from two or three years. In the meantime, there marl, which makes up the matrix of the river should be hand sowing of grass over the area to channel. Pollution of river water and ground- be rehabilitated. In Patarlagele, the process of water is recognized in the lower reaches of the vegetation recovery will be easier than in Cindrel river basin, where water as considerably affected Mountains. by human activity is predominantly rich in so- dium and chloride. Contamination of river water Acknowledgements by animal waste is also found at some observa- tion points. The present study was supported by Grant-in Aid for Scientific Research 2003-2005, Scientific Research(B), Suggestions Head Investigator, Prof. Kazuko Urushibara-Yoshino,

Cindrel Mountains(Region A). ⅰ) Strong Project Number 15401032, of the Japanese Ministry of control is needed in the common lands. In the education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. As areas where soil erosion is occurring sheep a counter partner, Prof. Dr. Dan Balteanu, his col- leagues and his graduate students, at the Institute of breeding should occur only over a limited time- Geography, Academy of Romania, provided much sup- span and over a restricted area. This is needed port for the success of this research. The mayor of to facilitate the recovery of the vegetation. The Jina, Mr. Iancu Beschiu provided a rain gauge obser- first step in this process should be an improve- vation station, and Mr. Stoica Valeriu, Mayor of ment in the care of the grassland surface by the Patarlagele guided us in the field. We would like to ex- farmers. Technically, methods, which have been press our pleasure at their hospitality, and our wish for used to manage limestone outcrops in a quarries, sustainable development of these beautiful transhu-

could be usefully applied here (Urushibara- mance areas. As a cooperative researcher, Prof. Dr.

Yoshino 1987). Shigeru Shirasaka, Rikkyo University and Miss. Asami

ⅱ) The random development of tracks of over Hada, Graduate School of Hosei University, supported

-288- Degradation of Geoecological and Hydrological Conditions 93

fieldwork and profitablediscussion . social conditions and their impacts on geoe- (Received l September 2006) cology-Transhumance regions of Romania (Accepted 15 January 2007) and Slovenia.ed. K. Urushibara-Yoshino,63-75, Tokyo: Dept. Geography,Hosei University. References Mori,K., Urushibara-Yoshino, K., Balteanu, D. and Ser- ban, M.2006. Primary cause of water pollutionin Academia Republicii SocialisteRomania. 1979 . Atlas: the headwaters of River Cibin,Central Romania, Republica Socialiste Romania, lnstitute de Ge- with specialreference to sheep overgrazing.Phys- ografie. Bucharesti:Editura Academiei Republicii ical Geography 27(4):308-315. SocialisteRomania. Shirasaka,S.2006. The transhumance of sheep in the Balteanu, D.1983. Experimental de term in geo- Southern CarpathianMt., Romania. In Changing morfoligie. Bucharesti: Aplicatii la Subcarpatii social conditions and their impacts on geoe- Buzaului, Editura Academies RepubliciiSpecialiste cology-Transhumance regions of Romania Romania.(R) and Slovenia.ed. K. Urushibara-Yoshino,76-103, Balteanu, D.2003. Environmental change and sustain- Tokyo: Dept. Geography,Hosei University. able development in the Romanian Carpathians. Urushibara-Yoshino,K.1987. Environmentalchanges in Journal of the Geographical Society of Hosei karstareas in Japan.Studia Carsologoca2:152- University/35:7-12. 157. Balteanu, D.2006. Case studies of land degradation in Urushibara-Yoshino,K.2005. Sheep overgrazingand the Carpathian Mountains (Romania). In Chang- land degradation-Report from Romania afterthe ing social conditions and their impacts on revolution(1). Geography 50(5):70-81.(J) geoecology-Transhumance regions of Romania Urushibara-Yoshino,K.2006. Case studiesof soilero- and Slovenia. ed. K. Urushibara-Yoshino, 10-43, sion in South CarpathianMountains. In Changing Tokyo: Dept. Geography, Hosei University. social conditions and their impacts on geoe- Bogdan, O., Frumuselu, D., and Munteanu, I., eds. cology-Transhumance regions of Romania 2004.Romania soil quality and electricity and SloverLia.ed. K. Urushibara-Yoshino,53-62, transmission grid Geographical atlas). Tokyo: Dept. Geography,Hosei University. Bucharest: Romanian Academy.(RE) Urushibara-Yoshino,K., and Hada, A.2005. Land degra- Buza, M., and Fesci, S.1983. Cindrel-Ghid Turis- dationby intensivetranshumance of sheep in Ro- tzc-, Colectia Muntii Nostri 28: Bucharest: Ed- mania. Journal of the Geograph2cal Society of itura Sport-Turism. (R) Hossei University37:35-44.(J) Lennox, I.1996. Equipping the danube programme. Urushibara-Yoshino,K., and Hada, A.2006. Climatic Danube watch (The Newsletter of the Environ- conditions in Romania. In Changing social mental Programme for the Danube River conditions and their impacts on geoecology Basin) 2(1):11-12. -TranShumance regionS of Romania and Mandrut, O. 2000. Geografia Romaniei. Bucharest: Slovenia. ed. K. Urushibara-Yoshino,44-52, Ministerul Educatiei Nationale.(R) Tokyo: Dept. Geography,Hosei University. Mori, K. 2005a. Pollution of river water and ground- Whitehead,C., and Noe, M. eds. 1995.Strategic action water in the headwaters basin of River Cibin,the plan for the Danube River Basin 1995-,2000. Danube River System, with special reference to Vienna:Environmental Programme forthe Danube their primary factor.Proc. Inst. Nat. Sci.,Nihon RiverBasin. UrLiv. 40: 113-119. (JE) Mori, K.2005b. Sheep overgrazing and water pollution (J):written in Japanese -Report from Romania after the revolution(2). (JE):written in Japanese with Englishabstract Geography 50(6):88-97.(J) (R):written in Romanian Mori, K.2006. Primary cause of water pollutionin the (RE): writtenin Romanian with Englishabstract Muscel River and the Cibin River. In Changing

-289-