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Information Technology in Landscape Architecture

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Information Technology in Landscape Architecture Information Technology in Landscape Architecture 1 2 Klas Eckerberg Information Technology in Landscape Architecture Development of Tools, Methods, and Professional Role Licentiatavhandling 3 Institutionen för landskapsplanering Ultuna Samhälls- och landskapsplanering nr 6 Uppsala 1999 SLU Institutionen för landskapsplanering Ultuna Samhälls- och landskapsplanering nr 6 Cover image: economic map showing Ultuna, © Lantmäteriverket, 1999 (Dnr L1999/197), draped on CAD terrain model. Ansvarig utgivare: Clas Florgård ISSN 1403-1361 4 ISBN 91-576-5955-9 © 1999 Klas Eckerberg och institutionen för landskapsplanering Ultuna Tryck: SLU-Service/Repro, Uppsala 1999 CONTENTS Contents ABSTRACT 7 SAMMANFATTNING 8 PREFACE 9 CHAPTER 1, PURPOSE AND STUDY DESIGN 11 PURPOSE AND QUESTIONS 11 Problem Limitation 15 Definitions 16 STUDY DESIGN 20 Scientific Theory Tradition 21 Scientific Method 22 Theories and Propositions 30 Summary of Study Design 33 CHAPTER 2, HISTORIC BACKGROUND 35 COMPUTER AND SOFTWARE HISTORY 35 The Early Years 36 The System-Centric Era 39 The PC-Centric Era 41 The Network-Centric Era 51 The Content-Centric Era 55 HISTORY OF LANDSCAPE DRAWINGS AND IMAGES 56 The Map 57 The Land-Use Plan 60 The Plan Drawing 64 The Perspective and Axonometric Drawing 81 The Photograph 100 CHAPTER 3, THE LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT – TOOLS, METHODS, AND PROFESSIONAL ROLE 101 INFORMATION 104 Site Information 104 Design Information 107 Maintainance Information 108 Knowledge Engineering 110 5 CONTENTS TECHNOLOGY 114 Geographic Information Systems 114 Computer Aided Design, Drafting, and Presentation 120 DATA STRUCTURE 130 Physical Planning 130 Design, Presentation, and Drafting 136 ROLE 145 Physical Planning 145 Design, Presentation and Drafting 146 Marketing 151 Corporate IT Strategy 153 Client Expectations 155 Management and Maintenance 157 Personal Attitudes 157 COMMUNICATION 164 General Communication Tools 164 Physical Planning 166 Design, Presentation, and Drafting 167 Management and Maintenance 170 RESULT 172 Physical Planning 172 Design, Presentation, and Drafting 178 CHAPTER 4, RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND FURTHER STUDIES 199 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS 199 IT in Design 199 Effects on the Professional Role 201 New fields 202 Factors Affecting IT Use 203 CLOSING WORD 207 FURTHER STUDIES 208 REFERENCES 209 APPENDIX A, INTERVIEW MANUAL 215 APPENDIX B, CASE STUDY ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 219 GROUNDED T HEORY 219 HERMENUETICAL INTERPRETATION 219 6 ABSTRACT ABSTRACT This paper discusses the impact of information tural practices. Two areas of special interest in technology on the tools, methods, and profes- the future are geographic information systems, sional role of the landscape architect. This pro- and three-dimensional modeling in design and fession is presently expanding into new fields, presentation as well as in construction. resulting in an increased specialization. The new Data structure is of utmost importance for the tools made available through information tech- further development of computer tools. As com- nology adds to the difficulties – and possibilities munication and digital information retrieval in- – facing the individual landscape architect. creases, standards must be agreed upon. This is a The landscape architect is active in a system complex and slow process. Digital product mod- aimed at information processing. The study eling will be equally slow in acceptance. starts off in this system, focusing on the follow- The range of software today covers much of ing elements: information, technology, data struc- the information processing that takes place in ture, role, communication, and result. planning and design. Up till today, they have As a foundation for the discussion, the gen- had its largest impact on communication and eral history of the computer is described. With presentation. As a design tool, the computer has the start in mainframe computing in the 1960s, yet to prove its use to most landscape architects. the computer today provides personal comput- Still, it use can in some respects strengthen the ing power, as well as access to a worldwide net- professional role, and give opportunities to new work for communication and information re- fields of expertise. trieval. Acquiring the ability to evaluate computer The historical description also covers the tools support, and to use it in a professional situation, of the landscape architect – mainly maps, draw- is largely up to the individual. The parties sur- ings, and images. The emphasis lies on presenta- rounding the landscape architect provide the tion techniques, showing their evolution from framework in terms of possibilities and expecta- the Egyptian multi-view tradition to the Renais- tions. Customers demands for the use of digital sance single-point perspective, still dominating methods are rising. today. However, computer use has inspired a All these changes show the importance of IT new form of presentation technique with several strategies. First of all, the organizations employ- views and projections, thereby closing the circle. ing the landcape architects need dynamic and One of the problems facing the digital land- up-to-date documents. scape architect is access to data and information. However, since the choices of methods and The processing itself is also complicated by the tools have a large bearing on how individuals fact that many architectural problems fall out- can and will function in planning and design side the range of the software, especially in con- systems, the choices must in the end be made in- ceptual design. Knowledge engineering and ex- dividually. pert systems are only giving rudimentary sup- If the decisions are based on knowledge and port to the process. Still, the computer is used in insight, they can increase the possibilities for the many fields of the profession, to a rapidly in- profession to adapt to a changing society, and creasing extent. Computer aided drafting is to- enhance its role as an active and creative part of day standard software in landscape architec- this development. 7 7 SAMMANFATTNING SAMMANFATTNING Denna rapport diskuterar hur informations- arkitektkontor. Två områden av speciellt in- teknologin påverkar landskapsarkitektens verk- tresse i framtiden är geografiska informations- tyg, metoder och yrkesroll. För närvarande ex- system och tredimensionell modellering i de- panderar yrket in i nya arbetsfält, vilket leder till sign, presentation och konstruktion. en ökad specialisering. De nya redskap som Uppbyggandet av datastrukturer är av yt- ställs till förfogande genom informations- tersta vikt inför den framtida utvecklingen av teknologin ökar svårigheterna – och möjlig- datoriserade redskap. I takt med att kommuni- heterna – för den enskilde landskapsarkitekten. kation och digital informationshantering ökar, Landskapsarkitekten medverkar i ett system höjs kraven på standardisering. Detta är en kom- ägnat åt informationshantering. Studien utgår plex och långsam process. Införandet av digital från detta system, och fokuserar på följande ele- produktmodellering kommer att vara motsva- ment: information, teknologi, datastruktur, roll, rande svår att få allmänt accepterat. kommunikation och resultat. Dagens mjukvara täcker en stor del av den Som en bas för diskussionen beskrivs den all- informationshantering som sker i planering och männa datorhistorien. Med sin start i stordator- projektering. Fram till idag har de haft störst in- systemen på 1960-talet erbjuder datorn idag per- flytande inom kommunikation och presenta- sonlig ”datakraft”, liksom tillgång till ett världs- tion. Som designredskap har datorn fortfarande omspännande nätverk för kommunikation och att bevisa sin användbarhet för de flesta informationshantering. landskapsarkitekter. Användningen av it kan Den historiska beskrivningen omfattar också dock inom vissa områden stärka yrkesrollen, landskapsarkitektens redskap – huvudsakligen och ge tillgång till nya expertuppgifter. kartor, ritningar och bilder. Tyngdpunkten lig- Det är upp till individen att skaffa sig kunskap ger på presentationstekniker, och visar utveck- om hur datorstödet kan utvärderas och använ- lingen från den egyptiska traditionen med flera das i en yrkessituation. De parter som omger samtidiga projektioner till renässansens landskapsarkitekten ger förutsättningar i form enpunktsperspektiv, som dominerar än idag. av möjligheter och förväntningar. Kundernas Dock har datoranvändandet inspirerat till en ny krav på användandet av digitala metoder ökar. typ av presentationsteknik med flera vyer och Alla dessa förändringar visar vikten av IT- projektioner, och har därmed slutit cirkeln. strategier. Inledningsvis behöver de organisa- Ett av problemen som möter den digitale tioner som anställer landskapsarkitekter dyna- landskapsarkitekten är tillgång till data och in- miska och uppdaterade dokument. formation. Förädlandet av informationen kom- Eftersom valen av metod och redskap har stor pliceras också av det faktum att många arkitekt- inverkan på individens roll i planerings- och problem, speciellt rörande grundläggande de- designsystemen måste de slutgiltigt fattas indi- sign, inte går att hantera i dataprogram. ”Know- viduellt. ledge engineering” och expertsystem ger bara Om besluten baseras på kunskap och insikt rudimentära bidrag till denna process. Dock an- kan de öka yrkets möjligheter att anpassa sig till vänds datorstöd i många av yrkets arbetsfält, ett föränderligt samhälle, och öka dess betydelse och i en snabbt ökande grad. Ritprogram (cad) som en aktiv och kreativ del av denna utveck-
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