Review of a Decade of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in Indonesia
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BAPPENAS Review of a Decade of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in Indonesia Ministry of National Development Planning / National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) Review of a Decade of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in Indonesia Published by: © 2013 Ministry of National Development Planning / National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) ISBN: 978-979-3764-88-7 BAPPENAS ACDP Technical Oversight Group: Co-Chair : Prof. Dr. Ir. Khairil Anwar Notodiputro, Head of Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Education and Culture Co-Chair : Dra. Nina Sardjunani, MA, Deputy Minister for Human Resources and Culture, BAPPENAS Co-Chair : Prof. Dr. H. Nur Syam, M.Si., Director General of Islamic Education, Ministry of Religious Affairs Deputy Chair : Ir. Hendarman, M.Sc., Ph.D., Secretary of Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Education and Culture Program Manager : Dr. Bambang Indriyanto, Head of Policy Research Center, Ministry of Education and Culture International Development Partners : European Union Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) Asian Development Bank (ADB) ACDP Secretariat : Alan Prouty; John Virtue; David Harding; Abdul Malik; Basilius Bengoteku; Lestari Boediono; Daniella Situmorang ADB recognizes “China” as the People’s Republic of China. Review of a Decade of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in Indonesia The Government of Indonesia (represented by the Ministry of Education and Culture, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, and the Ministry of National Development Planning / BAPPENAS), the Government of Australia, through Australian Aid, the European Union (EU) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have established the Education Sector Analytical and Capacity Development Partnership (ACDP). ACDP is a facility to promote policy dialogue and facilitate institutional and organizational reform to underpin policy implementation and to help reduce disparities in education performance. The facility is an integral part of the Education Sector Support Program (ESSP). EU’s support to the ESSP also includes a sector budget support along with a Minimum Service Standards capacity development program. Australia’s support is through Australia’s Education Partnership with Indonesia. This report has been prepared with grant support provided by AusAID and the EU through ACDP. KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN KEMENTERIAN EUROPEAN UNION DAN KEBUDAYAAN AGAMA BAPPENAS The institutions responsible for implementation of the study were PT. TRANS INTRA ASIA in cooperation with the Institute of Public Administration of Canada (IPAC). The members of the study team who prepared this report were: 1. Michelle Moffatt, Team Leader/Gender in Education Specialist 2. Yusuf Supiandi, Gender Specialist 3. Abdul Rahman, Education Specialist 4. Bambang Juanda, Data Analyst The views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Government of Indonesia, the Government of Australia, the European Union, or the Asian Development Bank. Foreword In the last decade, Indonesia has come a long way in improving gender equity, in promoting gender equality, and in mainstreaming gender in our legislation, policies, strategies and programs. In education, it is well known that substantial progress has been made in closing gender gaps in school participation. Indonesia is on track to meet the Millennium Development Goals for universal primary education and gender parity. Gender parity has now been largely achieved at all levels of the education system, and there is parity in literacy rates for our young people (15-24 age group). We are confident that the foundations for equitable access are firmly established, and we are determined that gender equity will be maintained. At the same time we continue to strive to eliminate some remaining pockets of inequity – for example, lower girls’ enrolment in some Eastern regions, and persistent drop out for boys, particularly among the poor, at the secondary level. This study documents these important issues - but I believe its greatest value is in looking beyond access. Achieving gender parity in access to education is only a first step. Equal access does not guarantee equality. Achieving gender equality in education requires that there is equal opportunity for females and males, and that they are treated equally and fairly. This will in turn translate to greater equality in learning achievement and outcomes, and beyond education, equality of opportunities in the labour market and other spheres of life. The study looks into the key dimensions of teaching and learning processes including curricula, textbooks, learning materials, the learning environment, teacher development and student achievement. The good news is that much good practice and innovation exists. For example, initiatives to eliminate gender stereotyping and bias in learning materials and the school environment, integration of gender awareness in principal and teacher training, and gender sensitization for school communities. The study provides a number of promising cases of good practice. However, opportunities are missed because such practice remains largely localized and relatively small scale, often through limited pilot projects which seldom move to scale. Our key challenge is therefore to evaluate and disseminate good practice – and to prioritise resources and budgets to scale up initiatives that will make a difference. In addition, the study finds that whilst there is general support for gender issues at central level, there is currently a lack of clear strategic direction for gender mainstreaming in education, and limited specialist technical capacity. We cannot assume that the gender awareness and capacity development efforts undertaken in the last ten years are sufficient. We are determined to move towards achieving gender equality by renewing our efforts to mainstream gender awareness in our key education policy and planning institutions - and maintaining the momentum by constantly regenerating our skills and knowledge. My hope is that this study will help to revitalize our efforts - to move beyond gender equity towards achieving gender equality in education. Jakarta, June 2013 Deputy Minister for Human Resources and Culture Dra. Nina Sardjunani, MA Review of a Decade of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in Indonesia iii Table of Contents Foreword iii Table of Contents iv Abbreviations viii Executive Summary xi Chapter I Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose and Scope of the Review 1 1.2 Overall Approach and Methodology 2 1.3 Field Research Objectives & Methodology 4 Chapter 2 Enabling Environment 9 2.1 Legislative and Constitutional 9 2.2 Policy and Strategic Context Over the Last Decade 10 2.3 Recommendations 12 Chapter 3 Institutionalising Gender Mainstreaming 15 3.1 Leadership & Governance 15 3.2 Summary of Findings 18 3.3 Recommendations 20 Chapter 4 Equality of Access 23 4.1 Overview of Gender-Neutral Approaches 23 4.1.1 Government Strategies 23 4.2 Performance Indicators : Status and Trends by Student 25 4.2.1 Net Enrolment Rates 25 4.2.2 Gender Parity Index of Net Enrolment Rates 26 4.2.3 NER and Gender by Poverty Quintiles 27 4.2.4 Literacy Rates for those aged 15-24 29 4.2.5 Repetition Rates 30 4.2.6 Drop Out Rates 31 4.2.7 Transition rates 33 4.2.8 Mean Years of Schooling (MYS) 34 4.3 Performance Indicators: Status and trends by teacher/educator 35 4.3.1 Gender Ratio of Qualified and Certified Teachers 35 4.3.2 Gender ratios of school principals 36 4.3.3 Gender Ratio of University Lecturers 38 4.3.4 Gender Ratios of MoEC Management Staff 38 4.4 Capacity of District Planners in Collection & Analysis of Data 39 4.5 Barriers to Access to Quality Education 39 4.5.1 Barriers at School Level 39 4.5.2 Barriers to Higher Education 42 iv Education Sector Analytical and Capacity Development Partnership Table of Contents 4.6 Conclusion 43 4.7 Summary of Findings 43 4.8 Recommendations 44 Chapter 5 Equality of Opportunity in Education 47 5.1 Overview of Gender Specific Approaches in the Last Decade 48 5.1.1 MoEC Gender Equality in Education Pilot Projects 48 5.2 Gender-Responsive Teaching & Learning Process 50 5.2.1 Literacy Skills Attainment 52 5.2.2 Gender Gaps in Student Learning Achievement 53 5.2.3 Student and Teacher Perceptions of Performance by Subject 54 5.3 Gender Equality in Curriculum and Development 56 5.4 Gender Equality in Teacher Training and Development 58 5.4.1 In-Service Teacher Training 58 5.4.2 Pre-service Teacher Training 61 5.5 Gender Equality in School Based Management 62 5.5.1 Minimum Service Standards in Schools 63 5.5.2 Codes of Conduct in Schools 64 5.6 Gender Equality in Tertiary Education 66 5.6.1 Role of University Women’s/Gender Studies Centers 67 5.7 Equality in Education Outcomes 68 5.8 Equality of External Results 69 5.9 Conclusion 72 5.10 Recommendations 72 Chapter 6 Summary of Recommendations 77 6.1 Enabling Environment 77 6.2 Institutionalising Gender Equality In Education 78 6.3 Equality of Access to Education 79 6.4 Equality of Opportunity in Education 81 References 84 Appendix 87 Appendix 1 List of Government Regulations Relating to Gender Mainsteaming in Education 87 Appendix 2 Summary of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in 2002-2010 93 Appendix 3 Gender Definitions & Concepts 99 Appendix 4 Field Research Case Study Summary Report 102 Appendix 5 List of Stakeholders Consulted 231 Appendix 6 List of Participants 233 Appendix 7 List of Schools Visited 241 Review of a Decade of Gender Mainstreaming in Education in Indonesia v Table of Contents List of Figures Figure 1. Education Institutions Visited During ACDP 005 Field Research 6 Figure 2. Organisation Structure of the MoEC National Gender Working Group 16 Figure 3. Organisation Structure of Provincial Gender Working Group 16 Figure 4. The MoEC Operational Model Gender Mainstreaming in Education 17 Figure 5. Trend of NER by Education Level 2000 – 2010 26 Figure 6. Trend of GPI of NER by Education Level 26 Figure 7.