CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE Effectiveness of Policy: Cell Phone Use-Related Distracted Driving A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Public Administration, Public Sector Management and Leadership By Kirby Mayeda August 2020 Copyright by Kirby Mayeda 2020 ii The graduate project of Kirby Mayeda is approved: __________________________________________ _________________ Dr. Paul D. Krivonos Date __________________________________________ _________________ Dr. Elizabeth A. Trebow Date __________________________________________ _________________ Dr. Henrik Palasani-Minassians, Chair Date California State University, Northridge iii Acknowledgment I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Henrik Palasani-Minassians for his counsel and support throughout the thesis process. I would also like to give thanks to my other professors in the Master of Public Administration program, who all brought a wealth of knowledge and real-world experience into the classroom. iv Dedication I would like to dedicate my thesis to the following loved ones: My mother, Cathy; my father and stepmother, Kirk and Caroline; my aunt and uncle, Shar and Dean; my maternal grandparents, Grammy and Grampy; my paternal grandparents, Ba-Chan and Ji-Chan; and last, but not least, my partner, Anthony. Words cannot express my gratitude for their presence in my life, and I fully recognize my good fortune in being given their boundless love, patience, and support. v Table of Contents Copyright page ii Signature page iii Acknowledgment iv Dedication v Abstract vii Introduction 1 Literature Review 4 Adverse Effects 4 Mechanisms of Distraction 7 Policy 11 Methods 15 Limitations 16 Conclusion 18 References 19 vi Abstract Policy Effectiveness: Cell Phone-Related Distracted Driving By Kirby Mayeda Master of Public Administration, Public Sector Management and Leadership Cell phone use-related distracted driving causes many adverse effects, including injuries, deaths, and financial problems. Many drivers do not adhere to laws against cell phone use behind the wheel, whether or not they are aware of laws prohibiting such behavior. Policy must be implemented more effectively. A review of the literature and surrounding cell phone use-related distracted driving and legislation was conducted to explore what policies may be most effective in preventing drivers from using cell phones in order to inform future policies. A qualitative study was conducted using archival research and text analysis. vii Introduction Each year in the United States, thousands of lives are adversely affected by distracted drivers who choose to use cell phones while simultaneously operating an automobile. Distracted driving, defined by the U.S. Department of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) (n.d.) as “any activity that diverts attention from driving, including talking or texting on your phone, eating and drinking, talking to people in your vehicle, fiddling with the stereo, entertainment or navigation system” (“What Is Distracted Driving?,” para. 1). Distracted driving may include any activity which detracts from a driver’s ability to fully focus on the driving activity and is to blame for thousands of deaths each year (Abouk & Adams, 2013; Tashea, 2016). Deaths due to distracted driving include those of drivers themselves, passengers, motorcyclists, pedestrians, bicyclists, and others (Hahn & Dudley, 2003). Those who use cell phones while driving are a major cause of automobile accidents (Robbins, 2013). Moreover, several hundred thousand more are injured due to distracted driving, causing physical, financial, and economic difficulties. The risks of distracted driving due to cell phone use have been acknowledged for decades. Adding to the issue, the dangers of distracted driving are not always well understood by drivers. It seems as though drivers sometimes conflate convenience and safety when it comes to their vehicles. According to the National Safety Council (NSC) (2020), 53% of drivers feel that if automobile manufacturers include technologies such as infotainment systems or hands-free capabilities, the vehicle is safer than a vehicle which does not include such features. The NSC also found that because many states have set prohibitions with regard to motorists’ manual use of mobile phones, motorists tend to believe that hands-free options are automatically safer options. Seppa (2013) also found that drivers tend to believe hands-free options make it safe to use a cell 1 phone while driving. Drivers with this belief think that because they are not holding their cell phone, the level of risk of automobile accidents diminishes, or even disappears. However, even hands-free options are not always safe, as drivers may still be distracted visually and cognitively, which may be just as dangerous as one’s manual operation of their phone (Mack, 2003; Strayer & Drews, 2007). The placement of driver focus on cell phones, rather than the road, can lead to unintended, and sometimes tragic, consequences. Although there exist policies, laws, and campaigns across the U.S. which aim to stop motorists from using mobile phones while operating their private vehicles, the statistics noted earlier indicate that there remains much to be desired in the realm of actual effectiveness (Lim & Chi, 2013). Thousands continue to use their phones while on the road, leading to avoidable injuries and sometimes deadly results. Also worth noting is that many drivers use their phones while driving and are not caught by law enforcement, so there may be little to no consequence. In the absence of punishment, people may choose to do as they please. Clearly, not all drivers endeavor to refrain from using their mobile phones while driving. Some drivers will use their phones while driving simply because they wish to do so, feel that they cannot wait until they park their vehicle to use their phone, or even feel that their cell phone use behind the wheel does not affect their driving quality (Kareklas & Muehling, 2014; Robbins, 2013). Other times, people are completely unaware of regulations or campaigns which outlaw or discourage cell phone-related distracted driving behaviors. This suggests that information must be disseminated in a more effective manner and that implementation of policies must be strengthened. Although some drivers will certainly continue to use their phones despite being educated on the risks of such conduct, knowledge and encouragement can make a difference for 2 others, thereby lowering the number of injuries and deaths owed to cell phone-related distracted driving. What policies have been implemented effectively in the U.S. in order to address the issue of cell phone use while driving, thereby reducing adverse human impacts? 3 Literature Review Adverse Effects Motorists’ use of cell phones for text messaging, engagement in verbal conversation, and use of phone applications while driving has many unintended yet serious negative consequences. Cell phone use while driving is a significant contributor to traffic accidents. Most would likely agree that injury and loss of human life are the worst consequences of cell phone use-related distracted driving. Text messaging requires one to avert their gaze from the road and toward their phone, as well as direct their concentration at least partially toward their phone. Using cell phone applications requires similar driver attention. Engagement in verbal conversation can also lead to attention being paid somewhere other than to the activity of driving. These factors add up to the creation of dangerous opportunities for overlooked traffic signals or signs, other vehicles, pedestrians, and more. Some negative outcomes include fatal and non-fatal injury as well as financial and economic effects. For these reasons, cell phone use while driving is a detrimental behavior and is a significant contributor to traffic accidents. Lamentably, aside from causing injury to drivers, passengers, and any others unlucky enough to be involved, as well as causing negative financial and economic effects, many accidents involve fatalities as well. If drivers engage in less risky driving behaviors and refrain from using their phones in order to better pay attention to the road in front of them, the number of undesirable effects which occur due to cell phone use while driving may easily be lessened or prevented. According to the NSC’s Injury Facts website (2019), of the 276,000 non-fatal injuries caused by distracted driving overall in the year 2018, 21,000 were directly attributed to the involvement of drivers’ cell phone usage while driving. In other words, just over 13% of all 4 distracted driving non-fatal injuries were caused by drivers who were distracted by cell phones. Considering the various other defined distracted driving activities which are included in the total number of distracted driving non-fatal injuries recorded, this number is significant. Unsurprisingly, Ferdinand et al. (2019) found that in 16 U.S. states, bans on texting while driving positively correlated with a four percent reduction in emergency room visits. Undoubtedly, injury frequently has quite a negative effect on people’s lives, as it can often lead to many unwanted life effects. One will invariably experience discomfort due to physical pain and suffering. Tasks which were once routine may now be difficult or impossible, and independence may wane. As such, an injured person faces the potential for major temporary