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University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Engineering & Surveying University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Engineering & Surveying Total Effect on the Environment of Electric/Hybrid Electric Vehicle Batteries A dissertation submitted by C.O'Donnell in fulfilment of the requirements of ENG4112 Research Project towards the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (electrical) Submitted: October, 2007 Abstract 1.0 Introduction The depletion of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions are major issues facing the world today. Conventional vehicles, such as combustion driven buses and cars, are major contributors to these issues. Electric or hybrid electric vehicles (part combustion, part electrical) are being offered as an alternative for the future but one of the biggest challenges is the storage of energy in these vehicles. This study is to determine the impact on the environment of the energy storage cells (batteries) used by these vehicles. 2.0 Background Even though the first electrical powered vehicle was built in the early 19th century, electric or hybrid electric vehicles have not made any real impact in the automotive industry until recently. Several legislative and regulatory actions (involving emissions) in the United States and worldwide have renewed electric/hybrid electric vehicle de- velopment efforts. Electric conversions of gasoline powered vehicles as well as electric vehicles designed from the ground up are now available. Unfortunately, the develop- ment of batteries for energy storage has been less than desired. There has been some technological advances but have they come at a price to the environment? 3.0 Objectives 1. Research various types of energy storage cells currently available 2. Collect data for energy storage cells (components, types of material, weight etc) ii 3. Use an appropriate (Life Cycle Assessment) software package to determine total effect on environment of each energy storage cell type 4. Compare energy storage cell types in terms of total effect on the environment 4.0 Methodology The Life Cycle Assessment software tool "SimaPro" was used to determine and compare the impact on the environment of the batteries. Matlab was also used for evaluation. 5.0 Conclusions This study has shown that the total effect on the environment of the batteries depend on their application (ie hybrid electric or electric) because these different applications have different requirements of energy etc which, in turn, requires different masses. Therefore, from an environmental and practical point of view, different battery types are better suited to each different application. University of Southern Queensland Faculty of Engineering and Surveying ENG4111/2 Research Project Limitations of Use The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering and Surveying, and the staff of the University of Southern Queensland, do not accept any responsibility for the truth, accuracy or completeness of material contained within or associated with this dissertation. Persons using all or any part of this material do so at their own risk, and not at the risk of the Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering and Surveying or the staff of the University of Southern Queensland. This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity beyond this exercise. The sole purpose of the course pair entitled \Research Project" is to contribute to the overall education within the student's chosen degree program. This document, the associated hardware, software, drawings, and other material set out in the associated appendices should not be used for any other purpose: if they are so used, it is entirely at the risk of the user. Prof F Bullen Dean Faculty of Engineering and Surveying Certification of Dissertation I certify that the ideas, designs and experimental work, results, analyses and conclusions set out in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise indicated and acknowledged. I further certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for assessment in any other course or institution, except where specifically stated. C.O'Donnell 0050016847 Signature Date Acknowledgments I would like to thank my family, in particular my wife Josephine, for their help and patience. I would also like to thank my employer, East Coast Apprenticeships, for granting me leave to complete this project. Associate Professor David Parsons also needs to be thanked for help with the SimaPro LCA tool. C.O'Donnell University of Southern Queensland October 2007 Contents Abstract i Acknowledgments v List of Figures ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Chapter 1 Overview . 2 1.2 Project introduction . 2 1.3 Chapter 2 Overview . 2 1.4 Chapter 3 Overview . 3 1.5 Chapter 4 Overview . 4 1.6 Chapter 5 Overview . 4 1.7 Chapter 6 Overview . 4 Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review 5 2.1 Chapter 2 introduction . 6 CONTENTS vii 2.2 LaTex . 7 2.3 Subat (Sustainable Batteries) . 9 2.4 Greenhouse Gases . 11 2.5 Electric Vehicle Description . 17 2.6 Electric Vehicle History . 19 2.7 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Description . 22 2.8 Hybrid Electric Vehicle History . 24 2.9 Battery Types . 26 2.10 Life Cycle Analysis . 33 2.10.1 The Four Main Phases of Life Cycle Assessment . 35 2.11 SimaPro . 46 2.12 Chapter 2 conclusions . 51 Chapter 3 Methodology 52 3.1 Chapter 3 introduction . 53 3.2 Battery Data . 54 3.3 EV Battery Masses . 58 3.4 EV Battery Parameters . 62 3.5 HEV Battery Masses . 64 3.6 HEV Battery Parameters . 67 3.7 Chapter 3 conclusions . 68 CONTENTS viii Chapter 4 Analysis 69 4.1 Chapter 4 introduction . 70 4.2 EV data entry plus output results . 71 4.3 HEV data entry plus output results . 74 4.4 Chapter 4 conclusions . 77 Chapter 5 Results 78 5.1 Chapter 5 introduction . 79 5.2 EV results . 80 5.3 HEV results . 82 5.4 Vehicle comparison . 84 5.5 Chapter 5 conclusions . 85 Chapter 6 Conclusion 86 6.1 Conclusion . 87 Bibliography 88 Appendix A Project Specification 90 Appendix B EV Data Entry 93 Appendix C HEV Data Entry 98 Appendix D Matlab files 103 List of Figures 2.1 Atmospheric Concentrations . 12 2.2 Emissions flow . 13 2.3 Gas emissions . 14 2.4 US consumption . 15 2.5 World emissions . 16 2.6 Hybrid vehicle overview . 23 3.1 Lead-acid battery material percentages . 54 3.2 Nickel cadmium battery material percentages . 55 3.3 Nickel metal hydride battery material percentages . 56 3.4 Sodium nickel chloride battery material percentages . 57 3.5 Calculation of masses formula . 59 3.6 EV data table . 60 3.7 EV masses table . 61 3.8 EV battery cycle life . 62 LIST OF FIGURES x 3.9 EV battery parameters . 63 3.10 HEV battery specifications . 65 3.11 HEV battery masses . 66 4.1 Lead-acid (EV) data entry . 71 4.2 SimaPro output for EV application . 72 4.3 EV Matlab output . 73 4.4 Lead-acid (HEV) data entry . 74 4.5 SimaPro output for HEV application . 75 4.6 HEV Matlab output . 76 5.1 EV environmental impact . 80 5.2 EV subat comparison . 81 5.3 HEV environmental impact . 82 5.4 HEV subat comparison . 83 5.5 Vehicle comparison . 84 B.1 EV lead-acid entry . 94 B.2 EV nickel cadmium entry . 95 B.3 EV nickel metal hydride entry . 96 B.4 EV sodium nickel chloride entry . 97 C.1 HEV lead-acid entry . 99 LIST OF FIGURES xi C.2 HEV nickel cadmium entry . 100 C.3 HEV nickel metal hydride entry . 101 C.4 HEV sodium nickel chloride entry . 102 D.1 EV matlab file . 104 D.2 HEV matlab file . 105 Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Chapter 1 Overview 2 1.1 Chapter 1 Overview This chapter will introduce the reader to the report, explain why this project was undertaken and give an overview of each chapter for ease of reference for the reader. 1.2 Project introduction This project was undertaken because the depletion of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions are major issues facing the world today. Conventional vehicles, such as com- bustion driven buses and cars, are major contributors to these issues. Electric or hybrid electric vehicles (part combustion, part electrical) are being offered as an alternative for the future but one of the biggest challenges is the storage of energy in these vehicles. This study is to determine the impact on the environment of the energy storage cells (batteries) used by these vehicles. The impact on the environment of the batteries was determined by a Life Cycle Anal- ysis tool (SimaPro), using a cradle-grave approach. The research, analysis techniques, results and conclusions are given in this report. 1.3 Chapter 2 Overview Chapter 2 is the background and literature review. This chapter includes the following points: 1. As this entire report was written and compiled with the aid of LaTex, a brief explanation and history of LaTex is provided. 2. The SUBAT report was used as a reference for comparison and data information extensively for this project therefore an overview and brief explanation of the SUBAT report is also provided. 3. Why the effects of greenhouse gases and fossil fuel depletion are major issues. 1.4 Chapter 3 Overview 3 4. Electric vehicle description 5. Electric vehicle history 6. Hybrid electric vehicle description 7. Hybrid electric vehicle history 8. Types of batteries currently being used or researched for electric/hybrid electric vehicles 9. A description of Life Cycle Analysis 10. A description of SimaPro (LCA analysis tool) 1.4 Chapter 3 Overview Chapter 3 explains the methodology involved in determining parameters which are used to calculate the required data for entry into the SimaPro program. Accurate methodology and data is essential for a meaningful LCA result.
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