Captain China

Why Can’t We Have A Captain China? Superhero Films and Their Chinese Audiences Jingyi Gu

Superhero films are a growing genre developed by Hollywood that has achieved global popularity. Among all currently released superhero films at the time of this paper being written, Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014) constitute the individual film series of Captain America as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe film plan. With the distinguishable characteristic of being more patriotic compared to other superheroes, Captain America still gained abundant overseas fans, including fans in China. This paper applies critical theories to analyzing the Captain America film series’ popularity among Chinese audiences. By utilizing Louis Althusser’s theoretical framework of Ideology, Repressive State Apparatus and Ideological State Apparatus, this paper analyzes the content of the Captain America film series to identify the distraction it provides for its Chinese audiences in consideration of Chinese audiences’ particular ideological context and cultural consumption environment. Regarding the Captain America film series as a mass-produced cultural product of Hollywood film industry, this paper also takes the lens of Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer’s critical approach into culture industry to discuss whether the distractions offered by the superhero films could perform as genuine ideological liberation for Chinese audiences.

Jingyi Gu is a graduate student at Georgetown University pursuing her Master's degree in the Communication, Culture and Technology program. Her research focuses on transnational popular culture and fan culture from comparative studies and gender studies perspectives. She can be reached at [email protected].

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Introduction are proposed, including why a character like Captain China does not exist and why costume in blue and red—two the Chinese cultural industry cannot have representative colors of the United its own superhero film productions (Lu States—a shield with the star from 2014). For Chinese audiences who have theA national flag, a living embodiment of been immersed in a dramatically different the American Dream to fight for justice ideological system compared with the on the side of people, and the ultimately one these superheroes inhabit, these two exaggerated power that enables him to Captain America films still seem to offer triumph over his evil opponents whoever some distractions including a sense of relief want to endanger people’s freedom and from reality. liberty, these all together constitute the patriotic heroic superhero figure on the big Captain America: On His Way from screen: Captain America. In the April of Fighting in WWII to Saving the 2014, three years after the first film of this Universal Humanity individual superhero series was released, the American superhero gained himself a high Superhero originated as a comic book genre reputation from not only American people, in the 1930s, situating itself in the historical but also wider global audiences. context of the World War. The contents and storylines of these superhero comics Hollywood’s superhero films always turn constantly change or evolve to reflect out to be worldwide blockbusters. Captain historical or social events including Vietnam America: The First Avenger and its sequel War, the Iraq War and the 9/11 Terrorist Captain America: The Winter Soldier are two Attack. Dittmer states in his book Captain of these box office hits. In 2014, Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero that America: The Winter Soldier earned over “superheroes are co-constitutive elements $115 million in Chinese box office revenue, of both American identity and the U.S. ranking seventh on the 2014 China Yearly government’s foreign policy practices” Box Office Chart (Box Office Mojo, 2014). (Dittmer 2012, 3). Captain America’s box office in China tops its overseas earnings with a 16.2% The Captain America film series is a contribution to the total international significant part of the current Marvel revenue (Box Office Mojo 2014). Cinematic Universe film production plan. Captain America, taking the leading role Despite the considerable investment Marvel of the Avengers, is the only superhero that and other Hollywood studios have devoted has a personal record of being recruited to the production of these superhero films into the army and serving the state power comprising of all-star casts, there must be demonstrated to the audiences. Even other unique factors in these films appeal though some of Captain America’s character to overseas audiences, particularly Chinese settings get slightly rearranged in the Marvel audiences who share no pre-existing Cinematic Universe, Marcotte argues that cultural recognition or fandom regarding the portrayal of Captain America in the film the original superhero comics. In a widely- series hasn’t been tremendously changed, circulated film review of Captain America: if compared with the original one in the The Winter Soldier written by a Chinese comics, instead being consistent with it. fan of the film, a sequence of questions She states that Steve Rogers, also known as

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Captain America, in the cinematic portrayal Enforcement and Logistics Division). is unmistakably liberal: an anti-racist and No longer burdening the commitment to a man who believes that the best patriot is preserving “truth and justice” nor being the one who questions his government instead apologist of nationalism, Captain America of blindly follows orders (Marcotte 2015). feels at loss in his new role under the undated social order. WWII already ended, Captain America: The First Avenger, released yet the current government and its armed in 2011, sets its storyline in WWII. In this forces that are designated to protect the film, audiences witness the superhero’s freedom and security of its people, seem to transformation. Steve Rogers begins lack transparency and integrity. as slight man having a strong mentally commitment to serving his country and How Do Chinese Audiences fighting against the evil forces oppressing Resonate with Captain America’s humanity, while being physically inadequate Experience? Portrayal of to turn those aspirations into reality. He is Repressive State Apparatuses and then transformed into a super soldier after Ideological State Apparatuses in becoming a subject in a risky experiment with the determination to become the Captain America: The First Avenger supreme sacrifice of his country in the battlefield. During the wartime, Captain Defined by Marxist scholar Louis America dedicates himself to the army, Althusser, Repressive State Apparatuses a place where the pervasive American (hereafter RSAs), mainly as the military, ideology was uprightly and indubitably the government and the police force, as well erected—fighting not only for national as Ideology State Apparatuses (hereafter sovereignty and international justice but ISAs), including school, church, family and also for the freedom of each individual and media, are implemented by the State power imposing sanctions on whoever violate the to ensure that the mass obey the ruling class foregoing advocacy. According to Marcotte, (Althusser 1971, 143). Although in the this first film of the Captain America fictional world of superheroes, there exist individual series is “an allegory about how the RSAs and ISAs resembling those of strength is useless without the liberal value reality, most superheroes somehow manage of protecting the vulnerable behind it” to escape from their ultimate control. Even (Marcotte 2015). though some heroes choose to cooperate with or temporarily work for government- Captain America: The Winter Soldier, initiated organizations or agencies, they released in 2014, continues the narrative don’t depend on the State power or let the of a patriotic superhero’s modern-day life State power exploit their powers. Instead after 70 years’ of dormancy in ice. In this they autonomously employ their power film, Captain America, a well-trained to preserve the rights and interests of the soldier who is portrayed to be physically people. and morally superior to many of his friends and enemies, begins to work together with Most superheroes presented in either Natasha Romanova, also known as Black comics or films play roles as incarnations of Widow, as agents executing missions for the justice and truth, even though some of these government espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D superhero characters do have a darker side (short for Strategic Homeland Intervention, or endured painful situations before they

gnovis • 15 Volume 17, Issue 1 • Fall 2016 are endowed with superpowers. In Captain who is in charge of developing the Super America’s case, both of his parents died Soldier serum and highly appreciates because of war and he himself also suffered Steve Rogers’ ambition and determination. from physical defects, which diminished his Regardless of his physical limitations, capability of becoming a soldier to serve Dr. Abraham recruits Steve Rogers for his country. However, these superheroes the Super Soldier project. Because of this never seem to be extremely constrained by unexpected opportunity, Steve Rogers’ life different State apparatuses in their personal later proceeds in a fashion he did not expect, lives, nonetheless choose to take fighting which somehow stimulates his eventual against repression with their superpowers. disobedience to the ruling ideological doctrine. His later accumulated questioning In Captain America: The First Avenger, before and disobeying of governmental control can his transformation into a super soldier, Steve also find its primary manifestation in Steve Rogers was a short and emaciated young Rogers’ answers to Dr. Abraham’s question man who longed to be recruited by the army, “Do you want to kill Nazis?”. He replies, “I but he was rejected due to his unsuitable don’t want to kill anyone. I don’t like bullies. physical state. Through the cinematic lens, I don’t care where they are from.” This we see that the army was largely advertised response implies that Steve Rogers’ impulse and advocated in many different forms. for joining the army is indeed driven by During wartime, the State, representing his intention to protect the world from the dominant class, has a primary goal to people who would infringe on its freedom persuade young people, as exploited labor, and integrity, no matter where these people to join the army in the name of protecting situate, in bureaucracy or among civilians. their homeland. The ruling class, therefore, deploys all means of ISA to strip the labor Though his physical attributes are enhanced of its autonomy. drastically, Steve Rogers’ motivation for fighting against the bullies remains the In the scenes presented in the film, same, only with his targets changing from the U.S. government utilizes different street rowdies to Nazis. However, he communication channels to convey finds himself facing a situation of either messages to young people whom they target remaining as an experimental subject in for recruitment. Examples in the first film a lab or becoming an actor in propaganda include the conscription advertisement advertisement or performances to sell incorporated in a film screening which national bonds or recruit more soldiers. In Steve Rogers goes to with his friend Bucky another scene, Agent Peggy Carter, who Barnes and the poster portraying Uncle used to be his ranking officer in the new Sam saying "We want you " which also recruits training camp, reminds him that distracts him from the show at the World his mission as a Super Solider is more than Exposition of Tomorrow. As portrayed in being a puppet manipulated by propaganda. the film, the RSAs and ISAs intertwine Rogers shares her vision, but is hindered by together to push the subordinate class to his fear of breaking down the repression passively accept social orders mandated by imposed on him by the State apparatuses, the ruling class. Initially, Steve Rogers is particularly the ideological ones. Eventually, significantly influenced by the propaganda he persuades himself to follow his initial and is determined to devote himself to his determination to join the battlefront at a country. He then encounters Dr. Abraham, point when he hears about his best friend

16 • gnovisjournal.org Captain China died in a battle fighting against the Nazis. Captain America, Can You Also By conducing this act, he regains his Be Our Hero? Redemption for ideological autonomy instead of restraining Chinese Audiences in Captain his ambition with the obligations that was America: The Winter Soldier assigned to him by the authority. The main scenes in Captain America: The Captain America’s final enlightenment in this Winter Soldier (2014) are designed to take first film helps the character to accomplish place in Washington, D.C., the capital his transformation from one who perceives city of Unite States. From the very first the repression of the dominant RSAs and shot, audiences are treated to a montage of ISAs but sustains them without challenging American nationalism, having an overlook to becoming a real “superhero” who realizes of the architecture in the capital city. These the exploitative nature of all RSAs and buildings include the Jefferson Memorial, ISAs. Captain America’s experience in the Lincoln Memorial, and the Capitol the army arouses his awareness of the fact Hill. The Jefferson Memorial and Lincoln that State apparatuses only protect the Memorial can be recognized as the symbols will of the ruling class. RSAs and ISAs are of Ideology State Apparatus, based on their taken as tools to enforce oppression on the functions as memorials of two important subordinate class by exploiting their labor American politicians, while the Capitol Hill force to maximize the interests of the ruling embodies the government, which according class. to Althusser is a form of Repressive State Apparatus. A patriotic hero in a time of war is nothing unfamiliar to Chinese audiences. As There are also other scenes in the film presented in the film, exploitation assisted that directly or indirectly reveal Captain by RSAs and ISAs provides an illusion that America and his sidekicks antagonizing the upper class is caring for everyone’s best the government and the police (the RSAs). interests. This resonates with what Chinese In one scene, Nick Fury, the director of audiences themselves experience in their S.H.I.E.L.D, is chased by attackers riding everyday lives. Moreover, Captain America police cars on the streets in Washington. distinguishes himself from all other heroic Though audiences, at their first glances, figures portrayed in Chinese films by might think these are “bad guys” dressed realizing the repression and finally choosing up as police to confuse people, as the film to believe in himself – the incarnation continues, it appears that those are real of truth and justice. Chinese heroes in police forces. These regulation enforcement wartime, having their images presented in agencies accomplish any mission assigned cinemas, would neither cast doubt on their by whoever obtains political and military commander’s orders nor show rebellion in dominance. In many occasions, those executing missions assigned to them by who disguise themselves in government superiors. They render absolute obedience to institutions in order to attain their objectives prevailing ideology and become to advocate of subverting the State power from inside and practice that ideological doctrine in can utilize the State apparatuses as well. person. This is an extremely critical portrayal of RSAs like the police and other institutions functioning by violence. They execute discipline and punishment on anyone who

gnovis • 17 Volume 17, Issue 1 • Fall 2016 stands opposite to the interests of the manipulate the State power for their ill sake reigning group, without caring about truth is unconventional and engaging. Besides, or justice. having these scenes take place inside of government institutions or in metropolitan Though the State power in this film is public space could be another touch point somehow encroached upon by the actual for Chinese audiences, since they will never evil force “Hydra”, which originated from have a chance to see similar arrangements in a science department serving the Nazis their domestic film productions. in WWII, for civilians outside of the bureaucratic system, it still functions with This second film in the Captain America ostensible police, government and other individual series resonates with Chinese State apparatuses. Captain America, by audiences’ long-time repression originating revealing his own doubts and suspicious from their own ideological system. The about the integrity of these government film keeps Captain America's fundamental agencies, can be seen as a super authority patriotism intact, while distinguishing representing people’s will and a strong his patriotism with nationalism. Captain challenge to all these repressive forces. America’ s conflict with his opponents is modernized under much more complicated In another scene, Captain America has a power relations, putting him against enemies debate with Nick Fury about what should burrowing deep in the government he serves. be the next step to take down Hydra who “The new villain is the very country he loves has already perpetuated themselves for a and protects," writes one Douban (China’s long time in government institutions that major social site of film fans) reviewer are essentially established to fight against after watching Captain America: The Winter them. Fury thinks they only need to defeat Soldier (Lu, 2014). The portrayal of Captain the exposed Hydra people, however Captain America in this film confirms that “to love America points out decisively, “We are one's country isn't the same as loving one's going to take down S.H.I.E.L.D”. Captain government” (Brown, 2015). America bases his argument on the fact that someone who secretly serves Hydra In all mainstream Chinese films that depict for a long time has usurped S.H.I.E.L.D’s stories happening in the modern time or autonomy and its original functions have in the future, it is almost impossible to already been distortedly and illicitly played. see the government and other forms of State apparatus being demonstrated as All the fighting and clashing scenes centering being less than upright or their buildings on Captain America and his opponents take being damaged. These cinematic fictions place in the urban area of Washington, D.C., would not pass the censorship rendered by more specifically in or around architecture another Ideological State Apparatus, the that can be identified as government Communication, in China. According to an buildings. None of these buildings, which answer to the question “What are the best symbolize the State power, get destroyed examples of Chinese science fiction films?” in the film. Yet for Chinese audiences, the on Quora, “in order to pass the censorship, experience of seeing a superhero that stands we can not ruin the city and show the for absolute justice and courageously fights government is useless in Chinese science against people dressed in government fiction films” (Quora Answers, 2014). It is uniforms or corrupted politicians who even more difficult to make a science fiction

18 • gnovisjournal.org Captain China film in Chinese political and cultural context, challenge Hydra’s ambitious global power- because there are so many restraining lines. seizing plan, as chaotic. In contrary to that, The oppression of the RSAs—functioning he describes his idealized world, which by violence, together with the oppression would be under brutal and extreme control of the ISAs—functioning by ideology have of all RSAs, as ordered. ultimately restrained the development of this film genre. According to Althusser’s generalization of “Marxist theory of the State”, the Marxist Most Chinese audiences find that films classics state that the existing bourgeois tackling such themes could never be State apparatus could be destroyed by the produced under the watchful eyes of proletariat. The proletariat can seize the State China's “image-conscious” government and power and replace the old State apparatus its army of censors. In a film review posing with the “a quite different, proletarian, State the question “Why we can’t have a Captain apparatus” (Althusser 1971, 141). As loudly China?”, the writer argues that neither proclaimed, the founding of the People’s scenes of those iconic buildings associated Republic of China should have witnessed with government being damaged could be the proletarian ideology, proletarian deployed in films, nor would it be necessary academic work, and proletarian literature to have someone identified as a superhero and art entering the field of culture on a save people under the protection of China’s broader scale. (“Renmin Ribao” Editorial, current government (Brown 2015). “The 1966) That is to say, the dominant ideology best a Captain China could hope for”, the in China has already been the proletarian writer sarcastically retorts, “would be a job ideology, dramatically differing from the as a Beijing policeman” (Brown 2015). bourgeois one and supposed to be more liberating than the bourgeois one. Also in this film, for a killing machine like the Winter Soldier, missions including In China, “ordered” is an especially exterminating other human beings are highlighted word used to describe its simplified into an “assignment”. Alexander idealized social condition. The dominant Pierce who gives him orders does not want class normally establishes a certain set of him to think about why these missions social order to rule the subordinate. In should be carried out. Pierce, the “bad guy”, China, where the State power is supposed to reprimands the Winter Soldier for showing have already been successfully seized by the hesitation in fighting against Captain proletariat and the State apparatus has already America in one scene, claiming that “Your been replaced by “a different, proletarian, work has been a gift to human kind. You State apparatus”, people inhabiting this shaped the century and you need to do it new set of State apparatus still seem to be one more time. Society is of a tipping point attracted to the plots in which the capitalist between ordered and chaos…And Hydra State apparatuses get challenged. However, can give the world the freedom it deserves.” from watching Captain America films, The word choice of this core member of Chinese audiences are not pleased with a Hydra, who has hidden himself in a state feeling of realizing the superiority of their department for an extended time, in this own new set of State apparatus and instead conversation is considerably eloquent. describe that their pleasure and sense of Pierce describes the world with superheroes liberation actually come from seeing the like Captain America, who constantly possibility of government buildings being

gnovis • 19 Volume 17, Issue 1 • Fall 2016 destroyed and police forces playing the bad labor force for commodities in the world of roles and punished by the superheroes who production and consumption. However, with stand for “truth, justice and the American the globalized marketing and distribution way” (Lawrence & Jewett 2002, 34). of Hollywood films including these superhero films, the target audience group The paradox comes when Chineseof these cultural commodities has been audiences describe they are attracted to enlarged. Especially for those audiences in the Captain America film series and other China, this culture industry dwelling in a superhero films as they would never see the capitalist society still has great influence on government buildings or the governmental them regardless of the barrier manifesting armed forces get damaged or challenged between two different ideological systems. in any Chinese-produced fictional films. They would also never see any superhero The Captain America film series and other figure be created by their domestic culture films belonging to the superhero genre industry that could exceed the power of nurture a number of internalized paradoxes. the military forces and legal-enforcement First of all, the superhero genre, constantly institutions like the police. When enjoying lauding liberation and freedom, is adapted Captain America righteously telling to cinematic productions by Hollywood, Director Fury that they should take down the mainstream trendsetter who profits S.H.I.E.L.D, Chinese audiences embrace from people’s addictive consumption distractions from the repression that comes of industrialized culture productions. from their own repressive and ideological Moreover, the character Captain America State apparatuses. In this regard, the “quite himself also has been transformed from the different State Apparatus” of the proletarian role model of every soldier and patriots to State, at least in its particular form existing a modern day moral supervisor overriding in the Chinese society, has no big difference institutional regulations and people in with its bourgeois counterpart in function – power. still perpetuate great repression addressing people in either violent form or ideological Some audiences of these Captain America form. films are impressed by the scenes in which Captain America fights against the What Makes Chinese Audiences oppressive evil forces and are distracted from Want A Captain China? their real-life sufferings by sitting in front Hollywood, the Overreaching of a big screen and indulging themselves in Culture Industry these fictional plots and images. However, the money they pay for these films, together Hollywood, according to Theodor W. with the limited amount of time they Adorno and Max Horkheimer, is one of could escape from the reality and enter this the most representative embodiments of desirable world reminds them of the truth the culture industry, which indicates the that the world Captain America inhabits subtlest ideological repression addressing is just a fictional one, even though it shares the subordinate class in the capitalist numerous similarities with the real one. The society. Massive consumers are obsessed Jefferson memorial, Capitol Hill, and the by the entertainment offered by films, TV Washington Monument are all intentionally programs, and celebrities, thus becoming planted in the scenes only because those the forever labors who have to exchange who produce these films deliberately want

20 • gnovisjournal.org Captain China their audiences to be confused with the computer-generated cinematic images hybrid of the palpable reality and the sheer make superheroes’ fights with rivalries and fabrication. the effects of their superpower look realistic and seamlessly integrated (Coogan 2006, One of the biggest features in the superhero 2). Not only local audiences are paying for genre is that most scenes and plots are the technological sparks in superhero films, designed in a way that superheroes protect overseas audiences are also fascinated with people from all other forces who try to the high quality of these film productions. oppress the humanity in non-fictional cities that the audiences are familiar with. The storylines of the Captain America In the mechanical duplication, scenes take films, in which Captain America is always place on recognizable streets or identifiable busy with redeeming the freedom and buildings with normal people who look safety of humanity, and those spectacular just like the audiences themselves passing wrestling scenes of him triumphing over his by, therefore real life is indistinguishable opponents jointly create illusory satisfaction from that in these films (Adorno & for the audiences. Yet the moment they Horkneimer 2002, 99). For their domestic get out of the cinema or leave the illusory audiences, these films directly offer the world only existing in the screen, they are illusion of a modified reality. While for their brimming with intense feelings of emptiness international audiences, especially those by discovering that they will never meet who live in a country like China, where superheroes on local streets or in any foreign the governmental and ideological totality countries—people still need to endure the is extremely different, the fictional world suffocating reality. superheroes reside in becomes the idealized America in their impressions. Chinese Through creating these heroic figures, scholar Jiang generalizes the main selling promises are made by Hollywood to their points of superhero films to their Chinese global audiences: someone among the audiences as “strong imprints of high crowd is also suffering and one day he/she technology and romantic individualism” and will be endowed with superpower to save us rendering superheroes as essential elements all, or everyone who is watching these films of American everyday life ( Jiang, 2010). has the possibility of becoming a superhero in the future and will eliminate everyone’s With this genre’s huge domestic popularity current struggles with repression. However, gained in American people’s overall cultural these seemingly fascinating promises are consumption, superheroes gradually find merely just mythologies Hollywood creates their ways to big screens, instead of only for their audiences. With exploiting people’s staying in printed graphics. It is also cinema fantasies of saviors and developing related that offers superheroes much vitality. “The plots for superhero films, Hollywood, the superhero is the current golden boy of culture industry, draws on the “pleasure that Hollywood”, as according to Coogan who is endlessly prolonged” to generate profits examines this specific genre’s origins and for itself (Adorno & Hokeimer 2002, 111). later expanding into all dimensions of culture industry (Coogan 2006, 1). He points out This whole superhero genre is adopted, that technology plays an important role in utilized, and illuminated by Hollywood the process of superhero films becoming into something that could be massively global blockbusters. The sophisticated produced and controlled. Creating heroic

gnovis • 21 Volume 17, Issue 1 • Fall 2016 figures is consistently among one of the State Apparatuses and Ideology State main characteristics of Hollywood films Apparatuses are never dismissed. The culture (Debrieux 2014, 22). Hollywood tries to sell industry does not sublimate the reality; it the idea of a hero first to domestic audiences only suppresses by presenting “fulfillment then to a wider range of global audiences. in its brokenness” (Adorno & Horkheimer Nevertheless, the Hollywood hero is indeed 2002, 111). By repeatedly exhibiting the the representative of how America views objects of desire, including superheroes like itself as a “bold, dynamic, morally good” Captain America who stand out to fight for protector of the rest of the world (Debrieux the people, the culture industry occupies 2014, 24). people’s leisure time apart from working as well as their money accumulated by Can a Capitalist Superhero sacrificing their labor force. In this regard, Become a True Savior for His it doesn’t matter whether it is the American Socialist Fans? audiences’ time being exploited or it is the Chinese audiences’ time being exploited. Will superheroes from the cinematic world In a globalized circulation of capital and become true protectors of all people in this products, all kinds of material and cultural world, regardless of race and nationality, commodities are designed not only to satisfy one day in real life? Even with technology consumers in capitalistic societies but also advancements happening in every single those in socialistic societies. Entertainment second, it is impossible to give the has been recognized as a kind of commodity superhero fans a confirmed answer. What that could be circulated across the national is more possible is that, with the growing borders. In order to consume these cultural popularity of Captain America films commodities, people have to devote among Chinese audiences, Captain China themselves to being exploited in the or other superhero either claims himself/ perpetuating production and reproduction. herself to be a Chinese or has an origin in China will be created by Hollywood. This Whatever their nationalities are, these is obviously more predictable since Adorno audiences have indulged themselves in and Horkheimer summarizes that one of a sequence of some seemingly different the biggest characteristics of this culture superhero films, which are all fundamentally industry is that “the producers are experts”. standardized. The distraction and liberation They know the formula and they know that they perceive in watching these superhero they can feed the consumers what they are films as well as the fantasy they cultivate for comfortable with and they know how to having superheroes in real life performing follow the rules of the product (Adorno & justice are all purposely given to them Horkheimer 2002, 99). The relentless unity by professional filmmakers. Behind the of the culture industry is evident in the culture industry is an intangible hand called abundance of superhero films released every economy, which plays a crucial role in the year and the huge profits these blockbusters capitalist ideology. The capitalist culture make for the various Hollywood studios. production calculates characters, castings and every single visual effect in order to As Chinese audiences may achieve the maximize the international consumption of sense of liberation from watching Captain these superhero films. America, their real lives in which the repression of the existing Repressive

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Based on the burgeoning current cultural films is perceiving a temporary, however consumption, no matter if it is a capitalist never-to-be-realized promise of liberation, or a socialist society they inhabit, the mass which is also created under the ultimate audiences who paid for these superhero control of the Ideology State Apparatus of films become agents in these film studios’ Communication. The Chinese audiences successfully maximizing their profits with are, to some extent, more pathetic because ambitious film series launching plans. they suffer from multi-source repression, Captain America is just another modern of both their own ideological system mythology finding his perfect place in and Hollywood, the most mature culture Hollywood films. The only achievement the industry. audiences make through watching these

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References Althusser, Louis. “Ideology and the Ideological State Apparatus (Notes towards an Investigation)” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. New York: Monthly Review Press. 1971. Brown, Warner. “How Captain America Won over China.” Accessed December 20, 2015. http:// theweek.com/articles/447806/how-captain-america-won-over-china. Coogan, Peter. Superhero: The Secret Origin of a Genre. Austin, TX: Monkeybrain, 2006. Debrieux, Mathilde. Hollywood liberalism: myth or reality? A study of the representation of race, gender and class in popular culture and its impact on the American society. Literature. 2014. Dittmer, Jason. Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2012. Horkheimer, Max, Theodor W. Adorno, and Gunzelin Schmid Noerr. Dialectic of enlightenment: Philosophical fragments. Stanford University Press, 2002. Jiang, Haoshu. American superhero films under background of commerce and politics. Journal of Guizhou University, 2010 Marcotte, Amanda. “Sorry, Fox News: Captain America Has Long Been a Liberal, Anti-Nationalist Character.” Accessed December 21, 2015. http://www.salon.com/2015/10/20/sorry_fox_ news_captain_america_has_long_been_a_liberal_anti_nationalist_character/. Renmin Ribao Editorial. “A New Stage in the Socialist Revolution in China. ” Peking Review, Volume 9, #30, July 22, 1966, pp. 11-12. Lawrence, John Shelton and Jewett, Robert. The Myth of the American Superhero. First Printing edition. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2002.

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